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ENCTCLOPjEDIA B RITANNICA;
O R, A
DICTIONARY
o r
ARTS, SCIENCES,
AND
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Encyclopedia B
RITANNICA.
N E H
miih."K TEHEMTAK, or Nhemtas, fon of Hach?liah,
J.^1 was born at Babylon during the captivity, (Neh.
i. 1,2, &c.) He was, according to fome, of the race of
the priefis, but, according to others, of the tribe of
Judah and the royal family. Thofe who maintain the
fir ft opinion, fupport it by a paffage in Ezra, (x. jo,)
where he is called a prieft; but thofe who believe
that he was of the race of the kings of Judah, fay, ift,
That Nehemiah having governed the republic of the
Jews for a confi lerable time, there is great probabili¬
ty he was of th"t tribe of which the kings always were.
2dly, Nehemiah mentions his brethren Hanani, and
fome other jews, who coming to Babylon during
the captivity, acquainted him with the fad condition
of their country, jdly, The office of cup bearer to
the king of Perfia, to which Nehemiah was promoted,
is a further proof that he was of an illuftrious family.
4thly, He excufes himfelf from entering into the in¬
ner part of the temple, probably becaufe he was only
a laic, (Neh. vi. 11.) “ Should fuch a man as I flee ?
And who is there that, being as 1 am, would go into
the temple to fave his life
The fcripture (Ezra. ii. 62. Nehem. vii. qj.) calls
him Nr.unn tirjhatha, that is to fay, “ cup-bearer for
he had this employment at the court of Artaxerxes
Longimanus. He had an exceeding great tendernefs
for the country of his fathers, though he had ne¬
ver feen it ; and one day as fome Jews newly
come from Jerufalera acquainted him with the mi-
ferable eftate of that city, that its walls were beat
down, its gates burnt, and the Jews were become
a reproach among all nations; he was fenlibly affec-
Hed with this relation ; he fafted, prayed, and hum¬
bled himfelf before the Lord, that he would be fa¬
vourable to the defign he had then conceived of afking
the king’s permiffion to rebuild Jerufalem. The courfe
of his attendance at court being come, he prefented
the cup to the king according to cuftom ; but with a
countenance fad and dejefted ; which the king obfer-
ving, entertained fome fufpicion, as if he might have
had fome bad defign ; but Nehemiah (ii.) difcovering
the occalion of his difquiet, Artaxerxes gave him leave
to go to Jerufalem, and repair its walls and gates:
but, however, upon this condition, that he ffiould re¬
turn to Court at a time appointed. Letters were made
out, diretted to the governors beyond the Euphrates,
with orders to furnifh Nehemiah with timbers neceffhr A-
for covering the towers and gates of the city, and the
houfe defigned for Nehemiah himfelf, who was now ap¬
pointed governor of Judea, in the year of the world
335°.
Vol.XIII. Part I»
N E H
Nehemiah being arrived at Jerufalem with the kintr’s Nehemlah,
commiffion, went round the city ; and having viewed
the condition of the walls, affembled the chief of the
people, produced his commiffion, and exhorted them
to undertake the reparation of the gates and walls of
the city. He found every perfon ready to obey him ;
whereupon he immediately began the work. The
enemies of the Jews, obferving thefe works in fuch
foi wardnefs, made ufe of all the means in their power
to deter Nehemiah from this undertaking, and made
feveral attempts to furprife him ; but finding.that their
defigns were difeovered, and that the Jews kept upon
their guard, they had recourfe to craft and ftratagem,
endeavouring to draw him into an ambufeadeinthefidds,
where they pretended they would finifh the difpute at
an amicable conference : but Nehemiah gave them to
underftand, that the work he had begun required his
per fonal attendance ; and therefore he could not come
to them. He lent the fame anfwer to four feveral
melfages that they lent one after another on the fame
fubjedi, (id. iv. and vi.)
Sanballat, the chief of the enemies of the Jews, to¬
gether with his aflociates, wrote word, that a report was
fpread that the Jews were building the walls of Jeru¬
falem only with a defign to make it a place of lirength,
to fupport them in an intended revolt ; that it was
faid alio that Nehemiah had fuborned falfe prophets
to favour his defigns, and to encourage the people to
choofe him king ; and to Hop the courfe of thefe ru¬
mours, he advifed him to come to him, that they might
confer together, and take fuch refolutions as ffiould
lie found convenient. Nehemiah gave himfelf no
trouble on this account, but returned for anfwer, that,
all thofe accufations were falfe and made at random.
About the fame time he difeovered, that a falfe pro¬
phet, called Shemaiab, had been corrupted by his ene¬
mies, and that fome of the chief of the city were fe-
cretly in confederacy with them. Yet all this did not
difeourage him : he went on with his w'ork, and hap¬
pily completed it in two and fifty days after it had
been begun.
Then he made a dedication of the walls, of the
towers, and of the gates of Jerufalem, with the folem-
nity and magnificence that fuch a work required. He
feparated the priefts, the Levites, and the princes of
the people, into two companies, one of which walked ,
to the fouth and the other to the north, on the top
of the walls. Thefe two companies wrere to meet at
the temple. The proceffion was accompanied with
mufic both vocal and inftrumental ; and when they
were all come to the temple, they there read the law,
A offered
N E H
JJefccrmah. offered facrlfices, and made great rejoicings
C
And as
the feaft of the tabernacle happened" at the ^me time,
it was celebrated with great folemnity, {id. viii.) Nehe-
miah obferving that the compafs of the city was too
large for its inhabitants, he ordered tnat the. chief of
the nation fhould fix their dwelling in the city ; and
caufed them to draw lots, by which a tenth part of
the whole people of Judah were to dwell at Jerufalem,
{id. xi.) i hen he applied himfelf to the reformation of
fuch abufes as had crept into the adminiftration of the
public affairs. He curbed the inhumanity of the great
ones, wTho held in a flate of flavery the fons and
daughters of thofe that were poor or unfortunate, keep*
ing their lands in poffeffion, which thefe poor people
had been obliged either to mortgage or to fell to the
rich. Another abufe there was, which Ezra had in
vain attempted to redrefs, that they had contrafted
marriages wuth ftrange and idolatrous women. Nehc-
miah undertook to diffolve thefe marriages, fucceeded
in it, and fent away all fuch women as had been taken
againft the exprefs command of the.law, {id. ix.) Ha¬
ving likewife obferved, that the priefts and Levites
were obliged to take refuge wherever they could, and
fo the miniftry of the temple was not attended or per¬
formed with that decency it ought, becaufe they did
not receive the revenues that the law had appointed
for their fubfiftence ; he obliged the people punihially
to pay the minifters of the Lord what was due to them,
and enjoined the pnefts and Levites duly to attend
on their refpedlive duties, and to difeharge their func¬
tions, [id. xiii. to, ii. &c.) He enforced theobferva*
tion of the fabbath, which had been much negle&ed
at Jerufalem, and would not permit ftrangers to come
in to buy and fell, but kept the gates of the city (hut
all that day. And, to perpetuate as much as was pof-
fible thefe good regulations which he had newly effa-
blifiied, he engaged the chief men of the nation fo*
lemnly to renew the covenant with the Lord. This
ceremony was performed in the temple, and an in-
ftrument was drawn up, which was figned by the prin¬
cipal men, both priefts and people, {id. ix. x.),in the
year of the world 3551.
We read in the books of Maccabees, (2 Macc. i.
19, 20, 21, &c.) that Nehemiah fent to fearch for the
holy fire, which before the captivity of Babylon the
priefts had hid in a dry and deep pit; but not finding
any fire there, but inftead thereof a thick and muddy
water, he fprinkled this upon the altar ; whereupon the
wood which had been fprinkled with this water took
fire prefently as foon as the fun began to appear.
Which miracle coming to the knowledge of the king
of Perfia, he caufed the place to be encompaffcd with
walls where the fire had been hid, and granted great
favours and privileges to the priefts. It is recorded
in the fame books, (2 Macc. ii. 13, 14 ) that Nehe-
miah erefted a library, wherein he placed whatever he
could find, either of the books of the prophets, of David,
and of fuch princes as had made prefents to the temple.
Laftly, be returned to Babylon {id. v 14. and xiii. 6,)
according to the promife be had made to king Arta-
xerxes, about the thirty fecond year of this prince, in
the year 3563. From thence he returned again to Je-
infalem, where he died in peace, about the year 3580,
having governed the people of Judah for about thirty
years.
Neius.
] NET
The book which in the Englifh bible, as alfo in the Nehemiah
Hebrew, has the name of Nehemiah, in the Latin bible
is called the book of Efdras ; and it muft be confeffed,
that though this author fpeaks in the firft perfon, and
though at firft reading one would think that he had
writ it day by day as the tranfa&ions occurred, yet
there are fome things in this book which could not
have been written by Nehemiah himfelf; for example,
memorials are quoted wherein were regiftered the names
of the priefts in the time of Jonathan the fon of Elia-
fhib, and even to the times of the high pried Jaddus,
who met Alexander the Great. Thefe therefore mull
have been added afterwards.
It may well be queftioned, whether this Nebemiah
be the fame that is mentioned in Ezra, (ii. 2. and
Neh. vii. 7.) as one that returned from the Baby
lonifh captivity under Zerubbabel; fince from the firfl
year of Cyrus to the twentieth of Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, there are no lefs than ninety-two years inter¬
vening ; fo that Nehemiah muft at this time have been
a very old man, upon the lowed computation an bun*
dred, confequently utterly incapable of being the king’s
cup bearer, of taking a journey from Suftian to Jeru¬
falem, and of behaving there with all the courage and
aftivity that is recorded of him. Upon this prefump-
tion, therefore, wc may conclude that this was a dif¬
ferent perfon, though of the fame name, and that Tir-
fhatha (the other name by which he is called, Ezra ii*
63, and Neh. vii. 65.) denotes the title of his office,
and both in the Perfian and Chaldean tongues was the
general name given to the king’s deputies and gover*
nors.
NEHOW, one of the Sandwich Iflands, difeovered
by Captain Cook in his laft voyage to the Pacific
Ocean : they are eleven in number, and are fituated
from 18° 4/ to 22° 15' N. Lat. and from 1540 56'
to 16o° 24' W. Long. They are not very particularly
deferibed in any account that has hitherto appeared.
NEIGHBOUR, i.One who dwells or is feated near
to another (2 Kings iv. 3.) 2. Every man to whom,
we have an opportunity of doing good (Matt. xxii. 39.)
3. A fellow-labourer of one and the fame people (Aft.
vii. 27.) 4. A friend (Job. xvi. 21.) At the time
of our Saviour, the Pharifees had reftrained the
word neighbour to fignify thofe of their own nation
only, or their own friends; being of opinion that to
hate their enemy was not forbidden by their law. But
our Saviour informed them, that the whole world were
their neighbours; that they ought not to do to ano¬
ther what they would not have done to themfelves;
and that this charity ought to be extended even to their
enemies (Matt. v. 43. Luke x. 29, &c.)
NEISSE, a handfome town of Sileiia in Germany*
and the refidence of the biftiop oi Breflaw, who has a
magnificent palace here. The air is very wholefome, and
provifions are cheap.; the inhabitants carry on a great
trade in wine and linen. This place fuffered greatly
by an inundation and fire in 1729. It was taken by
the Pruffians in 1741, who augmented the fortifica>.
tions after the peace in 1742, and built a citadel to
which they gave the name of PruJJia. It is feated on a ri¬
ver of the fame name, in E Long. 17.35. N.Lat.50.32.
NEIUS mojjs (anc. geog.), at the foot of which
flood Ithaca, a town of the iilaad of that name,
(Homer).
8, - NELSON;
N E L [
Kclfon. NELSON (Robert), a learned and pious Engliflr
gentleman, was the fon of Mr John Nelfon a conhder-
able Turkey merchant, and was born in June 1656.
He had the firft part of his education at St Paul’s
fchool, London ; but the principal part was under
a private tutor in his mother’s houfe, after which he
ftudied at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1680 he
was chofen a fellow of the Royal Society ; being pro¬
bably inclined to receive that honour out of refpeft to
bis friend 3nd fchool-fellow Dr Edmund Halley, for
whom he had a particular regard, and in whofe com¬
pany he fct out in his travels abroad the December
following. In the road to Paris, they faw the re¬
markable comet which gave rife to the cometical allro-
romy by Sir Ifaac Newton ; and our author, appa¬
rently by the advantage of his fellow-traveller’s in-
Itruftions, fent a defcription of it to Dr, afterwards
Archbifhop, Tillotfon, by whom he was very much
efteemed. Before he left Paris, he received a letter
from a friend in the Englifh court, inviting him to
purchafe a place there, by the promife of his affiltance
in it. This propofal was made by Mr Henry Saville,
brother to Lord Halifax : he had been fworn vice-
chamberlain of the king’s houfehold in December
1680, and was at this time envoy from Charles II.
to the court of France ; though now at London,
whence he fent this offer in a letter to Mr Nelfon ;
who being but young, and having a great affeftion for
King Charles and the duke of York, was pltafed with
the thoughts of figuring it near their perfons . but as
he could not refolve upon an affair of fuch confe-
quence without the approbation of his mother and
uncle, he firft applied to Tillotfon to found them, with
sffurances of determining himfelf by their judgment and
advice, including alfo that of the Dean ; who finding
them both averte to it, he thereupon dropped the mat
ter, and purfued his journey with his fellow-traveller
to Rome. Here he fell into the acquaintance of
Lady Theophila Lucy, widow of Sir Kingfmill Lucy
of Broxburne in Hertfordfhire, bart. and fecond daugh¬
ter of George earl of Berkeley, who foon difeovered
a ftrong paflion for him : this concluded in marriage,
after his arrival in England in 1682. But it was
fome time before Ihe confeffed to Mr Nelfon the change
of her rejigion ; which was owing to her acquaintance
with Boffuet and converfations at Rome with Cardinal
Philip Howard, who was grandion of the earl of
Arundel, the colledlor of the Arundelian marbles,
&c. and had been raifed to the purple by Pope Cle¬
ment X. in May 1 675. Nor was this important al¬
teration of her religious fentiments confined to her
Own mind, but involved in it her daughter by her firft
hufband, whom ftie drew over to her new religion ; and
her zeal for it prompted her even to engage in the
public controverfy then depending. She is the fup-
poled authorefs of apiece written in <686, qto, un
iter the title of, “ A difeourfe concerning a judge of
eontroverfy in matters of religion, Ihowing the necef-
fity of fuch a judge.”
This misfortune touched her hufband very nearly.
He employed not only his own pen, but thole of his
friends Dr Tillotfon and Dr Hickes, to recover her:
but all proved ineffe&ual; and fhe continued in the
tommuiiiun of the church of Rome till her death.
She was a perfon of fine fenfe and^underftanding. Dr
3 1 N E L
Tillotfon particularly laments her cafe on that ac¬
count ; and even feems not to be entirely free from all
apprehenfions of the influence (he might have upon her
hufband in this important affair. But Mr Nelfon’s re¬
ligion was too much the refult of his learning and rea-
fon to be fhaken by his love, which was equally fteady
and inviolable. Her change of religion made no
change in his affedtions for her; and when fhe relap-
fed into fuch a bad ftate of health as obliged her to
go and drink the waters at Aix, he attended her thi¬
ther in 1688 : and not liking the profpedt of the public
affairs at home, he proceeded to make a fecond trip to
Italy, taking his lady, together with her fon and
daughter by her former hufband, along with him. He
returned through Germany to the Hague, where he
(laid fome time with Lord Durfley, who was married
to his wife’s fifter.
From the Hague he arrived in England, in the lat¬
ter end of i6y* ; where being averfe to the Revolu¬
tion, he declared himfelf a nonjuror, and left the com¬
munion of the church of England, in this laft point
he had confulted Dr Tillotfon, and followed his opi¬
nion, who thought it no better than a' trick, (de-
teftable in any thing, and efpecially in religion),
to join in prayers where there was any petition
which was held to be finful. Thus, notwithftand-
ing their difference of opinion refpedting the lawTul-
nefs of the revolution, the friendfhip between them
remained the fame ; and the good archbifhop expired
in his friend’s arms in 1694. Nor did Mr Nelfon’s
friendfliip end there: he continued it to his grace’s
widow, and was very inftrumental in procuring her
penfion from the crown to be augmented from 400 1.
to 600\. per annum. It is very remarkable, that the
great regard he had always fhown to Tiilotfon, added
to his own reputation for learning, judgment, and
candour, induced Dr Barker, who publifhed the arch-
bifhop’s pofthumous fermons, to coufult our author on
that occaiion. Among the manuferipts, there was
found one difeourfe wherein the archbifhop took an
occafion to complain of the ufage which he had re¬
ceived from the nonjuring party, and to expofe, in re¬
turn, the inconfifteney of their own condudt; re¬
marking particularly, that, upon a juft comparifon of
their principle of non-refiftance with their ;.<ftual non-
afliftance to king James II. they had little reafon to
boaft of their loyalty to him: and yet, fevere as this
difeourfe-was upon that party, Mr Nelfon, notwith-
ftanding his attachment to them, was very zealous to
have it printed, alleging, that they deferved fuch a re¬
buke for their unjuft treatment of fo good a man.
However, the fermon was then fuppreffed, and is now
probably loft.
Our author’s new charafter unavoidably threw him
into fome new connexions. Among thefe we find
mentioned particularly Mr Kettlewell, who had re-
flgned hie living at Coleflrill in Warwickfhire on ac¬
count of the new oaths, and afterwads refided in
London This pious and learned divine alfo agreed
with him, in leaving the communion of the eftablifhed
church; yet at the fame time perfuaded him to engage
in the general fervice of piety and devotion; obfer-
ving to him, that he was very able to compofe excel¬
lent books of that kind, which would be apt to d©
more good as coming from a layman. This addrefs
A 2 cor-
NeJfon.
N E L [a
correfponded with the truly catholic fpint of our au¬
thor ; who accordingly publifhed many works of pie¬
ty, which are defervedly elteemed. Indeed it was
tin's fpirit, more than their agreement in ftate prin¬
ciples, that fir it recommended them to one another.
Mr Nelfon is obferved to have encouraged Kcttiewell
to proceed in that foft and gentle manner, in which
he excelled, in managing the nonjurors’ controverfy ;
and animated him betides to begin and profecute feme
things tor a public good, which otherwife would not
have feen the light. " Mr Kettlewell died in i695,and
left Mr Nelfon his foie executor and truftee ; in con-
fequeoce of which, he publifhed a pofthumous piece
of piety, intitled, “An Office for Prifoners, Sec.” in
1697. He alfo publifhed five other of his friend’s
potlhumous pieces, and furnifhed the chief materials
for the account of his life afterwards.
At the fame time he engaged zealoufly in every,
public fcheme for the honour and intereft, as well as
for propagating the faith, and promoting the pra&ice,
of true Chriftianity, both at home and abioad ; fe-
veral propofals for building, repairing, and endowing
churches, and charity-fchools particularly.
Upon the death of Dr William Lloyd, the deprived
bifhop of Norwich, in the end of the year 1 709, he re¬
turned to the communion of the church of England.
Dr Lloyd was the laft furviving of the deprived bi-
fhops by the Revolution, except Dr Kenn, by whofe
advice Mr Nelfon was determined in this point. It
had been a cafe in view fome time, which had been
bandied on both tides, whether the continuance of
their feparation from the church ffiould be fchifmatical
or no, when that cafe became a fa£l; and our author
had fome conferences upon it with Dr Hickes, who
was for perpetuating the nonjuring church, and char¬
ging the fchifm upon the church eftablithed. (See
an account of this difpute, with fome letters that
pafled between them on the occafion, in “ The Con-
flitution of the Catholic church, and the nature and
confequences of Schifm fet forth, in a colleftion of
papers written by the late George plickes, D. D.
1716, 8vo.”) Mr Nelfon’s tutor, Dr George Bull,
bifhop of St David’s, dying before the expiration of
this year, he was eafily prevailed upon by that pre¬
late’s fon to drawn up an account of his father’s life
and writings, as he had maintained a long and inti¬
mate friendfhip with his lordiliip, which gave him an
opportunity of being acquainted with his folid and
fubftantial worth. The life was publifhed in 1713;
and as our author had long before laboured under a
conflitutional weaknefiq which had brought on an
afthma and dropfy in the breaft, the diftemper grew
to fuch a height foon after the publication of that
work, that, for the benefit of the air, he retired at
length to Kenlington, where he expired on the 16th
©f January 1714-15, aged 59.
He was interred in the cemeteiy of St George’s
chapel, now a parochial church in Lamb’s Conduit
Fields, where a monument is erefted to his memory,
with a long and elegant Latin infeription, written by
Bifhop Smalridge. He was the firft perfon buried
in this cemetery ; and as it was done to reconcile
others to the place, who had taken an unfurmount-
able prejudice againil it, fo it proved a moft prevail¬
ing precedent, and had the delired effed, He pub.
1
N E M
li:hed feveral works of piety, and left his whole efiate Nemjufiw
to pious and charitable ales, particularly to charity,
fchools. A good portrait of him was given by Mr 11US.
Nichols, in 1779, to the company of llationers, and is ——v— -4
placed in the parlour of their public hall. After the
death of Sir Berkeley Lucy, Mr Nelfon’s library was
fold by auffiion in 1760, together with that of Sir
Berkeley, forming, united, a moft. extraordinary ai-
femblage of devotion and infidelity. Several oi Mr
Nelfon’s original letters, highly charadteriltic of his
benevolence, may be iten in the Anecdotes of Bowyer.
Mr Nichols has alfo in his pofieffion in MS. two ex¬
cellent letters of advice from Mr Nelion to his young
coufins George and Gabriel Hanger, on their going to
fettle in Turkey ; which have been obligingly offered
for the ufe of any future biographer, but aie too long
for our limits.
NEMAUSUS, or Nemausum, (anc. geog.) the
capital of the Arecomici in Gallia Narboneniis ; a co¬
lony, (Coin), with the furname Augufla> (Infeription).
In it {lands a Roman amphitheatre, which is iliil al-
moft entire. Now N'ijmes in Languedoc.
NEMEA (Strabo, Livy) j a river of Achaia, run¬
ning between Sicyon and Corinth, the common boun¬
dary of both territories, and falling into the Coriii*
thian bay.
Nemea (anc. geog ), fituated between Cleonae and
Philus in Argolis; whether town, diftrict, or other
thing, uncertain: there a grove flood in which the
Argives celebrated the Nemean games, and there hap¬
pened all the fabulous circumltances of the Nerneau
lion. The diftridl Nemea is called Bemlmadia, (Pli¬
ny) ; a village, Bembina, Handing near Nemea, (Stra¬
bo). Stephanus places Nemea in Elis ; though not
in Elis, but on its borders ; Pliny, erroneoufly, in Ar¬
cadia, In the adjoining mountain is frill ihown the
den of the lion, diilant 15 ftadia from the place Ne¬
mea, (Paufanias) ; in which Hands a confiderable
temple of Jupiter Nemieus and Cieomeus, from the vi¬
cinity of thefe two places. This place gave name to
the Nemasan games, celebrated every third year.
NEMEAN GAMES, fo called from Nemea, a vil¬
lage between the cities of Cieonse and Philus, where
they were celebrated every third year. 1 he exerciiea
were chariot-races, and all the parts of the Pentathlum.
Thefe games were inilituted in memory of Ophdtes or
Archemorus, the fon of Euphetes and Creufa, and who
was nurfed by Hypfipele; who leaving him in a mea¬
dow while Ihe went to (how the beliegers of Thebes a
fountain, at her return found him dead, and a ferpent
twined about his neck : whence the fountain, before
called Langia, was named Archemorus ; and the cap-
tains, to comfort Hyplipele, inftituted thefe games.—
Others aferibe their inftitution to Hercules, after hia
victory over the Nemean lion. Others allow, that
they were inftituted firft in honour of Archemorus 5
but intermitted, and revived again by Hercules. The
viftors were crowned with parfiey, an herb ufed at
funerals, and feigned to have fprung from Archcmo-
rus’s blood. The Argives prefided at thefe games.
NEMES1ANUS (Aurelius Olympius), a Latin
poet who was born at Carthage, and fiourilhed about
the year 281, under the emperor Cams, and his fons
Carinus and Numerian: the laft of which emperors
was fond of poetry that he cootefted the glory with
7 Nemefianusj
N E N [5
NemeCs Nemefianus, who had written a poem upon fifiling and
II maritime affairs. We have ftiil remaining a poem of
Nenagh. our aut]lor called Cyr.egeticon, and four eclogues : they
w ere publifhed by Paulus Manutius in 1538 ; by Bar-
thelet in 1613; at Leyden in 1653, with the notes
of Janus Vliths. Giraldi hath preferved a fragment
cf Nemefianus, w'hich was communicated to him by
Sannazarius, to whom we are obliged for our poet’s
works : for having found them written in Gothic cha-
radters, he procured them to be put into the Ro¬
man, and then fent them to Paulus Manutius. Al¬
though this poem hath acquired fome reputation, it is
greatly inferior to thofe of Oppian and Gratian upon
the fame fubjedt; yet Nemefianus’s iiyie is' natural
enough, and has fome degree of elegance. The world
was fo much pofleffed with an opinion of his poem in
the eighth century, that it was read among the daffies
in the public fchools, particularly in the time of Char¬
lemagne, as appears from a letter of the celebrated
Hincmar bifhop of Rheims to his nephew Piincmar
of Laon.
NEMESIS, in Pagan wovfhip, the daughter of
Jupiter and Neceffity, or, according to others, of O-
ceanus and Nox, had the care of revenging the crimes
which human juftice left unpunifhed. She was alio
called Adrajicea, becaufe Adrailus king of Argos firit
raifed an altar to her j and Rhamnujia, from her ha¬
ving a magnificent temple at Rhamnus in Attica.—
She had likewife a temple at Rome in the Capitol.
She is reprefented with a Hern countenance, holding
a whip in one hand and a pair of fcales in the other.
NEMESIUS, a Greek philofopher who embraced
Chriilianity, and was made biihop of Emefa in Phoe¬
nicia, where he had his birth : he flourifhed in the be¬
ginning of the fifth century. We have a piece by
him, intitled De nalura hommis, in which he refutes
the fatality of the Stoics and the errors of the Ma*
nichces, the Apollianarills, and the Eunomiaus but
he efpoufes the opinion of Origen concerning the pre-
< xiftence of fouls (a). This treatife was tranflated by
Valla, and printed in 1535. Another verfion was af¬
terwards made of it by Eilebodius, and printed in
1665 ; it is alfo inferted in the Bibli.theca patrutn> in
Greek and Latin. Laftly, another edition was publiih-
ed at Oxford in 1671, folio, with a learned preface,
wherein the editor endeavours to prove, from a paffage
in this book, that the circulation of the blood was
known tp Nemefrus j which, however, was fince fhown
to be a mi Hake by Dr Freind, in his Hi/lory of Phyjic.
NEM1NE contradicente, “ none contradicting
it a term chiefly ufed in parliament when any thing
is carried without oppofition.
NEMOURS, a town of the Me of France in the
Gatinois, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on
- the river Loing, in E. long. 2. 45. N. lat. 48. 15.
NENAGH. a poll; and fair town of Ireland, in
the county of Tipperary, and province of Muntier,
75 miles irom Dublin. It is fituated on a branch of
the river Shannon which runs into Lough-Derg. Here
1 N E o
hands the ruins of an old caflle called Nenagh-round. Nenia
Alfo thofe of an hofpital founded in the year 1 200, ii
for canons following the rule of St Auguftin. It was Neorneuia.
dedicated to St John the Baptiif, and was ufually v
called Teachon, or St John’s houfe. In the reign of
Henry III. a friary for conventual Francifcans was
alfo founded here, and efteemed the richelt foundation
of that order in the kingdom. Here is a barrack for
two troops of horfe. This town was burnt 011 St
Stephen’s day 1348, by the Irifh. The fairs held
here are four.
NENIA, or N^nia, in the ancient poetry, a kind
of funeral fong fung to the mulic of flutes at the ob-
fequies of the dead. Authors reprefent them as- forry
compofitions, fung by hired women-mourners called
Prccjictf. The firit rife of thefe Nenia is aferibed to
the phyficians. In the heathen antiquity, the goddefs
of tears and funerals was called Nenia ; whom fome
fuppofe to have given that name to the funeral fong3
and others to have taken her name from it.
NEOCESARIA, (Pliny), a town of Pontus on
the fouth or the left fide of the Lycus. About the
year 342, when Leontius and Salluitius were confuls,
it was entirely ruined by a dreadful eauhquake, no
edifice having withftood the violence of the fhock, ex¬
cept the church and the bifhop’s habitation, who was
faved, with the clergy and fome other pious perfonss
while the red of the inhabitants were buried in its
ruins.
NEOMAGUS, (Ptolemy) ; Noviomacjus, (An-
tonine) ; a town of the Regni in Britain : now-
thought to be Guildford in Surry, (Lhuydj; or Croy¬
don, (Talbot). But Camben takes it to be Wood-
cote, two miles to the fouth of Croydon, where traces
of an ancient town are ftiil to be ieen.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy;) Noviomagus, (Antonine
a town ol the 1 riviri on the Mofelle, Now Numagent
14 miles eaft, below Triers.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy;) Novicnnagus Lexovionitn9
(Antonine;) a town of Gallia Celtica. Now Lijeux,
in Normandy.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy), Noviomagus Nemetum, (An¬
tonine). Now Spire, a city of the Palatinate, on the
left or weft fide of the Rhine.
Neomagus, ('Ptolemy); a town of Gallia Narbo-
nenfis, on the confines of the Tricaftini. Now Nysns
in Dauphine.
_ NEOMENIA, or Noumenia, a feftival of the an¬
cient Greeks, at the beginning of every lunar month*
which, as the name imports, was obferved upon the
day of the new moon, in honour of all the gods,
but efpecially, Apollo, who was called Neomenm, be-
caufc the fun is the fountain of light ; and whatever
diftintdion of times and leafons may- be taken from
other planets, yet they are ail owing to him as the
original of thofe borrowed rays by which they fhine.
Ihe games and public entertainments at thefe fe->
ftivals were made by the rich, to whofe tables the
poor flocked in great numbers. The Athenians at.
thefe.
m0rf Prol)ablert}!3t he and Origen both brought their opinion with them from the fchoola
of phikuopby, than that either of them borrowed it from the other. See Metaphysics, Part 3d. chap, a, “
N E P [
Neophytes thcfe times offered folemn prayers and facrinces for
the profperity of their country during the enfuing
^Ncpeta. mpnt.|u gee Games.
v t,. rp|ie jews jia(j aif0 their neomenia, or feaft of the
new moon, on which peculiar facrifices were appoint¬
ed ; and on this day they had a fort of family enter¬
tainment and rejoicing. The moft celebrated neome-
r.ia of all others was that at the beginning of the civil
year, or firft day of the month Tifri, on which no
fervile labour was performed : they then offered par¬
ticular burnt-facrifices, and founded the trumpets of
the temple. The modern Jews keep the neomenia on¬
ly as a feaft of devotion, which any one may obferve
or not as he pleafes.
NEOPHYTES, “ new plants a name given by
the ancient Chriftians to thofe heathens who had newly
embraced the faith; fuch perfons being confidered as
regenerated, or born a-new by baptifm. The term
neophytes has been alfo ufed for new priefts, or thofe
juft admitted into orders, and fometimes for the no¬
vices in monafteries. It is ftiil applied to the converts
made by the miffionaries among the infidels.
NEPA, in zoology, a genus of inftdts belonging
to the order of hemiptera. The roftrum is infledted ;
the antennae are fhorter than the thorax ; and the hind-
feet are hairy, and fitted for fwimming. There are fe-
ven fpecies. The four wings are folded together crofs-
wife, with the anterior part coriaceous. The two
fore feet are cheliform, or refemble the claws of a
crab ; the other four are formed for walking. We
have but three fpecies of this genus, all three of which
are found in the water, where they dwell, as do their
larvae and chryfalids. It is likewife in the water that
wc find the eggs of the water-fcorpion. Thofe eggs,
of an oblong fhape, have at one of their extremities
two or more briftles or hairs. The infedt finks its egg
into the ftalk of a bull-rufh or fome other water-
plant, fo that the egg lies 'concealed, and only the
hairs or briftles ftick out, and are to be feen. One
may eafily preferve in water thofe ftalks loaded with
eggs, and fee the young water-fcorpions hatched under
one's own roof, or at lead their larvas. Thefe infedts
are voracious, and feed on other aquatic animals, which
they pierce and tear with their fharp roftrnm, while
they hold them with the forceps of their fore-feet.—
They fly well, efpecially in the evening and night,
and they convey themfelves from one pool to another,
efpecially when that ihey are in begins to dry up. Mr
Geoffroy aflerts, that the pedes cheliformes, or fore¬
feet of the nepa, are the antennas of the infeft, which,
according to him, has but four feet.
NEPEN PHES, in botany : A genus of the tetran-
dria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking among thofe of
which the order is doubtful. The calyx is quadripar¬
tite ; there is no corolla ; the capfule is quadrilocular.
NEPETA, Catmint, or Nep, in botany ; A ge¬
nus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 42d order, Verticil lata:. The under
lip of the corolla has a fmall middle fegment crenated ;
the margin of the throat is reflexed ; the ftamina ap¬
proach one another There are 14 fpecies ; the moft re¬
markable is the cataria, common nep, or catmint. This
is a native of many parts of Britain, growing about
6 1 NEP
hedges and In wafte places. The ftalk is a yard high,and
branched; the leaves are hoary ; the flowers flefh-co* ft .
loured, growing verticillate in fpikes at the tops of the ^ '
branches : the middle fegment of the lower lip is fpot-
ted with red. The plant has a bitter tafte, and ftrong
fmell, not unlike pennyroyal. An infufion of this plant
is reckoned a good cephalic and emmenagogue ; being
found very efficacious in chlorotic cafes. Two ounces
of the expreffed juice may be given for a dofe. It is
called catmint, becaufe cats are very fond of it, efpe
cially when it is withered ; for then they will roll them-
felves on it, and tear it to pieces, chewing it in their
mouths with great pleafure. Mr Ray mentions his
having tranfplanted fome of the plants of this fort
from the fields into his garden, which were foon de«
ftroyed by the cats ; but the plants which came up
from feeds in his garden efcaped : this verifies an old
proverb, viz. “ If you fet it, the cats will eat it; if
you fow it, the cats will not know it.” Mr Wither¬
ing is of opinion, that where there is a quantity of
plants growing together, the cats will not meddle with
them; but Mr Millar affures us, tha the has frequently
tranfplanted one of thefe plants from another part of
the garden, within two feet of which fome came up
from feeds ; in which cafe the latter have remained
unhurt, when the former have been torn to pieces and
deftroyed : he acknowledges, however, that, where
there is a large quantity of the herb growing toge¬
ther, they will not meddle with it. This plant is very
hardy, and is eafily propagated by feeds. If iown upon
a poor dry foil, the plants will not grow too rank, but
will continue longer, and appear much handfomer, than
in rich ground, where they grow too luxuriant, and
have not fo ftrong a icent.
NEPHELIUM, in botany : A genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants.
The male calyx is quinquidentate ; there is no corolla;
the female calyx is quadrifid ; there is no corolla.—>
There are two germens and two ftyles 0:1 each ; the
fruit are two dry plumbs, muricated,and monofpermous.
NEPHEW, a term relative to uncle and aunt, fig-
nifying a brother’s or filler’s fon ; who, according to
the civil law, is in the third degree of confanguinity,
but according to the canon in the fecond.
NEPHRITIC, fomething that relates to the kid¬
neys. See Kidney.
Nephritic Wood, (lignum nephriticum), a wood of
a very denfe and compadt texture, and of a fine grain,
brought to us from New Spain in fmall blocks, in its
natural ftate, and covered with its bark. It is to be
chofen of a pale colour, found and firm, and fuch as
has not loft its acrid tafte ; for the fureft tell of it is
the infufing it in water ; for a piece of it infufed only
half an hour in cold water, gives it a changeable co¬
lour, which is blue or yellow as varioufly held to the
light. If the vial it is in be held beeween the eye and
the light, the tindlure appears yellow ; but if the eye
be placed between the light and the vial, it appears
blue. We often meet with this wood adulterated
with others of the fame pale colour; but the dulkiffi
black hue of the bark is a ftriking character of this.
The tiee is the coatli of Hernandez. It grows to
the height of our pear-tree, and its wood while freffi
is much of the fame texture and colour ; the leaves
are fmall and oblong, not exceeding half an inch in
the
N E P [
Nephritic length, or a third of an inch in breadth ; the flowers
N II are fmall, of a pale-yellow colour, and oblong fhape,
' ^ {landing in fpikes : the cups they Hand in are divided
into five fegments at the edge, and are covered with a
reddifh down. This is the bell defeription of the
tree that can be collected from what has been hitherto
written of it; nobody having yet had an opportunity
of taking its true charadters.
This wood is faid to be a very good diuretic, and
we are told it is ufed among the Indians in all difeafes
of the kidneys and bladder, and in fuppreffion of
urine, from whatever caufe. It is alfo recommended
in fevers, and in obltrudtions of the vifeera. The way
of taking it among the Indians is only an infufion in
cold water. Thefe ufes are not however properly
afeertained. See Guilandina.
Nephritic Stone. Set 'Jade Stone.
NEPHRITICS, in pharmacy, medicines proper
for difeafes of the kidneys, efpecially the ftone.—
Such particularly are the roots of althaea, dog’s
grafs, afparagus, fago, pellitory of the wall, mallows,
pimpinelia, red chick-peafe, peach-kernels, turpen¬
tine, &c.
NEPHRITIS, or inflammation of the kidneys.
See Medicine, n: 200.
NEPOS (Cornelius), a celebrated Latin biogra¬
pher, who flourifhed in the time of Julius Caefar, and
lived, according to St Jerome, to the fixth year of
Auguflus. He was an Italian, if we may credit Ca¬
tullus, and born at Hoftilia, a fmall town in the ter¬
ritory of Verona, in Cifdpine Gaul. Aufonius, how¬
ever, will have it that he was born in the Gauls: and
in that they may both be in the right, provided that
under the name of Gaul is comprehended Gallia Cifal-
pina, which is in Italy. Leander Alberti thinks Ne-
pos’s country was Verona; and he is fure that he
was either born in that city or neighbourhood. For
the reft, Cicero and Atticus were friends of our au¬
thor ; who wrote the lives of the Greek hiftorians, as
he himfelf attefls in that of Dion, {peaking of Phi-
liftus. What he fays, alfo, in the lives of Cato and Han¬
nibal, proves that he had alf© written the lives of the
Latin captains and hillorians. He wrote feme other
excellent works which are loft.
All that we have left-of his at prefent is, “ The
Lives of the illuftrious Greek and Roman Captains}”
which were a long time aferibed to iEmilius Probus,
who publiihed them, as it is laid, under his own name,
to infinuate himfelf thereby into the favour of the em¬
peror Theodofius ; but, in the courfe of time, the
fraud has been difeovered, although feveral learned
perfons have confounded the two authors. This piece
has been tranfiated into French by the Sieur de Cla-
veret, with a dedication to the duke of Longueville,
in 1663 ; and again by M le Gras, then of the con¬
gregation of the oratory at Paris 1729, i2mo. We
have an excellent tranflation of it in Engliflj, by feve¬
ral hands at Oxford, which has gone through feveral
editions.
NEP TUNE, in Pagan worflirp, the god of the
fea, w^as the fon of Saturn and Vefta, or Ops, and the
brother of Jupiter and Pluto. He aflifted Jupiter in
his expeditions; on which that god, when he arrived
at the.fupreme power, afligned him the fea and the
iilands for his empire. Ke was, however, expelled
X
7 1 NEP
from heaven with Apollo for confpiring againft Ju* Neptune,
piter, when they were both employed by Laomedon
king of Phrygia in building the walls of Troy ; but
that prince difmiffing Neptune without a reward, he
fent a fea-monfter to lay wafte the country, on which
he was obliged to expofe his daughter Hefione. He
is faid to have been the firft inventor of horfemanfhip
and chariot racing ; on which account Mithridates
king of Pontus threw chariots drawn by four horfea
into the fea in honour of this god; and the Romans
inftituted horfe-races in the circus at his feftival,
during which all other horfes left working, and the
mules were adorned with wreaths of flowers.
In a conteft with Minerva he produced a horfe by
linking the earth with his trident; and on another
occafion, in a trial of Ikill with Minerva and Vulcan,
produced a bull, whence that animal was facrificed to
him. His favourite wife was Amphytrite, whom he
long courted in vain, till fending the d®lphin to inter*
cede for him- he met with fuccefs ; on which he re¬
warded the dolphin by placing him amorfg the ftars:
He had alfo two other wives, one of whom was called
Salajia from the fait-water; the other Venilia fronr-
the ebbing and flowing of the tides. He had like-
wife many concubines, by whom he had a great num¬
ber of chiHren. He is reprefented with black hair,
with a garment of an azure or fea-green, holding his
trident in his hand, and feated in a large fhell dravvn
by fea-horfes, attended by the fea-gods Palemon,
Glaucus, and Phorcys, and the fea-goddefies Thetis,
Melita, and Panopjea, and a long train of tritons and
fea-nymphs.
This deity was in Egypt known by the name of Ceno*
lus ox Canopus, was worfhipped as the numen aquarum *
or fpirit of the Nile. His emblem was the figure of
certain vafes or pitchers, with which the Egyptians
filtrated the water of their facred river, in order to
purify it and render it fit for ufe. From the mouth
of each of thefe vafes, which were charged with hie-
roglyphics, arofe the head, and fometimes the head
and hands, of a man or woman. Such are the em¬
blems which ftill remain of the Egyptian Neptune or
Canobus ; and it v/as by this emblem that the tute¬
lar god of Egypt vanquished the god of Chaldea in
the ridiculous manner mentioned by Ruffin us in his
ecclefiaftrcal hiftory*.
“ The Chaldaeans (fays he) who adored the fire,cap^l'‘
carried their god into various countries that he might •
try his ftrength in contefts with other gods. He
vanquifhed, as we may eafily conceive, the images
made of gold, filver, brafs, and wood, &c. by reducing
them to allies ; and thus the worfhip of fire was every
where eftabliflied. The prieft of Canobus, unwilling,
as became him, to admit the fuperiority of ftrange
gods, contrived to make his god vanquifti the god
ofChaldaca in a pitched battle. The vafes which were
worlhipped as the emblems of Canobus being ufed for
filtering the waters of the Nile, were of courfe per*
forated on all fides with very fmall holes. This
faithful prieft having flopped all the holes in one of
thefe with wax, and painted the vafe of different co¬
lours for a reafon which the reader will admit to be
a good one, filled it up with water, and fitted to its
mouth the head of an idol. This emblem of Cano¬
bus was.then placed in a fmall .fire brought by the.
Chair-
/
N E R T 8 1 N E R
!FTereHs, Chaldnsans as the emblem of their god ; and thus the
Keren. ^ g.0ds 0f Ejrypt and Chaldtea were forced iiito battle.
The conteif, however, was of fhort duration. The
heat melting the wax made way for the water to run
out, which quickly extinguifhed the fire ; and thus
Canobus vanquifhed the god of the Chaldasans.”
Ridiculous as this ftory is, it is perfectly fuitable to
the genius of paganifm and the mean artifices of the
pagan priefihood ; but we fuipedf that the hillorian
laboured under one mi (lake, and fubflitute l the Chai-
daeans infiead of the Perfians. See Polytheism.
NEREIDS, in the Pagan theology, fea nymphs,
daughters of Nereus and Doris.—The Nereids were
efteemed very handfome; infomuch that Caffiope, the
•wife of Cepheus king of Ethiopia, having triumphed
over all the beauties of the age, and daring to vie
with the Nereids, they were fo enraged that they fent
a prodigious fea-monfter into the country ; and, to
appeafe them, fhe was commanded by the oracle to
expofe her daughter Andromeda, bound to a rock, to
be devoured by the monfier. in ancient monuments,
the Nereids are reprefented riding upon fea-horfes ;
fometimes with an entire human form, and at other
times with the tail of a fifh.
NEREIS, in zoology, a genus of animals belong¬
ing to the order of vermes mollufca. The body is ob¬
long, linear, and fitted for creeping ; it is furnifhed
with lateral pencilled tentacula. rl here are 11 fpe-
cies ; of which the mod remarkable are the five fol-
SPTate lowing: t. The NoQiluca, or no&ilucous nefeis, which
CC yXI.V inhabits almoft every fea, and is one of the caufes of
1‘ the luminoufnefs of the water. Thefe creatures firine
like glow-worms, but with a brighter fplendour, fo as
at night to make the element appear as if on fire all
around. Their bodies are fo minute as to elude exa¬
mination by the naked eye.
It is fometimes called nereis phofporans; and is
thus defcribed by Grifilin : The head is roundifh and
fiat, and the- mouth acuminated The two horns
or feelers are firort and Tubulated. The eyes are
prominent, and placed on each fide the head. The
body is compofed of about 23 fegments or joints,
which are much lefs nearer the tail than at* the head.
Thefe fegments on both fides the animal all end in a
firort conical apex, out of which proceeds a little
bundle of hairs: from under thefe bundles the feet
grow in the form of fmall flexile Tubulated figments
rieftitute of any thing like claws. It is fcarcely two
lines long, and is quite pellucid, and its colour is that
of water green. They are found upon all kinds of
marine plants; but they often leave them and are
found upon the furface of the water : they are fre¬
quent at all feafons, but efpecially in fummer before
ftormy weather, when they are more agitated and more
luminous. Their numbers, and wonderful agility,
added to their pellucid and finning quality, do not a
little contribute to their illuminating the fea, for my¬
riads of tliofe animalculse may be contained in the
portion of a fmall cup of fea-water. Innumerable
quantities of them lodge in the cavities of the feales
of fifhes, and to them probably do the fiflies owe
their noftilucous quality. “ I have obferved with
great attention (fays Barbut), a fifh juft caught out
©f the fea, whofe body was almoft covered with them;
\ and have examined them in the dark : thev twift and
I'D 241.
curl themfelves with amazing agility, but foon retire - Nereis
out of our contra&ed fight; probably their glittering II
numbers dazzling the eye, and their extreme minute- Neri.
nefs eluding our refearches. It is to he obferved, ^ 'r~~'
that when the unftuous moifture which covers the
feales of fifhes is exhaufted by the air, thefe animuR
are not to he feen ; nor are the fiflies then no&ilucous,
that matter being perhaps their nourifliment when
living, as they themfijves afford food to many marine
animals. They do not fhine in the day-time, becaufe
the iolar rays are too powerful for their light; how¬
ever aggregate or immenfe their number.’* Their
appearance is particularly brilliant when the wind is
in the eaft and fouth-eaft points, and in winter-nights
preceded by a warm day. If water containing thefe
animalcules be kept warm, they retain their light
two whole days after they are dead ; but in cold
water lofe it in eight hours : motion and warmth,
which increafe their vivacity and ftrength, increafe
their light alfo.
2. Nereis lacujiris, or bog nereis. The body of the
fize of a hog’s fliort briftle, tranfparent, as it were arti- ’
dilated, and on either fide at every articulation pro¬
vided with a fiiort fetaceous foot ; interiorly it feems
to confift in a manner of oval fhaped articulations,
and a back formed by two lines bent backwards. It
inhabits marfhes abounding in clay, where it remains
under ground, pufhing out its other extremity by
reafon of its continual motion. When taken out it
twifts itfelf up. Is frequent in Sweden.
3. Nereis cirrofa, or waving nereis. The body is pjg
red, lumbriciform, with 65 notches, furnifhed on
both fides with two rows of briftles. At each fide of
the head ten filaments, at the fides of the mouth many,
twice as long as the foomer. It dwells in Norway,
on rocks at the bottom of the fea. It vomits a red
liquor with which it tinges the water.
4. Nereis ceerulea, or blue nereis. It inhabits the Fig. 4,
ocean ; where it deftroys the ferpuke and teredines.
5. Nereis giganttea, or giant nereis. This is ape- pg,
culiar fpecies of thofe large worms that make their
way into decayed piles driven down into the fen, which
they bore through and feed upon, whence they are
calledyia worms or nereis. From head to tail they
are befet on either fide with fmall tufts terminating
in three points ; which are like the fine hair pencils
ufed by painters, and compofed of fhining briftles of
various colours. The upper part of the body in this
woim is all over covered with fmall hairs. The rings
of which it is formed are clofely preffecl together,
and yield to the touch. The three rows of fmall
tufts we have been deferibing, ferve this nereis in-
ftead of feet, which it ufes to go forwards as fifhes do
their fins.
NEREUS, (fab. hift.), a marine deity, was the
fon of Oceanus and Thetis. He fettled in the iEgean
Sea, was coniidered as a prophet, and had the power
of afluming what form he pleafed. He married his
fifter Doris, by whom he had 50 daughters called
the Nereids, who eonftantly attended on Neptune, and
when he went abroad furrounded his chariot.
NERI (S. Philippe de), founder of the congrega¬
tion of the Oratory in Italy, was born of a noble fa,
mily at Florence, on the 25th of July 1515. Edu¬
cated in the principles of piety and learning, he foon
. became
Veri
n
■Kero.
N E R [
became dlftinguifhed for his knowledge and virtue.
At the age of 19 he went to Rome, where he im-
, proved his mind, afiiiled the fick,and gave many proofs
of felf-denial and humility. Philippe, being raifcd to
the priefthood at the age of 36, infiituted, in 1550, a
celebrated fellowlhip in the church of St Saviour del
Campo, for the relief of poor foreigners, of pilgrims,
and of convalefcents, who had no place whither they
could retire. This fociety was the ciadle, if we may
fay fo, of the congregation of the Oratory. The holy
founder having gained "over to God Salviati brother
to the cardinal of the fame name, Tarugio afterwards
cardinal, the celebrated Baronius, and feveral others,
they began to form themfelves into a fociety in 1564.
The fpiritual exercifes had been transferred in 1558
to the church of Saint Jerom de la Charite, which
Philippe did not leave till 1574, when he went to
flay at Saint John of the Florentines. Pope Gre¬
gory XIII. gave his approbation of the congregation
in the following year. The father of this new
warfare fcnt out fome of his children, by whom
his order was fpread throughout Italy. Nor is there
any reafon to be furprifed at its rapid fuccefs. No
vow is taken in this congregation ; charity is the only
bond of connexion. The general continues only three
years in office, and his orders are not thofe of a ty¬
rant or a defpot. The founder died at Rome on the
tiight between the 25th and 26th of May 1595, aged
80. He had refigned the generahhip three years be¬
fore in favour of Baronius, who, by his advice, was
engaged in the ecclefiallical annals. The conftitu-
tions which he left for his congregation were not
printed till 1612. The principal employment which
he allots to the prielfs of his order, is to give, every
day, in their oratory or church, inflruftions fuited
to the underlfandings of their hearers : an office truly
apoftolical, and which the followers of Neri difeharge
with fuccefs. They humble themfelves, that they
may exalt to God the foul of the fimple. Philippe was
canonifed in 1622 by Gregory XV.
There was a learned man of the name of Neri (An¬
thony), from whom we have a curious book printed
at Florence 1612, in 4to, with this title Del?Arte
verraria libri VII. ; and a Dominican named Thomas
Neri, who employed his pen in defence of his fellow
monk, the famous Savonarole.
NERIUM, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 30th order,
^ Contort#. There are two eredb follicles ; the feeds plu¬
my ; the tube of the corolla terminated by a lacerated
crown. There are five fpecies, all of them na¬
tives of the warmer climates : the moll remarkable of
which are, r. The oleander, South-Sea rofe : this is
a beautiful flirub, cultivated in gardens on account of its
flowers, which are of a tine purple, and in clufters, but
of an indifferent fmell: the whole plant is poifonous,
and efpecially the bark of the roots. 2. The antidyfin-
tericum, a native of Ceylon : the bark of which is an
article of materia medica, under the name of Conejfi.
3. The tinfforium, a new fpecies with beautiful blue
flowers lately difeovered b; Dr Roxburgh at Madras.
A decoftion of the leaves, with an addition of lime-
. water, makes an indigo of fine quality.
NERO (Claudius Dcmitius Cxfar), a celebrated
Vot. XIII. Parti.
9 I N E R
Roman emperor, fon of Caius Domitius Ahenoharhus
and Agrippina the daughter of Germanicus. He was
adopted by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 50, and four
years after he fucceeded to him on the throne. In the
beginning of his reign he fhowed feveral marks of the
greateft kindnefs and condefcenfion, affability, com-
plaifance, and popularity. The objedl of his admini-
ftration feemedto be the good of his people ; and when
he was defired to fign his name to a lift of maleftc*
tors that were to be executed, he exclaimed. Would
to heaven I could not write ! He hated flattery ; and
when the fenate had liberally commended the wifdom
of his government,. he defired them to keep their
praifes till he deferved them. Thefe promifing virtues
foon, however, proved to be artificial: Nero foon dif-
played the real propenfities of his nature. He deliver¬
ed himfelf from the fway of his mother, and at laft
ordered her to he murdered. This unnatural aft of bar¬
barity might aftonifh fome, hut Nero had his devoted
adherents; and when he declared that he had taken
away his mother’s life to fave himfelf from ruin, the
fenate applauded his meafures, and the people fignified
their approbation. Many of his courtiers fhared her
unhappy fate ; and Nero facrificed to his fury or ca¬
price all fueh as obftrufted his pleafure or diverted his
inclination. In the night he generally went from his
palace to vifit the meaneil taverns, and all the feenes
of debauchery which Rome contained. In this noc¬
turnal riot he was fond of infulting the people in the
ftreets; and his attempts to offer violence to the wife
of a Roman fenator nearly coft him his life. Fie alfo
turned aftor, and openly appeared on the Roman ftage
in the meaneft charafters. In his attempts to excel in
mufic, and to conquer the difadvantages of a hoarle
difagreeable voice, he moderated his meals, and often
puffed the day without eating. The Olympian games
attrafted his notice: he went into Greece, and pre¬
fenced himfelf a candidate for the public honour. He
was defeated in wreftling; but the flattery of the
fpeftators adjudged him the viftory, and he returned
to Rome with all the pomp and fplendor of an eaftern
conqueror, drawn in the chariot of Auguftus, and at¬
tended by a band of muficians, aftors, and ftage-dan-
cers from every part of the empire. Thefe private
and public amufements of the emperor were indeed
innocent; his charafter only was injured, and not the
lives of the people. His conduft, however, foon be¬
came more abominable : he difguifed himfdf in the
habit of a woman, and was publicly married to one of
his eunuchs. This violence to nature and decency
was foon exchanged for another: Nero refumed his
fex, and celebrated his nuptials with one of his mean-
eft catamites : and it was on this occafion that one
of the Romans obferved that the world would have
been happy if Nero’sjfather had had fuch a wife. But
his cruelty was now difplayed in a ftill higher degree,
for he facrificed to his wantonnefs his wife Oftavia
Poppoea, and the celebrated writers, Seneca, Lucan,
Petronius, &c. Nor did the Chriftians efcape his
barbarity. He had heard of the burning of Troy;
and as he wifhed to renew that difmal feene, he caufed
Rome to be fet on fire in different places. The con¬
flagration became foon univerfal, and during nine fuc-
ctffive days the fire continued. All was defolaticn ;
nothing was heard but the lamentations of mothers
^ whofc
Ncro<
M E R [ io ] N E S
Nero, whofe children had perifhed in the flames, the groans
■“■"■v '’mmJ of the dying, and tire continual fall of palaces and
buildings. Nero was the only one who enjoyed the
general confternation. He placed himfelf on the top
of a high tower, and he fung on his lyre the dcilruc-
tion of Troy, a dreadful fccne which his barbarity had
realifed before his eyes. He attempted to avert the
public odium from his head by a pretended commifera-
tion of the miferies of his fubjefts. He began to re¬
pair the ilreets and the public buildings at his own ex¬
pence. Hebuilt himfelf a celebrated palace, whichhecall-
ed his golden houfe. It was liberally adorned with gold,
withpreciousftones,and with every thing rareandexqui-
iite. It contained fpacious fields, artificial lakes, woods,
gardens, orchards, and whatever exhibited a beautiful
fcene. The entrance of this edifice could admit a large
coloflus of the emperor 120 feet high ; the galleries
were each a mile long, and the whole was covered with
gold. The roofs of the dining halls reprefented the
firmament, in motion as well as in figure ; and conti¬
nually turned round night and day, fhowering down
all forts ©f perfumes and fweet waters. When this
grand edifice, which, according to Pliny, extended
all round the city, was finifhed, Nero faid, that now
he could lodge like a man. His profufion was not lefs
remarkable in all his other actions. When he went
a fifiling, his nets were of gold and filk. He never ap¬
peared twice in the fame garment; and when he took
a voyage, there were thoufands of fervants to take care
of his wardrobe. This continuation of debauchery
and extravagance at laft roufed the people. Many
eonfpiracies were formed againft him ; but they were
generally difcovered, and fuch as were acceffory fuf-
fered the fevereft punifhments. The moll dangerous
confplracy againft; Nero’s life wras that of Pifo, from
which he was faved by the confeffion of a Have. The
confpiracy of Galba proved more fuccefsful, who, when
he was informed that his plot was known to Nero, de¬
clared himfelf emperor. The unpopularity of Nero fa¬
voured his caufe ; he was acknowledged by all the
Roman empire, and the fenate condemned the tyrant
to be dragged naked through the ftreets of Rome, and
whipped to death, and afterwards to be thrown down
from the Tarpeian rock like the meaneft malefa&or.
This, however, was not executed; for Nero pre¬
vented it by a voluntary death. He killed himfelf,
A. D. 68, in-the 3id year of his ag?, after a reign
©f 13 years and eight months. Rome was filled
■with acclamations at it ; and the citizens, more
ftrongly to indicate their joy, wore caps, fuch as
were generally ufed by flaves who had received their
freedom. Their vengeance was not only exercifed
againft the ftatues of the deceafed monfter, but many
of his friends were the objtdf of the public refentment;
and many were crufhtd to pieces in fuch a violent
manner, that one of the fenatois, amid the univerfal
joy, faid that he was afraid they ftiould foon have
caufe to wifii for Nero. The tyrant, as he expired,
requefted that his head might not be cut off from
his body, and expofed to the infolence of the popu¬
lace, but that the whole might be burned on the
funeral pile. His requeft was granted by one of Galba’s
freed'men, and his obfequies were performed with the
ufual ceremonies. Though his death feemed to be the
fource of general gladnefs, yet many of his favouritee
lamented his fall, and were grieved to fee that their ^erva*
pleafures and amufements were flopped by the death , tt'ves‘
of this patron of debauchery and extravagance. Even
the king of Parthia fent ambafiadors to Rome, to con¬
dole with the Romans, and to beg that they would
honour and revere the memory of Nero. His ftatues
were alfo crowned with garlands of flowers ; and.
many imagined that he was not dead, but that he
would foon make his appearance and take vengeance
on his enemies. It will be fuffieient to obferve, ia
fini/hing the charafter of this tyrannical monfter, that
the name of Nero is even now ufed emphatically to ex-
prefs a barbarous and unfeeling oppreffor. Pliny calls
him the common enemy and fury of mankind ; and fo
indeed he has been called by all writers, who exhibit
Nero as a pattern of the moft execrable barbarity and
unpardonable wantonnefs. The fame Pliny furnifhes us
with this fingular anecdote of him : “ Nero had or¬
dered himfelf to be painted under the figure of a co-
loflus, upon cloth or canvas, 1 20 feet in height.” He
adds, “ that this prepofttrous picture, when it was fi¬
nifhed, met with its fate from lightning, which con-
fumed it, and involved likewife the moft beautiful part
of the gardens where it was placed in the conflagra¬
tion.”
NERVA (Cocceius), a Roman emperor after Do-
mitian, who was the laft of the 12 Csefars. He was
a native of Narnia in Umbria ; his family .how'ever was
originally of Crete. Dio Cafiius fays he was born on
the 17th of March, in the 18th year of Tiberius’s reign,
and of the Chriftian sera the 3 2d. Nero in the 12th year
of his reign made him praetor, and eredled a ftatue for-
him in the palace on account of his poems (for he was
one of the beft poets of his age), fome of which were
inferibed to him. He was conful in 71 with Vefpafian,.
and in 90 with Domitian.
Ancient authors uniformly celebrate him as a prince
of a moft mild and humane temper, of great modera¬
tion and generofity, who looked on his office as em+
peror, not as if it was for his own advantage, but for
that of his people ; and whilft he reigned, which was
however but for a ftiort time, he made the happinefs of
his fubjefts his only end and purfuit. He narrowly
efcaped death under Domitian ; was naturally of a
weak and timorous difpofition ^ and, as fome fay,
addicted to exceffive drinking. The Romans unani-
moufly chofe him emperor; and^they had no caufe to
repent of their choice, for he was conftantly attentive
to what could make them happy ; he was generous,
merciful, and difinterefted An in 'lance of his great
lenity appears in his pardoning Calpurnius Craffus who
confpired againft him. In fhort, he omitted nothing
that might contribute to the reftoiing of the empire
to its former luftre ; recalling thofe who had been ba-
nifhed for religion, and redreffing ail grievances that
came to his knowledge. He however found his ftrength
failing, and that it would be impoffible for him to fi-
ni(h his defigns, in confequence of which he adopted
Trajan. After his death, which happened in the year
98, he was ranked among the gods. He was the firft
Roman emperor of foreign extraftion.
NERVES, in anatomy, certain white gliftening
cords, proceeding from the brain and fpinal marrow,
and dividing into very fmall branches, which are fent
off throughout all parts of the body j and which are
found
Nervou*
II
Ndior.
N E S [n
found to be tne organs of fenfation and motion. See
Anatomy, n° 136.
j NERVOUS fluid. See Anatomy, n° 136.
NESSUS (fab. hilt.), a celebrated centaur, fon of
Ixion and the Cloud, He offered violence to Deja-
nira whom Hercules had entrufted to his care, with
orders to carry her acrofs the river Evenus. Hercules
faw the diftrefs of his wife from the oppofite fliore of
the river, and immediately he let fly one of his poi-
foned arrows, which (truck the centaur to the heart.
Neflus, as he expired, gave the tunic he then wore to
Dejanira, afluring her that from the poifoned blood
which had flowed from his wounds, it had received the
power of calling a hufband away from unlawful loves.
.Dejanira received it with pleafure, and this mournful
prefent caufed the death of Hercules. A river
which feparates Thrace from Macedonia. It is alfo
Called Nefus, Nejlos, and Neflus.
NEST. See Nidus.
Eatable Birds Nests. See Birds Nejls.
NESTOR (fab. hift.), a fon of Neleus and Chloris.
nephew to Pelias and grandfon to Neptune, hie had
eleven brothers, who were all killed with his father by
Hercules. His tender age detained him at home, and
was the caufe of his prefervation. The conqueror
fpared his life and placed him upon the throne of Pylos.
He married Eurydice the daughter of Clymenus ; or,
according to others, Anaxibia the daughter of Atreus.
He foon diftinguifned himfelf in the field of battle ;
and was prefent at the nuptials of Perithous, when a
bloody engagement took place between the Lapithas
and centaurs. As king of Pylos and Meflenia he led
his fubjefts to the Trojan war, where he diftinguifhed
himfelf among the reft of the Grecian chiefs, by elo¬
quence, addrefs, wifdom, juftice, and uncommon pru¬
dence. Homer difplays his chara&er as the moft per-
feft of all his heroes ; and Agamemnon exclaims, that
if he had 20 generals like Neftor, he fliould foon fee
the walls of Troy reduced to afhes. After th^ Trojan
war Neftor retired to Greece, where he enjoyed in
the bofom of his family the peace and tranquillity which
were due to his wifdom and to his age. The manner
and the time of his death are un3<nown : the ancients
ere all agreed that he lived three generations of men ;
which length of time is fuppofed to be 300 years,
though more p-obably only 90 years, allowing 30
years for each generation. From that circumftance,
therefore, it was ufual among the Greeks and the
Latins, when they wifhed a long and happy life to their
friends, to wifh them to fee the years of Neftor. He
had many children ; two daughters, Pifidice and Po-
lycafte ; and feven fons, Perfeus, Straticus, Aretus,
Echephron, Pififtratus, Antilochus, and Trafimedes.
Neftor was one of the Argonauts, according to Vale¬
rius Flaccus, v. 380, See.—A poet of Lycaonia in
the age of the emperor Severus. He was father to
Pifander, who under the emperor Alexander wrote
iome fabulous (lories. -One of the body guards of
Alexander.
"NESTOR, whofe fecular name is not known, was
a native of Ruflia, and the earlieft hiftorian ofthe north.
He was born in 1056 at Bielozero ; and in the 19th
^ear of his age he affumed the monaitic habit in the
convent of Petcherfld at Kiof, and took the name of
Neflcr. He there made a confiderable proficiency in
] N E 8
the Greek language: but feems to have formed his Ndlor,
Kyle and manner rather from the Byzantine hifto- ^e^oridl'*‘.
rians, Cedrenus, Zonaras, and Syncellus, than ftom the
ancient clafiics. The time of Neftor’s death is not
afeertained ; but he is fuppofed to have lived to an
advanced age, and to have died about the year 1115.
His great work is his Chronicle, to which he has
prefixed an introduftion, which, after a fliort (ketch
of the early (late of the world, taken from the By¬
zantine writers, contains a geographical defeription of
Ruffia and the adjacent regions ; an account of the
Sclavonian nations, their manners, their emigrations
from the banks of the Danube, their difperfion, and
fettlement in the feveral countries wherein their de*
feendants are now eftablifhed. He then enters upon a
chronological ftries of the Ruffian annals, from the
year 858 to about 1113, His ftyle is fimple and una-1
domed, fuch as fuits a mere recorder of facls; but his
chronological exadlnefs, though it renders his narra¬
tive dry and tedious, contributes to afeertain the
xra and authenticity of the events which he relates.
It is remarkable (fays Mr Coxe, from whom we
have taken this narrative), that an author of inch im¬
portance, whofe name frequently occurs in the early
Ruffian books, ffiould have remained in bbfeurity above
600 years; and been fcarcely known to his modern
countrymen, the origin and a6lions of whofe ancellors
he reesrds with fuch circumftantial exa&nefs. A
copy of his Chronicle was given in 1668 by prince
Radzivil to the library of Konigfburgh, where it lay
unnoticed until Peter the Great, in his paffage through
that town, ordered a tranfeript of it to be fent to Pe-
terfburgh. But it dill was not known as the per¬
formance of Neftor : for when Muller in 1732 pub-
lifhed the firft part of a German tranflation, he men¬
tioned it as the work of the abbot Theodofius of
Kiof; an error which arofe from the following cir¬
cumftance ; The ingenious editor, not being at that
time fufiiciently acquainted with the Sclavonian
tongue, employed an interpreter, who, by miftaking
a letter in the title, fuppofed it to have been written
by a perfon whofe name was Theodofius. This ridi¬
culous blunder was foon circulated, and copied by
many foreign writers, even long after it had been can¬
didly acknowledged and corrected by Muller.
NESTORIANS, a feft of ancient Chriftians, dill
faid to be fubfifting in fome parts of the Levant;
whofe diftinguifhing tenet is, that Mary is not the
mother of God. They take their name from Nefto.
rius bifhop of Conftantinople, whofe do&rines were
fpread. with much zeal through Syria, Egypt, and
P erfia.
One of the chief promoters of the Neftorian caufe
was Baifumas, created bilhop of Nifibis* A. D. 435.
Such was his zeal and fuccefs, that the Neftorians,
who dill remain in Chaldea, Perfia, Aflyria, and the
adjacent countries, confider him alone as their pa¬
rent and founder. By him Pherozes the Perfian mo¬
narch was perfuaded to expel thofe Chriftians who
adopted the opinions of the Greeks, and to admit the
Neftorians in their place, putting them in poflefllon
oi the principal feat of ecclefiaftical authority in Per¬
fia, the fee of Seleucia, which the patriarch of thfe
Neftorians has always filled even down to our time. -
Barfumas alfo erected a fchool at Nifibis, from which
B 2 pro*
N E S [ i
JSJeftor'ans. proceeded thofe Neftorian dottors who in the fifth and
fixth centuries fpread abtoad their tenets through
Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary, and China..
He differed confiderably from Neftorius, holding
that there are two perfons in Jefus Chrift, as well as
that the Virgin was not his mother as God, but only
as man.
The abettors of this dofhine refufe the title Ne-
ftorians ; alleging that it had been handed down from
the eailieft times of the Chriftian church.
In the tenth century, the, Neflorians in Chaldea,
whence they are fometimes called Chaldeans, extended
their fpiritual conquelts beyond mount Imaus, and in¬
troduced the Chriftian religion into Tartary, properly
fo called, and efpecially into that country called Ka-
rit, and bordering on the northern part of China.
The prince of that country, whom the Neftorians
converted to the Chriftian faith, aft'umed, according
to the vulgar tradition, the name of John after his
baptifm, to which he added the furname of Prejhyter,
from a principle of modefty ; whence it is faid his fuc-
cefibrs were each of them called Pnjler John until the
time of Gengis Khan. But Mofheim obfcrves, that
the famous Prefter John did not begin to reign in that
part of Afia before the conclufion of the xith cen¬
tury. The Neftorians formed fo coniiderable a body
of Chriflians, that the miffionaries of Rome were
induftrious in their endeavours to reduce them under
the papal yoke. Innocent IV. in'1246 and Nicolas
IV. in 1278, ufed their utmoft efforts for this pur-
pofe, but without fuccefs. Till the time of pope Ju¬
lius III the Neftorians acknowledged but one patri¬
arch, who refided firft at Bagdad, and afterwards at
Mouful; but a divifion arifing among them, in 1551
the patriarchate became divided, at leaft for a time,
and a new patriarch was confecrated by that pope,
whofe fuccelfors fixed their refidence in the city of
Ormus, in the mountainous part of Perfia, where they
ftill continue, diftinguilhed by the name of Simeon;
and fo far down as the laft century, thefe patriarchs
perfevered in their communion with the church of
Rome, but feem at prefent to have withdrawn them-
felves from it. The great Neftorian pontiffs, who
form the oppofxte party, and look with a hoftile eye
on this little patriarch, have fince the year 1559 been
diftinguifhed by the general denomination of Elias,
and refide conftantly in the city of Mouful. Their
fpiritual dominion is very extenfive, takes in a great
part of Afia, and comprehends alfo within its circuit
the Arabian Neftorians, and alfo the Chriftians of St
Thomas, who dwell along the coaft of Malabar. It
is obferved, to the lading honour of the Neftorians,
that of all the Chriftian focieties eilablifhed in the
Eaft, they have been the mod careful and fuccefsful
in avoiding a multitude of fuperftitious opinions and
praftices that have infe&ed the Greek and Latin
churches. About the middle of the 17th century,
the Romiflx miffionaries gained over to their commu¬
nion a fraall number of Neftorians, whom they ‘ormed
into a congregation or church ; the patriaxxhs or bi-
(hops of which refide in the city of Amida, or Diar-
beker, and all affume the denomination of Jofeph.
Neverthelefs the Neftorians in general perfevere to
our own times in their refufal to enter into the com-
snunion of the Romifh church, notwithftanding the
s ] N E S
earneft intreaties and alluring offers that have been Ncflonufct
made by the pope’s legate to conquer their inflexible *"***
conftancy.
NESTORIUS, from whom the fe£l of Neftorian
Chriftians derive their name, was born in .Germanica
a city of Syria. He received his education at An¬
tioch, where he was likewife baptized ; and i'oon after
his baptifm he withdrew himfelf to a monaftery in the
fuburbs of that city. Upon his being admitted to
the order of priefthood, he quickly acquired fo great
reputation by the eloquence of his preaching, and the
regularity of his life, that by the emperor Theodoli-
us he was deemed a fit perfon to fill the lecond fee in
the Chriilian church, and was accordingly confecrated
biffiop of Conftantinople in the year 429.
In one of his firft ftrmons after his promotion, he
publicly declared his intention to make war upon
heretics; and with that intolerant fpirit which has fo
often difgraced the preachers of the mild religion of
Jefus, he called upon the emperor to free the earth from
heretics, promifing to give him heaven as a reward for
his zeal. To this fpiritual motive he added one, that,
though carnal, he poffibly judged of equal force :
“ Join with me (faid he) in war againft them, and I
will affilt you againft the Periians.” Although the
vvifer and better part of his audience were amazed to
fee a man, before he had tailed (as the hiitorian * ex- * Socrates^
preffes himfelf) the water of Ins city, declare that he
would perfecute all who were not of his opinion ; yet
the majority of the people approved of this difeourfe, v
and encouraged him to execute his purpofe. Accord¬
ingly, five days after his cpnfecration, he attempted to
demolilh the church in which the Arians fecretly held
their affemblies ; and he fucceeded fo far in his defign,
that thefe people, growing defperate, fet it on fire
themfelves, and confumcd with it fome of the neigh¬
bouring houfes. This fire excited great commotions
in the city, and Neftorius was ever afterwards called
an incendiary.
From the Arians he turned his perfecution againft
the Novatians, but was ftopped in his career by the in-
terpofition of the emperor. He then let loofe his fury
upon thofe Chriftians of Afia, Lydia, and Carla, who
celebrated the feaft of Eafter upon the 14th day of
the moon ; and for this unimportant deviation from
the Catholic pra&ice, many of thofe people were mur¬
dered by his agents both at Miletum and at Sardis.
One cannot be forry that fuch a relentlefs perfecutor
(hould himfelf be afterwards condemned as an heretic,
for holding an opinion which no man who fpeaks or
thinks with philofophic accuracy will now venture to
controvert This obnoxious tenet, which produced
a fchifm in the church, and was condemned by a ge¬
neral council, was nothing more than that “ the Vir¬
gin Mary cannot with propriety be called the mother,
of God.” The people being accuftomed to hear this-
expreffion, were much inflamed againft their bifhop,
imagining that he had revived the error of Paulus Sa-
mofetenus and Photinus, who taught that Jefus Chrift
was a mere man. The monks declared openly againft
him, and, with fome of the moft confiderable men in
Conftantinople, feparated themfelvea from his commu¬
nion. Several biffiops wrote to him earneft perfuafives-
to acknowledge that Mary was the mother of God
and when he would not comply, they procured hia.
eon-
NET
t T3 1
Nrt
Nexlorius conflemnation in the council of Ephefus, which de
prived him of his fee. He then retired to his ancient
___ monaftery at Antioch, whence he was taken four
years afterwards by the emperor’s order, and banifhed
in 435 toTarfus. That city being taken and deftroy-
ed by the barbarians, he was removed to Panopolis, a
city of Thebais ; where he was not fuffered to remain
long, but was compelled to go from place to place,
till, being in one of his journey’s mortally bruifed by
a fall, death relieved him from the fury of his perfe-
cutors.
If we examine fuch of his writings as remain, we
fhall find that he was very unjuftly condemned. It
appears that he rejefted the errors of ElAon, Paulus Se
mofetenusy and Photinus ; that he maintained in exprefs
terms, that the divine Word was united to the human
nature in Jefus Chrift in the moil ftrift and intimate
fenfe poffible ; that thefe two natures, in this ftate of
union, make but one Chrill and one perfon; that the pro¬
perties of theDivine and human natures may both beat-
tributedtothisperfon; and that Jefus Chrift may be faid
to have been born of a virgin, to have fuffered and died ;
but he never would admit that God could be faid to
have been born, to have fuffered, or to have died.—
When we confider that every perfon partakes of the
fubftance of his mother, and that it is this which con-
flitutes the parental and filial relation between them,
it is indeed furprifing that the exprefiion “ Mother of
God” fhould ever have been admitted into the Chri-
ffian church, or that any man who underftands the
meaning of the 'vords fhould condemn Neftorius for
not having ufed them.
NESTUS, or Nessus, a river wdiich feparates
Thrace from Macedonia. It falls into the iEgean
fea near the ifland Phafos. It is fometimes called Ne-
fus and Nejfus.
NET, a device for catching fifh and fowl. See the
article Fishery.
The taking fowls by nets is the readieft and moft ad
vantageous of all others, where numbers are to be
taken. The making the nets is very eafy, and what
every true fportfman ought to be able to do for him-
fdf. All the neceffary tools are wooden needles, of
which there fhould be feveral of different fizes, feme
round and others flat; a pair of round pointed and flat
feiffars ; and a wheel to wind off the thread. The
packthread is to be of different ftrength and thicknefs,
according to the fort of birds to be taken ; and the
general fize of the mefhes, if not for very fmall birds,
is two inches from point to point. The nets fhould
neither be made too deep nor too long, for they are
then difficult to manage; and they muft be verged on
each fide with twilled thread. The natural colour of
the thread is too bright and pale, and is therefore in
many cafes to be altered. The moll ufual colour is
the ruffet; which is to be obtained by plunging the
net, after it is made, into a tanner’s pit, and lettino-
it he there till it be fufficiently tinged: this is of a
double fervice to the net, fince it preferves the thread
as well as alters the colour. The green colour is
given by chapping fome green wheat and boiling it in
water, and then foaking the net in this green tinaure.
The yellow colour is given in the fame manner with
the decoaion of celandine ; which gives a pale flraw-
colour, which is the colour of ftubble in the harveft-
N E T
time. The brown nets are to be ufed on ploughed Net;
lands, the green on grafs grounds, and the yellow on
ftubble-lands.
Nut-Day, among fowlers, a net generally ufed for
taking fuch fmall birds as play in the air, and will floop
either to prey, gig, or the like; as larks, linnets, bunt¬
ings, &c. The time of the year for ufing this net is
from Augufl to November ; and the heft time is very
early in the morning: and it is to be obferved, that ^ ‘ ‘
the milder the air, and the brighter the fnn is, the bet¬
ter will lie the fport, and of longer continuance. The
place where this net fhould be laid, ought to be plain
champaign, either on fhort ftubbles, green lays, or flat
meadows, near corn-fields, and fomewhat remote from
towns and villages : you muft be fure to let your net
lie clofe to the ground, that the birds creep not out
and make their efcape. —The net is made of a fine
packthread with a fmall mefh, not exceeding half an
inch fquare ; it muff be three fathoms long, and but
one broad : it muft be verged about with a fmall but
flrong cord; and the two ends extended upon two
fmall long poles, fuitable to the breadth, of the net,
with four flakes, tail-ftrings, and drawing-lines.—This,
net is compofed of two, which muff; be exadlly alike
and are to be laid oppofite to one another, fo even and
clofe, that when they are drawn and pulled over, the
fides muft meet and touch each other. You muft flake
this net down with ftrong flakes, very fliff on their
lines, fo that you may with a nimble toucli caft them
to and fro at pleafure; then faften your drawing-cords,
or hand-lines (of which there muft be a dozen atleaft,.
and each two yards long) to the upper end of the fore-
moft Haves : and fo extend them of fuch a ftraightnefs,
that with a little ftrengh they may rife up in the nets,
and caft them over.
Your nets being thus laid, place your gigs, or play¬
ing-wantons, about 20 or 30 paces beyond, and as
much on this fide your nets: the gigs muft be fattened
to the tops of long poles, and turned into the wind, fo
as they may play to make a noife therein. Thefe gigs-
are a fort of toys made of long goofe feathers, like
fhuttle-cocks, and with little fmall tunnels of wood,
running in broad and flat fwan-quills, made round like
a fmall hoop; and fo, with longer firings faftened to a
pole, will, with any fmall wind or air, move after fuch
a manner, that birds will come in great flocks to play
about them.
When you have placed your gigs, then place your
ftale ; which is a fmall flake of wood, to prick down
into the earth, having in it a mortice-hole, in which
a fmall and flender piece of wood, about two feet
long, is faftened, fo as it may move up and down
at pleafure : and faften to this longer flick a fmall line,,
which, running through a hole in the flick above-
mentioned, and fo coming up to the place where you
are to fit, you may, by drawing the line up and down;
with your right hand, raife up the longer flick as you
fee occafion. 1
Fatten a live lark, or fuch like bird, to this longer
flick, which, with the line making it to Hir up and
down by your pulling, will entice the birds to come to
your net.
There is another ftale, or enticement, to draw on
thefe birds, called a lookingglafs which is a round;
Hake of wood, as big as a man’s arm, made very fharp-
^ atr
NET r t4 I N K T
'TTet. at the end, to thruft it into the ground: they mike it
very hollow in the upper part, above five fingers deep;
into which hollow they place a three-fquare piece of
wood about a foot long* and each two inches broad,
lying upon the top of the ftake, and going with a foot
into the hollownefs : which foot muft have a great knob
at the top, and another at the bottom, with a deep
flendernefs between ; to which flendernefs you are to
fallen a fmall packthread, which, running through a
hole in the fide of the ftake, muft come up to the place
where you fit. The three-fquare piece of wood which
lies on the top of the ftake, muft be of fuch a poife and
evennefs, and the foot of the focket fo fmooth and
round, that it may whirl and turn round upon the lead
touch ; winding the packthread fo many times about
it, which being fuddenly drawn, and as fuddenly let
go, will keep the engine in a conftant rotatory mo¬
tion : then faften wkh glue on the upperrnolt flat
fquares of the three-fquare piece, about 20 fmall
pieces of looking-glafs, and paint all the fquare wood
between them of a light and lively red ; which, in
the continual motion, will give fuch a rcfledlion,
that the birds will play about to admiration until they
.-are taken.
iBoth this and the other ftaleareto be placed in the
middle between the two nets, about two or three feet
diftance from each other ; fo that, ih the falling of the
nets, the cords may not trtuch or annoy them : neither
muft they (land one before or after another; the glafs
being kept in a continual motion, and the bird very
often fluttering. Having placed your nets in this
manner, as alfo your gigs and dales, go to the fur¬
ther end ©f your long drawing-lines and ftale lines ;
and, having placed yourfelf, lay the main drawing
line acrofs your thigh, and, with your left, pull the
ftale-line to fhow the birds; and when you perceive
them to play near and about your nets and dales,
then pull the net over with both hands, with a quick
but not too hafty motion ; for otherwife your fport
will be fpoiled.
See Plate CCCXLV. where A fhows the bodies
of the main net, and how they ought to he laid. B, the
tail-lines, or the hinder-lines, flaked to the ground.
C, the fore lines flaked alfo to the ground. D, the
bird ftale. E, the looking-glafs ftale. G, the line
which draws the bird-ftale. H, the line that draws
the glafs-ftale. I, the drawing, double lines of the
nets, which pulls them over. K, the flakes which
flake down the four nether points of the nets and the
two tail-lines. L, the flakes that flake down the fore¬
lines. M, the Angle line, with the wooden button to
pull the net over with. N, the flake that flakes down
the Angle line, and where the man fhould fit; and
the gig.
Net, Neat, in commerce, fomething pure, and un¬
adulterated with any foreign mixture.
Thus, wines are {aid to be net when not falfified or
balderdafhed ; and coffee, rice, pepper, &c. are net
when the filth and ordures are fc-parated from than.
See Neat.
A diamond is fald to be net when it has no ftains or
flaws ; a cryftal, when tranfparent throughout.
Net is alfo ufed for what remains after the tare
bas been taken out of the weight of any merchan-
dife ; i. e. when it is weighed clear of all package. Se£ Nether-
Tare. ,ands-
Thus we fay, a barrel of cochineal weighs 45a
pounds; the tare is 50 pounds, and there remains net
400 pounds.
NET-Produce, a term ufed to exprefs what any
Commodity has yielded, all tare and charges de-
du&ed.
The merchants fometimes ufe the Italian word*
net la proceduto, for net produce.
NETHERLANDS, anciently called Belgia, but
fince denominated Low Countries or Netherlands, from
their low fituation, are fituated between 2° and 70 of
call longitude, and between 50° and 530 30' of north
latitude : and are bounded by the German fea on the
north, Germany on the eaft, by Lorrain and France
on the fouth, and by another part of France and the
Britifh feas on the wTeft ; extending near 300 miles in
length from north to fouth, and 200 miles in breadth
from eafl to weft. They confift of 17 provinces; 10
of which are called the Slujirian and French Nether¬
lands, and the other feven the United Provinces.
Thegreateft par*t of the Netherlands Was conquered
by the Romans; and that part which lies towards
Gaul continued in their fubje&ion till the decline of
that empire ; afterwhich the Francs became mailer*
of it ; and, under the French monarchy, it was part ot '
the kingdom of Metz or Auflrafia.
Towards the end of the f 5th century Maximilian
of Auftria, fon of the Emperor Ferdinand III. ac¬
quired, by marrying the only daughter of the duke of
Burgundy, the duchies of Brabant, Limburg, and
Luxemburg; the counties of Flanders, Burgundy, Hai-
nault, Holland, Zealand, and Namur; and the lord-
fliips of Frifeland. Philip of Auftria, fon to Maxi¬
milian and Mary, married Jane the daughter of Ferdi¬
nand king of Arragon and of Ifabella queen of Ca-
ftile ; by which means thoir fon Charles inherited not
only almofl all Spain and the great countries then
lately difeovered in America, but alfo thofe noble pro¬
vinces of the Netherlands, and was chofen emperor
under the name of Charles V. Towards the latter
end of the 1527, he added to his dominions the tem¬
poralities of the bilhoprick of Utrecht on both fides
of the Yflel ; and Henry of Bavaria, being diftrelfed
through war with the duke of Guelderland, and tired
with the continued rebellion of his own fubje6ts, fur-
rendered to the emperor the temporalities of his diocefe,
which was confirmed by the pope, and the Hates of
the country. In 1536, Charles V. bought of Charles of
Egmond the reverfion of the duchy of Guelderland
and of the county of Zutphen, in cafe that prince
ftiould die without ift’ue. The fame year the city of
Groningen took the oath of allegiance, and fubmitted
to Charles V. and in 1543 he put a garrifon into the
city of Cambray, and built a citadel there. Having
thus united the 17 provinces, as it were in one body, he
ordered that they fhould continue for ever under the
fame prince, without being ever feparated or difmem-
bered ; for which purpofe he publifhed in November
1549, with the confent and at the requefl of the flates
of all the provinces, a perpetual and irrevocable edidl
or law, by which it was enabled, that in order to keep
all thofe provinces together under one and the fame
3 prince.
NET [ i
Nether- prince, the right of reprefentation, with regard to the
fueceftion of a prince or princefs, fhould take place
for ever, both in a direft and collateral line, notwith-
Handing the common laws of fome provinces to the
contrary Charles had even a mind to incorporate
thefe provinces with the Germanic body, and to make
of them a circle of the empire, under the title of the
circle of Burgundy, in order thereby to engage princes
of the empire to concern themfelves for the preferva-
tion of thofe provinces. But the Netherlands, always
jealous of their liberty, did not feem to like that in¬
corporation ; and when they were demanded to pay
their {hare towards the expences of the empire, they
refuftd it; whereupon the princes of Germany refufed,
in their turn, to take any part in the wars in Flanders,
and looked upon thofe provinces as by no means be¬
longing to the Germanic body.
Philip of Aultria and his fon Charles, who were
born in the Netherlands, had for thefe provinces that
natural affe&ion which men ufed to have for their na
.live country ; and, knowing how jealous the in¬
habitants were of their liberty, and of the privileges
granted to them by their former princes, they took
great care to preferve them, and fuffered willingly
that the Hates, who were the guardians of the people’s
liberty and privileges, fhould in a manner (hare the
iupreme authority with them. Philip II. fon to the
i'.mperor Charles V. had not the fame affe&ion for the
Netherlands, nor thofe generous fentiments which his
father had endeavoured to infpire him with. Being
bom in Spain of a Portuguefe woman, he had no re¬
gard but for his native country ; and, when he re¬
moved out of the Netherlands, he left them to the
weak government of a woman, to the proud and
haughty fpirit of Cardinal de Granville, and to the
wild ambition of fome lords of thefe provinces, who,
availing therr.felves of the imprudent conduit and con¬
tinual blunders of the council of Spain, found their
private interefl in the diHurbances they could not fail
to produce. Philip II. alfo, inltead of the mild and
moderate meafures which his predeceflbrs had fuccefs-
fully employed on many occaiions, as befl fuiting the
genius and temper of the people, had recourfe to the
molt violent and cruel proceedings ; which, far from
curing the evil, ferved only to exafperate it the more
and render it incurable. The Spaniards, whom he^
fent thither, being born and educated in an abfolute
monarchy, jealous of the liberties and envious of the
riches of the people, broke through all their privi-
legts, and ufed them almoH after the fame manner as
they had done the inhabitants of their new and ill-,
gotten dominions in America. This treatment oc-
•afioned a general infurre&ion. The counts Hoorn,
Egmont, and the prince of Orange, appearing at the
head of it, and Luther’s reformation gaining ground
about the fame time in the Netherlands, hk difciples
joined the malecontents: whereupon King Philip in¬
troduced a kind of inquifition in order to fupprefs
them, and many thoufands were put to death by that
court, befides thofe that perifhed by the fword ; for
thefe perfecutions and encroachments had occafion-
ed a civil war, in which feveral battles were fought.
The counts Hoorn and Egmont were taken and be¬
headed ; but the prince of Orange, retiring into Hol-
kud, did, by the aMance cf England and France,
j 1 N - E T
preferve Holland and fome of the adjacent provinces, Nether*
which entered into a treaty for their mutual defence k™18,
at Utrecht in 1579, and they have ever fince been  
flylcd the United Provinces ; but the other provinces
were reduced to the obedience of Spain by the duke
of Alva and other Spantfh generals However, their
ancient privileges were in a great meafure reltored ;
every province was allowed its great council or parlia¬
ment, whofe concurrence was required to the making
of laws, and raifmg money for the government, though
thefe aflemblies were too often obliged to folio a- the
dictates of the court.
Phe late Emperor Jofeph II. endeavoured to de¬
prive them even of the form of their free conHitution
and he might very probably have fucceeded, had he
not attempted at the fame time a reformation of the
church. The Auflrian Netherlands are wholly Ca¬
tholic, and fo bigotted to the Romifh fuperHition,
that though they had tamely fubmitted to many en-
croachments of the arch-ducal houfe on their civil
no fooner did the monarch encroach upon the
property of the holy mother-church than they refiHed
his authority, and claimed all their ancient privileges
political and religious. The fame attachment to
their ancient faith and worfbip made them very lately
contribute to expel from their territories the French
whom they had invited to relieve them from the Au-
Hrian yoke. Thus her religious bigotry for once faved
a free people from the iron rod of defpotifm on the
one hand, and the truelties of frantic democrates on -
the other. I he provinces under the government of *
France were, till the late revolution, under the fame
fevere arbitrary dominion as the other fubjeds of that
crown, and they now experience the fame miferies
with the red of the republic.
Ihe Spaniards continued pofTefled of almoH eight
of thefe provinces, until the duke of Marlborough,
general of the allies, gained the memorable vi&ory of
Ramillfes*' -After which, BrufTels the capital, and
great part of thefe provinces, acknowledged Charles VI.
(afterwards emperor) their fovereign ; and his daugh¬
ter, the late emprefs queen, remained poffefled of them
till the war that followed the death of her father,
when the french made an entire c6nquefl of them, ex¬
cept part of the province of Luxemburg; but they
were reHored by the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe in 1748
and the French retained only A rtois, the Cambrefis’
part of Flanders, part of Hainault, and part of Lux¬
emburg, of which they have had the dominion now
upwards of eighty years.
The foil'is generally fruitful, but differs in the fe- -
veral parts. The climate alfo differs in the feveral
provinces; in thofe towards the fouth it does not dif¬
fer much from that of England, though the feafono
are more regular. In the northern provinces the win¬
ter is generally very fharp, and the fummer fultry hot;
but the extreme cold and exceffive heat feldom con¬
tinue above five or fix weeks. The air is reckoned
very wholefome, but is fubjett to thick fogs in win-
ter, thiough the moiftnefs ®f the country, which
would be very noxious, were it not for the dryeaflerly
winds, which, blowing off a long continent for two
or three months in the ytar, clear the air, and occafion
very fharp frofts in January and February; during
which, the ports, livers, and canals, are commonly
ftmis
•Netfcher.
NET [ 16 ] N
Ncthinims {hut up. The face of the country is low and flat; Theodore and Conftantine
for, except fome fmall hills and a few rifing grounds
in Utrecht and Guelderland, and in the parts lying
towards Germany, there is no hill to be feen in the
whole J 7 provinces. This is the reafon that they
have been called the Low Countries. French Flan¬
ders abounds in grain, vegetables, flax, and cattle,
but is in want of wood.
For the Dutch Netherlands, fee United Provinces.
NETHINIMS, among the Jews, the pofterity of
the Gibeonites, who were condemned by Jofhua to
be hewers of wood and drawers of water for the houfe
of God.
NETOPION, a name given by the ancients to
a very fragrant and coftly ointment, confiding of a
great number of the finett fpicy ingredients. Hip¬
pocrates, in his Treatife of the Difeafes of Women,
frequently prefcribes the netopion in difeafes of the
uterus; and in other places he fpeaks of its being
■poured into the ear as a remedy for deafnefs; thefe
compofitions, by their attenuating qualities, dividing
the vifcous and thick humours. The word netopion
is alfo fometimes ufed to exprefs the unguentum JEgyp-
tiacum, and fometimes limply for oil of almonds.
NETSCHER (Gafpard), an eminent painter, born
at Prague in Bohemia in 1639. His father dying
while he was an engineer in the Polilh fervice, his mo¬
ther was obliged, on account of her religion, fuddenly
to leave Prague with her three fons. When Ihe had
proceeded three leagues, Ihe flopped at a caflle; which
being foon after btfieged, two of her fons were ftarved
to death ; but fhe herfelf found means to efcape out of
the fortrcfs by night, and to fave her only remaining
child. Carrying him in her arms, Ihe reached Arn-
lieim in Guelderland, where flie found means to flip-
port herfelf, and breed up her fon. At length a doc¬
tor of phyfic took young Netfcher into his patronage,
with the view of giving him an education proper for a
phyfician : but Netfcher’s genius hading him to paint-
in^, he could not forbear fcrawling out defigns upon
the paper on which he wrote his themes; and it be¬
ing found impoflible to conquer his fondnefs for draw¬
ing, he was fent to a glazier, who was the only perfon
in the town that underflood drawing. Netfcher foon
binding himfelf above receiving any farther afliftance
from his mailer, was fent to Deventer, to a painter
named Terburg, who was an able artift and burgoma-
iler of the town ; and having acquired under him a
great command of his pencil, went to Holland, where
he worked a long time for the dealers in piftures, who
paid him very little for his pieces, which they fold at
a high price. Difgufted at this ungenerous treatment,
he refolved to go to Rome; and for that purpofe em¬
barked on board a veffel bound for Bourdeaux. But
his marrying in that city prevented his travelling into
Italy : and therefore, returning into Holland, he fet¬
tled at the Hague ; where obferving that portrait-
painting was the moft profitable, he applied himfelf
folely to it, and acquired fuch reputation, that there
is not a confiderable family in Holland that has not
fome of his portraits ; and betides, the greateft part of
,the foreign minifters could not think of quitting Hol¬
land without carrying with them one of Netfcher’s
portraits, whence they are to be feen all over Europe.
He died at the Hague, iu 1684; leaving two fons,
N° 24s.
E V
Netfcher, both of them Nettlugs
good portrait-painters. ^ 'l
NETTINGS, in a thip, a fort of grates made of f
fmall ropes feized together with rope-yarn or twine,
and fixed on the quarters and in the tops ; they aie
fometimes ftretched upon the ledges from the wafte-
trees to the roof-trees, from the top of the forecaftle
to the poop, and fometimes are laid in the wafte of a
{hip to ferve inftead of gratings.
NETTLE, in botany, fee Urtica.
Sea Nettle. See Medusa and Anima l - Flo tuer.
NsTTLE-Tree. See Celtis.
NETTUNO, a handfome town of Italy, in the
Campagnia of Rome. It is but thinly peopled, though
feated in a fertile foil. The inhabitants are almoft all
hunters. E. Long. 12. 57. N. Lat. 41. 30.
NEVA, a river at Peterlburgh, in Rufiia. The
views upon the banks exhibit the moft grand and
lively feenes. The river is in moft places broader than
the Thames at London. It is deep, rapid, and tranf-
parent as cryftal, and its banks are lined on each fide
with a continued range of handfome buildings. On
the north fide the fortrefs, the academy of fciencea
and that of arts are the moft ftriking obje&s ; on the
oppofite fide are the imperial palace, the admiralty,
the manfions of many Ruffian nobles, and the Englifh
line, fo called becaufe (a few houfes excepted) the
the whole row is occupied by the Engliftr merchants. In
front of thefe buildings, on the fouth fide, is the quay,
which ftretches for three miles, except where it is in¬
terrupted by the admiralty ; and the Neva, during the
whole of that fpace, has been lately embanked at the
expence of the emprefs by a wall, parapet, and pave¬
ment of hewn granite; a moft elegant and durable mo¬
nument of imperial munificence. There is a commu¬
nication between the oppofite fides of the river by a
bridge of pontoons, which, when any thing is appre¬
hended from the force of ice rufhing down the ftream,
can be, and is generally indeed, removed. The great
depth of the river, it appears, prevents the building
of a ftone-bridge ; and if it could be built, there 13
no reafon to fuppofe it could poffibly refill the force
of thofe vaft fhoals of ice which in the beginning of
winter come down this rapid river. An attempt, how¬
ever, has been made to remedy this inconvenience ;
and a Ruffian peafant has a&ually projedled the plan
of throwing a wooden bridge of one arch acrofs it,
which in its narrowed part is 980 feet in breadth. As
we think this a matter of very confiderable importance,
as well as of curiofity, we fhall give the following
copious account of the plan and its author, in Mr
Coxe’s own words ; who tells us that the artift had
then executed a model 98 feet in length, which he
faw and examined with confiderable attention.
“ The bridge is upon the fame principle with that
of Shafthaufen, excepting that the mechanifm is more
complicated, and that the road is not fo level I (hall
attempt to deferibe it by fuppofing it finilhed, as that
will convey the bell idea of the plan. The bridge is
roofed at the top, and covered at the fides ; it is form¬
ed by four frames of timber, two on each fide, com-
pofed of various beams or truiTes, which fupport the
whole machine. The road is not, as is ufual, carried
over the top of the arch, but is fufptnded in the middle.
“ The following proportions I noted down with
the
N E V
T,
J greatefl: exaftnefs at the time when they were ex
plained to me by the artift.
Length of the abutment on the north end, 658 feet
Span of the arch, - _ qg0
Length of the abutment on the fouth end, 658
Length of the whole ftrufture, including the
abutments, - . . ' 2296
The plane of the road upon its firft afeent
makes an angle of five degrees with the
ordinary furface of the river.
Mean level of the river to the top of the
bridge in the centre, - . jgg
Ditto to the bottom of the bridge in the
centre, - - I26
Height of the bridge from the bottom to the
top in the centre, - - 42
Height from the bottom of the bridge in
the centre to the road, - * 7
Height from the bottom of ditto to the
water, - . g4
Height from the water to the fpring of the
arch, . .
So that there is a difference of 35 feet between the
road at the fpring of the arch and the road at the
centre ; in other words, an afeent of 35 feet in half
980, or in the fpace of 490 feet, which is little more
than eight tenths of an inch to a foot. The .bridge is
broad eft towards the fides, and dimimfhes towards the
centre.
In the broadeft part it is
In the centre or narrowed
The breadth of the road is
168 feet.
42
28
“ The artift informed me, that to complete the
bridge would require 49,6'.o iron nails, 12,908 large
trees, 5,500 beams to ftrengthen them, and that it
would eoft 300,000 roubles, or L 6o,oco. He fpeaks
of this bold projedl with the ufual warmth of genius;
and is perfectly convinced that it would be pradicable.
I mult own that 1 am of the fame opinion, though I
hazard it with great diffidence What a noble effea
would be produced by a bridge ftriking acrofs the
Neva, with an arch 9^ feet wide, and towering 168
feet from the furface of the water? The defeription
0 lllch a bridge feems almoft chimerical; and yet
upon infpedtion of the model we become reconciled
to the idea. But whether the execution of this ftu-
pendous work may be deemed poffible or not, the mo-
<j!el Hleh is worthy of attention, and refleas the
nigheft honour on the inventive faculties of that un¬
improved genius. It is fo com pad ly conlhuded, and ■
of inch uniform folidity, that it lias fupported 3,40
pood, or 127,440 pounds, without having in theleaft
VOL. XIII Part. I.
17 3 N E V
■ fwerved from its direaion, which I am told is far more, Nevs
in proportion to its fize, than the bridge if compleat- II
ed would have occafion to fuftain from the preffure of Nevers-
the carriages added to its own weight.
“ The perfon who projeded this plan is a common
Ruffian peafant. This extraordinary genius was ap*
prentice to a ffiopkeeper at Niffinei Novogorod : op-
pofite to his dwelling was a wooden clock, which ex¬
cited his curiofity. By repeated examinations' he
comprehended the internal flrud;ure, and without any
affiftance formed one exadly fimilar in its proportion
and materials. His fuccefs in this firft effay urged
him to undertake the conftruftion of metal clocks and
watches. The emprefs, hearing of thefe wonderful ex¬
ertions of his native genius, took him under her pro¬
tection, and fent him to England ; from whence, on
account of the difficulties attending his ignorance of
the language, he foon returned to Ruffia. I faw a
repeating watch of his workmanfhip at the academy
of feiences: it is about the bignefs of an egg ; in the
infide is reprefented the tomb of our Saviour, with
the ftone at the entrance, and the centinels upon duty:
fuddenly the ftone is removed, the centinels fall down,
the angels appear, the women enter the fepulchre, and
the lame chant is heard which is perforftied on Eafter-
eve. I hefe are trifling, although curious performances;
but the very planning of the bridge was a moft fublime
conception. 1 his perfon, whofe name is Kulibint
bears the appearance of a Ruffian peafant; he has a
long beard, and wears the Common drefs of the coun¬
try. He receives a penfion From the emprefs, and is
encouraged to follow the bent of his mechanical ge¬
nius (a)/’ b
. NTVEL, or Nebel, in the Jewifh antiquities, a P'ate
kind of mulical initrument. See Nablum. CCCX.LIVJ
NEVERS is the capital of the Nevernois in France,
and government of Orleanois. It is fituated E. longi-
tude 3.15. N.latitude 46. 50. on the river Loire, which
heie receives the rivulet Nievre, from which this city
derives its name. It is a place of great antiquity, fup-
pokd to be Caefar's Noyiodunum in iEduis, where he
ereSled magazines for his armies. Francis I. made it
a duchy and peerage in 1521, in favour of Francis of
Ueve, to whom it came by marriage. It devolved af¬
terwards to the houi'e of Mantua, and then to the
BalaUne family, who in .651 iold it to cardinal Ma-
fann. The cardinal obtained a title of duke and peer
lor his nephew Philip Mancini, in whole family it
continued till the late revolution, though it is impof-
li.de, in the prefent unfettled ftate of France, to "fay
whole property it may be now. 1 he town h fortified
wuu walls, defended with many high towers and deep
ditches, and is the feat of a bilhopric. fuffragan of
oens, as hkewife of a bailiwic and chamber of ac-
^ counts.
count of the greatnefs0ofThe^rojJa"ouldT" •apPears to us to def=rve attention o» ac-
lightened by faience and liberal am mm-h ml. 1 haveexcit^ admi1ratlOD iiad * been attempted by one en-
It was never executed, as we are juft informe/h^ ^ C°TS throlJghtheJi)umble medium of a Ruffian peafant.
of June .793 ; but the model remains, and is ftift ffiown ^Tl "f ° ^ St(Peterfbu*gh the beginning
adds, “ that every mechanic thinks it pra^ble and tW the his own words)
built it, had Ihe not found ufe for all her monev in ' g eral behef !s, that the emprefs would have
other courts.” ‘0nCy ln carr>'‘“g »u her warbke and diplomatic tranfacUons with
N E U T 1
Never*, counts. There is a ftone-bridge on the Lorre, with
Neuchattel. twenty archcs, a draw-bridge on each fide, and towers
— to defend them. The cathedral is dedicated to St
Cvr There are eleven parifhes in the town, and a
great many religious houfes The Jefuits college near
the gate des Ardehers is a handfome ftruAure. Th
palace of the dukes <?f Nevers has a large front be¬
tween two great towers, with a court on one fide an<
? garden on the other. Here it was that John Cafr-
mir king of Poland died the 16th of Decernber 1672.
Near this palace Hands the convent of Cordeliers,
who have a magnificent church, in which the tombs
of duke John and Catharine of Bourbon on the right,
and thofe of Lewis of Gonzaga duke of Nevers, and
Henrietta of Cleves his wife, merit your attention.
This town is famous for its glafs-manufafture and
earthen-ware, and is faid to contain about Booo inha-
^ifthe centre of Nevers, on the fummit of a hill,
is built the palace of the ancient dukes. It appears
to have been cohftru&ed in the fixteenth century, and,
thoughbeginning to exhibit marks of decay,is yetamo-
del of the beauty and delicacy of the Gothic architecture.
The apartments are hung with tapeftry of zco years
old, which have an air of grotefque and rude magni¬
ficence. There is in one of the chambers a poitrait
of Madame de Montefpan, who appears rifing from a
fuperb couch, the curtains of which are drawn back,
and fupported by Cupids. Her attitude is half vo¬
luptuous, half contemplative. She is drefled m a ne¬
gligent difhabflle, and her hair floats down over her
(boulders and neck in waving ringlets. Her head refts
on her left hand, and one of her feet is concealed by
her robe ; the other, which is naked to the mid-leg,
and on which the painter, with great tatte, has ex-
haufted all his art, is placed on an embroidered culhion.
Her flippers are thrown carelefsly by.
NEUCHATTEL,a tolerably handfome town of Swif-
ferland, capital of a county of the fame name. There
are feveral ancient ruins near it, which (how its for¬
mer extent; and there are two large churches, be-
fides a caftle where the governor refides. The town
contains about 3000 inhabitants. It is fltuated
partly on a fmall plain between Mount Jura and
the lake of Neuchattel, which is 17 miles long and
five broad; the fide ef the harbour is the ufual
walk of the inhabitants. Part of it too is built upon
the fide of the mountain ; whence fome of its ftreets
are very fteep. In this fmall place feveral public
works have lately been executed, which Mr Coxe
thinks are far beyond the revenues, or even the wants,
of fuch a little ftate. Among thefe he inftances a fu¬
perb caufeway and a town-houfe “ built (fays he)
of fuch folid materials as if it was intended to furvive
to the mo ft diftant pofterity, and to rival the duration
of the much-famed Roman capitol.” At the be¬
ginning of the prefient century, commerce was very
little followed in this towm, owing to an abfurd opi¬
nion which prevailed among the inhabitants of its be¬
ing difgraceful; but this prejudice is now extinguifh-
ed, and the town in a much more flouriftiing fituation
than before. The chief article of exportation is
wine, which is much efteemed ; and manufactures of
printed linens and cotton have been eftabliftied with
confiderabk fueccfs. The flourifhing ftate of Neu.-
g 3 N E U
chattel is principally owing to the benefaftions of MrNeuchattel
David Pury, late banker of the court at Lilbon. He ' .
was born at Neuchattel in 1709 ; but having received
his education there, he quitted it in great poverty
and repaired to Geneva, where he fei ved hiT ap-
prenticeflup, but in what line is not mentioned. 1 roiti
Geneva he went to London, where he afted as clerk
to a dealer in precious (tones, and acquired great re*
putation by eftimating the value of diamonds at fight.
After a long refidence in England he went to Lilbon,
where he carried on a very extenfive commerce ; and
having been appointed court-banker, his fortune rapid¬
ly increafed. His generofity, however, kept pace
with his wealth; and he not only remitted large fuma
to Neuchattel while living, but left his country his
heir when he died. His contributions in all are efti-
mated by Mr Coxe at L. 200,000; a confiderable
part of which has been employed in conftruaing the
public works already mentioned. Mr Coxe hints,
that notwithftanding the fuperb edifices already men¬
tioned, there are many conveniences ftill wanting to
render Neuchattel agreeable ; the public walks, for
inftance, might be greatly improved, the ftreets, which
are very dirty, might be kept clean, and a torrent
which runs through the town, and frequently threa¬
tens it with inundations, might be turned. En¬
couragement ought alfo to be given to literature, for
our author obferves, that the inhabitants of Neuchattel
are much mors ignorant than thofe of other parts
in Swiflerland, which no doubt is in a great mea-
fure owing to their having not a Angle feminary of
learning which deferves the name in the place. It
has a grand and little council: the firft is compofed
of 40 perfons, with two mafters of the keys; the
little council confifts of 24 members, comprehending
the mayor, who is prefident. Thefe two councils af-
ftmble regularly every month. The ecclefiafties like- v
wife aflemble every month, to confult on affairs be¬
longing to the church, and to fill up the places of
minifteis that die. They choofe a dean every year,
who is prefident of the general afitmblies, which are
called clajfes ; and fometimes he is confirmed in this
dignity. E. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 47. 5.
Neuchattel, a fovereign county of Swifter-
land, bounded on the weft by the Franche Comte,
on the north by the bifhopric of Bafle, and on the
eaft and fouth by the cantons of Berne and Friburg.
This principality of Neuchattel and Vallengin ex-_
tend from the lake of Neuchattel to the borders of.
Franche Comte, being in length about 12 leagues,
and fix in breadth. The plain with the lower part
of the mountains is occupied by the diilridft of Neu¬
chattel, but Vallengin is totally inclofed by Jura.'
Parallel chains of thefe mountains run from eaft to.
weft, forming feveral valleys in the moft elevated
parts. The lower groun.ls of this chain confift of
arable lands and vineyards ; the higher of large tracks
of foreft, which in many parts have been cleared and
converted into pafture-grounds, intermixed with fields*
of barley and oats. The inhabitants are numerous,
and remarkable for their genius, politenefs, and active
induftry. It contains three cities, one town, 90 vil¬
lages, and about 300 houfes difperfed in the moun¬
tains. The inhabitants are all Proteftants, except'
two Roman Catholic villages; and in 1529 they en*
tered
N E U [
ifeuchatteJ. teted into a flrlcl alliance with the Cantons of Berne,
Friburg, Soleure, and Lucern. The air is healthy
and temperate, but the foil not every where equally
fertile : however, there are large vineyards, which
produce white and red wine, which lait is excellent.
The paltures on the mountains feed a great number
of all forts of cattle ; and there are plenty of deer in
the forefts; befidcs large trouts, and other good iifh,
in the lakes and rivers. The mildnefs of the govern¬
ment, and agreeable fituation of the inhabitants in
general in thefe diftri&s, is evident from the great
increafe of population in the fpace of 3 2 years. In
1752 they contained only 28,017 fubjects and 4318
aliens ; but in 1784 the number was augmented to
31,576 fubjedls and 9704 aliens; being an increafe
of near a fourth part in that time. The facility with
which the buigerfhip of Neuchattel is acquired, may
alfo be accounted one of the means of augmenting its
population; for between the years 1760 and 1770,
the magiftrates admitted 41 perfons to this privilege ;
from 1770 to 1780, 46; from 1780 to 1785, 51; in
all 138; many of whom had children before they
purchafed their burgherfhip, and 38 of them were
foreigners, either German, French, or Dutch.
The dillri&s of Neuchattel and Valltngin now make
part of the Pruflian dominions. It had its own counts
for a long time; the lait of whom dying in 1694
without iflue, it came to Mary of Orleans duchefs
of Nemours, his only fitter, who alfo died without
iffue in 1703. There were then 13 competitors, among
whom was Frederick I. king of Prufiia, who claimed
as heir to the prince of Orange. His right was ac¬
knowledged by the ftates of the country in j 707 ;
but in this part of his dominions the Pruffian monarch
is far from having fuch an abfolute authority as in
others. On the accefilon of Frederic I. fome gene¬
ral articles were agreed on, by which the prerogatives
of the prince and the rights of the people were fettled.
Difputes, however, occurred betwixt the king and
his fubjedts, which were not thoroughly fettled till
the year 1768, when the general articles were not
only renewed, but explained wherever their tenor had
been miftaken, confirming alfo feveral privileges in fa¬
vour of the people which had hitherto been equivo¬
cal or not duly obferved. The moll: important of
thefe general articles were, 1. The elfabliihment of
the reformed religion, and the toleration of no other,
except in two places where it was already prevalent.
3. No civil or military office to be pofleffed by fo¬
reigners, that of governor only excepted. 3. All
fubje&s have a right to enter into the fervice of a fo¬
reign prince not adfually at war with the king as fo-
vereign of Neuchattel; the Hate may alfo continue
neuter when the king is engaged in wars which do
not concern the Helvetic body. 4. Tire proper ad-
miniflration of juftice ; for which the three eftates
of Neuchattel and Vallengin fh&ll be annually affembled
5 magiftrates to hold their places during good’
behaviour ;,$but of this certain perfons appointed at
Neuchattel, and not the king, are to judge. 6. The
foyereign, on his aceeffion, {hall take an oath to main¬
tain the rights, liberties, and cuitoms of the people,
written and unwritten.
This lait article is no lefs important than it is An¬
gular ; for upon tut unwritten cuftom one of their
19 ] N E U
moft efiential privileges depends ; viz. that the fove- Neuthatteh
reign fltall be confidered only as refident at Neuchattel. —v-—'
Now (fays Mr Coxe), this privilege, in conjunc¬
tion, w-ith the third article juft cited, forms the bafts
of their civil liberty. By the former, the prince,
when abfent, can only addrefs his fubje&s through ^
his governor and the council of ftate ; and no fubjeft
can be tried out of the country, or otherwife than by
judges appointed by the conftitution : by the latter,
fhould the king of Prufiia be at war with all Ger¬
many, the people of Neuchattel and Vallengin are by
no means obliged to arm in his defence ; but indivi¬
duals may even ferve againft him, as long as the
powers whom they ferve are not engaged in any hoftili-
ties againft their own country.1' A remarkable inftance
of this laft our author gives in the following anecdote.
“ When Henry duke of Longueville, and fovereign
of Neuchattel was, in 1650, fent to the caftle of Vin¬
cennes, Felix de Mareval, captain of the Svvifs guards,
kept guard in his turn, though he was citizen of Neu¬
chattel, at the door of the prifon where his fovereign
was confined.”
The king confers nobility, names the principal of¬
ficers of ftate, appoints the prefidents of the courts of
juftice called chalelins and mayors; but his revenues
fcarcely amount to JL..5000 a-year. They arife from
certain demefnes; from a fmall land-tax, the tythes
of wine and corn, and a tenth part of the value of all
immoveables. No fubjedt pays any duty upon goods
either exported or imported, except for foreign wines
brought into the town itfeif.
Neuchattel enjoys very coniiderable privileges, has
the care of the police within its own diftridf, and is
governed by its own magiftracy confifting of a great
and little council. The three eftates of the country
form the fupreme tribunal, and receive appeals from
the inferior court of juftice. They confift of 1 2 judges
divided into three eftates : the judges in the firft and
fecond divifion hold their places for life ; but thofe in
the third are chofen annually. The eftates ufually
meet once a-year in the month of May, but are con¬
voked extraordinarily upon particular occafions, and
the town of Neuchatel is always the place of meeting.
Ihey are not, however, the reprefentatives of the
people, nor do they polfefs any legiflative authority.
Properly fpeaking, they are the fupreme court of ju¬
dicature, which receives all appeals, and decides finally
upon all caufes, even thofe which relate to the fo-
vereignty of the country, of which we have an ex-*
ample in the revolution of 1 707. The ordinary ad-
miniftration of government is veiled in the council of
ftate, which fuperintends the general police, and is
the medium by which the fovereign exercifes his jurif-
didion. The members are nominated by the king,
and are not reftriaed to any number, but he is always
confidered as pcrfonally prefiding in the afiembly; and
the prefident has no other powers than thofe of con¬
voking the aflembly, propofing the fubjeas of con-
fideration, colkaing the votes, and deciding when
the voices are equal. 1 he ordinances of this council
are previoufly communicated to the minijlraux of Neu¬
chattel, who mult certify that they contain nothing
contrary to law. The miniftraux are a kind of com¬
mittee fiom the council of the town, and are entruft-
ed with the adminiftration of the police. They con-
C l fift
N. E U r 20 ]
Keuchattel. fift of tKe two prefidents of that council, four matter- in the country.
' buro-hers taken from the little council, and the Lavne-
ret or guardian of the liberties of the people. #rl he
formerYix are changed every two years ; anri the ban¬
neret is chofen by the general attembly of the citi¬
zens, and continues in office during fix years.
When the caufes are decided in the month of May
by the three eftates, the four judges, who form the third
eftate, retire, and their place is fupplied by the four
miniftraux. The attorney-general then defires the
members of the three eftates to take into conlidera-
tion whether it is neceflary to frame any new laws.
If a new ordinance is propofed, a declaration is drawn
op and delivered to the council of ftate for their de¬
liberation, whether it be contrary to the prerogatives
of the prince or the rights of the fubjeft; from thence
it is communicated to the council of the town in or^
der to be examined, whether it infringes the privi¬
leges of the citizens. If adopted by the council of
ftate and the council of the town, it is propofed to
the prince for his approbation or rejedion : in the
former cafe it is again publicly read before the three
eftates, and the governor or prefident declares the
approbation of the fovereign. It is then promul¬
gated, or patted into a law by the three eftates. 1 he
people of Vallengin have always been confulted upon
the framing a new law ftnce the acceffion of the
houfe of Brandenburg. For this purpofe the three
matter-burghers of Valiengin examine, whether it con¬
tains any thing inconfilient with the franchifes of that
diftrid ; in which cafe they have the power of remon-
ftrating to the govemor in council. Every year, at
the conclufion of the alTembly of the eftates of Neu-
chattel, thofe of Vallengin, as conftituting the fupreme
court of judicature for that country, meet at Vallen¬
gin, and deride finally all appeals from the inferior
courts of juftice. Both principalities are divided into
a certain number of diftrids, each of which has its
criminal court of juftice. Every criminal is brought
to trial immediately after he is arretted, and fentence
is read to him in prifon. Next morning he appears
again before the judges, afiembled in the open air \
the former proceedings on the trial are read, and the
judges once more deliver their opinion. In capital
fentences the governor is immediately made acquaint¬
ed with the circumftances of the cafe; and if he does
not mitigate the ientence. it is put in execution with¬
out delay. Torture, though feldom ufed, is not en¬
tirely aboliHied in thefe diftrids. Great circumfpec-
tion, however, is made ufe of in judicial proceedings,
“ which (fays Mr Coxe; may fometimes favour the
efcape of the criminal ; but the few inftances of atro¬
cious crimes prove that this humane cautidn is no en¬
couragement to tranfgreffions, and is a ftrong pre¬
emption of the general good morals which prevail
among the people. In a word, perfonal liberty is al-
m{>ft as tenderly and as fecurely proteded by the laws
of this country as by thofe of our own invaluable con-
ftitution. Thus the liberties of the people are as well
and perhaps better fecured, than even in the demoerati-
cal cantons ; for although the moft defpotic prince in
Germany is fovereign, his power is exceedingly li¬
mited. Among the ftriking circumftances which cha-
raderife this government, muft be mentioned the very
liberal encouragement given to ftrangers who fettle
N E U
They enjoy every privilege of trade Neufchat.
and commerce ; and in no ftate are fewer eflential di-
ftindions made between ftrangers and natives.”
NEUFCH ATTEAU, a town of France, in Lor-
rain, and capital of the chateilenie of Chatenoi. It is
an handfome, populous, trading town ; having an
abbey of the nuns of St Clair, a commandery of Malta,
and feveral convents of monks and nuns. It is feated
in a bottom, in a foil fertile in corn, wine, and all the
neceftaries of life, on the river Mouzon. E. Long..
5. 45 N. Lat 48. 20.
NEVIS, one of the Caribbee iflands, lying about
feven leagues north of Montferrat, and feparated from
St Chriftopher’s by a narrow channel It makes a
beautiful appearance from the fea, being a large coni¬
cal mountain covered with fine trees, of an eafyafeent
on every fide, and entirely cultivated. The circumfe¬
rence is about 21 miles, with a confiderable trad of
level ground dl around. The climate in the lower __
part is reckoned to be warmer than BarbaJoes, but it
is more temperate towards the fummit. The foil is
very fine in the lower part, but grows coarfer as we
afeen l. The produdions are nearly the fame with
thofe of St Chriftopher. There are three pretty good
roads or bays, with fmall towns in their vicinity ;
Charles-town, Moreton-Bay, and Newcastle This
pleafant iftand was fettled under the aufpices of Sir
Thomas Warner from St Chriftopher’s. His fuccef-
for, Governor Lake, was conlidered as the Solon of
this little country, in which he difpofed of every thing
with fuch prudence, wifdom, and juftice, as procured
him an high reputation wich the French as well as
Englilh. In the Dutch war they met with fome di-
fturbance from the French ; but by being covered by
an Englifh fquadron, the enemy were obliged to defiii
from their intended invalion, after a fmart engage¬
ment in fight of the ifland. Sir William Stapleton
fometimes refided here, and Sir Nathaniel Johnfon
conftantly, at which time the inhabitants of Nevis
were computed at 30,000. In the war immediately
after the revolution, they exerted themfelves gallantly,
and had two regiments of 300 men each. In that of
Queen Anne they behaved equally well, though they
were lefs fortunate ; for the French landing with a
fuperior force, and having inveigled moll of their
flaves, they were forced to capitulate. A bout 4000
of thefe fiaves the French carried away and fold to
the Spaniards, to work in their mines. The parlia¬
ment, after making due inquiry into the Ioffes they
had fuftained. voted them about a third part of the
fum in which they had fuffered. 1 hefe Ioffes by war,
an epidemic difeafe, and repeated humcanes, exceed¬
ingly diminifhed the number of the people. They are
now thought not to exceed 2000 or 3000 whites, and
6000 blacks. There is here a lieutenant-governor,
with a council, and an affembly, which is compofed
of three members from each of the five parilhes into
which the ifland is divided. The commodities are
cotton and fugar; and about 20 fail of (hips are an¬
nually employed in this trade.
NEUR ADA, in botany: A genus of the decagy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants j
and in the natural method ranking under the 13th or¬
der, Succulent#. The calyx is quinquepartite ; there are
five petals; the capfuie inferior, decemlocular, decafper-
6 mo us,
N E U [2
' JJeurit'rs mous, and acxileated There is only one fpeeies,
f! the Procumbent. The whole pl .nt ia white and woolly :
^Ntutc-r. .t numerous ftalks in every di.eftion, which
lit flat on the ground : the leaves (land on fhort foot-
flalks ; they are of an oval fhape, and plaited likethofe
of the ladies mantle. It is a native of the warm climates,
and found on dry parched'grounds.
NEUR1T1CS, in pharmacy, medicines ufeful in
diforders of the nerves
NEUROGRAPHY, fl unifies a defeription of the
nerves. See Anatomy, n0 136.
' NEUROPTERA. Set Zoology
NEQ TER, a pex-fon indifferent, v\Tho has efpoufed
neither p '.rty, and is neither friend nor foe.
A judge ought to be neuter in the caufes he
judges ; in queftions, where reafon appears neuter, a
man fliould ever incline to the fide of the unhappy.
NeuTf r, in grammar, denotes a fort of gender of
nouns, which are neither mafeuline nor feminine. See
Gender.
The Latins have three kinds of genders, mafeuline,
feminine, and neuter In Englifh, and other modern
tongues, there is no fuch thing as neuter nouns. See
Noun.
Verbs-Newtv.r, by feme grammarians called intran¬
et he verbs, are thofe which govern nothing, and that
are neither adlive nor pofitive See Verb.
When the adlion exprefled by the verb has no ob-
je£t to fall upon, but the verb alone fupplies the
whole idea of the a&ion ; the verb is faid to be neu¬
ter : as, I fleep, thou yawrieft, he fneezes, we walk,
ye run, they ftand ftill.
Some divide verbs neuter into, 1. Such as do
not fignify any adion, but a quality ; as a/bet, “ it is
white;” or a fituatien, as Jedet, “ he fitsor have
fome relation to place ; as adejl, “ he is prefentor
to fome other ftate or attribute, as regnat, ‘ he rules,”
&c. And. 2. Thofe that do fignify addons, though
thofe fuch as do not pafs into any fubjed different from
the ador, as to dine, to fup, to play, &c.
But this latter kind fometimes ceafe to be neuter,
and commence adive ; efpecially in Greek and Latin,
when a fubjed is given them : as, vhere vitam. ambu-
lare viam, pugnare pugnam. Thus the old French
poets fay, Soupirer fan tourment; the Englifh, to Jigb
his vjoes Itc.
But thiV is obferved only to obtain where fome-
thing particular is to be exprefled, not contained,
in the verb : as, vhere vitam beatam, to live a hap*
py life ; pugnare bonam pugnam, to fight a good fight,
&c.
According to the abbot de Dangeau, verbs neuter
may be divided into aShe and pajjtve; the firft, thofe
that form their tenfes in Englifh, by the auxiliary verb
to have; in French, by avoir. The fecond, thofe
that form them in Englifh with the verb to be; in
French pre.—Thus, to fleep, to yawn, dorrnir and
eternuer, are neuters abtive.—To come, and to arrive,
are neuters pafjive.
NF.vTRAL-Sa/ts, among chemifls, thofe compounded
of an acid with any other fubftance capable of uniting
•with it and deftroying its acidity. Thofe in which
the acid is faturated with an earth or a metal are call¬
ed imperfed, but thofe in which a pure alkali is em¬
ployed are called perfect, neutrals,
1 1 NEW
NEUTRALITY, the ftate of a perfon or thing Neutrality
that is neuter, or that takes part with neither fide. !l
NEW-ab-sey, fituated near Kilcullen-bridge, in the
county of Kildare, and province of Leinfter,in Ireland. roU'U:h' ,
It was founded by Rowland Euftace, of a great and an-
cient family in this county ; the tower is ftiil ftanding,
and fome part of the abbey ; the ruins of the reft have
contributed to build feveral dwellings near it. In the
infide Rowland Euitaee and his lady lie buried ; their
figures, clothed in armour, are to be feen there Near
this is a handfome feat of the Carter family, on the
oppofice fide of the river Liffey.
NEWARK, in the county of Nottingham,
isa great thoroughfare in the ffork-road, 1 24 milesfrom
London, it has bridges over the Trent, which forms
an ifland here, by dividing itfelf into two ftreams
two miles above the to n, which meet again two miles
below it A magnificent caftie was bunt here in the
reign of King Stephen, which held out ftoutiy in the
barons wars for King John, who died here, O&ober
19th 1216 ; and it ado flood out for king Charles I.
to the laid ; but after he had put himfelf into the hands
of the Scots army then before it, the governor by his
order furrendered it, after which it was demolilhed.—
it was fituated near the river; the walls of the towers
are very thick, and of a very great height; and were
there no hiitorical teftimony, thefe remains are fuffi-
cient evidence that it was formerly of great impor¬
tance In the court before thefe ruins is a very fine
bowling-green, and near it a manufadlory of facking.
The town being fubjedb to inundations from the river
I rent, and often from that circumllance made impaf-
fable, a turnpike-road, at the inftigation of a publi¬
can, was made about 20 years ago, fo high as to be
puffed with fafety in the greateft floods by arches of
brick being ma le in feveral places to carry off the wa¬
ter, conftru&ed by Mr Smeaton, at the ex pence of
E. 12,000. Near the town there is a bridge con-
ilruded for the fame purpofe, made moftly upon dry
land, confiding of nine arches. It has a neat though
finall new ffreet, and a market-place that is hapdfome,
thougn not very ipacious. Its church, which is rec¬
koned one of tne fineit in the kingdom, was built by
Henry VI. and has a lofty fpire. It was incorporated
by king Charles II. with a mayor and 12 aldermen. -
The fame king, in gratitude to the town for its loyalty
to ids father, gave it the privilege of fending members to
parliament it has a good trade in corn, cattle, wool,
&c. and has a chari y-fehool for 36 boys. Its market
is on Wednefday , fairs on the Friday before Paffion-
Bunday, May 14th, Whit-Tuefday, Auguft 12th, Nov.
iff, and Monday before December 1 ith. Here was
an abbey of Augultine friars. H free-febool was found¬
ed here, endowed with the lordfhip of Everton in this
county ; and the vicar of Newark, and the brethrui
of the ; rinity-guild for the time being, who were then
the chief governors of tins town, were made perpetual
truilees for this foundation. Many Roman urns and
other antiquities have been found about this town,
from whence it has been fuppofed that they had fome
town in the neighbourhood.
NEWBOROUGH, or Newburgh, in the Ifle of
Angle fey, North Wales, diftant from London 254
miles, though but a fmall town, fituated over againil
Caernarvon in North Wales, about 17 miles fouth-
weft
1 •»
NEW [
Ktiv.Virg weft from Beaumaris ; is governed by a mayor
11 \ 'ii*!,r o *-i>/-<xa.ii
Newcaftl?.
two
bailiffs, and a recorder. Its Welch name is Rhojfify
or Rhofvair. Its v eekly markets, which are pretty
well fnpplied with provilions, are kept on Tuefdays ;
and its annual fairs on the 22d of June, Aug. icth
and 2ift, Sept. 2jth, and Nov. nth.
NEWBURG, the name of feveral towns of Ger¬
many, two of which are the chief towns of duchies of
. the fame name; one in Bavaria, and the other in the
Palatinate..
NEWBURY, a town in the county of Berks in
England, 16 miles from Reading, and 56 from Lon¬
don, arofe on the decay of Spinham-Land. Notwith-
ftanding its name fignifies New-Borough, it is as old
almott as the Conqueft. It made fo much broad¬
cloth formerly, that in the r§ign of Henry VIII. here
flourirtied John Winfcomb, commonly called 'Jack of
Newbury, one of the greateff clothiers that ever was
in England, who kept 100 looms in his houfe ; and
in the expedition to Fiowden-field againft the Scots,
marched with 100 of his own men, all armed and
clothed at his own expence ; and he built all the well
part of the church. Alfo Mr Kenric, the fon of a
clothier here, though afterwards a merchant in Lon¬
don, left L. 4000 to the town, as well as L.7500 to
Reading, to encourage the woollen manufa&ory. It
makes a great quantity of lhalloons and druggets, but
not near fo much broad cloth now as formerly } yet it
. is a flourilhing town, with fpacious ftreets, and a large
market-place, in which is the guild-hall. The church
is a good one, of ftone, fuppofed to have been built
about 1640. It has feven fets of alms-houfes. In
the neighbourhood, on the banks of the Kennet, there
is a ftratum .of petrified wood dug out for firing, when
they frequently find trunks of large oaks yet undecay¬
ed, with petrified hazel nuts, fir-cones, &c. with the
bones and. horns of (lags, antelopes, &c. tulles of boars,
and heads of beavers. The river Kennet, which
abounds with excellent trout, eels, and cray-filh, runs
through the town ; and here is plenty of all other pro¬
vilions. It was made a corporation by Queen Eliza¬
beth, and. is governed by a mayor, high iteward, al¬
dermen, &c. -It fends a great quantity of malt to
.London, lias good inns, and has a charity-fchool for
40 boys. Its market, which is well fupplied with
corn, is on Thurfdays; and fairs on Holy-Thurfday,
July 5th, Aug. 24th, and 0&. 28th.
NEWCASTLE-Under~Linet a town in England,
in the county of Stafford, on a branch of the Trent,
is 15 miles north of Stafford, 33 fouth ibuth-eaft of
Warrington, and 149 from London ; had a caftle, now
in ruins ; and is fo called from an older cattle, which
formerly flood two miles off, at Chefterton under
Line. It was incorporated by King Henry I. and
again by Qjneen Elizabeth and King Charles II. and is
governed by a mayor, two judices, two bailiffs, and
24 common-council. T. he clothing-trade flourilhes
heie t but its chief nianttfaAory is hats, here being an
incorporated company of felt-makers. The it reels
are broad and well paved, but molt of the buildings
low and thatched. Ihe market Ison Mondays; fains
on Eatter-Monday, Whit-Monday, July 6th, .firft
Monday in September, and November 6th, for cattle.
It has alfo a great beatt-inarket every other Mon¬
day. The corporation has a court, which holds
- ] NEW
pleas for a&ions under L. 40. Its caftle, of which NewcaftPr,
there is little to be now feen, was built in the reign of v
Henry III. It had four churches formerly, which are
now reduced to one, the town having fuffered much in
the barons wars. There are frequent horfe-races in
the neighbourhood, though it is in a manner furround-
ed with coal-pits; particularly one at Hamley-Green,
It is fofter than the cannel coal, and is cut out in
dices; but confumes fo faft, that it is only fit for
forges. There is the greateft quantity of ftone-ware
made near this place of any part of England ; fo that,
one year with another, they are faid to export 20,0001.
worth of it.
NEWCASTLE, the capital of the county of
Northumberland in England, 14 miles north of Dur¬
ham, 94 north of York, 63 fouth by call of Berwick,
60 eaft of Carlifle, and 27 t from London, Hands at
the end of the Pifts wall, on the north fide of the
Tine, over which it has a ftately bridge into the bt-
thopric of Durham, in which its fuburb called Gate-
fide is fituated ; for the liberties of Newcaftle extend
no farther than -the great iron-gate upon the bridge,
which has the arms of the bithop of Durham carved
©n the eaft fide and thofe of Newcaftle on the weft
fide. It is admitted to have been a Roman'ilation,
though no evidence at prefent appears, except at Pa©-
don-gate, whofe fuperftru&ure is of different work-
manthip and model from any others of the town, the
arches being circular. The carpenter’s tower is alfo
of Roman original. In the Saxons time it was called
Moncajler, from the monks here, who all fled when it
was depopulated by the Danes ; and afterwards New
cajlle^ from a caftle built here by William the Con¬
queror’s fon, Robert, in 1080, to defend the country
againft the Scots, whofe kings had this town before
the Norman conqueft, and fometimes retided here.—•
Several monafteries and houfes were built here foon af¬
ter the caftle ; and it was greatly enlarged and enrich¬
ed by a good trade to the coafts of Germany, and by
the fale of its coal to other parts of England ; for
which, and for other merchandize, it is become the
great emporium of the north of England, it being the
neateftand largeft town in thofe parts, next to York.
In the reign of Edward 1. it was burnt by the Scots ;
but a very rich burgher who was taken prifoner, loon
ranfomed himfelf for a good fum of money, and be¬
gan the firft fortifications of the place, which he ex¬
tended from Sandgate to Pampedon, and thence to
the Auftin-friars gate ; which the townfmen finithed,
and encompaffed with ftout walls, which extended two
miles, wherein are feven gates and many turrets, with
feveral cafemeots bomb proof. To which two other
gates were added in more modern times, viz. Bridge-
gate and Sand-gate: the wall between them was af¬
terwards removed to open the quay. Edward III.
granted the corporation the duties and cuftoms of the
town for feven years, to enable them to complete the
fortification. It is a borough at leaft as ancient as
king Richard II. who granted that a fword thould be
carried before the mayor; and king Henry VI, made
it a town and county incorporate of itfelf, independ¬
ent of Northumberland. Henry VII. built a mona-
ftery -here for the Francifcans. Befides which, it had
fe veral religious foundations, feveral of which ftrmfturea
have been converted to companies halls and private
refidences.
NEW
Ncwcaftlc. refidenccs. In the reign of Henry VIII   r 
¥ ' is faid to have exceeded in the ftrength and magnifi¬
cence of its works all the cities of England, and mod
places in Europe, The town is governed by a mayor,
12 aldermen, a recorder, iheiiff, town-clerk, a clerk of
the chambers, two coroners, eight chamberlains, a
fword-bearer, a water-bailiff, and feven ferjeants at
mace. Its fituation, efpecially the molt bufy part of
it towards the river, is very uneven, it being built on
the declivity of a fleep hill, and the houfes very clofe.
The caftle overlooks the whole town. That part built
by Robert was of great ftrength, and fquare, and fur-
rounded by two walls; the fquare was 62 feet by 54,
and the walls 13 feet thick, within which was a cha¬
pel. The outward fortifications are now defaced, and
their fite crowded with buildings. The tower re¬
mains entire, and fituated on a lofty eminence, and its
principal entrance is to the fouth. This caftle belongs
to the county, and makes no part of the liberties.—
It is now the county prifon, and in the great hall the
judges hold the alfues. Here Baliol king of Scot¬
land did homage to king Edward I. in 1 292 j as did
Edward Baliol in 1334 to king Edward III. Here
is a magnificent exchange and a cuftomhoufe; and the
fineft quay in England, except that at Yarmouth, be-
iug 700 yards long, it being far more fpacious and
longer than thofe at London or Brirtol, though not
equal to either for bufmefs. There is a hhndfome
manfion-houfe for the mayor, who is allowed L. 100a
a year for his table, befidcs a coach and barge. The
old bridge was carried away in a flood, and the pre-
ftnt was eredted about 1775, of nine noble elliptic
arches. With the old bridge 22 houfes were thrown
down, and fix lives loft. It w'as originally built of
wood ; but having been deftroyed by fire in 1248,
was rebuilt of ftone, and confifted of 12 arches, three
cf which on the north fide were clofed up, and ferved
for cellars ; this was again rebuilt about 1450, and
was crowded with wooden buildings ; but near the
middle was a tower with an iron gate, ufed as a town
prifon. A ftrong building crofied the bridge, which
was ufed as a magazine. On the fouth front was a
llatue of king Chailes II. The water which deftroy-
ed this bridge, on November 11. 1771, was upwards
of 12 feet above high-water mark in fpring-tides.—
On deflroying the ruinated peers of the old bridge to
ert& the prefent, by obfervations made, and medals
found, part of it is fuppofed to have exifted from the
time of the Romans. It is computed that above 6000
keelrnen are employed here, who have formed them-
Lives into a friendly fociety ; and, by their own con¬
tributions, built a noble hofpital containing 50 cham¬
bers, for fuch of their fraternity as are poor, difabled,
or pafl their labour ; and it is fupported bv the con¬
tribution of thofe that are in health. The town is
extremely populous ; and, notwithftanding the multi¬
tude of thofe employed in and about the coal-pits,
with which the town is in a manner furrounded, has
abundance of poor ; but it has alfo many wealthy in¬
habitants, and it is faid they pay above L. 4000
a-year to their relief. It is obferved, that this town
has the greateft public revenue in its own right as a
corporation, of any town in England, it being com¬
puted at no lefs than L. Scoo a year. In 1774 the
receipts, of the corporation were L. 20,36c : 9:8;.
r 23 1 . NEW
this place and their difburfements about L. 19,445. The number NeweafUe.
of inhabitants far exceeds 30,000. Here are four
churches or chapels That of St Nicholas is the mo¬
ther-church, a curious fabric, built cathedral-wife by-
David king of Scots, 240 feet long, 75 broad, and
proportionably high, with a tower fteeple 194 feet in-
height, of Gothic architecture ; alfo St Andrew’s, St
John’s, and All-Saints, lately rebuilt on the fite of the.
old flructure, of a circular form. Here are alfo feve-
ral meeting-houfes, and four charity-fchools for 300^
children ; a fine hall for the furgeons, and a large pri-
fon called Newgate ; alfo an hofpitai for lunatics, ano¬
ther for the lying-in of married women, as well as a
fund raifed for the relief of thofe who are delivered at
their own houfes. Here is a well-endowed and large
infirmary, and an affembly-room that attracts atten¬
tion, containing every ufeful apartment, and a ball¬
room 93 feet by 4c : The front is ornamented with
fix Ionic pillars, &c. In another part of the town is
a new theatre. Here is a very neat fet of baths,
A free grammar-fchool was granted by James I. from
an old foundation of St Mary’s hofpital, in the veftry-
room of whofe chapel is the election of the officers of
the corporation.. There were formerly feveral pa¬
laces in this city, viz. Pampedon-hall, Lumley place,
Earl’s place, Northumberland-houfe, Weftmoreland-
place, &c. The free-mafons have lately erected an ,
elegant hall, richly ornamented, to hold their, lodge
in, near Hiigh-fuar chair, capable of holding above
4000 of that ancient fraternity. Here is an hofpital .
for 39 decayed freemen and their widows ; .and ano¬
ther for thiee clergymen’s widows and three mer¬
chants widows. The Maiden’s-hofpital, built in.-’
1753, is endowed with L. 2400, for fix maiden wo¬
men and fix poor men. Dr Thomlin, a prebendary
of St Paul’s, and rector of Whicham in the bifhopric of
Durham, lately gave a library of above 6000 valuable
books to the corporation, and fettled a rent-charge of
L. 5 a year for ever for buying new ones ; and Wal¬
ter Blacket, Efq; one of its reprefentatives in parlia¬
ment, built a neat repofitory for them, and fettled
L. 25 a-) ear for ever on a librarian. The upper or
north part of the town, inhabited by the politer fort
of people, is much pleafanter than that part next the
river, and has three level, well-built, and fpacioua
ftreets. The river all the way up from Shields to
New caftle is broad, the channel fafe, and the tide
flows with a ftrong current to the town, and far be¬
yond it. In the beginning of the late civil wars, this
town was taken and plundered by theScotcbfanatics,w\\o
here fold their king, Charles I. for L. 200,000 in hand,
and fecurity for as much more.. The glafs-works are.,,
very curious, and have more bufinefs of the fine fort
than meft other places. Befides, it has a confiderable -
manufadtuie of broad and narrow cloths, and feveral
loap-boilenes ; and this place is famous for grindftones,
for which ihere is fuch a demand, that fearee a fhip
ftirs without them; from whence came the proverb,
“ I hat a Scotfman and a Ntwcaftle grmdftone travel .
all the world over.” Ships fit for the coal trade are
built here.to perfe&itm, with great ftrength. Here
is a confiderable manufactory of hard-ware and.
wrought-iron, after the manner of that at Sheffield.—
Its markets are on Tuefdays and Saturdays. Its fairs*
in Auguft, which iaft nine days, and October 29th,,
5 which-1
$
NEW [ 24 1 NEW
Newcaftle. vvli!cK laft nine days. By an ail of Queen Mary, the
v price of the carriage of goods hither from London
hy waggons was fettled at 2d. per lb. London alone
is faid to confume at lead; 766,887 chaldrons of its
coal every year i hut as for the fifh vended in that
city by the name of i'seivcajlle falmon, it is more pro
perly called Berwick fcibnon, the frtfh falmon being
taken near 50 miles farther, as far as the I .weed, and is
brought on the backs of horfes to Shields, where it
is cuied, pickled-, and fent on board for London. It
is worth remembering, that at the affixes here in I743>
two old men were fubpoenaed hither as witneffes from
a neighbouring village, viz. one ’ 37 years of age, and
his fon 05, both hearty, and having their fight and
. hearing ; and that in 1744, one Adam 1 urnbtill died
in this town aged 112, who had had four wives, the
laft of whom he had married when he was near 100
years old.
The annual affionnt of the revenue of cuftoms at
this port, which Mr Brand in his hiftory of New-
caftle Hates at 41,000!. is now very confiderably up¬
wards of 70,000 1.
The coals carried out of it annually (on an ave¬
rage from 1785 to 1791) were nearly 448.000 New-
callle chaldrons ; the weight of which is 1,187,200
tons.
The manufacture of earthen-ware is greatly in-
creafed, and carried on to great perfection in its neigh¬
bourhood, in feven potteries ; and their produce ex¬
ported hence to foreign parts, as well as to the diffe¬
rent ports of this kingdom ; fome of which potteries
conftantly employ upwards of 100 perfons, men, wo¬
men and children.
New works of confiderable extent for the manu¬
facture of iron have been eftablifhed; as alfo a very
capital manufactory for white lead, milled lead, &c.
The trade with the Well India tflands is inerea-
fing, and may in time become very confiderable ; as
the port has great advantages, in being able to fupply
on the cheapeft terms many articles wanted in thofe
illands ; fuch as coals, grindftones, lime, bricks, tiles,
iron-wares, &c ; and is moll advantageoufiy fituated
for the re exportation of the Weft India produce to
the ports on the Baltic, to Germany, the United Pro¬
vinces, Flanders, and part of France ; and moreover,
the rifle of navigation, and the rate of infurance, not
being greater than between thofe iflands and Liver¬
pool, and fome other ports on the weftern coaft of this
kingdom.
The town of Newcaftle is daily increafing in its
population and opulence ; and it would be well if it
could not be added, in luxury, the almoft neceffary
confequence of riches : but it fhould not be omitted,
that it is noted for hofpitality and good living.
Great improvements have been made in the town,
by opening new ftreets, and paving the principal ones,
in the fame manner as in London. It cannot be faid
that it is well lighted, the few lamps fcattered here
and there ferving but to make darknefs vifible ; nor
have the orders repeatedly given by the magiftrates
for cleaning the ftreets been attended with the fullde-
fired effed.
1 o the lift of public edtfices of modern ereClion,
and mentioned abovej viz. the grand aflembly rooms,
and the elegant theatre, which were built by fubferiu-
N° 241, ^
tion, and the fuperb parifh-church of All Saints, Niwcaftle
built at a very great expence by the pariffiioners, may ^
be added a commodious riding-houfe, built alfo by
fubfeription.
Newcastle, a borough town of Ireland, in the
county of Dublin, and province of Leinfter, which
returns two members to parliament, and holds two
fairs, gth of May and 8th of OClober.
Newcastle is alfo the name of a handfome town
in the county of Limerick and province of Munfter,
on the high road to Kerry, 114 miles from Dublin.
Here was a religious houfe poffeffed by the knights
templars. It is faid, they ufed fome barbarous cuftoms
which greatly difgufted the Irifti, who, watching a fa¬
vourable opportunity, attacked a number of the
knights riding out together and put them to death ;
the place is ftill remembered where their remains were
interred This order was fuppreffed in the famous
council of Vienna, 2 2d of March 1312. Newcaftle
confifts of a large fquare where markets and fairs are
held ; on the northern fide Hands a market-houfe, with
an affembly^room; on the fouth fide is the church,
which is. the neateft in the county, and it was finifhed
in 1777 at the foie expence of Lord Courtenay. It
Hands clofe to the walls and fortifications of the knights
templars, of which one of the caftles is fitted up for
Lord Courtenay’s agent.
Newcastle, a fmall town in America, 35 miles
below Philadelphia, on the weft bank of Delaware ri¬
ver. It was firft fettled by the Swedes about the year
1627, and called Stockholm. It was afterwards taken
by the Dutch, and called New Amjlerdam. When it
fell into the hands of the Englifh, it was called by its
prefent name. It contains about 60 houfes, which
have the afpedl of decay, and was formerly the feat of
government This is the firft town that was fettled on
Delaware river.
Newcastle (Duke of). See Cavendish.
New England. See England ( New. )
Npar-Forejl of Hampfhire in England, is a tradl of
at leall 40 miles in compafs, which had aiany populous
towns and villages, and 36 mother-churches, till it
was deftroyed and turned into a foreft by William the
Conqueror. There are nine walks in it; and to every
one a keeper, under a lord-warden, befides two ran¬
gers, and a bow-bearer. As this large traft lay many
ages open and expofed to invafions from foreigners.
King Henry VIII. built fome caftles in it; and it has
now feveral pretty towns and villages. It is fituated
in that part of Hampfhire which is bounded on the
eaft by Southampton river, and on the fouth by the
Britifh Channel. It poflefles advantages of fituation,
with refpedl to the convenience of water-carriage and
nearnefs to the dock-yards, fuperior to every other
foreft, having in its neighbourhood feveral ports and
places of fhelter for (hipping timber, among which
Lymington is at the diftance of only two miles, Bew-
ley about half a mile, and Redbridge three or four
miles from the Foreft ; and the navigation to Portf-
mouth, the molt confiderable dock yard in this king¬
dom, is only about 30 miles from the neareft of thofe
places. This is the only foreil belonging to the
crown of which the origin is known. Domefday-
book contains the moft diftinbl account of its affore-
ftation by William the Conqueror; the contents of
every
NEW [ '25
New Fo* every field, farm, or eltate afforefted, in Kides, caru-
rt^' cates, or virgates, by which the extent of land was
then computed, together with the names of the hun¬
dreds and villages, and of the former proprietors
(which are for the moft part Saxon), the rent or yearly-
value of each polfefiion, and the tax which had been
paid for it to the crown during the reign of Edward
the Confeffor, before the inhabitants were expelled,
and that part of the country laid wafte, are all to be
found in that moil curious and venerable record.
Wifhing to difeover the original extent of the foreft,
we extrafted, for onr own information, all that relates
to it hi that ancieiTt f'urvey. The extrad is far too
voluminous for infertion. The names of many of
the places having been changed fince that time, it is
difficult to afeertain with precifion what were then the
limits of the foreil. The oldeft perambulation we have
met with is among the Pleas of the Foreft, in the
eighth year of King Edward I. preferved in the
Chapter-houfe at Weilrainfter. The boundaries there
deferibed include all the country from Southamp¬
ton river on the call to the Avon on the weft, follow¬
ing the fea-coaft as far as the fouthern boundary be¬
tween thofe rivers, and extending northwards as far as
North Chadeford, or North Charford, on the weft,
and to Wade and Orebrugg, or Owerbridge, on the
eaft; and the greateft part, if not the whole, of that ex-
tenfive diftii£t, is mentioned in Domefday-book to be
the foreft belonging to the crown. Another perambula¬
tion was however made in the 29th of the fame king,
which leaves out a great part of the country contain¬
ed within the former. This perambulation, which
Is preferved in the tower of London, confines the foreft
to limits which, as far as we can trace them, appear to
have been followed in the 2ad year of Charles II.
when the foieft was again perambulated. By the
Charta cle Forejla, all lands not belonging to the crown
which had been afforefted by Elenry <1, Richard I.
or King John, were to be difafforefted; but as no
provifion was made for the reduction of the more an-
^ cient alforeftations, it is eafy to account for the great
diminution of this foreft in the reign of Edward I.
who was not a prince likely to fubmit to any encroach¬
ment on his rights. The perambulation of the 2 2d
of Charles II. is the lait which we find on record : it
contains the prefent legal bounds of the forelt, and
was given to the furveyors as their guide, in taking the
plan which they have made lately by direction. From
that plan, with the approbation of the lords commif-
fioners of his majefty’stieafury$an engraving was made.
According to the lait mentioned perambulation and the
plan, the foreft extends from Godftiill on the north-
. weft to the fea on the fouth-eaft, about 20 miles ; and
from Hardley on the call to Ringwood on the weft,
about 15 miles; and contains within thofe limits
about 92,365 acres ftatute meafure. The whole of
that quantity, however, is not foreft-land, or now the
property of the crown : there are feveral manors and
other coniiderable freehold eftates wu’thin the perambu¬
lation, belonging to individuals, to the amount of about
24>797 ac,cs 5 about 625 acres are copyhold or cullo-
mary lands belonging to his majefty’s manor of Lynd-
jiuift; about 1003. acres are leafe-hold under the
crown, granted for certain terms of years, and formintr
Vol. XIII. Part I. • 6
] N E \V
part of the demifed land-revenue, under the manage- New Hoi*
ment of the furvtyor-general of crown lands; about End
901 acres are purpreftures or encroachments on the H
foreft ; about 1 193 acres more are isclofed lands held Ne1^uni*~
by the mafter-keepers and groom-keepers, with their ^
refpedlive lodges; and the remainder, being about
63,845 acres, are woods and wafte lands of the foreft.
To perpetuate the fpot where William Rufus was
killed by the glance of an arrow fhot at a flag, a tri¬
angular ftone was eredled in 1745. George III. vi-
fited this fpot in 1789. In Auguft 1782, a curious
ancient golden crofs was found here by a labouring
man digging turf. It weighed above an ounce of
gold, and had on one fide an engraving of our Saviour,
and on the other, the ladder, fpear, nails, and other
emblems of his fufferings.
New.Holland. See Holland (New.)
Ntw-York. See Yoke (New).
N Etr-Zealand. Sea Zealand (New.)
New Years-Gifts. Prefents made on the firft day
of the new year. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin
of this cuitom among the Romans to Tatius king of
the Sabines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with
Romulus, and who having coniidered as a good omen
a prefent of fome branches cut in a wood confecrated
to Strenia, the goddefs of ftrength, which he received
on the fir 11 day of the new year, authorifed this cu-
llom afterwards, and gave to thefe perfons the name
oijlrena. However this may be, the Romans on that
day celebrated a feftival in honour of Janus, and paid
their refpecls at the fame time to Juno ; but they did
not pafs it in idlenefs, left they fhould become indo¬
lent during the reft of the year. They fent prefenta
to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to fhow their
friends that they wiftied for a happy and agreeable
life. Clients, that is to fay, thofe who were under
the prote&ion of the great, carried prefents of this
kind to their patrons, adding to them a fmall piece of
filver. Under Auguftus, the ferfate, the knights, and
the people, prefented fuch gifts to him, and in his
abfence depofited them in the capitol. Of the
fucceeding princes iome adopted this cuftom and
others abolilhed it; but it always continued among
the people. The early Chriftians condemned it, be-
caule it appeared to be a relique ©f Paganifm and a
fpecies of fuperftition ; but when it began to have no
other obje& than that of being a mark of veneration
and efteem, the church ceafed to difapprove of it.
NEWEL, in architedture, is the upright poft
which a pair of winding flairs turn about; this is
properly a cylinder of ftone, which bears on the
ground, and is formed by the end of the fteps of the
winding flairs.
NEWFIDLER- sea, a lake in Hungary, 17 miles
in length and 6 in breadth.
NEWFOUNDLAND, a large ifland of North
America, belonging to Great Britain, lying between
46 50. and 51. 30. N. Eat. and between 53. 30.
and 58. 20. W. Long, from London. The form is
that of an irregular triangle, the bafe or fouth fide be¬
ing 80 leagues in extent; the call fide is the longeil;
and the whole circumference about 150 leagues. It
is bounded on the north by the Straits of Beileifie,
which feparate it from Labrador; on the eafl and
D Rmth
w
r
N E
Newfound-fouth it hath the Atlantic Ocean, and on the weft
larid- the Gulph of St Laurence. The climate 19 rather
  *   fevere; and the foil, at leaft on the fea-coaft, wh1Ch
is all that we know of it, is poor and banen. A
few kitchen vegetables with ftrawbernes and ralpber-
ries are all its produce. The country within land
is mountainous, and abounds with timbei ; there are
feveral rivers which are plentifully ftored with various
forts of fdh, abundance of deep bays, and many good
ports. St John’s and Placentia are the two principal
fettlements, and at each of thefe there is a fort ; the
number of people who remain here in the winter hath
been computed at 4000. Ihe French, by^the tieaty
of Utrecht, were permitted to fifh from Cape Bona-
vifta on the eaft fide round the north of the ifland to
Point Rich on the weft; and by the treaty of Paris,
they are allowed the ifles of St Pierre and Miquelon,
upon which they are to dry their fi(h, but not to cred
fortifications of any kind. _ .
The great importance of this place anfes from its
fifhery, which is 111 part carried on by the inhabitants
at the feveral harbouis, which are about 20 in number,
who take vaft quantities of cod near the coaft, which
they bring in and cure at their leifure, in order to
have it ready for the (hips when they arrive. But the
great and extenhve fifticry is on the banks at fome di-
ftance from the ifland. The great bank lies 20 leagues
from the neareft point of land from the latitude 410
to 490, ftretchtng 300 miles in length and 7 5 in breadth.
To'the eaft of this lies the Falfe Bank; the next is
ftyled Vert or ihe Green Bank, about 240 miles long,
and 120 over; then Banquero, about the fame fize ;
the fhoals of Sand Ifland, Whale Bank, and the Bank of
St Peter’s, with feveral others of lefs note, all abound¬
ing with fifh.
The cod are caught only by a hook ; and an expert
fifher will take from 15® to 300 and upwards in a day;
for the lifli never bite in the night, and the labour is
very great. The feafon is from May to O&ober, in
the height of which there are from 500 to 700 fail up¬
on the banks at a time. The fifh caught in the fpring-
months are beft; they are cured in very different ways.
Some are ftyled white fijh, others mud fijh, which are
flowed and falted in the hold, and will not keep long ;
but the beft and moft valuable are the dried cod. The
quantity taken is prodigious ; yet in fome feafons and
in different places varies confidcrably, as the fifh fre¬
quently change their ftations. The jijhing-foips, as
they are called, lie upon the banks, with the help of
their boats take and cure their own ffh, and as foon as
they are full fail for a market. The fack-fhips proceed
dire&ly to the ifland, where they purchafe fifh from
the inhabitants either by barter or bills of exchange.
The principal markets for cod are Spain, Portugal,
Italy, and the Weft Indies. The value of this fifhery
is computed at fome hundred thoufand pounds annual¬
ly ; employing, befides feveral hundred fhips, fome
thoufands of feamen, and affording a maintenance to a
number of tradefmen of different occupations, by which
many large towps on the weft fide of England accu¬
mulate much wealth, and at the fame time contribute
in many refpedf s to the benefit of the public.
The great utility of this fifhery was very early
feen, and very vigoroufiy purfued ; for in the begin¬
ning of the reign of king James 1. -we had two bun-
26 1 NEW
dred and fifty fail employed therein. It is computed, Newfound,
that three quintals of wet fifh make one quintal of la“d- t
dried cod. Befides, the livers of every hundred quin- ■’Y-—'
tals make a hogfhead of oil; and exclufive of thefe,
there are many leffer advantages that go in diminution
of the expence. The fifhery, as we have faid above,
produces differently in different feafons; but it is judged
to be a very good one when it produces 300,000 quin¬
tals of fifh and 3000 barrels of oil, both equally fale-
able and valuable commodities. As every fhip carries
twelve, and each of their boats eight men, and as thefe
return home in fix months, there cannot be a more
noble nurfery for feamen. The artificers and traders
employed in building, vi&ualling, and repairing thefe
veffels, are very numerous in the refpe&ive ports from
which they fail. Thefe circumftances juftify the par¬
ticular attention paid by government to this branch of
the public fervice ; in refpeft to which, that they may
be well informed, an annual and very diftinft account,
by which the whole is feen at one view, is delivered
by the proper officer to the governor of Newfound¬
land, that is, to the commodore of his majefty’s fqua-
dron. Mr Pennant, in the appendix to his Ardlic
Zoology, gives us, from what appears to be very good
authority, the following account of this ifland.
“ Within the circuit of 60 miles of the fouthern
part, the country is hilly, but not mountainous. The
hills increafe in height as they recede from the fea ;
their courfe is irregular, not forming a chain of hills,
but rife and fall abruptly. The coafts are high, and
the fhores moft remarkably bold. The fame may be
faid of almoft every part of this vaft ifland. The
country is much wooded, and the hills (fuch which
have not flat tops to admit the rain to ftagnate on
them) are clothed with birch, with hazel, fpruce, fir,
and pine, all fmall; which is chiefly owing to the in¬
habitants taking off the bark to cover the fifh ftages.
This peninfula is fo indented by the fine and deep bays
of Placentia, St Mary, Conception, and Trinity, that
it may be eafily penetrated in all parts, which is done
for the fake of fowling, or the procuring of fpais for
mafts, oars, &c. The ifland is on all fides more or
lefs pierced with deep bays, which peninfulate it in
many places by ifthmufes moft remarkably narrow.—
The mountains on the fouth-weft fide, near the fea,
are very high, and terminate in lofty headlands Such
are Chapeau rouge, a moft remarkably high promon¬
tory, Cape St Mary’s, and Cape le Hune. Such in
general is the formation of the ifland ; on the north-
eaft, moft of the hilh is the interior part of the coun¬
try terminate pyramidally, but form no chain. The
interior parts of the country confift chiefly of moraf-
fes, or diy barren hammocks, or level land, with fre¬
quent lakes or ponds, and in fome places covered with
ftunted black fpruce. The rivers of Newfoundland
are unfit for navigation, but they are of ufe in float¬
ing down the wood with the fummer floods. Still
the rivers and the brooks are excellent guides for the
hunters of beavers and other animals, to penetrate up
the country, which as yet has never been done deeper
than 30 miles. Near the brooks it is that timber is -
commonly met with, but feldom above three or four
miles inland, and in valleys ; the hills in.the noithera
dtftrifft being naked and barren.
,l In fonae parts of Newfoundland there is timber fuf-
ficientlv
NEW f 27 ] NEW
"Newfound-fidently large, for the building ©f merchant fhips: the
knd- Js made of juniper, and the pine furnilhes mafts
and yards ; but as yet none has been found large
enough for a mart for a large cutter. The filhery is
divided into two feafons ; that on the fhore, or the
fhore feafon, commences about the 20th of April, and
ends about the loth of OiSlober ; the boats fifh in from
four to 20 fathoms water. The moft important, the
bank'fifhing feafon, begins the icth of May, and con¬
tinues till the lad of September, and carried on in 30 to
45 fathoms depth of water. Banking veffels have fail¬
ed from St John’s to the bank as early as the 12th of
April. At fil'd they ufe pork or birds for a bait ; but
as they catch fifh, they fupply themfelves with a fhell
fifh called clams, which is found in the belly of the
cod. The next bait is the lobfter ;• after that the her¬
ring and the launce, which laft till June, when the ca-
pelan comes on the coaft, and is another bait. In Au-
guft the fquid comes into ufe, and finally the herring
again. The greateft number of cod-fifh taken by a
fingle fifherman in the feafon has been 12,000, but the
average is 7000 The largeft fifh which has been ta¬
ken was four feet three inches long, and weighed 46
pounds. A banking veffel of 10,000 fifh ought to be
filled in three weeks, and fo in proportion ; and 80
quintals (112 lb. each) for a boat in the fame time.
“ In 1785,541 Englifh veflels fifhed on the bank, a
number exceeding that of the French. A heap of
dried fifh, 20 feet long and ten wide, and four deep,
contains 300 quintals Such an heap fettles, in the
courfe of 48 hours after it is made, about An ex¬
traordinary fplitter will fplit five quintals of fifh in an
hour. The average in that time is two. There is no
fifhing during winter, on account of the inclemency
of the feafon It is fuppofed that the fifh in a great
meafure quit the banks before that time, as in general
they are very fcarce when the fifhing vefl’els go upon
the banks early in the fpring.
“ There are a few firml! towns on the coafls, which
have gardens fown with Englifh pulfe ; but many of
the inhabitants quit the country in winter.
“An admiral or ibme fea officer is governor of New¬
foundland. He fails from England in May, and re¬
turns by the 30th of November.”
NEWMARKET, in Cambridgefhire, 13 miles
from Cambridge, 13 from St Edmundfbury, and 60
from London, is a town with one long ftreet, the
north fide in Suffolk, the fouth fide in Cambridge¬
fhire. It is a healthy place, and a great thorough¬
fare in the road from London to Norfolk; but Hands
moftly by the horfe-races every year in April and Oc¬
tober, here being the fineft courfe in England ; on
which there is a houfe for the king when he comes
to the races, wffiich was built by Charles II. The
king gives a plate or two every year, befides thofe
given by the nobility ; and wagers are laid upon the
horfes, which are feldom under 500 1. and often above
icool, Here are two coffeehoufes, at which, every
night and morning during the races, thc.e is gaming,
as there is alfo at the houfes of the nobility and gentry.
Here are alfo cock-matches Here is a little chapel,
which is a chapel of eafe to the mother-church at
cDifton ; and another in the Suffolk fide, which is pa-
j-odual. The town was burnt in 1683, but foon re¬
built. Here are two charity-fchools, one for 20 boys,
another for 20 girls, fupported by 501. a-year, firfl
fettled by Queen Anne. Here is a market on Tuef-
days and Thurfdays, and fairs on October 28. and
W h i t fu n-T ue fday.
NEWROSS, a borough town in the county of
Wexford, and province of Leinfler, in Ireland, 67
miles from Dublin. It returns two members to par¬
liament ; the patronage is in the families of Totten¬
ham and Leigh. This town was formerly walled, and
fome of the gates ftili remain. It lies on the river
Barrow, which is here very deep, and fhips of burden
can come up to the quay even when the tide is out.
The church is large, but the cutlom-houfe and quay
are both fmall, and fometimes overflooded many feet.
It is one of the ilaple ports for exporting wool, yet
its trade is but inconfiderable ; beef and butter are the
principal articles exported. Here is a barrack for a
troop of horfe, and a good ferry into the county of
Kilkenny. Near this town is a charter-fchool. It
is alfo a poll town, and gives title of earl to the fa¬
mily of Gore. It was formerly fortified, and adorn¬
ed with many religious houfes, am@ng which was a
crouched friary, built on the fummit of a hill in the
town ; bnt one of the friars having killed a principal
inhabitant, the whole body of the people arofe, put
the friars to death, and totally deftroyed the friary ;
on the fite of which the monaftery of St Saviour, for
conventual Francifcans, was afterwards erefted by Sir
John Devereux ; and the call end of this laft building
is now the pariih-church. A friary for Eremites, fol¬
lowing the rule of St Auguftine, was alfo founded
here in the reign of Edward III.
NEWS-papers, periodical publications, daily,
weekly, &c. for the purpofe of communicating to the
world every thing of importance, whether political or
literary, &c. which is going on. They have tended
much to the diffemination of learning, and have fer-
ved many other valuable purpofes ; and while they are
carried on with candour, impartiality, and ability,
they are unqueftionably a great national benefit. When
this, however, is not the cafe, and it often happens,
they difgrace their authors, and are highly injurious
to the public. They were firft publiftied in England,
Auguft 22. 1642. journaldes Savans, a French paper,
was rirft publiffiedin 1665, though one was printed in
England, under the title of the Public Intelligencer,
by Sir Roger L’Eftrange, 1663, which he dropped,
on the publication of the firft London Gazette Newf-
papers and pamphlets were prohibited by royal pro¬
clamation 1680. Though at the revolution prohibi¬
tions of this kind were done away, and the prefs fet
at liberty, yet newfpapers were afterwards made ob«
jefts of taxation, and for this purpofe were tirft ftamp-
ed 1713. The number of them, however, gradually
increafed; and there were printed in the whole king¬
dom during the years 1775, 12,680,000.; 1776,
12,830,000; *777> 13»I5°>642 ? 1778, 13,240,059;
1779, 14,106,842; 1780, 14,217,371; 1781,
14,397,620; 7782, 15,272,519. They are now
ftill more numerous.
NEW-style, firft ufed in England in 1753, was *n",
troduced into the weftern world by Pope Gregory
XIIL See Chronology, n« 24.
D 2
Newrofs
II
New- flyle.
NEWT.
NEW [ 28 ] N E W
NEWT, or Eft, in Zoology, the common li¬
zard. See Lace^ta.
NEWTON (Sir Ifaac), one of the greateft philofo-
phers and mathematicians the world has ever produced,
was the only child of Mr John Newton of Colefworth,
not far from Grantham in Lincolnfhire, who had an
eilate of about \2o\. per annum, which he kept in
his own hands. He was born at that place on Chrift-
mas day 1642. His father dying when he was young,
his mother’s brother, a clergyman of the name of Ay-
/cough, or AJkeiu, who lived near her, and direfted all
her affairs after the death of Mr Newton, put her fon
to fchpol at Grantham. When he had linifhed his
fchool -learning, his mother took him home, intending,
as fire had no other child, to have the plea-fure of his
company ; and that he, as his father had done, fhould
occupy his own eftate. But his uncle happening to
find him in a hay-loft at Grantham working a mathe¬
matical problem, and having otherwife obferved the
boy’s mind to be uncommonly bent upon learning, he
prevailed upon her to part with him ; and fire fent him
to Trinity College in Cambridge, where her brother,
having himfelf been a member of it, had ftill many
friends. Ifaac was foon taken notice of by Dr Ifaac
Barrow ; who, obferving his bright genius, contract¬
ed a great friendfhip for him. M. de Fontenelle
tells us, “ That in learning mathematics he did not
ftudy Euclid, who feemed to him too plain and fimple,
and unworthy of taking up his time. He underftood
him almoll: before he read him ; and a caff of his eye
upon the contents of his theorems was fufficient to
make him mailer of them. He advanced at once to
the geometry of Des Cartes, Kepler’s optics, &c. It
is certain, that he had made his great difeoveries in
geometry, and laid the foundation of his two famous
works the Princip'ia and the Optics, by the time he
was 24 years of age.”
In 1664, he took the degree of bachelor of arts; and
in 1668 that of mailer, being eleefed the year before,
fellow of his college. Tie had before this time difeo-
vered the method of fluxions ; and in 1669 he was
chofen profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of
Cambridge, upon the refignation of Dr Barrow. The
fame year, and the two following, he read a courfe of
optical le&ures in Latin, in the public fchools of the
univerlity ; an Englifh tranflation of which was print¬
ed at London in 1728, in 8vo, as was the Latin ori¬
ginal the next year in 410. From the year 167 c to
1679, he held a correfpondence by letters with Mr
Henry Oldenburg fecretary of the royal focicty, and
Mr John Collins fellow of that fociety ; which letters
contain a variety of curious obfervations.
Concerning the origin of his difeoveries, we are told,
that as he fat alone in a garden, the falling of feme apples
from a tree led him into a fpeculation on the power of
gravity ; that as this power is not diminifhed at the
remote!! diftahee from the centre of the earth to which
we can rife, it appeared to him reafonable to con¬
clude, that it muff extend much farther than was
ufually thought; and purfuing this fpeculation, by
comparing the periods of the feveral planets with their
diftances from the fun, he found, that if any power
like gravity held them in their courfes, its ftrength
mull decreafe in the duplicate proportion of the in-
creafe of diftance. This inquiry was dropped ; but re¬
fumed again, and gave rife to his writing the treatife Ne
which he publilhed in 1687, under the name of Ma-
thematical Principles of Natural Philofophy ; a work
looked upon as the produ&ion of a celeftial intelligence
rather than of a man. The very fame year in which
this great work was publilhed, the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge wa« attacked by king JamesII. whenMrNewton
was one of its molt zealous defenders, and was accord¬
ingly nominated one ol the delegates of that univerfity
to the high-commifiion court; and the next year he was
chofen one of their members for the convention-pailia-
ment, in which he fat till it was diffolved. In 1696,
Mr Montague, then chancellor of the exchequer, and
afterwards earl of Halifax, obtained for him of the.
king the office of warden of the mint ; in which em¬
ployment he was of fignal fervice, when the money
was called in to be recoined. Three years after, he
was appointed mailer of the mint ; a place of very con-
fiderable profit, which he held till his death. In 1699,
he was eledled one of the members of the r^yal aca¬
demy of fciences at Paris. In 1701, he was a fecond
time chofen member of parliament for the univerfity oi .
Cambridge. In 1704, he publilhed his Optics ; which
is a piece of philofophy fo new, that the fcience may be
conlidered as entirely indebted to our author. In 1 705,
he was knighted by queen Anne. In 1707, he pub¬
lilhed his Arithmetic a CJniver/alis. In 1711, his Ana-
lyjis per Sfucmtitatum Series, Fiuxiones et Di/erentias,
&c. was publifhed by William Jones, Efq. In 1712,
feveral letters of his were publilhed in the Commercium
Epifiolicum. In the reign of George I. he was bet¬
ter known at court than before. The princefs of
Wales, aftwerwards queen-confort of England, ufed
frequently to propofe queftious to him, and to declare
that Ihe thought herfelf happy to live at the fame time
with him, and have the pleafure and advantage of his
converfation. He had written a treatife of ancient
chronology, which he did not think of publilhing ;
but the princefs defired an abftraft, which ffie would
never part with. However, a copy of it Hole abroad,
and was carried into France ; wffiere it was tranflated
and printed, with fome obfervations, which were af¬
terwards anfwered by Sir Ifaac. But, in 1728, the
Chronology itfelf was publiflied at London in quar¬
to ; and was attacked by feveral perfons, and as zea-
loufly defended by Sir Ifaac’s friends. The main
defign of it was to find out, from fome tra&s of the
molt ancient Greek attronomy, what was the pofi-
tion of the colures with refpe& to the fixed liars,
in the time of Chiron the centaur. As it is now
known that thefe flars have a motion in longitude
of one degree in 72 years, if it is once known thro’
what fixed liars the colure paffed in Chiron’s time, by
taking the diltance of thefe flars from thofe through
which it now paffes, we might determine what num¬
ber of years is elapfed fince Chiron’s time. As Chi¬
ron was one of the Argonauts, this would fix the time
of that famous expedition, and confequently that of
the Trojan war ; the two great events upon which all
the ancient chronology depends. Sir Ifaac places them
500 years nearer the birth of Chrift than other chro-
nologers generally do.
This great man had all along enjoyed a fettled
and equal Hate of health to the age of 80, when
he began to be afflided with an incontinence of
urme.
NiWtnr*
NEW f 29 1 NEW
urine. However, for the five following years, he h?d
great intervals of cafe, which he procured by the ob-
fervance of a Uriel regimen, it was then believed
that he certainly had .the ftoae ; and when the pa-
roxyfms were fo violent, that large drops of fweat ran
down his face, he never uttered the lead complaint, or
fcxpreffed the fmalleft degree of impatience ; but, as
foon as he had a moment’s cafe, would fmile and talk
with his ufual cheerfulnefs. Till then he always read
and wrote feveral hours in a day. He had the pexfedl
ufe of all his fenfcs and underftanding till the day be¬
fore he died, which was on the 20th ofMarch 1726-7,
in the 85th year of his -age.—He lay in date in the
Jerufaiem chamber at Well minder, and on the 28th
of March his body was conveyed into Weilminder ab¬
bey ; the pall being fupported by the lord chancellor,
the dukes of Montrofe and Roxburgh, and the earls of
Pembroke, Sudcx, and Macclesfield. The bifhop of
Rocheder read .the funeral office, being attended by
all the clergy of the church. The corpfe was interred
iud at the entrance into the choir, where a noble mo¬
nument is ere&ed to his memory.
Sir li’aac was of a middling dature, and in the latter
part of his life fume what inclined to be fat. His coun¬
tenance Wc6 pkafing, and at the fame time venerable.
Pie never made ufe of fpedlacles, and loft but one
tooth during his whole life.
His temper is faid to have been fo equal and mild,
that no accident could difturb it. Of this the follow-
, ing*remarkable indance is related. Sir Ifaac had a
favourite littje dog, which he called Diamond; and
being one day called out of his dudy into the next
room,'Diamond was left behind. When Sir Ifaac re¬
turned, having been abfent but*a few minutes, he had
the mortification to find, that Diamond having thrown
down a lighted candle among fome papers, the nearly
finifhed labour of many years was in flames, and almod
confirmed to allies. This lofs, as Sir Ifaac was then
very far advanced in years, was irretrievable ; yet,
without once linking the dog, he only rebuked him
with this exclamation, “ Oh ! Diamond ! Diamond 1
thou little knoweft the mifehief thou had done !”
He was a great lover of peace ; and would rather
have chofen to remain in obfeurity than to have the
calm of life ruffled by thofe dorms and difputes which
genius and learning always draw upon thofe that are
peculiarly eminent for them. In contemplating hi^ ge¬
nius it prefently becomes a doubt, which of thefe en¬
dowments had the greated (hare, fagacity, penetration,
firength, or diligence : and, after all, the mark that
fe6ms mod to didinguilh it is, that he himfelf made
the jufted ellimation of it, declaring, that, if he had
done the world any fcrvice, it was due to nothing but
indudry and patient thought; that he kept the fub-
je& under confideration condantly before him, and
waited till the firft dawning opened gradually, by
little and little, into a full and clear light. It is faid,
that when he had any mathematical problems or fo-
lutions in his mind, he would pever quit the fubjedl
on any account. Dinner has been often three hours
ready for him before he could be brought to table : and
his man often faid, when he has been getting up in a
morning, he has fometimes begun to drefs, and with
one leg in his breeches fat down again on the bed,
where he has remained for hours before he got his
cloaths on. From his love of peace, no doubt, arofe Newton,
that unufual kind of horror which he had for all dif-
putes ; a fteady unbroken attention, free from thofe
frequent recoilings infeparably incident to others, was
his peculiar felicity ; he knew it, and he knew the value
of it. No wonder then that controverfy was looked
on as his bane. When fome objedtions, haftily made to
his difeoveries concerning light and colours, induced
him today alide the delign he had of publiffling pis
optic lectures, we find him reflecting on that difpute,
inco which he was unavoidably drawn thereby, in thefe
terms : “ I blamed my own imprudence for parting
with fo real a bleffing as my quiet, to run after a fna-
dow.” It is true, this fhadow (as Mr Fontenelie ob-
ferves). did not efcape him afterwards, nor did it coil
him that quiet whi2h he .fo much valued, but proved
as much a real happiaefs to him as his quiet itfelf; yet-
this was a happinefs of his own making : he took a
■ refolution, from thefe difputes, not to publilh any more
abijut that theory till he had put it above the reach
of controverfy, by the exa&eit experiments and the
ftridteft demonilrations ; and accordingly it has never
been called in queflion finc£. In the fame temper, af¬
ter he had fent the manufeript of his Principia to the
Royal Society, with his confent to the printing of it
by them, upon Mr Hook’s injurioufly infilling that
himfelf had demonflrated Kepler’s problem before our
author, he determined, rather than be involved again
in a controverfy, to fupprefs the third book, and was
very hardly prevailed upon to alter that refolntiofl. It
is true, the public was thereby a gainer ; that book,
which is indeed no more than a corollary of fome pro-
pofitions in the firft,- being originally drawn up in the
popular way, with a delign to publilh it in that form ;
whereas he was now convinced that it would be bell
not to let it go abroad without a ftrid demonflration.
After all, notwithftanding his anxious care to avoid
evety occafion of breaking his intenfe application to
ftudy, he was at a great diftance from bring fteeped.
in philofophy : on the contrary, he could lay afide his
thoughts, though engaged in the molt intricate re-
fearches, when his other affairs required his attend¬
ance ; and, as foon as he had leifure, refume the fub-
je£t at the point where he had left off. This he feems
to have done not fo much by any extraordinary ftrength -
of memory, as by the force of his inventive faculty, to
which every thing opened itfelf again with eafe, if no¬
thing intervened to ruffle him. The readinefs of his
invention made him not think of putting his memory '
much feo the trial : but this was the offsprina: of a vi¬
gorous intenfenefs of thought, out of which he was but
a common man. He fpent, therefore, the prime of his
age in thofe abftrufe refearches, when his fituation in
a college gave him leifure, and even while ftudy was his
proper jprofeffion. But as foon as he was removed to
the mint, he applied hirafelf chiefly to the bufinefs of
that office ; and fo far quitted mathematics and philo¬
fophy, as not to engage in any purfuits of either kind
afterwards.
'The amiable quality of modefly is reprefented as
Handing foremoft in the charadler of this great man’s
mind and manners. It was in reality greater than can
be eafily imagined, orfwiIl be readily believed : yet it
always continued fo without any alteration, though
the whole world, fays Fontendle, confpired againft it j
and
t
NEW [ 30 ] N E W
Newson. and let us add, though he was thereby robbed of his dent ceconomy, put it in his power.
Nicholas Mercator publiihing his
invention of fluxions.
Logarithmotechnia in 1668, where he gave the qua¬
drature of the hyperbola by an infinite feries, which was
the firft appearance in the learned world of a feries of
this fort drawn from the particular nature of the curve,
and that in a manner very new and abftra&ed ; Dr Bar-
row, then at Cambridge, where Mr Newton, at that time
about 26 years of age, refided, recollected that he had
met with the fame thing in the writings of that young
gentleman; and there not confined to the hyperbola
only, but extended, by general forms, to all forts of
curves, even fuch as are mechanical ; to their quadra¬
tures, their rectifications, and their centres of gravity ;
to the folids formed by their relations, and to the fu-
perficies of thofe folids ; fo that, when their determi¬
nations were poffible, the feries flopped at a certain
point, or at leaft their fums were given by ftated rules :
and, if the abfolute determinations were impofiible,
they could yet be infinitely approximated ; which is
the happieft and moft refined method, fays Mr Fonte-
nelle, of fupplying the defeCfs of human knowledge
that man’s imagination could pofiibly invent. To be
tnaftcr of fo fruitful and general a theory was a mine of
gold to a geometrician ; but it was a greater glory to
have been the difeoverer of fo furprifing and ingenious
a fyftem. So that Mr Newton, finding by Merca¬
tor’s book, that he was in the way to it, and that
others might follow in his traCf, fhould naturally have
been forward to open his treafures, and fecure the pro¬
perty, which confifted in making the difeovery ; but
he contented himfelf with his treafure which he had
found, without regarding the glory. What an idea
does it give us of his unparalleled modefty, when we
fee him declaring, that he thought Mercator had en¬
tirely difeovered his fecret, or that others would, be¬
fore he was of a proper age for writing ? His MS. up¬
on infinite feries was communicated to none but Mr
John Collins and the lord Brounker; and even that
had not been complied with, but for Dr Barrow, who
would not fuffer him to indulge his medefty fo much and the ancient Corpufcular.
We have twoN ,'w«>nisl
remarkable inftances of his bounty and generofity j Pbdofojhy,
one to Mr M'Laurin, profefTor of mathematics at * ^
Edinburgh, to whom he offered 20 1. per annum ;
and the other to his niece Barton, who had an an-
nuity of 100 1. per annum fettled upon her by him.
When decency upon any occafion required expence
and (hew, he was magnificent without grudging
it, and with a very good grace ; at all other times,
that pomp which feems great to low minds only, was
utterly retrenched, and the expence referved for better
ufes. He never married, and perhaps he never had
leifure to think of it. Being immerfed in profound
ftudies during the prime of his age, and afterwards en¬
gaged in an employment of great importance, and
even quite taken up with the company which his me¬
rit drew to him, he was not fenfible of any vacancy in
life, nor of the want of a companion at home; He
left 32,000!. at his death ; but made no will, which
Mr Fontenelle tells us was becaufe he thought a le¬
gacy was no gift. As to his works, befides what were
publifhed in his life-time, there were found after his
death, among his papers, feveral difeourfes upon the
fubjefts of antiquity, hiftory, divinity, chemifiry, and
mathematics, feveral of which were publilhed at dif¬
ferent times.
Nkivtonun Philofophy, the doftrine of the univerfe,
and particularly of the heavenly bodies, their laws, af-'
fe&ions, &c, as delivered by Sir Ifaac Newton. 1
The term Newtonian Philofophy is applied very dif- Different
ferently ; whence divers confufed notions relating<’piulons
thereto - Some authors under this philofophy in-thi's'^hilu-
elude all the corpufcular philofophy, confidered as itfophy.
now ftands corrected and reformed by the difeoveries
and improvements made in feveral parts thereof by
Sir Ifaac Newton. In which fenfe it is that Grave-
fande calls his elements of phyfics, Introdudio ad Phi-
lofophiam Newlonianam. And in this fenfe the New¬
tonian is the fame with the new philofophy ; and ftands
contradiftinguiftied from the Cartefian, the Peripatetic,
as he defired.
It is further obferved, concerning this part of his
charafter, that he never talked either of himfelf or
others, nor ever behaved in fuch a manner as to give
the moft malicious cenfurers the leaft occafion even to
fufpeft him of vanity. He was candid and affable, and
always put himfelf upon a level with his company He
never thought either his merit or his reputation fuffi-
cient to excufe him from any of the common offices of
focbl life ; no Angularities, either natural or atle&ed,
diftinguififed him from other men. Though he was
firmly attached to the church of England, he was
averfe to the perfecution of the non-conformifts. He
judged of men by their manners ; and the true fchif-
matics, in his opinion, were the vicious and the wicked.
Not that he confiped his principles to natural religion,
for he was thoroughly perfuaded of the truth of reve-
^ .atioi* 5 and amidft the great variety of books winch
he had conftantly before him, that which he ftudied
with the greateft application was the Bible : and he
under flood the nature and force of moral certainty as
well as he did that of a ftri£t demonftration.
Sir Ifaac did not negleft the opportunities of
domg good, when the revenues of his patrimony,
a profitable employment, improved by a pru-
Others, by Newtonian Philofophy, mean the method
or order which Sir Ifaac Newton obferves in philofo-
phifing ; vi%. the reafoniag and drawing of conclu-
lions directly from phenomena, exclufive of all previous
hypothefes ; the beginning from Ample principles ; de¬
ducing the firft powers and laws of nature from a few
feleft phenomena, and then applying thofe laws, &c.
to account for other things. And in this fenfe the
Newtonian philofophy is the fame with the experimen¬
tal philofophy, and ftands oppofed to the ancient Cor~
pnftular.
Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean that where¬
in phyfical bodies are coniidered mathematically, and
where geometry and mechanics are applied to the fo-
lution of the appearances of nature. In which fenfe the
Newtonian is the Tame with the mechanical and mathe¬
matical philofophy. i.,
Others again, by Newtonian philofophy, underftand
that part of phyfical knowledge which Sir Ifaac New¬
ton has handled, improved, and demonftrated, in his
Principia.
Others, laftly, by Newtonian philofophy, mean the
new principles which Sir Ifaac Newton has brought
into philofophy ; the new fyftem founded thereon;
and the new lolutions of phenomena thence deduced ;
or
definitions
on which
the philo-
fophy is
founded.
.3
in fit a
N E W [
lofc ^i:wton'an or that which characterizes and diftinguilhes his phi-
^ yhdofi’pfiy.lofophy from all others.—Which is the fenfe wherein
we fhall chiefly confider it.
As to the hiftory of this philofophy, we have no.
thing to add to what has been given in the preceding
article. It was firft made public in the year 1687,
by the author, then a fellow of Trinity-college, Cam¬
bridge ; and in the year 1713, republilhed with confi-
derable improvements.—Several authors have fince at¬
tempted to make it plainer ; by fetting afide many of
the more fublime mathematical refearches, and fubfti-
tuting either more obvious reafonings or experiments
in lieu thereof; particularly Whifton in his Praleft.
Phyf Mathemat. Gravefande in Element. & Jnjlit. and
Dr Pemberton in his View.
The whole of the Newtonian Philofophy, as delivered
by the author, is contained in his Principia, or Ma¬
thematical Principles of Natural Philofophy. He founds
his fyftem on the following definitions.
1. The quantity of matter is the meafure of the
fame, arifing from its denfity and bulk conjunftly.—
Thus air of a double denfity, in a double fpace, is
quadruple in quantity ; in a triple fpace, fextuple in.
quantity, &c.
2. The quantity of motion is the meafure of the
fame, arifing from the velocity and quantity of mat¬
ter conjun&ly. This is evident, becaufe the motion
of the whole is the motion of all its parts; and there¬
fore in a body double in quantity, with equal velocity,
the motion is double, &c.
3. The vis injlta, or innate force of matter, is a
defined and pOWer of refilling, by which every body, as much as
objected to»’n jjeSj endeavours to perfevere in its prefent ftate,
whether it be of reft, or moving uniformly forward in
a right line.—This definition is proved to be juft, only
by the difficulty we find in moving any thing out of
its place ; and this difficulty is by fome reckoned to
proceed only from gravity. They contend, that in
thofe cafes where we can prevent the force of gravity
from adting upon bodies, this power of refiftance be¬
comes infenfible, and the greateft quantities of matter
may be put in motion by the very leaft force. Thus
there have been balances, formed fo exact, that when
loaded with 200 weight in each fcale, they would turn
by the addition of a fingle drachm. In this cafe
400 lb. of matter was put in motion by a fingle
drachm, i. e. by Ttt-5-o parts of its own quantity : and
even this fmall weight, they fay, is only needfary on
account of the inaccuracy of the machine ; fo that we
have no reafon to fuppol'e, that, if the fridtion could
be entirely removed, it would take more force to move
a tun weight than a grain of fand. This objedtion,
however, is not taken notice of by Sir Ifaac ; and he
beftows on the refilling power above-mentioned the
name of vis inertia ; a phrafe which is perhaps not well
chofen,and with which inferior writers have endeavour¬
ed to make their readers merry at the cxpence of New¬
ton. A force of inactivity, it has been faid, is a forcelefs
farce ; and analogous to a. black white, a cold heat, and
a tempeftuous calm.
But objedtions of more importance have been made
to the whole of this dodlrise than thofe which merely
\f°vtb Def‘- refpedt the term vis inertiee. “ An endeavour to re-
r/ma*n at relt (we are told*) is unneceffary, whilft no-
tbt Prin:i- thing attempts to disturb the reft. It is likevvjfe im-
pa, &C.
* Vtunfs
Examina¬
tion ■] the
thir.t and
31 ] NEW
pofiible t© be conceived, as it implies a contradiction. Newtonian
A man, by oppofing force to force, may endeavour ofophy.
not to be moved ; but this oppofition is an endeavour ^
to move, not with a defign to move, but by counter-
adting another force to prevent being moved. An
endeavour not to move therefore cannot exift in bo¬
dies, becauie it is abfurd ; and if we appeal to fadt,
we ftiall find every body in an adlual and conftant en¬
deavour to move.” It has been likewife obferved,
and we think juftly, that “ if bodies could continue to
move by any innate force, they might alfo begin to
move by that force. For the fame caufe which can
move a body with a given velocity at one time, could
do it, if prefent, at any other time; and therefore if
the force by which bodies continue in motion were
innate and eflential to them, they would begin to
move of themfelves, which is not true.” Newton
indeed fays that this innate force is the caufe of
motion under certain circumftances only, or when the
body is adted upon by a force impreffed ab extra.
But if this impreffed force do not continue as well
as begin the motion, if it ceafe the inftant that
the impreffion is over, and the body continue to
move by its vis inertia, why is the body ever flopped?
“ If in the beginning of the motion the body, by
its innate force, overcomes a certain refiftance of fric¬
tion and air, in any following times, the force being
undiminifhed, it will overcame the fame refiftance for
ever. Thefe refiftances, therefore, could never change
the ftate of a moving body, becaui'e they cannot
change the quantity of its motive force. But this is~
contrary to univerfal experience.” For thefe reafons
we are inclined to think that bodies are wholly paf° }
five; that they endeavour nothing; and that they con¬
tinue in motion not by any innate force or vis injitafbxiX.
by that force, whatever it be, which begins the motion,
and which, whilll it remains with the moving body,
is gradually diminifhed, and at laft overcome by op-
pofite forces, when the body of courfe ceafes to move.
4. An impreffed force is an adtion exerted upon a
body, in order to change its ilate, either of reft, or of
moving uniformly forward in a right line.— i'his
force confifts in the adtion only; and remains no
longer in the body when the adtion is over. For a
body maintains every new ftate it acquires by its vis
inertia only.
It is here implied, and indeed fully expreffed, that
motion is not continued by the fame power that pro¬
duced it. Now there are two grounds on which the
truth of this dodtrine may be fuppofed to reft.
“ Firjl, On a direct proof that the impreffed force
does not remain in the body, either by ihowing the
nature of the force to be tranfitory and incapable ef
more than its firft adtion ; or that it adts only on the
furface, and that the body efcapes from it; or that
the force is fomewhere elfe, and not remaining in the
body. But none of thefe diredt proofs are offered
“ Secondly, It may reft on an indirect proof, that
there is in the nature of body a fuffieient caufe for
the continuance of every- new ftate acquired ; and
that therefore any adventitious force to continue mo¬
tion, though neceffary for its produdtion, is fuper*
ffuous and inadmiffible. As this is the very ground
on which the fuppofition Hands, it ought to have been
indubitably certain that the innate force of the body
3 isiC
Newtonian
Phiiofophy,
& 'h'oung i
Examina¬
tion, &.C.
4
Of time.
5
Space.
6
•Place de¬
fine J.
N E W [ -32
5s fufixcient to perpetuate the motion it has once ac¬
quired, before the other agent, by which the motion
was communicated, had been difmiffed trom the oflice.
Rut the innate force of body has been fhovvn not
to be that which continues its motion ; and there¬
fore the proof, that, the impreffed force does not re¬
main in the body, fails. Nor indeed is it in this
cafe defirable to fupport the proof, becaufe we fhould
then be left without any reafon for the continuance
of motion*.” When we mention an impreffed force,
we mean fuch a force as is'communicated either at
the furface of the body or by being diflufed through
the mafs.
5. A centripetal force is that by which bodies are
drawn, impelled, or any way tend towards a point, as
to a centre.—The quantity of any centripetal force
may be confidered as of three kinds, abfolute, accele¬
rative, and motive.
6. The ah folate quantity of a pentrifygal force is
■the meafure of the fame, proportional to the efficacy
of the caufe that propagates it from the centre, through
the fpaces round about. *
7. The accelerative quantity of a centripetal force
is the meafure of the fame, proportional to the velo¬
city which it generates in a given time.
8. The motive quantity of a centripetal'force is a
meafure of the fame, proportional to the motion
which it generates in a given time.—This is always
known by the quantity of a force equal and contrary
to it, that is jult fufficient to hinder the defeent of the
body.
Sch OLIA.
I. Abfolute, true, and mathematical time, of itfelf,
and from its own nature, flows equably, without re¬
gard to any thing external, and, by another name, is
called duration. Relative, apparent, and common
time, is fome fenfrble and external meafure of dura¬
tion, whether accurate or not, which is commonly ufed
inftead of true time ; fuch as an hour, a day, a month,
a year, &c.
II. Abfolute fpace, in its own nature, without re¬
gard to any thing external, remains always frmilar
and immoveable. Relative fpace is fome moveable
dimenlion or meafure of the abfelute fpaces; and which
is vulgarly taken for immoveable fpace. Such is the
dimenlion of a fubterraneous, an aerial, or celeftial
fpace, determined by its polition to bodies, and which
is vulgarly taken for immoveable fpace ; as the di¬
dance of a fubterraneous, an Eerial, or celettial fpace,
determined by its pofition in refpett of the earth.
Abfolute and relative fpace are the fame in figure
and magnitude ; but they do not remain always nu- N
merically the fame. For if the earth, for inftance,
moves, a fpace of our air which, relatively and in
refpeft of the earth, remains always the fame, will at
one time be one part of the abfolute fpace into which
the earth pafles; at another time it will be another part
of the fame ; and fo, abfolutely underitood, it will be
perpetually mutable.
III. Place is a part of fpace which a body takes
up ; and is, according to the fpace, either abfolute or
relative. Our author fays it is part of fpace ; not the
fituation, nor the external furface of the body. For
the places of equal folids are always equal; but
their fuperficies, by reafoa of their dilfimilar figures,
?r 241..
]
■N E W
are often unequal. Pofitions properly have no quam Newtoni'a-
tity, nor are they fo much the places themfelves as the
properties of places. The motion of the whole is the
fame thing with the fum of the motions of the parts;
that is, the tranflation of the whole out ef its place
is the f$me thing with the fum of the tranflations of
the parts out-of their places : and therefore the place
of the whole is the fame thing with the fum of the
pjaces of the parts ; and for that reafon it is internal,
and in the whole body.
IV. Abfolute motion is the tranflation of a body of motiot
from one abfolute place into another, and relative mo¬
tion the tranflation from one relative place into ano¬
ther. Thus, in a flrip under fail, the relative place of
a body is that part of the flrip which the body pof-
fefles, or that part of its cavity which the body fills,
and which therefore moves together with the flrip ;
and relative reft is the continuant e of the body in the
fame, part of the fl ip, or of its cavity. But real
abfolute reft is the continuance of the body in the
fame part of that immoveable fpace in which the fhip
itfelf, its cavity, and all that it contains, is moved.
Wherefore, if the earth is really at reft, the body
which relatively refts in the ftiip will really and ab¬
folutely move with the fame velocity which the flrip
has on the earth. But it the earth alfo moves, the
true and abfolute motion of the body will arife, partly
from the true motion of the earth in immoveable
fpace ; partly from the relative motion of the fhip on
the earth : and if the body moves alfo relatively in
the ftiip, its true motion will arife partly from the
true motion of the earth in immoveable fpace, and
partly from the relative motions as well of the ftrip on
the earth as of the body in the ftiip ; and from thefe
•elative motions will arife the relative motion of the
body on the earth. As if that part of the earth
where the flrip is, was truly moved towards the eaft,
with a velocity of 10010 parts ; while the flrip itfclf
with a freflr gale is carried towards the weft, with a ve¬
locity exprefled by 10 of thefe parts; but a failor walks
in the ftiip towards the eaft with one part of the faid
velocity : then the failor will be moved truly and ab¬
folutely in immoveable fpace towards the eaft with a
velocity of 1001 parts; and relatively on the earth
towards the weft, with a velocity of 9 of thofe parts.
Abfolute time, in aftronomy, is diftinguifhed from
relative, by the equation or correction of the vulgar
time. For the natural days are truly unequal, though
they are commonly confidered as equal, and ufed fora
meafure of time : aftronomers correct this inequality
for their more accurate deducing of the celeftial mo¬
tions. It may be that there is no fuch thing as an '
equable motion whereby time may be accurately mea-
fured. All motions may be accelerated or retarded ;
but the true or equable progrefs of abfolute time is
liable to no change. The duration or perfevcrance of
the exiftence of things remains the fame, whether the
morons are fwift or flow, or none at all; and there¬
fore ought to be diftinguiftied from what are only
fenfible meafures thereof, and out of which we collect
it by means of the aftronomical equation. The ne-
ceftity of which equation for determining the times of
a phenomenon is evinced, as well from the experiments
of the pendulum-clock as by eclipfes of the fatellites
of Jupiter.
7'
As
0
NEW
Newtonian
Philo fophy
8
Immutabi¬
lity of time
9n<l i^ace.
Df the mo¬
tion of dif¬
ferent bo¬
dies with
refpedl to
one ano¬
ther.
As the order of the parts of time is immutable, fo
alfo is the order of the parts of fpace. Suppofe thofe
parts to be moved out of their places, and they will be
moved (if we may be allowed the expreflion) out of
themfelves. For times and fpaces are, as it were,
the places of themfelves as of all other things. All
things are placed in time as to order of fucceffion; and
in fpace as to order of fituation. It is from their
efience or nature that they are places ; and that the
primary places of things fliouid be moveable, isabfurd.
Thefe are therefore the abfolute places ; and tranfla-
tions out of thofe places are the only abfolute mo¬
tions.
But becaufe the parts of fpace cannot be feen, or
diftinguifhed from one another by the fenfes, therefore
in their Head we life feniible meafures of them. For,
from the politicos and diftances of things from any
body, confidered as immoveable, we define all places;
and then with relpeft to fuch places, we eltrtnate all
motions, confidering bodies as transferred from fome
of thofe places into others. And fo, inftead of abfo-
lute places and motions, we ufe relative ones ; and
that without any inconvenience in common affairs:
but in philofophical difquifitions we ought to abifraft
from our fenfes, and confider things themfelves di¬
ll ind from what are only fenfible meafures of them.
For it may be, that there is no body really at veil,
to which the places and motions of others may be re¬
ferred.
But we may diftinguilh reft and motion, abfolute
and relative, one from the other by their properties,
caufes, and effeds. It is a property of reft, that-
bodies really at reft do reft in refped of each other.
And therefore, as it is poffible, that, in the remote re¬
gions of the fixed ftars, or perhaps far beyond them,
there may be fome body abfolutely at reft, tho’ it be im-
poffible to know from the pofition of bodies to one ano¬
ther in our regions, whether any of theie do keep the
fame^pofition to that remote body ; it follows, that
ahfoluce reft cannot be determined from the pofition of
bodies in our regions.
It is a property of motion, that the parts which
retain given petitions to their wholes do partake of the
motion of their wholes. For all parts of revolving
bodies endeavour to recede from the axis of motion ;
and the impetus of bodies moving forwards arifes from
the joint impetus of all the parts. Therefore if fur-
rounding bodies are moved, thofe that are relatively
at reft within them will paitake of their motion.
Upon which account the true and abfolute motion of
a body cannot be determined by the transition of it
from thofe only which feem to reft ; for the external
bodies ought not only to appear at reft, but to be
really at red. Fpr otherwife all included bodies, be-
hde their tranfbttion from near the furrounding ones,
partake hkewife of their true motions; and though
that tranHation was not made, they would not really
be at reft but only feem to be fo. For the fur-
routiding bodies ftand in the like relation to the fur-
ioundtd, as the exterior part of a whole does to the
inteiior, or as the (hell does to the kernel; but if
r 33 i
NEW
a place is moved, whatever is placed therein moves Newtonhn
along with it; and therefore a body which is moved
from a place in motion, partakes alfo of the motion of ’"’“V " «*
its place. Upon which account all motions from
places in motion, are no other than parts of entire
and abfolute motions; and every entire motion is
compo(ed of the motion of the body out of its
firft place, and the motion of this place out of
its place ; and fo on, until we come to fome im¬
moveable place, as in the above-mentioned example
of the failor. Wherefore entire and abfolute motions
can be no otherwife determined than by immoveable
places. Now, no other places are immoveable but
thofe that from infinity to infinity do all retain the
fame given petitions one to another ; and upon this
account muft ever remain unmoved, and do thereby
conilitute what we call immoveablefpace.
# The caufes by which true and relative motions are
diftinguifhed one from the other, are the forces im-
preffed upon bodies to generate motion. True mo¬
tion is neither generated nor altered, but bv fome
force im preffed upon the body moved : but relative
motion may be generated or altered without any force
impreffed upon the body. For it is fufficient only to
imprefs fome force on other bodies with which the
former is compared, that, by their giving way, that
relation may be changed, in which the relative reft or
motion of the other body did cron ft ft. Again, true
motion fuffers always fome change from any force im*
preffed upon the moving body;, but relative motion
does not neceffarily undergo any changes by fuch force.
1 or if the fame forces are likevvife impreffed on thofe
other bodies with which the comparifon is made, that
the relative polition may be preferved ; then that con¬
dition will be preferved, in which the relative metion
conhfts. And therefore any relative motion may be
changed when the true motion remains unaltered,
and the relative may be preferved when the true mo¬
tion fuffers fome change. Upon which account true
motion does by no means confttt in fuch relations.
The efkds which diftmguifh abfolute from relativeAhfokue
motion arc, the forces of receding from the axis of and relative
circular motion. For there
are no fuch forces in ani.otiondi*
circular motion purely relative; but, in* a "true andftinsuxQied*
abfolute circular motion, they are greater or lefts ac¬
cording to the quantity of the motion. If a veffel,
hung by a long cord, is fo often turned about that
the cord is ftrongly twifted, then filled with water,
and let go, it will be whirled about the contrary way
and while the cord is untwifting itfelf, the furface of
the water will at firft be plain, as before the veffel be¬
gan to move ; but the veffel, by gradually communi¬
cating its motion to the water, will make it begin fen-
u ^ neVO Ve’ and recedc by Iittle and little from
the middle, and afrend to the Tides of the veffel, form¬
ing itfelf into a concave figure ; and the fwifter the
motion becomes, the higher will the water rife till at
fait, performing its revolutions in the fame times with
the vtilel, it becomes relatively at reft in it. This
aicent of the water fhows its endeavour to recede from
the axis of us motion ; and the true and abfolute
the Hi ell moves, the kernel will alfo move as beino- I °n ' 3nd tlle true and a’)foIute cir-
part of the whole, without any removal from near thf t J T ^ °! ^ which is here dirc<% co"-
* m near the Jrary ° tbe. rela^e, difeovers itfelf, and may be mea-
Aark:kjto th' pmeii!n«,s- th«if
fared by this endeavour. At M,’when the relative
monon in the water was greateft, it produced no tn-
T dcavour
NEW t 34 ] NEW
Newtonian deavour to recede from the axis; the water (howedno be imprefled that the motions f the globes might .be Ne«»i™
^ilofophy. tendency to the circumference, nor any afeent towards molt augmented ; that is, we ought d.fcover them hm- 
*■—-— tiie fldej 0f the veffel, but remained of a plain furface;
and therefore its true circular motion, had not yet be¬
gun But afterwards, when the relative motion oi tne
water had decreafed, the ’afeent thereof towards the
fides of the veffel proved its endeavour to recede from
the axis : and this endeavour (howed the real circular
molt augmented ; that is, we might difeover their hin-
dermoft faces, or thofe which follow in the circular ' '
motion. But the faces which follow being known, and
confequently the oppolite ones that precede, we Ihould
likewife know the determination of their motions. And
thus we might find both the quantity and determina¬
tion of this circular motion, even in an immenfe va¬
cuum, where there was nothing external or fenfible,
with which the globes might be compared. But now,
if in that fpace fome remote bodies were placed that
kept always a given pofition one to another, as the
fixed liars do in our regions ; we could not indeed de¬
termine from the relative tranflation of the globes
among thofe bodies, whether the motion did belong to
the globes or to the bodies. But if we obferved the
cord, and found that its tenfion was that very tenfion
which the motions of the globes required, we might
conclude the motion to be in the globes, and the bo¬
dies to be at reft; and then, laftly, from the tranllation
of the globes among the bodies, we Ihould find the
determination of their motions.
Having thus explained himfelf, Sir Ifaac propofes
to (how how we are to colleft the true motions from
their caufes, effedls, and apparent differences ; and vice
verfa, how, from the motions, either true or apparent,
we may come to the knowledge of their caufes and
effeds. In order to this, he lays down the following
axioms or laws of motion. n
i. Every body perseveres in its state of rest,Laws of
OR OF UNIFORM MOTION IN A RIGHT LINE, UNLESS IT IS motion.
COMPELLED TO CHANGE THAT STATE BY FORCES IMPRESS¬
ED upon it. — Sir Ifaac’s proof of this axiom is as
follows : “ Proje&iles perfevere in their motions, fo far
as they are not retarded by the refiftance of the air,
or impelled downwards by the force of gravity. A
top, whofe parts, by their cohefion, are perpetually
drawn afide from reftilinear motions, does not ceafeits 12
rotation otherwife than as it is retarded by the air. The ObjedHon*
greater bodies of the planets and comets, meeting with
lefs refiftance in more free fpaces, preferve their mo¬
tions, both progreflive and circular, for a much longer
time.”—Notwithftanding this demonftration, however,
the axiom hath been violently difputed. It hath been
argued, that bodies continue in their ftate of motion
becaufe they are fubjedted to the continual impulfe of
an invifible and fubtile fluid, which always pours in from
behind, and of which all places are full. It hath been*
affirmed that motion is as natural to this fluid as reft is
to all other matter. It is faid, moreover, that it is im-
Cflv. clAlO 9 m — •»* * "L J
motion of the water perpetually increafing, till it had
acquired its greateft quantity, when the water reded
relatively in the veffel. And therefore this endeavour
does not depend upon any tranflation of the water m
refpedl of the ambient bodies ; nor can true circular
motion be defined by fuch tranflations. There is only
one real circular motion of any one revolving body,
correfponding to only one power of endeavouring to
recede from its axis of motion, as its proper and ade-
cuate effea: but relative motions in one and the fame
body are innumerable, according to the various rela¬
tions it bears to external bodies; and, like other rela¬
tions, are altogether deilitute of any real effeft, other-
wife than they may perhaps participate of that only
true motion. And therefore, in the fyftem which fup-
pofes that our heavens, revolving below the fphere of
the fi ed ftars, carry the planets along with them, the
feveral parts of thofe heavens and the planets, which
are indeed relatively at reft in their heavens, do yet
really move. For they change their pofition one to
another, which never happens to bodies truly at reft.;
and being carried together with the heavens, partici¬
pate of their motions, and, as parts of revolving wholes,
endeavour to recede from the axis of their motion.
Wherefore relative quantities are not the quantities
themfelves whofe names they bear, but thofe fenlible
meafures of them, either accurate or inaccurate, which
are commonly ufed inftead of the meafured quantities
themfelves. And then, if the meaning of words is to
be determined by their ufe, by the names time, fpace,
place, and motion, their meafures are properly to be
underftood; and the expreffion will be unufual and
purely mathematical, if the meafured quantities them¬
felves are meant.
It is indeed a matter of great difficulty to difeover,
and effeftually to diftinguiffi, the true motions of par¬
ticular bodies, from thofe that are only apparent: be¬
caufe the parts of that immoveable fpace in which thofe
motions are performed, do by no means come under
the obfervation of our fenfes. Yet we have fome things
to direct us in this intricate affair; and thefe anfe
partly from the apparent motions which are the dif- — —  —- — -- —
ference of the true motions, partly from the forces poffible we can know in what manner a body would
which are the caufes and effeas of the true motions, be influenced by moving forces if it was entirely defti-
For inftance, if two globes, kept at a given diftance tute of gravity. According to what we can obferve,
sne from the other by means of a cord that eonneds the momentum of a body, or its tendency to move,
them, were revolved about their common centre of depends very much »n its gravity. A heavy cannon-
gravity ; we might, from the tenfion of the cord,, dif- ball will fly to a much greater diftance than a hght.one,
cover the endeavour of the globes to recede from the though both are aauated by an equal force. It is by
axis of motion, and from thence we might compute no means clear, therefore, that a body totally deftitute
the quantity of their circular motions. And then, if of gravity would have any proper momentum of its
any equal, forces ftiould be impreffed at once on the al- own ; and if it had no momentum, it could not con-
ternate faces of the globes to augment or diminifti tinue its motion for the fmalleft fpace of time after the
their circular motions, from the increafe or decreafe moving power Was withdrawn.. Some have imagined
of the tenfion of the cord we might infer the incre- that matter was capable of beginning motion of itlelr,
ment or decrement of their motions ; and thence and confequently that the axiom was falfe ; becaufe we
would be found on what faces thofe force# ought to fee plainly that matter in fome cafes hath a tendency
2 to.f
NEW [ 3* ] NEW
Newtonian to change from a ftate of motion to a flate of reft, and
jphilofophy. frona a ftate of reft to a ftate of motion. A paper ap-
peared on this fubjeft in the firft volume of the Edin¬
burgh Phyfical and Literary Eftays ; but the hypo-
thefts never gained any ground.
2. The ALTERATfoN OF MOTION IS EVER PROPOR¬
TIONAL TO THE MOTIVE FORCE IMPRESSED J AND IS
MADE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE RIGHT LINE IN WHICH
that force is impressed.—Thus, if any force gene¬
rates a certain quantity of motion, a double force will
generate a double quantity, whether that force be im-
preffed all at once, or in fucceffive moments. To this
law no objection of confequence has ever been made.
It is founded on this felf-evident truth, that every ef¬
fect muft be proportional to its caufe. Mr Young,
who feems to be very ambitious of dete&ingthe errors
of Newton, finds fault indeed with the expreffions in
which the law is ftated ; but he owns, that if thus ex-
preffed, The alteration of motion is proportional to the ac¬
tions or refjlances 'which produce it, and is in the direction
in which the actions or rejijlances are made, it would be
unexceptionable.
pbjedtions 3. To every action there always is opposed an
-o the t nr £quAL re-action: or the mutual action of two
u*w#
bodies upon each other are always equal, and di¬
rected to contrary parts.—This axiom is alfo dif-
puted by many. In the above-mentioned paper in the
Phyfical Eflays, the author endeavours to make a di-
ftin&ion between re-a£Hon and refiftance ; and the
fame attempt has been made by Mr Young. “ When
an atftion generates no motion (fays he), it is cer¬
tain that its eftedfs have been deftroyed by a contrary
and equal adlion. When an adtion generates two con¬
trary and equal motions, it is alfo evident that mutual
adtions were exerted, equal and contrary to each Newtonian
other. All cafes where one of thefe conditions are not philofoPhy‘
found, are exceptions to the truth of the law. If a
finger prefles againft a ftone, the ftone, if it does not
yield to the preflure, prefles as much upon the finger:
but if the ftone yields, it re-adts lei's than the finger
adts ^ and if it ihould yield with all the momentum
that the force of the preffure ought to generate, which
it would do if it were not impeded by fridlion, or a
medium, it would not re-acl at all. So if the ftone
drawn by a horfe, follows after the horfe, it does not
re-adl fo much as the horfe adts ; but only fo much as
the velocity of the ftone is diminiihed by fridtion, and
it is the re adtion of fridtion only, not of the ftone.
The ftone does not re-adt becaufe it does not adt, it
refills, but refiftance is not adtion.
“ In the lofs of motion from a ftriking body, equal
to the gain in the body {truck, there is a plain folution
without requiring any re-adtion. The motion lo/l, is
identically that which is found in the other body ; this
fuppofition accounts for the whole phenomenon in the
molt Ample manner. If it be not admitte !, but the
folution by re adtion is infilled upon, it will be incum¬
bent on the party to account for the whole effedt of
communication of motion ; otherwife he will lie under
the imputation of rejedting a folution which is fimple,
obvious, and perfedt; for one complex, unnatural, and
incomplete. However this may be determined, it will
be allowed, that the circumltances mentioned, afford
no ground for the inference, that adtion and re-adtion
are equal, fince appearances may be explained in ano¬
ther way” (a).
Others grant that Sir Ifaac’s axiom is very true in
refpedt to terrcftrial fubllances; but they affirm, that,
E 2 in
(a) If there be a perfedt reciprocity betwixt an impinging body and a body at reft fultaining its impulfe,
may we not at our pleafure coniider either body as the agent, and the other as the refillant ? Let a moving
body, A, pais from north to fouth, an equal body B at reft, which receives the ftroke of A, adt upon A from
fouth to noith,^and A refill in a contrary diredtion, both inelaftic : let the motion reciprocally communicated
be called fix. I hen B at reft communicates to A fix degrees of motion towards the north, and receives fix
degrees towaids the fouth. B having no other motion than the fix degrees it communicated, will, by its
equal and contrary lofs and gain, remain in equilibrio. Let the original motion of A have been twelve,
then A having received a contrary adlion equal to fix, fix degrees of its motion will be dellroyed or in equi-
libno ; confequently, a motive force as fix will remain to A towards the fouth, and B will be in equilibrio,
or at reft. A will then endeavour to move with fix degrees, or half its original motion, and B will remain
at reft as before. A and B being equal maffes, by the laws of communication three degrees of motion will
be communicated to B, or A with its fix degrees will aft with three, and B will re-adi alfo with three. B
then will ad on A from fouth to north equal to three, while it is adled upon or refilled by A from north
to fouth, equal alfo to three, and B will remain at reft as before; A will alfo have its fix degrees of motion
reduced to one half by the contrary adlion of B, and only three degrees of motion will remain to A, with
which it will yet endeavour to move ; and finding B ftill at reft, the fame procefs will be repeated till the
whole motion of A. is reduced to an infinitely fmall quantity, B all the while remaining at reft, and there
will be no communication of motion from A to B, which is contrary to experience.
Let a body, A, whofe mafs is twelve, at reft, be impinged upon firft by 13, having a mafs as twelve, and
a velocity as four, making a momentum of 48 ; and fecondly by C, whofd mafs is lix, and velocity eight,
3 fmoment:um of equal to B, the three bodies being inelailic. In the firft cafe, A will become
poiieiied oi a momentum of 24, and 24 will remain to B ; and, in the fecond cafe, A will become poffeffed
o a momentum o 32, and 16 will remain to C, both bodfes moving with equal velocities after the fhock, in
both cales, by the laws of percuflion. It is required to know, if in both cafes A refills equally, and if B and
C act equally l It the adtions and refinances are equal, how does A in one cafe dellroy 24 parts of B’s
motion, and in the other cafe 32 parts of C’s motion, by an equal refillance ? And how does B communicate
in one cafe 24 degrees of motion, and _C 32, by equal a&ions ? If the actions and refinances are unequal,
it is alked how the lame mals can refill differently to bodies impinging upon it with equal momenta, and how-
bodies
NEW [ 36 ] NEW
Newtonian In tliefe, both atftion and re-aftion are the cfFefts of
JJhilofo1hy gravity. Subftances void of gravity would have ro
' 11 momentum ; and without this they could not ad ;
they would be moved by the lead force, and therefore
could not refill or re ad. If therefore there is any fluid
which is the caufe of gravity, though fuch fluid could
ad. upon terreftrial fubftances, yet thefe could »pt re¬
ad upon it; becaufe they h ive no force of their own,
but depend entirely upon it for their momentum. In
this manner, lay they, we may conceive that the pla¬
nets circulate, and all the operations of nature are car¬
ried on by means of a i'ubtile fluid ; which being per-
fedly adive, and the red of matter altogether paffive,
there is neither refiflance nor lofs of motion, iiee
Motion.
From the preceding axiom Sir Ifaac draws the fol¬
lowing corollaries.
1. A body by two forces conjoined will defcribe the
diagonal ol a parallelogram in the fame time that it
would defcribe the fides by thofe forces apart.
2. Hence we may explain the compolkion of any
one dired force out of any two oblique ones, viz., by
making the two oblique forces the lidts of a paralle¬
logram, and the dirtd one the diagonal.
3. The quantity of motion, which is colleded by
taking the fum of the motions directed towards the
fame pacts, and the difference of thofe that are direct¬
ed to contrary parts, lufters no change from the ac¬
tion of bodies among themfelves ; becaufe the motion
which one body loles is communicated to another :
and if we fuppofe friction and the reliftance of the air
to be abfent, the motion of a number of bodies which
mutually impelled one another would te perpetual, and
its quantity always equal.
4. The common centre of gtavity of two or more
bodies does not alter its ffate of motion or reft by the
adions of the bodies among themfelves ; and therefore
the common centre of gravity of all bodies aCting upon
each other ^ excluding outward aCtions and impedi¬
ments) is either at idt, or moves uniformly in a right
. line.
5. The motions of bodies included in a given fpace
are the fame among themielves, whether that fpace is
at reft, or moves uniformly forward in a right line
without any circular motion. The truth of this is evi¬
dently ftrown by the experiment of a Ihip ; where all
motions happen after the fame manner, whether the
fhip is at reft, or proceeds uniformly forward in a
Itraight line.
6. If bodies, any how moved among themfelves, are
urged in the direction o! parallel lines by equal acce¬
lerative forces, they will all continue to move among
themfelves, after the fame manner as if they had been
urged by no fuch forces.
The whole of the mathematical part of the Newto¬
nian philolophy depends on the following lemmas ; of
which the firft is the principal.
T.£m. I, Quantities, and the ratios of quantities,
which in any finite time converge continually to equa- Newtonian
lily, and before that time approach nearer the one to ^dofophy,
the other than by any given difference, become ulti-^"^^-
mately equal. If you deny it; fuppofe them to be ul¬
timately unequal, and let D be their ultimate differ¬
ence. Therefore they cannot approach nearer to equa¬
lity than by that given difference D ; which is againft
the fuppofition. 14
Concerning the meaning of this lemma philofophers ol1ie<itioD•
are not agreed ; and unhappily it is the very fiinda-f''^^
mental polition on which the whole of the fyftem reits. f ’
Many objections have l een raifed to it by people who
fuppofed themielves capable of undtrflanding it. They
fay, that it is impoffible we can come to an end of
any infinite feries, and therefore that the word ultimate
can in this cafe have no meaning. In feme cafes the
lemma is evidently falfe. Thus, fuppofe there are
two quantities of matter A and B, the one containing
half a pound, and the other a third part of one. Let
both be continually divided by 2 ; and though their
ratio, or the proportion of the one to the other, doth
not vary, yet the difference between them perpetually
becomes Ids, as w ell as the quantities themfelves, until
both the difference and quantities themfelves become
lefs than any affignable quantity ; yet the difference
will never totally vanifh, nor the quantities become
equal, as is evident from the two following feries.
T If -S' TJ- -JV TY-g Try TTT T-q-TTJ e£C*
1 I I 1 l I I X I t
T 3" TTTT zf 73- 7-sa: TTTT> &C*
I ^ 1 flr * * * * 1 1 i 1 1 1 0, _
r ’ TT rz zz Tg-T TTT ITT(5 ToTTj &C.
1 hus we fee, that though the difference is conti¬
nually diminilhing, and that in a very large proportion,
there is no hope of its vanifhmg, or the quantities be¬
coming tqilal. in like manner, let us take the pro¬
portions or ratios of quantities,, and wefhall be equally
unfucceisful. Suppofe two quantities of matter, one
containing 8 and the other 10 pounds ; thefe quan¬
tities already have to each other the ratio of 8 to 10,
or ol 4 to 5 ; but let us add 2 continually to each of
them, and though the ratios continually come nearer
to that of equality, it is in vain to hope for a perfeCt
coincidence. Thus,
8
10
Ratio -i
10
1 2
x 2
16
18
18
20
20
22
22
24>
26,
&c.
See.
&c.
»4
S 6 t 8 9 xorxix
. - Xf , T T 7 T5- TT TT TT» tj
For this and his other lemmas Sir Ifaac makes theanfwaerf.
following apology. “ Thefe lemmas are premifed,
to avoid the ledioufnefs of deducing perplexed demon-
itrations ad abfurdumy according to the method of
ancient geometers. For demonffrations are more con¬
tracted by the method of indivilibles : but becaufe the
hypothefis of indivilibles feems fomewhat harlh, and
therefore that method is reckoned lefs geometrical,
I chofe rather to reduce the demonffrations of the
following propofitions to the firft and laft fums and
ratios of nafeent and evanefeent quantities, that is, to
the limits of thofe fums and ratios ; and fo to premife,
as Ihort as I could, the demonftrations of thofe limits.
For
bodies poffeffcd of equal momenta can exert different actions, it being admitted that bodies refill proportional
to their maffes, and that .their power of overcoming reiiitance is proportional to their momenta ?
It is incumbent on thofe who maintain the doctrine of univeilal re-aCtion, to free it from thefe difficulties
and apparent contradiction*.
NEW [
liirNewtMuan For hereby the fame thing is performed as by the me-
jfkrfhilolophy.^od ot indivifibles ; and now thofe principles being
demonftrated, we may ufe them with more fafety.
Therefore, if hereafer I fhould happen to conlider
quantities as made up of particles, or (hould ufe little
curve lines for right ones; I would not be underftood
to mean indivifibles, but evanefeent diviiihle quantities;
; net the fu,ms and ratios of determinate parts, but al¬
loc ways the limits of fums and ratios ; and that the force
f*11 of fuch d emontlrations always depends on the method
11 laid down in the foregoing lemmas.
“ Perhaps it may be obje&ed, that there is no ul¬
timate proportion of evanefeent quantities, becaufe the
proportion, before the quantities have vanifhed, is not
the ultimate, and, when they are vanifhed, is none.
But by the fame argument it may be alleged, that a
body arriving at a certain place, and there Hopping,
has no ultimate velocity ; becaufe the velocity before
the body comes to the place is not its ultimate velo¬
city ; when it is arrived, it has none. But the an-
fwer is ealy : for by the ultimate velocity is meant
that with which the body is moved, neither before it
arrives at its place and the motion ceafes, nor after ;
but at the very inflant it arrives ; that is, that velocity
with which the body arrives at its laft place, and with
which the motion ceafes. And in like manner, by
the ultimate ratio of evanefeent quantities is to be
underftoood the ratio of the quantities, not before they
vanilh, m r afterwards, but with which they Vanifh.
In like manner, the firil ratio of nafeent quantities is
that with which they begin to be. And the iirlt or
laft fum is that with which they begin and ceafe to be
(or to be augmented and diminiftied). There is a
limit which the velocity at the end of the motion may
attain, but not exceed ; and this is the ultimate velo¬
city. And there is the like limit in all quantities and
proportions that begin and ceafe to be. And, fmee
fuch limits are certain and definite, to determine the
fame is a problem ftridly geometrical. But whatever
is geometrical yve may be allowed to make ufe of in
determining and demonftrating any other thing that
is likewife geometrical.
“ It may be alfo ohje&ed, that if the ultimate
ratios of evanefeent quantities are given, their ulti¬
mate magnitudes will be alfo given ; and fo all quan¬
tities will confift of indivifibles, which is contrary to
what Euclid has demonftrated concerning incommen-
furables, in the 10th book of his elements. But this
objeftion is founded on a falle fuppofition. For thofe
ultimate ratios with which quantities vanifh are not
truly the ratios of ultimate quantities, but limits
towards which the ratios of quantities decrealing con¬
tinually approach.”
Lem. II. If inanyfigure AtfcE(Pl.CCCXLV.n° i.)
terminated by the right line Aa, AE, and the curve
a c E, there be inferibed any number of parallelograms
A£, Be, Ce/, See. comprehended under equal bafes
AB, BC, CD, &c. and the fides B£, Ce, De/, &c.
parallel to one fide Art of the figure ; and the pa¬
rallelograms aYLbly blLcmt c M </«, &c. are com¬
pleted. Then if the breadth of thefe parallelograms
be fuppofed to be diminilhed, and their number aug¬
mented in infinitum ; the ultimate ratios which the
inferibed figure AK^LcM^D, the circumfcribed
figure Aalbmcndo'Zf and curvilinear figure A a
37 ] NEW
be dHy will have to one another, are ratios of equality. Newtoni8ii
— For the difference of the inferibed and circum- ^biiofophy,
feribed figures is the film of the parallelograms K /, ^
Lm, M», Do; that is, (from the equality of all
their bafes), the rectangle under one ot their bales
K by and the fum of their altitudes A a, that is, the
rediangle A B ia. But this rectangle, becauie its
breadth AB is fuppofed diminilhed in infnitum, be¬
comes lefs than any given fpace. And therefore, by
lem. J. the figures inferibed and circumtcnbed be¬
come ultimately equal the one to the other ; and much
more will the intermediate curvilinear figure be ulti¬
mately equal to either.
Lem. III. The fame ultimate ratios are alfo ratios
of equality, when the breadths AB, BC, CD, &c.
of the pardlelograms are unequal, and are all dimi-
nifhed in infinitum.—The demonttradon of this differs
but little from that of the former.
In his fucceeding lemmas, Sir Ifaac goes on to
prove, in a manner fimilar to the above, that the ul¬
timate ratios of the fine, chord, and tangent of arcs
infinitely diminifhed, are ratios of equality, and there¬
fore that in all our reafonings about thefe we may
fafdy ufe the one for the other: — that the ultimate
form of evanefeent triangles made by the arc, chord,
and tangent, is that of limilitude, and their ultimate
ratio is that of equality ; and hence, in reafonings about
ultimate ratios, we may fafely ufe thefe triangles for
each other, whether made with the fine, the arc, or
the tangent.—He then (hows fame properties of the
ordinates of curvilinear figures; and proves that the
fpaces which a body deferibes by any finite force
urging it, whether that force is determiaed and im¬
mutable, or is continually augmented or continually
diminifhed, are, in the very beginning of the motion,
one to the other in the duplicate ratio of the powers.
And, laftly, having added feme demonftrations con¬
cerning the evanefeence of angles of contact, he pro¬
ceeds to lay down the mathematical part of his f) Item,,
and which depends on the following theorems.
Theor. I. The areas which revolving bodies d<t-
feribe by radii drawn to an immoveable centre of force,
lie in the fame immoveable planes, and are proportional
to the times in which they are deferibed,— For, fup-
pofe the tim - to be divided into equal parts, and in
the firft part of that time, let the body by its
innate force deferibe the right line AB ^n' 2.) ;
in the fecond part of that time, the fame Would, by
law 1. if not hindered, proceed diredlly to c along
the line B cz=. AB ; fo that by the radii AS, 13S, c S,
drawn to the centre, the equal areas ASB, 13 S r,
would be deferibed. But, when the body is arrived
at B, fuppofe the centripetal force a&s at once with a
great impulfe, and, turning aiide the body from the right
line B Cy compels it afterwards to continue its motion
along the right line BC. Draw cC parallel to BS,
meeting BC in C ; and at the end of the fecond part
of the time, the body, by cor. 1. of the laws, will be
found in C, in the fame plane with the triangle ASB.
Join SC ; and becaufe SB and cC are parallel, the
triangle SBC will be equal to the triangle SBC, and
therefore alfo to the triangle SAB. By the like
argument, if the centripetal force adls fuccdfively in
C, D, E, &c. and makes the body in each iingle
particle of time to deferibe the right lines CD, DE,
EF,
NEW L 33 1 NEW
Newtonian EF, &c. they will all lie in the fame plane; and the
Philofophy. triangle SCD will be equal to the triangle SBC, and
v SDE to SCD, and SEF to SDE. And therefore,
in equal times, equal areas are defcribed in one im¬
moveable plane; and, by compolition, any fums
SADS, SAFS, of thofe areas are, one to the other,
as the times in which they are Jefcribed. Now, let
the number of thofe triangles be augmented, and their
fize diminifhed in infinitum ; and then, by the preced¬
ing lemmas, their ultimate perimeter ADF will be a
curve line : and therefore the centripetal force by
which the body is perpetually drawn back from the
tangent of this curve will aft continually ; and any
defcribed areas SADS, SAFS, which are always
proportional to the times of defcription, will, in this
cafe alfo, be proportional to thofe times Q^E. D.
Cor. 1. The velocity of a body attracted towards
an immoveable centre, in fpaces void of refiilance, is
reciprocally as the perpendicular let fall from that
centre on the right line which touches the orbit. For
. the velocities in thefe places A, B, C, D, E, are as
the bafes AB, BC, DE, EF, of equal triangles ;
and thefe bafes are reciprocally as the perpendiculars
let fall upon them.
Cor. 2. If the chords AB, BC, of two arcs fuccef-
fively defcribed in equal times by the fame body,
in fpaces void of refinance, are completed into a
parallelogram ABCV, and the diagonal BV of this
parallelogram, in the pofition which it ultimately ac¬
quires when thofe arcs are diminifhed in infinitum, is
produced both ways, it v/ill pafs through the centre
of force.
Cor. 3. If the chords AB, BC, and DE, EF, of
arcs defcribed in equal times, in fpaces void of refin¬
ance, are completed into the parallelograms A BCV,
DEFZ, the forces in B and E are one to the other
in the ultimate ratia of the diagonals BV, EZ,
when thofe arcs are diminifhed in infinitum. For
the motions BC and EF of the body (by cor. 1. of
the laws), are compounded of the motions Be, BV
and E/, EZ ; but BV and EZ, which are equal to
Cc— and F f, in the demonflration of this propofi-
tion, were generated by the impulfes of the centripe¬
tal force in B and E, and are therefore proportional
to thofe impulfes.
Cor. 4. The forces by which bodies, in fpaces
void of refiflance, are drawn back from redbilinear mo¬
tions, and turned into curvilinear orbits, are one to
another as the verfed fines of arcs defcribed in equal
times ; which verfed fines tend to the centre of force,
and bifeft the chords when thefe ares are diminifhed
to infinity. For fuch verfed fines are the halfs of the
diagonals mentioned in cor. 3.
Cor. 5. And therefore thofe forces are to the force
of gravity, as the faid verfed fines to the verfed fines
perpendicular to the horizon of thofe parabolic arcs
which projectiles deferibe in the fame time.
Cor. 6. And the fame things do ail hold good
(by cor. 5. of the laws) when the planes in which the
bodies are moved, together with the centres of force,
which are placed in thofe planes, are not at reft, but
move uniformly forward in right lines.
I heor. II. Every body that moves in any curve
line defcribed in a plane, and, by a radius drawn to a
point either immoveable or moving forward with an
uniform reftilinear motion, deferibes about that point Newtonin
areas proportional to the times, is urged by a centri-
petal force directed to that point.
Casp I. For every body that moves in a curve line
is (by law 1.) turned afide from its reftilinear courfe
by the aClion of fome force that impels it ; and that
force by which the body is turned off from its refti¬
linear courfe, and made to deferibe in equal times the
lead equal triangles SAB, SBC, SCD, &c. about the
immoveable point S, (by Prop. 40. E. 1. and law 2.)
a£ts in the place B according to the direction of a
line parallel to C ; that is, in the direftion of the line
BS ; and in the place C accordiag to the direftion of
a line parallel to d D, that is, in the direftien of the
line CS, &c. ; and therefore afts always in the direc¬
tion of lines tending to the immoveable point S.
Q^E. D.
Case II. And (by cor. 5. of the laws) it is in¬
different whether the fuperficies in which a body de¬
feribes a curvilinear figure be quiefeent, or moves to-
gether with, the body, the figure defcribed, and its
point S, uniformly forward in right lines.
Cor. 1. In non-refifting fpaces or mediums, if
the areas are not proportional to the times, the forces
are not direfted to the point in which the radii
meet ; but deviate therefrom in confiequentia, or to¬
wards the parts to which the motion is direfted, if the
defcription of the areas is accelerated; but in antece¬
dents if retarded.
Cor 2. And even in refilling mediums, if the
defcription of the areas is accelerated, the direftions
of the forces deviate from the point in which the
radii meet, towards the parts to which the motion
tends.
Scholium.
A body may be urged by a centripetal force com¬
pounded of feveral forces. In which cafe the meaning
of the propofition is, that the force which refults out
of all tends to the point S. But if any force adds
perpetually in the direftion of lines perpendicular to
the defcribed furface, this force will make the body to
deviate from the plane of its motion, but will neither
augment nor dimiailh the quantity of the defcribed
furface ; and is therefore not to be neglefted in the
compofition of forces.
I heor. III. Every body that, by a radius dtawn
to the centre of another body, howfoever moved, de¬
feribes areas about that centre proportional to the
times, is urged by a force compounded of the cen¬
tripetal forces tending to that other body, and of
all the accelerative force by which that other body is
impelled.— 1 he demonllration of this is a natural con*
fequence of the theorem immediately preceding.
rience, it the one body L, by a radius drawn to the
other body 1 , deferibes areas proportional to the
times, and from the whole force by which the firll
body E is urged, (whether that force is limple, or,
according to cor. 2. of the laws, compounded of fe¬
veral forces), we fubduft that whole accelerative force
by which the other body is urged; the whole remaining
force by which the firll body is urged will tend to the
other body T, as its centre.
And vice verfa, if the remaining force tends nearly
to the other body T, thofe areas will be nearly pro¬
portional to the times.
If
NEW r 39 J NEW
swIonian If the body L, by a radius drawn to the other
'hiioiophy. body T, defcribes areas, which, compared with the
times, are very unequal, and that other body T
be either at reft, or moves uniformly forward in a
right line, the adtion of the centripetal force tending
to that other body T is either none at all, or it is
mixed and combined with very powerful adtions of
other forces : and the whole force compounded of
' them all, if they are many, is diredfed to another
(immoveable or moveable) centre. The fame thing
obtains when the other body is adluated by any other
motion whatever ; provided that centripetal force is
taken which remains after fubdudling that whole force
adling upon that other body T.
Scholium.
Becaufe the equable defeription of areas indicates
that a centre is refpedfed by that force with which
the body is moil affected, and by which it is drawn
back from its redtilinear motion, and retained in
its orbit, we may always be allowed to ufe the
equable defeription of areas as an indication of a
centre about which all circular motion is performed in
free fpaces.
Theor.. IV. The centripetal forces of bodies which
by equable motions deferibe different circles, tend to
the centres of the fame circles; and are one to the
other as the fquares of the arcs deferibed in equal
times applied to the radii of circles.—For thefe forces
tend to the centres of the circles, (by theor. 2- and
cor. 2. theor. i.) and are to one another as the verfed
fines of the leaft arcs deferibed in equal times, i^by
cor. 4. theor. 1.) that is, as the fquares of the fame
arcs applied to the diameters of the circles, by one of
the lemmas; and therefore, fmee tiiofe arcs areas arcs
deferibed in any equal times, and the diameters are as
the radii, the forces will be as the fquares of any arcs
deferibed in the fame time, applied to the radii of the
circles. Q^E. D.
Cor. 1. Therefore, fince thofe arcs are as the ve¬
locities of the bodies, the centripetal forces are in a
ratio compounded of the duplicate ratio of the velo¬
cities diredfly, and of the limple ratio of the radii in-
vcrfely.
Cor. 2. And fince the periodic times are in a
ratio compounded of the ratio of the radii diredlly,
and the ratio of the velocities inverfely; the centripetal
forces are in a ratio compounded of the ratio of the
radii dire&ly, and the duplicate ratio of the periodic
times inverfely.-
Cor. 3. Whence, if the periodic times are equal,
and the velocities therefore as the radii, the centri¬
petal forces will be alfo as the radii; and the con¬
trary.
Cor. 4. If the periodic times and the velocities
are both in the fubduplicate ratio of the radii, the
centripetal forces will be equal among themfelves; and
the contrary.
Cor. 5. If the periodic times are as the radii,
and therefore the velocities equal, the centripetal
forces will be reciprocally as the radii; and the con¬
trary.
Cor. 6. If the periodic times are in the fefquipli-
cate ratio of the radii, and therefore the velocities re¬
ciprocally in theiubduplicate ratio of the radii, the
centripetal forces will be in the duplicate ratio of theNe.wtr,n;an
radii inverfely ; and the contrary. Philofephy.
Cor. 7. And univerfally, if the periodic time is as
any power Rn of the radius R, and therefore the ve¬
locity reciprocally as the power Ra~' of the radius,
the centripetal force will be reciprocally as the power
Rjn—2 0f racjjus . ancj contrary.
Cor. 8. The fame things all hold concerning the
times, the velocities, and forces, by which bodies de¬
feribe the fimilar parts of any fimilar figures, that
have their centres in a fimilar pofition within thofe
figures, as appears by applying the demon ftrations
of the preceding cafes to thofe. And the application
is eafy, by only fubftituting the equable defeription of
areas in the place of equable motion, and ufing the
ditbmees of the bodies from the centres inftead of the
radii.
Cor. 9. From the fame demonftration it likewife
follows, that the arc which a body uniformly revolving
in a circle by means of a given centripetal force de¬
fcribes in any time, is a mean proportional between
the diameter of the circle, and the fpace which the
fame body, falling by the fame given force, would de-
feend through in the fame given time.
“ By means of the preceding propofition and itc
corollaries (fays bir Ifaac), we may difeover the pro¬
portion of a centripetal force to any other known
force, fuch as that of gravity. For if a body by means
of its gravity revolves in a circle concentric to the
earth, this gravity is the centripetal force of that
body But from the defeent of heavy bodies, the time
of one entire revolution, as well as the arc deferibed
in any given time, is given (by cor. 9. of this theo¬
rem). And by fuch propofitions Mr Huygen*, in his
excellent book [)e Horologia OJcillatorio, has compared
the force of gravity with the centrifugal forces of re¬
volving bodies.
The preceding propofition may alfo be demonftra-
ted in the following manner. In any circle fuppofe a
polygon to be inferibed of any number of fides. And if
a body, moved with a given velocity along the fides
of the polygon, is refie&ed from the circle at the feve-
ral angular points ; the force with which, at every re-
fledtion it ftrikes the circle, will be as its velocity: and
therefore the fum of the forces, in a given time, will
be as that velocity and the number of refle&ions con-
jundtly ; that is, (if the Ipecies of the polygon be (ri¬
ven), as the length deferibed in that given time, and
increafed or diminifhed in the ratio of the fame length
to the radius of the circle; that is, as the fquare of *
that length applied to the radius ; and therefore, if
the polygon, by having its lides diminifhed in infi¬
nitum, coincides with the circle, as the fquare of the
arc deferibed in a given time applied to the radius.
This is the centrifugal force, with which the body
impels the circle ; and to which the contrary force#
wherewith the circle-continually repels the body to¬
wards the centre, is equal. ;
On thefe principles hangs the whole' of Sir Ifaac
Newton’s mathematical philofophy. He now (hows
how to find the centre to which the forces impelling
any body are diredted, having the velocity of the body
given . and finds the centrifugal force to be always as
the vei fed fine of the aafeent arc -diredtly, and as the
fquare -
N E W
Newtonian fquare of the time inverfely; or dire&ly as the fquare
rhilofophy. °|- tjie veioc[tyj an(j Jnverfely as the chord of the na--
v fcent arc. From thefe premiffes he deduces the method
of finding the centripetal force directed to any given
point when the body revolves in a circle ; and this
whether the central point is near or at an immenfe
diftance; fo that all the lines drawn from it may be ta¬
ken for parallels. The fame thing he (hows with re¬
gard to bodies revolving in fpirals, ellipfes, hyper¬
bolas, or parabolas —Having the figures of the orbits
given, he (hows alfo how to find the velocities and
moving powers; and, in (hort, folves all the mod dif¬
ficult problems relating to the celeftial bodies with an
aftonifhing degree of mathematical (kill. Thefe pro¬
blems and demonfirations are all contained in the firit
book of the Principia: but to give an account of them
here would far exceed our limits ; neither would many
of them be intelligible, excepting to firft-rate mathe-
iS maticians.
Rules for jn t]ie feconj book, Sir Ifaac treats of the proper-
cal'reafon-" t'es aitd their powers of refiftance ; and here
ing. he lays down fuch principles as entirely overthrow the
do&rine of Des Cartes’s vortices, which was the fa-
(hionable fyftem in his time. In the third book., he
begins particularly to treat of the natural phenomena,
and apply them to the mathematical principles former¬
ly demonftrated ; and, as a neceflary preliminary to
this part, he lays down the following rules for reafon-
ing in natural philofwphy.
1. We are to admit no more caufes of natural
things than fuch as are both true and fufficient to ex¬
plain their natural appearam es
2. Therefore to the fame natural effects we muff al¬
ways affign, as far as poffible, the fame caufes.
3. The qualities of bodies which admit neither in-
tenfion nor remifiion of degrees, and which are found
to belong to all bodies within the reach of our experi
ments, are to be efteemed the univerfal qualities of
all bodies whatfoever.
4. In experimental philofophy, we are to look upon
propofitions collefted by general indu&ion from phe¬
nomena as accurately or very nearly true, notwith-
llanding any contrary hypothefes that may be ima¬
gined, till fuch time as ether phenomena occur, by
which they may either be made more accurate, or li¬
able to exceptions.
The phenomena firft confidered, are, i.That the fa-
tellites of Jupiter by radii drawn to the centre of their
primary, deferibe areas proportional to the times of
their defeription ; and that their periodic times, the
fixed ftars being at reft, are in the fefquiplicate ratio of
their diltances from its centre. 2. The fame thing is
likewife obferved of the phenomena of Saturn. 3. The
five primary planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn, with their feveral orbits, encompafs the fun.
4. The fixed ftars being fnppofed at reft, the periodic
times of the five primary planets, and of the earth,
about the fun, are in the fefquiplicate proportion of
their mean diltances from the fun. 5. The primary
planets, by radii drawn to the earth, deferibe areas no
ways proportionable to the times: but the areas which
they deferibe by radii drawn to the fun are propor¬
tional to the times of defeription. 6. The moon,
by a radius drawn to the centre of the earth, deferibes
an area proportional to the time of defeription. AH
N0 2 41.
N E W
thefe phenomena are undeniable from aftronomical oh- Newtoniij
fervations, and are explained at large under the article ^ilofoplij
Astronomy. The mathematical demonftrations are
next appSed by Sir Ifaac Newton in the following
propofitions.
Prop. I. The forces by which the fatellites of Ju¬
piter are continually drawn oft from redfilinear mo¬
tions, and retained in their proper orbits, tend to the
centre of that planet; and are reciprocally as the
fquares of the diftances of thofe fatellites from that
centre. The former part of this propofttion appears
from theor. 2- or 3. and the latter from cor. 6. of
theor. q. ; and the fame thing we are to underftand of
the fatellites of Saturn.
Prop. II. The forces by which the primary planets
arc continually drawn off from rectilinear motions, and
retained in their proper orbits, tend to the fun ; and
are reciprocally as the fquares of the diftances from the
fun’s centre. The former part of this propofition is
manifeft from phenomenon 5. juft mentioned, anT
from theor. 2.; the latter from phenomenon 4. and
cor. 6. of theor. 4. But this part of the propofition
is with great accuracy dedueible from the quiefcence
of the aphelion points. For a very fmall aberration
from the reciprocal duplicate proportion would pro¬
duce a motion of the apli/les, fenfible in every fingle
revolution, and in many of them enormoufiy great.
Prop. III. The force by which the moon is retain¬
ed in its orbit, tends towards the earth ; and is reci¬
procally as the fquare of the diftance of its place from
the centre of the earth. The former part of this pro¬
pofition is evident from phenom 5. and theor. 2.; the
latter from phenom. 6. and theor. 2. or 3. it is alfo
evident from the very (low motion of the moon’s apo¬
gee ; which, in every fingle revolution, amounting but
to 30 3' in confequentia, may be negledfed : and this
more fully appears from the next propofition.
Prop IV. The moon gravitates towards the earth,
and by the force of gravity is continually drawn off
from a reftilinear motion, and retained in its orbit.-—
The mean diftance of the moon from the earth in the
fyzigies in femidiameters of the latter, is about 60r.
Let us affume the mean diftance of 60 femidiameters in
the fyzigies; and fuppofe one revolution of the moon
in tefpeft of the fixed (tars to be completed in 27 J. 7h.
43b as aftronemers have determined ; and the circum¬
ference of the earth to amount to 123,249,600 Paris
feet. Now, if we imagine the moon, deprived of all
motion, to be let go, fo as to defeend towards the
earth with the impulfe of all that force by which it is
retained in its orbit, it will, in the fpace of one minute
of time, deferibe in its fall 15^ Paris feet. For the
verfed fine of that arc which the moon, in the fpace
of one minute of time, deferibes by its mean motion
at the diftance of 6d femidiameters of the earth, is
nearly 15^ Paris feet; or more accurately, 15 feet
1 inch and one line £. Wherefore fince that force, in
approaching to the earth, increafes in the recipro¬
cal duplicate proportion of the diftance ; and, upon
that account, at the furface of the earth is 60X60
times greater than at the mown ; a body in our re¬
gions, falling with that force, ought, in the fpace of
one minute of time, to defcribc 60X60X15-^: Paris
feet ; and in the fpace of one fecond of time to de¬
feribe 15 -A of thofe feet; or, more accurately, 15 feet
1 1 inch,
C 40- ]
'new r
^ WfWtonlan t incli, i l!ne£. And with this very force we actually
Philofophy pR(y tyiat bodies here on earth do really defcend.—
' “ v ‘ For a pendulum ofcillating feconds in the latitude of
Paris, will be three Paris feet and 8-i- lines in length,
as Mr Huygens has obferved. And the fpace which
a heavy body defcribes by falling one fecond of time,
is to half the length of the pendulum in the duplicate
rati© of the circumference of the circle to its diame¬
ter 5 and is therefore 15 Paris feet, 1 inch, 1 line ~.
And therefore the force by which the mooU is retained
in its orbit, becomes) at the very furface of the enfth,
equal to the force of gravity which we obferve in
heavy bodies there. And therefore (by rule 1. and
2 ) the force by which the moon is retained in its or¬
bit is that very fame force which we commonly call
gravity. For were gravity another force different
from that, then bodies defcending to the earth with
the joint impulfe of both forces, would fall with a
double velocity, and, in the fpace of one fecond of
time, would defcribe 30^ Paris feet } altogether a-
gainfl experience.
The demonftration of this propofition maybe more
diffhfely explained after the following manner. Sup-
pofe feveral moons to revolve about the earth, as irt
the fyllem of Jupiter or Saturn, the periodic times of
thofe moons would (by the argument of indudh'ort)
obfetve the fame law which Kepler found to obtain
among the planets; and therefore their centripetal for¬
ces would be reciprocally as the fquares of the diftances
from the centre of the earth, by Prop. I. Now, if
the loweft of fhefe were veiy fmall, and were fo near
the earth as almoft to touch the tops of the higheft
mountains, the centripetal force thereof, retaining it
in its orbit, would be very nearly equal to the weights
of any terreftrial bodies that fhould be found upon
the tops of thefe mountains ; as may he known from
the foregoing calculation. Therefore, if the fame little
moon fhould be deferted by its centrifugal force that
carries it through its orbit, it would defcend to the
earth ; and that with the fame velocity as heavy bo¬
dies do actually defcend with upon the tops of thofe
very mountains, becaufe of the equality of forces that
oblige them both to defcend. And if the force by
•which that loweft moon would defcend were different
from that of gravity, and if that moon were to gravi¬
tate towards the earth) as we find terreftrial bodies do
on the tops of mountains, it would then defcend with
twice the velocity, as being impelled by both thefe
forces confpiring together. Therefore, fince both
thefe forces, that is, the gravity of heavy bodies, and
the centripetal forces of the moons) refpeft the Centre
of the earth, and are fimilar and equal between them-
felves, they will (by rule 1. and 2.) have the fame
caufe. And therefore the force which retains the
moon in its orbit, is that very force which we com¬
monly call gravity ; becaufe Otherwife, this little
moon at the top of a mountain mull either be with¬
out gravity, or fall twice as fwiftly as heavy bodies
ufe to do.
Having thus demonftrated that the mcon is retain-*
ed in its orbit by its gravitation towards the earth, it
is eafy to apply the fame demonftration to the motions
of the other fecundary planets, and of the primary pla¬
nets round the fun, and thus to (how that gravitation
prevails throughout the whole creation ; after which,
Sir Ifaac proceeds to fhow from the fame principles,
Vo*. XIII. Part I.
41 ] NEW
that the hedvenly bodies gravitate towards each other, Newtonian
and contain different quantities of matter, or have dif-
ferent denfities in proportion to their bulks. * *
Prop. V. All bodies gravitate towards every pla-*
net; and the weights of bodies towards the fame pla¬
net, at equal diftances from its centre, are proportional
to the quantities of matter they contain.
It has been confirmed by many experiments, that
all forts of heavy bodies (allowance being made for
the inequality of retardation by fome fmall refillance
of the air) defcend to the earth from equal heights iifr
equal times ; and that equality of times we may di*
ftinguifti to a great accuracy by the help of pendu¬
lums Sir Ifaac Newton tried the thing in gold, fil-
ver, lead, glafs, fand, common fait, wood, water, and
wheat. He provided two wooden boxes, round and
equal, filled the one with wood, and fufpended aii
equal Weight of gold in the centre of ofcillation of thd
other. The boxes hanging By equal threads of ir
feet, made a Couple of pendulums, perfedily equal irt
weight and figure) and equally receiving the refiftancC
of the aif. Arid placing the one by the other, he ob¬
ferved them to play together forwards and backwards,
for a long time, with equal vibrations. And there¬
fore the quantity of matter in the gold was to the
quantity of matter in the wood, as the aftion of the
motive force (or vis matrix) upon all the gold, to the
adfion of the fame upon all the wood ; that is, as the
•weight of the one to the weight of the other. And the
like happened iri the other bodies. By thefe experi¬
ments, in bodies of the fame Weight, he could mani-
feftly have difeovered a difference of matter Ids than
the thoufandth part of the whole, had any fuch been.
But, without all doubt, the nature of gravity towards
the planets, is the fame as towards the earth. For*
fhould we imagine our terreftrial bodies removed to the
orb of the moon, and there) together with the moon,
deprived of all motion, to be let go, fo as to fall to¬
gether towards the earth ; it is certain, from what w6
have demonftrated before, that, in equal times, they
would defcribe equal fpaces with the moon, and of
confequence are to the moon, in quantity of matter,
as their weights to its weight. Moreover, fince thd
fatellites of Jupiter perform their revolutions in times
which obferve the fefquiplieate proportion of their di¬
ftances from Jupiter’s centre, their accelerative gravi¬
ties towards Jupiter will be reciprocally as the fquares
of their diftances from Jupiter’s centre ; that is, equal
at equal diftances. And therefore, thefe fatellites, if
fuppofed to fall towards Jupiter from equ I heights*
Would defcribe equal fpaces in equal times, in like man¬
ner as heavy bodies do on our earth. And Ly the fame
argument, if the circumfolar planets were fuppofed to
be let fall at equal diftances from the fun, they would,
in their defeent towards the fun, defcribe equal fpaces
in equal times. But forces, which equally accelerate
unequal bodies, mult be as thofe bodies ; that is to fay,
the weights of the planets towards the fun muft be as
their quantities of matter. Further, that the weights
of Jupiter and of his fatellites towards the fun are pro¬
portional to the feveral quantities of their matter, ap¬
pears from the exceeding regular motions of the fatel¬
lites. For it fome of thofe bodies were more ftrongly
attra&ed to the fun in proportion to their quantity\>f
matter than others, the motions of the fatellites would
be difturbed by that inequality of attra&ion. If, at
3? equal
NEW [ 42 1 N E W
Newtonian CqUsl diftanccs from the fun, any-fatellite, in propor-
FhiU:|oF;h)-,t;otl tQ the qUantjty 0f Jtg matter, did gravitate to*
i wards the fun, with a force greater than Jupiter in pro¬
portion to his, according to any given proportion,
fuppofe of dtoe-, then the diftance between the centres
of the fun and of the fatellite’s orbit would be always
greater than the diftance between the centres of the
fun and of Jupiter nearly in the fubduplicate of that
proportion. And if the fatellite gravitated towards
the fun with a force lefs in the proportion of e to d,
the diftance of the centre of the fatellite’s orb from the
fun would be lefs than the diftance of the centre ot
Jupiter’s from the fun in the fubduplicate of the fame
proportion. Therefore, if, at equal diftances from the
fun, the accelerative gravity of any fatellite towards
the fun were greater or lefs than the accelerating gra¬
vity of Jupiter towards the fun but by rdoo Part
of the whole gravity ; the diilance of the centre of the
fatellite’s orbit from the fun would be greater or lefs
than the diftance of Jupiter from the fun by ToVo Part
of the whole diftance; that is, by a fifth part of the di-
flance of the utmoft fatellite from the centre of Jupiter;
an eccentricity of the orbit which would be very fen-
frble. But the orbits of the fatellites are concentric to
Jupiter ; therefore the accelerative gravities of Jupiter,
and of all its fatellites, towards the fun, are equal
among themfelves. And by the fame argument, the
weight of Saturn and of his fatellites towards the fun,
at equal diftances from the fun, are as their feveral
quantities of matter; and the weights of the moon
and of the earth towards the fun, are either none, or
accurately proportional to the maftes of matter which
they contain.
But further, the weights of all the parts of every
planet towards any other planet are one to another as
the matter in the feveral parts. For if fome parts gra¬
vitated move, others lefs, than in proportion to the quan¬
tity of their matter; then the whole planet, according
to the fort of parts w ith which it moft abounds, would
gravitate more or lefs than in proportion to the quantity
cf matter in the whole. Nor'is it of any moment whe¬
ther thefe parts are external or internal. For if, as an
inftance, we ftiould imagine the terreftrial bodies with
us to be raifed up to the orb of the moon, to be there
compared with its body ; if the w eights of fuch bodies
were to the weights of the external parts of the moon
as the quantities of matter in the one and in the other
refpe&iveiy, but to the weights of the internal parts
in a greater or lefs proportion ; then likewife the
weights of thofe bodies would be to the weight of the
whole moon in a greater or lefs proportion ; againil
what w'e have Ihewed above
Cor. 1. Hence the weights of bodies do not de¬
pend upon their forms and textures. For if the weights
could be altered with the forms, they would be great¬
er or lefs, according to the variety of forms in equal
matter ; altogether agaiiift experience.
Cor. 2. Univerfally, all bodies about the earth gra¬
vitate tov. ards the earth ; and the eights of all, at
equal diftances from the earth’s centre, are as the quan
tities of matter hich they feveraily contain This is
the quality of all bodies within the reach of our expe¬
riments; and therefore (by rule 3.) to be affirmed of
all bodies whatfoever. If ether., or any other body,
were either altogether void of gravity, or were to gra¬
vitate lefs in proportioii to its quantity of mg.tterj
then, becaufe (according to Ariftotle, Des Cartes, and Newtonian
others) there is «o difference betwixt that and other
bodies, but in mere form of matter, by a fucceffive J'j
change from form to form, it might be changed at laft:
into a body of the fame condition with thofe which
gravitate moft in proportion to their quantity of mat¬
ter ; and, on the other hand, the heavieft bodies, ac¬
quiring the firfl form of that body, might by degrees
quite lofe their gravity. And therefore the weights
would depend upon the forms of bodies, and with thofe
forms might be changed, contrary to what was proved
in the preceding corollary.
Cor. 3. All fpaces are not equally full. For if all
fpaces were equally full, then the fpecific gravity of the
fluid which fills the region of the air, on account of
the extreme denfity of the matter, would fall nothing
fnort of the fpecifio gravity of quick-filver or gold, ,
or any other the moft denfe body ; and therefore, nei¬
ther gold, nor any other body, could defeend in air.
For bodies do not defeend in fluids, unlefs they are
fptcificaliy heavier than the fluids. And if the quan¬
tity of matter in a given fpace can by any rarefaction
be diminifhed, what fhould hinder ^a diminution to in¬
finity ?
Cor. 4. If all the folid particles of all bodies are of
the fame denfity, nor can be rarefied without pores,
a void fpaee or vacuum muft be granted. [(By bodies
of the fame denfity, our author means thofe whofe vires
inertia are in the proportion of their bulks.]
Prop. VI. That there is a power of gravity tend¬
ing to all bodies, proportional to the feveral quantities
of matter which they contain.
That all the planets mutually gravitate one towards
another, we have proved before ; as well as that the
force of gravity towards every one of them, confidered
apart, is reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance of
places from the centre of the planet. And thence it
follows, that the gravity tending towards all the pla¬
nets is proportional to the matter which they contain.
Moreover, fince all the parts of any planet A gra¬
vitate towards any other planet B, and the gravity of
every part is to the gravity of the whole as the matter-
of the part to the matter of the whole ; and (by law 3.)
to every adlion correfponds an equal re-aftion : there¬
fore the planet B will, on the other hand, gravitate to¬
wards all the parts of the planet A ; and its gravity
towards any one part will he to the gravity towards
the whole, as the matter of the part to the matter of
the whole, B. D-
Cor. t. Therefore the force of gravity towards any
whole planet, arifes from, and is compounded of, that
forces of gravity towards all its parts. Magnetic and
electric attractions afford us examples of this. For all
attradlion towards the whole arifes from the attractions
towards the feveral parts. The thing may be eafily un<
derftood in gravity, if we confider a greater planet as
formed of a number of lefter planets, meeting together
in one globe. For hence it would appear that the
force ot the whole muft arife from the forces cf the
component parts. If it be o,Jetted, that, according
to this law. all bodies with us muft mutually gravitate
one towards another, whereas no fueh gravitation any
where appears : it is anfwered, that, lince the gravita¬
tion towards thefe bodies is to the gravitation towards
the whole earth, as theie bodies are to the whole earth,
the gravitation towards them mult be far lefs than to
3 fall •
'jVIan
;i! ii'ofof'hy.
N E W
fall unJer the obfervation of our fenfcs. [Th
•riments with regard to the attraftion of mountains,
however, have now further elucidated this point.]
Cor. 2. The force of gravity towards the feveral
equal particles of any body, is reciprocally as the fquare
of the diftanee of places from the particles.
Prop. VII. In two fpheres mutually gravitating
each towards the other, if the matter, in places on all
tides round about and equidilfant from the centres, is
limilar ; the weight of either fphere towards the other
will be reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance be¬
tween their centres.
For the demonllration of this, fee the Principia,
book i. prop. 75. and 76.
Cok. i. Hence we may find and compare together
the weights of bodies towards different planets. For
Newton.
[ 43 1 N F. W
expe* of the fun, but is determined by the parallax of the Newtonian
moon, and therefore is here truly defined. The fun Ph‘!°fophy,
therefore is a little denfer than Jupiter, and Jupiter
than Saturn, and the earth four times denfer than the
fun ; for the fun, by its great heat, is kept in a fort of
a rarefied ftate. The moon alfo is denfer than the
earth.
Cor. 4. The fmaller the planets are, they are, ce¬
teris paribus, of fo much the greater denfity. For fo
the powers of gravity on their feveral furfaces come
neater to equality. Fhey are likewife, c ceteris paribus,
of the greater denfity as they are nearer to the fun.
So Jupiter is more denfe than Saturn, and the earth
than Jupiter. For the planets were to be placed at
different difiances from the fun, that, according to their
degrees of denfity, they might enjoy a greater or lefs
", .... f , ' , —s.vw ^ ucmiLy, nicy miguc enjoy a greater c
the weights of bodies revolving in circles about pla- proportion of the fun’s heat. Our water, if it
nets are ns (lie diameters nf tlie rirrles direAli. ~nA , i- n ...
nets are as the diameters of the circles diredtly, and
the fquares of their periodic times reciprocally ; and
their weights at the furfaces of the planets, or at any
other diltances from their centres, are (by this prop.)
greater or lefs, in the itciprocal duplicate proportion
of the dillances. Thus from the periodic times of Ve¬
nus, revolving about the fun, in 2 2qd. i6jh; of the
- " ' , . ^ -‘V’ win maKe water non. i\or are we
utmoft mrcumjovial fatelhte revolving about Jupiter, in doubt, that the matter of Mercury is adapted to
loti. 1 o, Th. ; of the rluYtrenian fa-telhte about Sritm-n 1    1 r b 1
, were
removed as far as the orb of Saturn, would be con¬
verted into ice, and in the orb of Mercury would
quickly fly away in vapour. For the light of the fun,
to which its heat is proportional, is feven times denier
in the orb of Mercury than with us: and by the ther¬
mometer Sir Ifaac found, that a fevenfold heat of our
fimmer-fun will make water boil. Nor are we to
.  y  its
heat, and is therefore more denfe than the matter of
0111 eai Ji; fince, in a denfer matter, the operations of
nature require a ftronger heat.
It is fiiown in the fcholium of prop. 22. book 2. of the
/ rincipia, that, at the height of 200 miles above the
earth, the air is more rare than it is at the fuperficies of
the earth, in the ratio of 30 to 0,0000000000003998,
or as 75000000000000 to 1 nearly. And hence the
planet Jupiter, revolving in a medium of the fame den¬
fity with that fuperior air, would not lofe by the re-
fiftance of the medium the 1 ooooooth part of its mo¬
tion in 1000000 years. In the fpaces near the earth-,
the refinance is produced only by the air, exhalations,
and vapours. When thefe are carefully exhaufted by
the air-pump from under the receiver, heavy bodies
fall within the receiver with perfect freedom, and with¬
out the leaft fenfible refinance ; gold itfelf, and the
lighten do wn, let fall together, will defeend with equal
velocity : and though they fall through a fpace of four,
fix, and eight feet, they will come to the bottom at
1 6 ,8?h. ; of the Huygenian fa-tellite about Saturn
in 1 jd. 22Jh ; and of the moon about the earth in
2;d. 7h. 43'; compared with the mean difiance of Ve¬
nus from the fun, and with the greatefi heliocentric
elongations of the outmofi circumjovial fatellite from
Jupiter’s centre, 8 i6" ; of the Huygenian fatellite
from the centre of Saturn, 3' 4" ; and of the ffcoon from
the earth, icy 33''; by computation our author found,
that the weight of equal bodies, at equal difiances from
the centres of the fun, of Jupiter, of Saturn, and of the
earth, towards the fun, Jupiter, Saturn, and the earth,
were one to another as andrc-
fpedtively. Then, becaufc as the difiances are increafed
or diminifhed, the weights are diminifhed or increafed
in a duplicate ratio ; the weights of equal bodies to¬
wards the fun, Jypiter, Saturn, and the earth, at the
difiances 10000, 997, 791, and 109, from their cen¬
tres, that is, at their very fuperficies, will be as ioodo,
943> 579> an^ 435 refpedively.
Cor. 2. Hence likewife we difeover the quantity of
and d e'earth a^; ' ^ fim’JUP‘Jer’ Saturn’ h™S P^fedly void of air and exhalations, the planets
tivey ,f th; parallax^if the Tun bf.aS gT~r' th?fC rp—
irfs than ,o» jo'", the quantity of matter in the earth menfe fpace of time ‘ ° "Ug l hem f°r IIU'
Z pmponr'* r d'min"he‘1 ‘"Ih£ triPlicateof r Nbwtou (Richard) D D. the founder of Hert.
Coa. 3. Hence alfo we find the deufities of the gTv) tat a^rfiekranl Tatrr a"'^ ^
enjoyed at Lavendon Grange in Bucks a moderate
eftate, which is i ill in the family, though he lived in
a houfe of Lord Northampton’s in Yardley-Chace
where in 1675 our dodor was born. AH agree that
locoo, 997, 791, and 109 ; and the weight^'towards fnedableYthouf ^ fpri!n? uad l0ng been re'
the fame, as 10000, 945, 5*9, and 4.35 refpedively ; durfng !he greaf rebelhon111168 ‘ ^
4CO. rtlX c9otes^taby Tfie rUhj1 °f ,thfiS a;ticle was ed^ted at Weft-
,h,) “"■» ^ P-alli -p oXlt03Af s r.
F- 0
2 he
equal and fimilar todies towards fimilar fpheres, are,
«u the iurtaces ol thofe fpheres, as the diameters of the
fpheres. And therefore the denfities of diffimilar
fpheres are as thofe weights applied to the diameters
of the fpheres. But the true diameters of the fun, Ju¬
piter, Saturn, and the earth, were one to another as
new
[ 44 ]
NEW
K^wton.
he was admitted into the univerfity we have no certain
' information ; but in the lift of graduates he is thus
diiWuifhed: “Newton (Richard,) Chnfbchurch,
M. A- April 12th 1701 ; B. D. March 18th 1707 ;
Hart-hall, D. D. December 7th 1^0. He was
appointed a tutor in Chrift-church as foon as he was o
the requifite ftanding in his college, and aifcharged
the duties of that important office with honour to him-
felf and advantage to the fociety of which he was a
member. From Oxford he was called (we know not
at what precife period) into Lord Pelham’s family to
fuperintend the education of the late duke of New-
caftle and his brother Mr Pelham ; and by both thefe
illuftrious perfons he was ever remembered with the
moft affe£tionate regard. In 1710 he was by ddr
Aldrich, the celebrated dean ofChnft-church, indudted
principal of Hart-hall, which was then an appendage
to Exeter college. From this ftate of dependance
Dr Newton wrefted it againft much oppofition, elpe-
cially from the learned Dr Conybeare, afterwards
dean of Chrift-church and bilhop of Briltol. In no
conteft, it has been obferved, w^ere ever tw'o men
more equally matched ; and the papers that palled be¬
tween them, like Junius’s letters, deferved to be col-
kdted for the energetic beauty of their uyle and the
ingenuity of their arguments. Dr Newton, however,
proved fuccefsful; and in l74=> obtamed a charter,
converting Hart-hall into Hertford college; of which,
at a confiderable expence to himfelf, and with great aid
from his numerous friends, he was thus the founder
and tirft head. .
Though this excellent man w-as Mr Pelham s tutor,
and, if report be true, had by him been more than
once employed to furniffi king's fpeeches, he never re¬
ceived the fmalleft preferment from his pupil when
firft minifter: and when that ftatefman was afked,
why he did not place in a proper ftation the able and
meritorious Dr Newton? his reply was, “ How could
I do it? he never alked me.” He was not, however,
neplecfted by all the great. Dr Compton, bilhop of
London, who had a juft fenfe of his merits, had, at
an early period of his life, collated him to the re&ory
of Sudbury in the county of Northampton, which he
held together with the headlhip of Hart-hall. He
refided for fome years on that living, and difeharged
all the parts of his office with exemplary care and
fidelity. Amongft other particulars he read the prayers
of the liturgy in his church at feven o clock in the
evening of every week-day (hay-time and harveft
excepted), for the benefit of fuch of hisjiarilhioners as
could then affemble for public devotion. When he
left the place, returning again to Oxford about 17241
he enjoined his curates to obferve the fame pious
praftice ; and was fortunate enough^to have three fuc-
ceffively w'ho trode in the fteps of their worthy principal.
Being always an enemy to pluralities with cure of
fouls, he exerted his utmoft endeavours from time to
time with Dr Gibfon, Biffiop Compton’s.fuceeffor in
the fee of London, for leave to refign his reftory in
favour of his curate. To the refignation his lordihip
could have no obje&ion ; but being under fome kind
of engagement to confer the living on another, Dr
Newton retained it himfelf, but bellowed all the emo¬
luments upon works of charity in the pariffi, and cu¬
rates who fo faithfully difeharged their duty. Dr
Sherlpck, who fuccceded Biffiop Gibfon, being under
no engagement of a like nature, very readily granted
Dr Newton’s requeft, by accepting his refignation, and
colkiting to the re£lory Mt Saunders, who was the laft
of his curates. Upon a vacancy of the public ora¬
tor’s place at Oxford, the head of Hertford college of¬
fered himfelf a candidate ; but as the race is nor al¬
ways to the fvvift nor the battle to the ftrong, Dr
Digby Coates carried the point againft him. He was
afterwards promoted to a canonry of Chrift-church,
but did not long enjoy it; for in April. 1753 death
deprived the world of this excellent man in the 78th
year of his age.
He was allowed to be as polite a fcholar, and as ac«
complifhtd a gentleman, as almoft any of the age in
which he lived. In clofenefs of argument, and peifpi-
cuity of ftyle, he had no fuperior. Never was any
private perfon employed in more trufts, nor were trufts
ever difeharged with greater integrity. He was a zeal¬
ous friend to religion, the univerfity, the clergy, and
the poor; and fuch was his liberality offentiment, that
he admitted to his friendfhip every man, whatever
might be his religious creed, who was earneftly em¬
ployed in the fame good works with himfclt the
promotion of virtue and unaffefted piety. .Of his works
we have feen only his cTbeophrciJlusi which was pub-
liffied after his death ; and his Pluralities Indefenfible;
but he publiffied feveral other things during his life,
and left a volume of fermons prepared for the prefs at
his death. r t> -n. 1
Newton (Thomas), late lord biffiop of Briftol
and dean of St Paul’s, London, was born on the firft
of January 1704. His father, John Newton, was a
confiderable brandy and cyder merchant, who, by his
induftryand integrity, having acquired what he thought
a competent fortune, left off trade feveral years before
he died. . . f
He received the firft part of his education in the free
fchool of Litchfield ; a fchool which, the biihop ob-
ferves with fome kind of exultation, had at all times
fent forth feveral perfons of note and eminence ; from
Bifhop Smaldridge and Mr Wollafton, to Dr Johnfon
and Mr Garrick. .
From Litchfield he was removed to Weftmmiter
fchool, in 17171 un^er care -^r I<rffin^ anc^
Nicoll.
During the time he was at Weftmrnfter, there were,
he obferves, more young men who made a diftinguifh-
ed figure afterwards in the world, than perhaps at any
other period, either before or fince. He particularly
mentions William Murray, the late earl of Mansfield,
with whom he lived on terms of the higheft fiiendinip
to the laft. ,
He continued fix years at Weftminfter fchool, five
of which he paffed in the college. He afterwards went
to Cambridge, and entered at Trinity college Here
he conftantly refided eight months at leaft in every year,
till he had taken his Bachelor of Arts degree. Being
chofen Fellow of his college, he came afterwards to
fettle in London As it had been his inclination from
a child, and as he was alfo defigned for holy orders,
he had fufficient time to prepare himfelf, and compofed
fome fermons, that he might have a rtock in hand
when he entered on the miniftry. His title for orders
was his fellowfhip ; and he was ordained deacon m
December 1729, and prieft in the February following,
by Biffiop Gibfon. . ^
ewton,
NEW [ 45 1 N E X
at Grofvenor chapel, in South-Audley ftreet. September 1761. She was the widow of the Rev.
This introduced him to the family of Lord Tyrcon- Mr Hand, and daughter of John Lord-Vifcaunt Lif-
nel, to whofe fon he became tutor. He continued in burn. In the fame month he killed his majefty’s hand
this fituation for many years, very much at his eafe, for his bilhopric.
and on terms of great intimacy and friendlhip with lord In the winter of 1764, Dr Stone, the primate of
and lady Tyrconnel, “ without fo much (fays he) as Ireland, died. Mr Grenville fent for Bilhop Newton,
an unkind word or a cool look ever intervening.” and in the moll obliging manner dtfired his accep-
In the fpring of 1744, he was, through the interell tance of the primacy. Having maturely weighed the.
of the earl of Bath (who was his great friend and pa- matter in his mind, he declined the offer,
tron, and whofe frfendfhip and patronage were re- In 1768 he was made dean of St Paul’s. His am-
turned by grateful acknowledgments and the warmeft bition was now fully fatisfied ; and he firmly refolved.
encomiums), prefented to the redtory of St Mary le never to allc for any thing more.
Bow ; fo that he was 40 years old before he obtained From this time to his death, ill health was almoll
any living. his conllant companion. It was wonderful that fuch a
At the commencement of i745»he took his dodlor’s poor,weak,and fi. nder thread as the bilhop’slife,lhould.
degree. In the fpring of 1747 he was chofen lecturer be fpun out to fuch an amazing.length as it really was.,
of St George’s, Flanover fquare, by a molt refpedable In the autumn of 178) (ufually the moll favourable
veftry of noblemen and gentlemen of high diftinition. part of the year to him) he laboured under repeated
In Auguft following he married his firll wife, the el- illnelfes ; and on Saturday the 9th of February 1782,,
dell daughter of Dr Trebeck ; an unaffected, modell, he began to find his breath much affeCted by the froft.
decent young woman, with whom he lived very happy His complaints grew worfe and worfe till the I hurf-
in mutual love and harmony near feven years. day following. He got up at five o’clock, and was
In 1549 he publifired his edition of Milton’s Para- placed in a chair by the fire ; complained to his wife
dife Loll, which (fays he, very modeftly) it is hoped how much he had fullered in bed, and repeated to
hath not been ill received by the public, having, in himfelf that portion of the Pialms, “ O my God, I
1779, gone through eight editions. After the Para- cry unto thee in the day-time,” See. &c. About fix
dife Loll, it was judged (fays he) proper that Dr o’clock he was left by his apothecary in a quiet lleep.
Newton firould alfo publiflr the Paradife Regained, Between feven and eight he awoke, and appeared ra«
and other poems of Milton; but thefe things he thought ther more eafy, and took a little refreflrment. He
detained him from other more material Rudies, though continued dozing till near nine, when he ordered his
he had the good fortune to gain by them more than fervant to come and drefs him, and help him down
Milton did by all his works put together. But his Hairs. As foon as he was dreffed, he inquired the
greatdl gain (he fays) was their firft inti-oducing him hour, and bid his fervant open the firutter and look at
to the friendlhip and intimacy of two fuch men as Bi- the dial of St Paul’s. The fervant anfwered, it was up-
fhop Warburton and Dr Jortin, whofe works will on the llroke of nine. The bilhop made an eftort to take
fpeak for them better than any private commendation, out his watch, with an intent to fet.it; but funk down
In 1754 he loll his father, at the age of 83 ; and in his chair, and expired without a figh or the lead,
within a few days his wife, at the age of 38. This vifible emotion, his countenance Hill retaining the-
was the fevered trial he ever underwent, and almod fame placid appearance which was fo peculiar to him
overwhelmed him. At that time he was engaged in when alive. Of his numerous works, his Differ'cations-
writing his Differtations on the Prophecies; and hap- on the Prophecies are by much the mod vabluale.
py it was for him : for in any afflitlion he never found His learning was undoubtedly very conliderable ; but
a better or more effedlual remedy than plunging deep he feldom exhibits evidence of a very vigorous mind,
into iludy, and fixing his thoughts as intenfely as he On one occafion, indeed, he appears to have thought
pofiibly could upon other fubjedts. The firll volume with freedom ; for we believe he was the fird digni-
was publifhed the following winter; but the other did tary of the church of England who avowed his be^
not appear till three years afterwards ; and as a reward lief of the final reftitution of all things to harmony
for his pad and an incitement to future labours, he was and happinefs.
appointed, in the mean time, to preach the Boyle’s NEWTYA, a port little known, on the coad be-
lediure. The bifiiop informs uS, that 1250 copies of tween Goa, the capital of the Portuguefe fettlements in.
the Differtations were taken at the finl imprefiion, and India, and the. Fnglifh fettlement of Bombay. Mr Ren-
1000 at every other edition : and “ though (fays he) nel conjectures it to be the Nitrias of Pliny ; near which
fume things have been fince publifhed upon the fame the pirates cruized for the Roman fliip. 'Phe fame writer
fuhjedts, yet they dill hold up their head above water, places it near to 150 52'30" North Latitude, and 73^
and having gone through five editions, are again pre- 16' 30’' Ead Longitude.
pared for another. Abioad, too, their reception hath NEXI, among the Romans, perfons free-born, who
not been unfavourable, if accounts from thence may be for debt were reduced to a date of flavery. By the
depended upon.” i hey were tranflated into the Ger- laws of the twelve tables it was ordained, that infolvent
man and Danifh languages ; and received the warmed debtors fhould be given up to their creditors to be
encomiums from perfons of learning and rank. bound in fetters and cords, whence they were called
In the fpring of 1757, he was made prebendary of Next; and though they did not entirely lofe the rights.
« ofr
At his firft fetting out in his office, he was curate Weftminfter, in the room of Dr Green, and promoted Newton
at St George’s, Hanover-fquare ; and continued for fe- to the deanry of Salilbury. In OClober following, N|L
vfral years afliftant-preacher to Dr Trebeck. His firft he was made fub almoner to his majefty. This he ow- -
tm-pferment was that of reader and afternoon-preacher ed to Biihop Gilbert. He married a fecond wife in
N G O [ 46 1 N I A
‘.Nfy‘"ecl.t of freemen, yet they were often treated more hardily
'N-okia than the Oaves themfelve?:. If any one was indebted
<' . to feveral p;rfons, and could not within fixty da^s find
a cautioner, his body according to fonae, but ac¬
cording to ethers his efiedls, might be cut in pieces,
and divided among his creditors. This latter opinion
feems by much the molt probable, as Livy mentions
a law by which creditors had a 1 i. ftt to attach the
goods but not the perfons of their debtors.
NEYTRECHT, a town of Upper Hungary, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee ;
fcated on the river Neitra, 40 miles north-eaft. ot
Prefliurg. E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat. 48. 28.
NGAN-K tNG-FOU, a city'of China, and capi¬
tal of the weflern part of the province of Krang-nan.
It is governed by a particular viceroy, who keeps a
• large garrifon in a fort built on the bank? of the river
Yang-tfe-kiang. Its fituation is delightful; its com¬
merce and riches render it very confiderable; and every
thing that goes from the fouthern part of Cly'na to
Nan-king muft pafs through it. All thecountry be*
longingito it is level, plcafant, and fertile. It has
under its junTdicfion only fix cities of the third clsfs.
NGO-KIA, a Chinefe drug, of which the compo-
fition will no doubt appear as Angular as the numerous
properties aferi! ed to it. In the province Chang tong,
near Ngo-hien, a city ©f the third clafs, is a well,
formed by nature, which is reckoned to be feventy
feet in depth, and which has a communication, as the
Chinefe fay, with fome fubterranean lake, or other
large refervoir. The water drawn from it is exceed-
iugiy clear, and much heavier than common ; and if it
be mixed with muddy water, it purifies it, and ren¬
ders it limpid, by precipitating all its impurities the
bottom of the veffel. This water, is employed in ma¬
king the ngo-kia, which is nothing elfe but a kind of
-glue procured from the /kin of a black afs.
The animal is killed and flayed, and the Ikin is fteep-
ed for five days in water drawn from this well. At
the end of that time, it is taken out to be feraped and
cleaned ; it is afterwards cut into fmall pieces, which
are boiled over a flow fire, in the fame kind of water,
until it is reduced to a jelly, which is ftrained, while
warm, through a cloth, to free it from all the grofs
matter which could not be melted. When this glue
is cool, and has acquired a confiftence, it is formed
into fquare cakes, upon which the Chinefe imprint cha-
•ra&ers and coats of arms, or the figns of their fliops.
This well is the only one of the kind in China ; it
is always (hut, and fealed by the governor of the place
with his own feal, until the cuflomary day of ma¬
king the emperor’s glue. This operation generally
lafts from the autumnal harveft till the month of March.
During that time, the neighbouring people and mer¬
chants treat for the pur;hafe of the glue with thofe
who guard the well, and with the people who make
it. The latter manufafture as much of it as they
can, on their own account, with this difference,
that it is not fo pure, and that they are lefs fcrupulous
in examining whether the afs be fat, or of a very
black colour : however, all the glue made here is as
much efteemed at Peking as that which the mandarins
who are on the fpot tranfmit to court and to their
friends.
As this drug is in the greatefl; requeff, and as the
quantity of it made at Ngo-hien is not fufacient to Niagara,
fipply the whole empire, there are not wanting people '—
who counterfeit it elfewhere, and who manufacture
a fpririque kind from the fkins of mules, horfes, and
camels, and fometimes even from old boots : it is,
however, very eafy to dillinguith that which is ge¬
nuine ; it has neither a bad tmell nor a difagreeable
t die when applied to the mouth ; it is brittle and
friable, and always of a deep black colour, fometimes
inclining to red. The qualities of the counterfeit
kind are entirely different; both its taffe and fmell
are difagreeable, and it is vifeous and flabby even
when made of the (kin of a hog, which is that which
imitates the true kind the befi.
The Chinefe attribute a great number of virtues tr»
this drug. They affure us that it difiblves phlegm, fa¬
cilitates the play and ehfticity of the lungs, gives a
free refpiration to thofe who breathe with difficulty ^
that it comforts the bresft, increafes the blood, flops
dyfenterics, provokes urine, and flrengthens children m
the womb. Without warranting the truth of allthefe
properties, it appears, at lead, certain, by the tefti-
mony of the miffionaries, that this drug is ferviceable
in all difeafes of the lungs. It is taken with a de-
codion of limples, and fometimes in powder, hut very
feldom.
NIAGARA, a fort of North America, which was
taken from the French 1 759, and ftill remains in pof-
feffion of the Britifh government. To the author of
the American Geography this feems to give great
offence ; probably btcaufe the fort in a manner com¬
mands all the interior parts of the continent ; is a key
to the north-weflern territories of the united ftates ;
and is furrounded by Six Nations of Indians, with whom
the Englifh have been long in alliance. It is fituated
on a fmall penfnfula formed by the river Niagara as it
flows into the lake Ontario. About fix leagues from
the fort is the greatefl; cataradt in the world, known by
the name of the Waterfall cf Niagara. The river at
this fall runs from SSE to NNVV; and the rock of
the fall croffes it not in a right line, but forms a
kind of figure like an hollow femicirde or horfe-
flioe. Above the fall, in the middle of the river, is a«
ifland about 800 or 1000 feet long ; the lower end of
which is jud at the perpendicular edge of the fall.
On both iides of this ifland runs all the water that
comes from the lakes cf Canada ; viz. Lake Superior,
Lake Mifchigan, Lake Huron, and Lake Eric, which
have fome large rivers that open themfelves into them.
Before the water comes to this ifland, it runs but (low¬
ly compared with its motion afterwards, when it grows
the mod rapid in the world, running with a furprifing
fwiftnefs before it comes to the fall. It is perfeddy
white, and in many places is thrown high up into the
air. The water that runs down cn the weft fide is
more rapid, in greater abundance, and whiter, than
that on the eaff fide ; and feems almoft. to outfly an
arrow in fwiftnefs. When you are at the fall, and
look up the river, you may fee that the water is every
where exceedingly fteep, almoft like the fide of an
hill ; but when you come to look at the fall itfelf, it
is impoffible to exprefs the amazement it occafions.
The height of it, as meafured by mathematical inftru-
ments, is found to be exactly 137 feet ; and when the
water is come to the bottom, it jumps back to a very
great
N I A [ 47 ] N I A
Niagara, great height in the air. The noife may be heard at
^ 1 the diftance of 45 miles, but feldom further ; nor
can it be heard even at Fort Niagara, which is only
fix leagues diftant, uniefs Lake Ontario is calm. At
that ;ort it is obferved, that when they hear the noife
of the fall more loud than ordinary, they are fure that
a north-eafl wind will follow ; which is the more fur
prifing, as tha fort lies fouth-weft from the fall. At
fome times the fall makes a much greater noife than at
others : and this is held for an infallible iign of ap¬
proaching rain or other bad weather.
t rom the place where the water falls there arifes
abundance of vapour like very thick fmoke, infomuch
that when viewed at a diftance you would think that
the Indians had fet the iorefts on lire. Thefe vapours
rife high in the air when it is calm, but are difperfed
hy the wind when it blows hard. If you go into this
vapour or fog, c>r if the wind blows it on you, it is fo
penetrating, that in a few moments you will be as wet
as if you had been under water. Some are of opinion
that when birds come flying into this fog or fmoke of
the hill, they drop down and perifh in the water ; either
becaufe their wings are become wet, or that the noife
of the fall aftonifhes them, and th -y knoa not where
to go in the darkneis : but others think that feldom
or never any bird perifhes there in that manner ; be¬
caufe among the abundance of birds found dead be
low the fall, there are no other forts than fuch as
live and fwim frequently in the water ; as fwans, geefe,
ducks, water-hens, teal, and the like. And very
often great flocks of them are feen going to deftruc-
tion in this manner: they fwim in the river above the
.iul, and fo are earned down lower and lower by the
water ; and as water-fowl commonly take great delipht
* in being carried with the ft ream, they indulge them-
felves in enjoying this pleafure fo long, till the fwift-
nefs of the water becomes fo great, that it is no longer
poflible for them to rife, but they are driven down the
precipice and perifh. They are obferved, when they
draw nigh the fall, to endeavour with all their might
to take wing and leave the water ; but they cannot.
In the months of September and Odober fuch abun¬
dant quantities of dead water-fowl are found every
morning below the fall, on the fhore, that thegarrifon
of the fort for a long time live chiefly upon them.
Belides the fowl they find alfo feveral forts of dead
fifh, alio deer, bears, and other animals which have
tried to crofs the water above the fall: the larger
animals aie generally found broken to pieces. Juft
below, a little way from the fall, the water is not ra¬
pid, but goes all in circles, and whirls like a boiling
pot ; which however does not hinder the Indians gor¬
ing upon it in fmall canoes a-fifliing ; but a little fur¬
ther, and lower, the other fmaller falls begin. When
you are above the fall, and look down, your head be
g’.4is to turn ; even fuch as have been here numberlefs
tunes, will feldom venture to look down, without at the
fime time keeping faft hold of fome tree with one
hand.
It was formerly thought impoffible for any body
hvm, ■; to come at the if land that is in the middle of
th. fad : but an accident that happened about co
years ago made it appear otherwife.' The hiftory
is this: I wo Indians of the Six Nations went out
from Niagara fort to hunt upon an ifland that is in the
middle of the river, or ftrait, above the great fall, on
which there ufed to be abundance of deer. They took
fome French brandy with them from the fort, w iich
they tailed feveral times as they were going over the
carrying-placc; and when they were in their canoe,
they took now and then a dram, and fo went alornr-
up the ftrait towards the Hand where they pronofed.
to hunt; but growing fteepy, they laid themfelvcs
down in the canoe, which getting look drove back
with the ft ream, farther and farther down, till it came
nigh that ifhnd that is in the middle of the fall. Here
one of them, awakened by the noife of the fall cries
out to the other, tint they were gone : Yet they tried
if poffible to five life. This ifland was nigheft, and
with much working they got on fhore there. At
firft they were glad; but when they had confidered-
every thing, they thought themfelves hardly in a bet¬
ter ftate than if they had gone down the fall, fince
they had now no other choice, than either to throw
themfelves down the fame, or perifh with hunger.
But hard neceflity put them on invention. At the
lower end of the ifland the rock is perpendicular, and
no water is running there. The ifland has plenty of
wood; they went to work then, and made a ladder
or fhrouds of the bark of the lin 1-tree (which is very
tough and ftrong) fo long till they could with it reach
the water below ; one end of this bark-ladder they
tied fa ft to a great tree that grew at the fide of the
rock atxjve the fall, and let the other end down to the
watei. So they went down along their new-invented
ftairs, and when they came to the bottom in the mid¬
dle of the fall they refted a little ; and as the water
next, below the fall is not rapid, as before-mention¬
ed, they threw themfelves out into it, thinking to
fwim on fhore. We have faid before, that one part
of the full is on one fids of the ifland, the other on
the otner tide. Hence it is, that the waters of the
two catara&s running againft each other, turn back
again ft the rock that is juft under the ifland. There-
foie, har.ily had the Indians begun to fwim, before
the waves of the eddy threw them down with violence
againft the rock from whence they came. They
tried it feveral times, but at hft grew weary; and by-
being often thrown againft the rock they were much
bruifed, and the flcin torn off their bodies in miny
places.. So they were obliged to climb up flairs again
to the iflanj, not knowing what to do. After fome
time they perceived Indians on the fhore, to whom
they cned out. Thefe fiw and pitied them, but gave
them little hope or help : yet they made ha te down
to the fort, and told the commandant where two of
their brothers were. He perfuided them to try all
poflible means of relieving the two poor Indians; and
it was done in the following manner :
The water that runs on the eaft fide of this ifland is
mallow, tfpeciaUy a little above the ifland towards the
eaftern fhore. The commandant caufed poles to be
made and pointed with iron ; two Indians took upon
them to walk to this iflaryi by the help of thefe poles,
to fave the other poor creatures, or perifh themfelves!
1 hey took leave of all their friends, as if they were
gciig to death. Each had two fuch poles in his
hands,^ to fet to the bottom of the ftream, to keep
them fteady ; and m this manner reached the ifland: and
having given poles to the two poor negroes there, they -
all
Niagara.
N I A _ t. 48 . ^
iJlagara. 'all returned fafely to the main land. Thefe two Indians him.
"w (who in the abovementioned manner were firft brought
to this iiland) were nine days on the ifland, and almol
ready to ftarve to death. ISiow fince the road to this
ifland has been found, the Indians go there often to
kill deer, which have tried to crofs the river above
the fall, and are driven upon it by the ftream. On
the weft fide of this ifland are feme fmall iflands or
rocks, of no confequence. The eaft fide of the liver is
almoft perpendicular, the weft fide more floping. _ In
‘former times, U part of the rock at the fall which is oh
the weft fide of the ifland, hung over in fuch a man¬
ner, that the water which fell perpendicularly from it
left a vacancy below, fo that people could go under
between the rock and the water; but the prominent
part fome years fince broke off and fell down. . 1 he
breadth of the fall, as it runs in a femicircle, js rec¬
koned to be about 300 feet. The ifland is in the
middle of the fall, and from it the writer on each fide
is almoft the fame breadth ; the breadth of the ifland
at its lower end is about 100 feet. Below the fall,
in the holes of the rocks, are great plenty of Cels,
which the Indians and French catch with their hands
without any other means. Every day when the fun
Ihines, you fee here from ten o’clock in the morning
to two in the afternoon, below the fall, and under
you, where you ftand at the fide of the fall, a glo¬
rious rainbow, and fometimes two, one within the
other. The more vapours, the brighter and clearer
is the rainbow. When the wind carries the vapours
from that place, the rainbow is gone, but appears
again as foon as new vapours come. From the fall
to the landing above it, where the canoes from Lake
Erie put a flume (or from the fall to the upper end of
the carrying-place), is half a mile. Lower the ca¬
noes dare not come, left they ftiotild be obliged to
try the fate of the two Indians, and perhaps with
lefs fuccefs. They have often found below the fall
pieces of human bodies, perhaps drunken Indians,
that have unhappily come down to the fall. The
French fay, tha*t they have often thrown whole
great trees into the water above, to fee them tumble
down the fall : they went down with furprifing fwift-
iiefs, but could never be feen afterwards ; whence it
was thought there was a bottomlefs deep or abyfs juft
Under the’fall. The rock of the fall confifts of a grey
limeftone.
Having mentioned the Six Nations which live on the
banks of the Niagara, we {hall here, in addition to
what we have faid elfewhere (fee America, n0 17.),
fubjoin a few particulars relative to thofe nations,
which, as they feem not to be well underftood even
in America, are probably ftill lefs known in Europe.
The information which we have to give was com¬
municated to the Royal Society of London by Mr
Richard M’Caufland furgeon to the 8th regiment of
foot, who, writing from the beft authority, informs
us, that each nation is divided into three tribes, of
which the principal are called the turtle-tribe, the wolf-
tribe, and the betir-trile.
Each tribe has two, three, or more chiefs, called
fachems ; and this diftinftion is always hereditary in
the family, but defeends along the female line : for
Inftance, if a chief dies, one of his fift-. r's Ions; or one
of his own brothers, will be appointed to fucceed
N0 242,
N I A
Among thefe no preference is givert to proJu- Niagara,
mity or primogeniture ; but the fachem, during his
lifetime, pitches upon one whom he fuppofes to have
more abilities than the reft ; and in this choice he
frequently, though not always, confults the princi¬
pal men of the tribe. If the fucceffor happens to be
a child, the offices of the poll are performed by fome
of his friends until he is of fufficient age to ait him-
fdf.
Each of thefe ports of fachem has a name which
is peculiar to it, and which never changes, as it is
always adopted by the fucceflbr ; nor does the order
of precedency of each of thefe names or titles ever
vary. Neverthelefs, any fachem, by abilities and acti¬
vity, may acquire greater power and influence in the
nation than thofe who rank before him in point of
precedency ; but this is merely temporary, and dies
with him.
Each tribe has one or two chief warriors ; which
dignity is alfo hereditary, and has a peculiar name
attached to it.
Thefe are the only titles of diftindtion which are
fixed and permanent in the nation ; for although any
Indian may by fuperior talents, either as a counfel-
lor or as a warrior, acquire influence in the nation,
yet it is not in his power to tranfmit this to his fa¬
mily.
The Indians have alfo their great women as well
as their great men, to whofe opinions they pay great
deference ; and this diftindlion is alfo hereditary in fa¬
milies. They do not fit in council with the fachems,
but have feparate ones of their own.—When war is
declared, the fachems and great women generally give
up the management of public affairs into the hands
of the warriors. It may however fo happen, that a
fachem may at the fame time be alfo a chief warrior.
Friendfhips feem to have been inftituted with a
view towards {Lengthening the union between the fe-
veral nations of the confederacy ; and hence friends
are called the Jinews of the Six Nations. An Indiart
has therefore generally one or more friends in each
nrtion. Befides the attachment which fubfifts during
the lifetime of the two friends, whenever one of
them happens to be killed, it is incumbent on the
furvivor to replace hirn, by prefenting to his family
either a fcalp, a prifoner, or a belt confifting of fome
thoufands of wampum ; and this ceremony is per¬
formed by every friend of the deceafed.
Thepurpofe and foundation of war-parties, therefore,
is in general to procure a prifoner or fcalp to replace
the friend or relation of the Indian who is the head
of the party. An Indian who wifttes to replace a
friend or relation prefents a belt to his acquaintance}
and as many as choofe to follow him accept this belt,
and become his party* After this, it is of no con¬
fequence whether he goes on the expedition or re¬
mains at home (as it often happens that he is a child);
he is ftill confidered as the head of the party The
belt he preiented to his party is returned fixed to the
fcalp or prifoner, and paffes along with them to the
friends of the perfon he replaces. Hence it happens,
that a war-party, returning with more fealps or pri-
for.ers than the original intention of the party re¬
quired, will often give one of thefe fupernumerary
fealps or prifoners to another war-party whom they
4 meet
NIC t 49 1 NIC
Nicata rneet going out; upon which this party, having ful-
Jicander purpofc of their expedition, will fometimea
return without going to war.
NICiEA, (anc. geog.), the metropolis of Bithy-
nia$ fituated on the lake Afcanius, in a large and fer¬
tile plain ; in compafs 16 ftadia : firft built by Anti-
gonus, the fon of Philip, and thence called Antigo-
nea ; afterwards completed by Lyfimachus, who call¬
ed \tNicaa, after his confort the daughter of Anti¬
pater. According to Stephanus, it was originally a
colony of the Bottiszi, a people of Thrace, and called
Ancore; and afterwards called Nicaa. Now Nice in
See t^e Lets*. Famous for the firll general coun¬
cil.—A fecond Niccea, (Diodorus Siculus), of Cor-
fica.—A third, of the Hither India, (Arrian) ; fi¬
tuated on the weft fide of the Hydafpes, oppofite
to Buciphale, on the call fide.—A fourth Nicea,
a town of Liguria, at the Maritime Alps, on the
call fide of the river Paulon near its mouth, which
runs between the Varus and Nicaea, (Mela). A
colony of the Maffilians, (Stephanus) ; the laft town
of Italy to the weft. Now N'vz.-za or Nice> capital
of the county of that name, on the Mediterranean.—
A fifth, of Locris, (Strabo) ; a town near Thermo¬
pylae; one of the keys of that pafs. It ftood on the
Sinus Maliacus.
NICAISE (Claude), a celebrated antiquary in the
17th century, was defcended of a good family at Di¬
jon, where his brother was proftor-general of the
chamber of accounts. Being inclined to the church,
he became an ecclefiaftic, and was made a canon in
the holy chapel at Dijon ; but devoted himfelf wholly
to the ftudy and knowledge of antique monuments.
Having laid a proper foundation of learning at home,
he refigned his canonry, and went to Rome, where he
refided many years; and after his return to France,
he held a correfpondence with almoft all the learned
men in Europe. Perhaps there never was a man of
letters who had fo frequent and extenfive a commerce
with the learned men of his time as the Abbe Ni-
caife. This correfpondence took up a great part
of his time, and hindered him from enriching the
public with any large works ; but the letters
which he wrote himfelf, and thofe which he re¬
ceived from others, would make a fine and curious
Commercium Epijlolicum. He publiftied a Latin diflerta-
tionDe Nunitno P-.intheo; An Explication of an Antique
Monument found at Guienne, in the diocefe of Aach ;
and A Difcourfe upon the Form and Figure of the
Syrens, which made a great noife. In this trad,
following the opinion of Huet bilhop of Avranches,
he undertook to prove, that they were in reality birds,
and not fifties or fea-monfters. He tranfiated into
French, from the Italian, a piece of Bellori, containing
a defeription of the pidtures in the Vatican, to which
he added, A Dillcrtation upon the Schools of Athens
and Parnaflus, two of Raphael’s pictures. He wrote
alfo a fmall tradt upon the ancient mufic ; and died
while he was labouring to prefent the public with the
explanation of that antique infeription, Minerva Ar-
paiia, which was found in the village of Vclley, where
he died in Odtober 1701, aged 78.
N1CANDER of Colophon, a celebrated gram¬
marian, poet, and phyfician, who lived about the 160th
Olympiad, 140 years before Chnft, in the remix of
Vol. XIII. Parti. *
Attalus king of Pergamus, who overcame the Gallo- Nicandra
Greeks. He lived many years in Etolia, of which jl
country he wrote a hiftory. He wrote alfo many. N‘ce’ ,
other works, of which only two ate now remaining.
The one is intitled Theriaca, deferibing in verfe the
accidents attending wounds made by venomous beafts,
with the proper remedies ; the oth«r bearing the title
of Alexipharmaca, wherein he treats poetically of
poifons and their antidotes. This Nicander is not ta
be confounded with Nicander of Thyatira.
N1CANDRA, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 30th order, Contorta. The calyx is mono-
phylious and quadripartite x the corolla is monope-
talous, tubulated, and parted into 10 lacinia : the
fruit is an oval berry, which is grooved longitudinally,
and contains many fmall angular feeds. Of this there
is only one fpecies, the amaray a native' of Guiana,
The leaves and ftalks are bitter, and ufed by the na¬
tives as an emetic and purge. \
NICARAGUA, a large river of South America,
in a province of the fame name, whofe weftern extremi¬
ty lies within five miles of the South Sea. It is full
of dreadful catara&s, and falls at length into the
North Sea.
Nicaragua, a maritime province of South Ame¬
rica, in Mexico, bounded on the north by Honduras,
on the eaft by the North fea, on the fouth-eaft by
Cofta Rica, and on the fouth-weft by the South fea ;
being 400 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 120
in breadth from north to fouth. It is ©ne of themoft
fruitful and agreeable provinces in Mexico, and is well
watered with lakes and rivers. The air is wholefome
and temperate ; and the country produces plentv of
fugar, cochineal, and fine chocolate. One of the lakes
is 200 miles in circumference, has an ifland in the
middle, and, as fome fay, has a tide. Leon de Nica¬
ragua is the capital town.
NIC ARIA, an ifland of the Archipelago, between
Samos and Pine, about jo miles in circumference. A
chain of high mountains runs through the middle, co¬
vered with wood, and fupplies the country with fprings.
The inhabitants are very poor, and of the Greek
communion ; however, they have a little wheat, and
a good deal of barley, figs, honey, and wax.
NICASTRO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Calabria ;
16 miles fouth of Cofenza. E. Long. 15. 59. N.
Lat. 39. ry.
NICE, an ancient, handfome, and confiderable
town on the confines of France and Italy, and capital
of a county of the fame name, with a itrong citadel,
a bifhop’s fee, and a fenate, which is a kind of a de¬
mocracy. It has been leveral times taken by the
French, and laft of all in 1744, but reftored af¬
ter the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is very agree¬
ably fituated, four miles from the mouth of the river
Var. 83 miles S. by W. of Turin, and 83 call of Aix.
E. Long. 6. 22. N. Lat. 43. 42.
Nice, a county and province in the dominions of
the duke of Savoy. The inhabitants fupply Genoa
with a great deal of timber for building ftiips; and
carry on a great trade in linen-cloth, paper, oil, wine,
and honey.—“ Although the county of Nice be on
a this
Nice.
Hiftoricj.1
and PI&U-
rcfque de¬
scription of
the County
ef Nice.
NIC [ 5° ] . N 1 S
mountains, geographers have always below thejreezing pomt, and that only for two days;
this fide of the   , 0 „ .
confidered it as a province of Italy, fince they have
given to this beautiful part of Italy the river Yard
for a weflern limit, which is alfo the boundary of the
county, and flows into the fea at a league diftance
from the capital. This province is partly covered
by the maritime Alps; and is bordered on the eafl: by
Piedmont, and the ftates of Genoa ; on the fouth by
the Mediterranean ; on the weft by the \ ard ; and
on the north by Dauphiny. Its length is about 20
leagues of the country, which make about 36 Eng-
li(h miles; its breadth is 10 leagues ; audits popu¬
lation is about 120,000 fouls.
« The city of Nice is the capital, and the feat
of the fenate, the bifhopric, and government. It
has become, within thefe few years, a delightful abode,
by the number of ftrangers who aflemble there in the
winter, either to re-eftablifti their health, or to en¬
joy the mildnefs of the climate, and the beauty of the
country, where an unceafing verdure prefects eternal
fpring.
“ The town is fituated on the iea-lhore^and is back¬
ed by a rock entirely infulated, on which was for¬
merly a caftle, much efteemed for its pofition ; but
it was deftroyed in the year 1706 by Marechal Ber¬
wick, the garrifon being too thin to defend the ex¬
tent of the works. There is a diftinftion between
the old and the new town ; this laft is regular, the
houfes are well built, and the ftreets. are wide. Its
pofition is by the fide of the fea, and it is terminated,
on one fide,'by a charming terrace, which ferves for
a promenade. _ . .
<« Any perfon may live peaceably m this province,
without fear of being troubled on points of faith,
provided he conduft himfelf with decorum. The
town has three fuburbs. ift, That of St John, which
' condufts to Cimier, about three leagues north from
Nice, See. The promenades this way are very^de-
lightful, and may be enjoyed in a carriage. 2d, 1 hat
of the Poudriere. 3d, That of the Croix de Marbre,
or Marble Crofs. This fuburb is new; and the Eng-
lifh almoft all lodge in it, being very near the town.
The houfes are commodious, facing on one fide the
great road which leads to France, and on the other
a fine garden, with a profpeft of the fea. All the
houfes are feparate from each other: the company
hire them for the feafon, i. e. from Oftober till May.
Apartments may be had from 15 to 250 louis. The
proprietors commonly furnifli linen, plate, &c. There
are alfo in the town very large and commodious
houfes; as well as the new road, which is opened from
the town to the port, by cutting that part of the
rock which inclined toward the fea. The fituation is
delightful, and warmeft in winter, being entirely co¬
vered from the north wind, and quite open to the
fouth. „ , ,
“ The company is brilliant at Nice, and the
amufements of the carnival are, in proportion to the
lize of the town, as lively as in any of the great ones
in France. There is always an Italian opera, a con¬
cert, and mafleed ball, alternately ; and the company
play rather high. .
<< yt ;s impoffible to find a happier climate than
Nice, both for fummer and winter. Reaumur’s ther¬
mometer, in 1781, never fell more than three degrees
while at Geneva it fell ten: and in the courfe of the
winter of 1 785 it fell only two degrees ; while at Ge-
neva. it fell 15. The month of May is rarely fo fine in
France as February at Nice. The fummer is not fohot
as might be expefted. The thermometer never rifes more
than 24 degrees above temperate in the (hade; and there
is always an agreeable fea-breeze from ten in the
morning till fun-fet, when the land-breeze comes on.
There are three chains of graduated mountains, the
laft of which confound their fummits with the Alps ;
and to this triple rampart is owing the mild tempera¬
ture fo fenfibly different from the neighbouring parts.
‘s The cultivation of the ground is as rich as can
be defired. There are alternately rows of corn and
beans, feparated by vines attached to different fruit-
trees, the almond and the fig ; fo that the_earth be¬
ing inceffantly cultivated, and covered with trees,
olive, orange, cedar, pomegranate, laurel, and myrtle,
caufes the conftant appearance of fpring, and forms
a fine contrail with the fummits of the Alps, in the .
back-ground, covered with fnow.”
Nice, an ancient town of Afia, in Natolis, now
called Ifnick, with a Greek archbifhop’s fee. It is fa¬
mous for the general council affembled here in 325,
which endeavoured to'fupprefs the do&rines of Arius.
It was formerly a large, populous, and well-built place,
and even now is not inconiiderable. bee Isnic.
Nicenr Creed, was compofed and eftabliihed, as a
proper fummary of the Chriftian faith, by the coun¬
cil at Nice in 325, againft the Arians.—It is alfo
called the Conjlantmopolitan creed, becaufe it was con¬
firmed, with fome few alterations, by the council of
Conftantinople in 381. See Cp-eed.
NICEPHGRUS (Gregoras), a Greek hiftorian,
was born about the clofe of the 13th century, and
flouriflied in the 14th, under the emperors Androni-
cus, John Palaeologus, and John Cantacuzenus. He
was a great favourite of the elder Andromcus, who
made him librarian of the church of Conflantinople,.v
and fent him ambaffador to the prince of Sei via. He
accompanied this emperor in his misfortunes, and af-
fifted at his death ; after which he repaired to the
court of the younger Andronicus, where he leems to
have been well received ; and it is certain that, by Ins
influence over the Greeks, that church was prevailed
on to refufe entering into any conference with the le¬
gates of pope John XXII. But in the difpute which -
arofe between Barlaam and Pulamos, taking the part
of the former, he maintained it zealoufly in the coun¬
cil that was held at Conftantinople in 1351, for which
he was caft into pnion, and continued there till the re¬
turn of John Palseologus, who releafed him; after
which he held a deputation with Palamos, in the pre¬
fence of that emperor. He compiled a hiftory, which
in 11 books contains all that palled from 1 204, when
Conltantinople was taken by the French, to the aeatn
of Andronicus Palteologus the younger, in I34<-—
The heft edition of this work is that of the Louvre,
in Greek and Latin, in 1702.
NiCt.PHOR.us (Califtus), a Greek hiilonan, who
flourifhed in the 14th century under the emperor An-
dronicus Pa'ceologus the elder, wrote an ecclefialiical
hiftory in ?3 books ; i 8 of which are ftill extant, con¬
taining the tranfaftions of the church from the birth of
^ Chuff
Nice,
Nicepho.
rus.
'■Jlcejiho
NIC Is
CKrift to the death of the emperor Phocas in 610.
We have nothing elfe but the arguments of the other
five books from the commencement of the reign of
the emperor Heraclius to the end of that of Leo the
philofopher, who died in the year 911. Nicephorus
dedicated his hiftory to Andronicus Palaeologus the
elder. It was tranfiated into Latin by John Langius*
and has gone through feveral editions, the bell of which
is that of Paris, in 16^0.
Nickphorus (Bltmmidas), a prieft and monk of
Mount Athos, flouriihed in the 13th century. He
refufed the patriarchate of Conftantinople, being fa¬
vourable to the Latin church, and more inclined to
peace than any of the Greeks of his time. In this
fpirit he compofed two treatifes concerning The Pro-
cejjion of the Holy Ghojl: one addreffed to James patri¬
arch of Bulgaria, and the other to the emperor Theo-
dore Lafcaris. In both thefe he refutes thofe who
maintain, that one cannot fay the Holy Ghoft pro¬
ceeds from the Father and the Son. Thefe two tra&s
are printed in Greek and Latin by Allatius, who has
alfo given us a letter written by Blemmidas on his ex¬
pelling from the church of her convent Marchefinos,
miftiefs of the emperor John Ducas. There are feve¬
ral other pieces of our author in the Vatican library.
NICERON (John Francis), was born at Paris in
1613. Flaving finifhed his academical ftudies, with a
fuccefs which railed the greateft hopes of him, he en¬
tered into the order of the Minims, and took the ha¬
bit in 1632 ; whereupon, as is ufual, he changed the
name given him at his baptifm for that of Francis, the
name of his paternal uncle, who was alfo a Minim, or
Francifcan. 1 he inclination and tafte which he had
for mathematics appeared early. He began to apply
himielf to that fcience in his philofophical ftudies, and
devoted thereto all the time he could fpare from his
other employments, after he had completed his ftudies
in theology. All the branches of the mathematics,
however, did not equally engage his attention ; he
confined himfelt particularly to optics, and only learn¬
ed of the reft as much as was neceftary for rendering
him perfeft in this. There remain ftill, in feveral
houfes wherein he dwelt, efpeeially at Paris, fome ex¬
cellent performances, which difeover his fkill in this
way, and which make us regret that a longer life did
not fuffer him to carry it to that perfection which he
defired ; fince one cannot help being furprifed that he
pioceeded fo far as he did, in the midft of thofe occupa¬
tions and travels by which he was forced from it, during
the Ihort fpace of time which he lived. Fie hath himfelf
o.iferved, in the prefacetohis Thaumaturgus Opticus,
he went twice to Rome; and that, on his return home,
he was appointed teacher of theology. Fie was after¬
wards chofen to accompany father Francis de la None,
\icar-general of the order, in his vifitation of the con¬
vents throughout all France. But the eagernefs of
nis paflion for ftudy put him upon making the beft of
a t ie mon'‘ents he had to fpare for books ; and that
I 3 NIC
wife ceconomj? furmfhed him with as much as fatisfied Niceron.
him. Being taken fick at Aix in Provence, he died ‘‘1 "■-v*-—"
there Sept. 22. 1646, aged 33. He was an intimate
acquaintance of Des Cartes. A lift of his writings
is inferted below (a). s
Niceron (John Peter), fo much celebrated on ac¬
count of his Memoirs of Men illujlrious in the Republic
of Letters, was born at Paris March 11. 1685. He
was of an ancient and noble family, who were in very
high repute about 1540. He ftudied with fuccefs in
the Mazarine college at Paris, and afterwards at the
college Du Pleflis. In a fhort time, refolving to for-
fake the world, he confulted one of his uncles, who
belonged to the order of Bernabite Jefuits. This uncle
examined him ; and, not diffident of his eledion, in¬
troduced him as a probationer to that fociety at Paris.
He was received there in 1702, took the habit in
^7®3> an<^ made his vows in 1704, at the age of 19.
After he had profefled himfelf, he was fent to Mont¬
arges, to go through a courfe of philofophy and theo¬
logy ; thence he went to Loches in Touraine to teach
thofe fciences. He received the prieithood at Poitiers
in 1708. As he was not arrived at the age to affiime
this order, a difpenlation, which his uncommon piety
had merited, was obtained in his favour. The college
of Montarges having recalled him, he was their pro-
fefibr of rhetoric two years, and of philofophy four.
In fpite of all thefe avocations, he was humanely
attentive to every call and work of charity, and
to the inftrudtion of his fellow-creatures, many of
whom heard him deliver out fit rules of conduft for
them, not only from the pulpits of moft of the churches
within the province, but even from thofe of Paris.—1
In 1716, his fuperiors invited him to that city, that
he might have an opportunity of following, with the
more convenience, thofe ftudies for which he always
had expreffed the greateft inclination. He not only
underftood the ancien<t but the modern languages; a
circumftance of infinite advantage in the compofition
of thofe works which he has given to the public, and
which he carried on with great affiduity to the time of
his death, which happened, after a ffiort illnefs, July 8
1738, at the age of 53. His works are, 1. Legrand
rebrfuge; or, a Differtation to prove, that common wa-
tei is the beft remedy in fevers, and even in the plague;
tranfiated from the Lnglifh of John Hancock mini-
fter of St Margaret’s, London, in i2mo. This little
treatife made its appearance, amongft other pieces re- .
lating to this fubjed, in 1720 ; and was attended with
a fuccefs which carried it through three editions; the
la ft came out in 1730, in 2 vols. 121110, intitled, A
Treatife on Common IVater; Paris, printed by Cavelier.
2. The Voyages of John Ouvington to Surat, and divers
parts of Ajta artel Africa, containing the hiftory of the
revolution in the kingdom of Golconda, and fome ob-
fervations upon fiik-worms ; Paris 172c, 2 vols i2tno
3. 7& Convirfien of England to ChriJlimUy, compared
with its pretended Reformation, a work tranflated from
2 the
chiffrl pimples eve ’2 11 otZn deS.cbfres> ou po»r lien entendre & expliquer facilement toutes fortes des
trique. Ikis 'is only an efiavtithe foE'’ ^ ^ merveilleux de I'optique, catopriquefA diop-
ccs, & dioptrices, tan prima See He . Vin^^ork ; 3. Thaumaturgus opticus ; five, Admiranda optices, cat opri-
, vo wptnees, pan pnmat &c. He intended to add two other parts, but was prevented by death! ^
N I G
r 52 t
N I C
N'ceta* the Engllrtt; Pans 1729, 9vo. 4, Th* Natural Kijlory
•I of the Earth, tranflited from the Englifh of Mr Wood-
Kichok war4? by ivfonft Nogues, doctor in phyfic ; with an
an{vver to the objeftions of Dr Carmerarius ; contain¬
ing alio feveral letters written on the fame fubjedt, and
a methodical diftribution of foffils, tranflated from the
Engliih by Niceron ; Paris 1735, 4t0- 5; Memoirs of
Men illujlrious in the Republic of Letters^ witn a critical
account of their works-; Paris, i2tno. The fir ft vo¬
lume of this great work appealed in 1727 ; the others
were given to the public in fucceffion, as far as the
30th, which appeared in 1738. The 40th volume was
publiihed after the death of the author, in 1739.
NICETAS (David), a Greek hiftorian, a native, as
fome relate, of Paphlagonia, who lived about the end
of the gth century. He wrote Rhe Life of ht Igna¬
tius, patriarch of Conftantinople, which was tranflated
‘ into Latin by Frederic Mutius, biihop of Termoli
he compofed alfo feveral panegyrics in honour of the
apoftles and other-faints, which are inferted in the laft
continuation of the Bibliotheca Patrum by Combefis.
Nicetas (furnamed Serron), deacon of the
church of Conftantinople, cotemporary with Theo-
phylaft in the 1 ith century, and afterwards bifttop of
Heraclea, wrote a Catena upon the book of Job, com¬
piled from paflages of feveral of the fathers, which
was printed at London in folio, 1637. We have al-
fo, by the fame writer, feveral catena upon the Pfalms
and Canticles, Bafii 1552 ; together with a Commen¬
tary on the poems of Gregory Nazianzen.
Nicetas (Arhominates), a Greek, hiftorian of
the 13th century, called Coniates, as being born at
Chone, or Coloflus, in Phrygia. He was employed
in feveral confiderable affairs at the court of Conftanti¬
nople ; and when that city was taken by the blench
in 1204, he withdrew, with a young girl taken from
the enemy, to Nice in Bithynia, whereTe married his
captive, and died in 1206. He wrote a Hiftory, or
Annals, from the death of Alexius Comnenus in the
year 11x8, to that of Badouin ih 1205 ; of which work
we have a Latin tranflation by Jerome Wolfius, .printed
at Bafii in 1557 ; and it has been inferted in the body
of the Byzantine. Hiftorians, printed in France at the
Louvre.
NICHE, in archite&ure, a hollow funk into a wall,
for the commodious and agreeable placing of a ftatue.
The word comes from the Italian nechia, “ fca-fhell
in regard the ftatue is here inclofed in a (hell, or per
though he publifhed, in Latin and in Englifh, no NleMk
fewer than 19 works in defence of Chriftianity, and
the do&rines and worfhip of the church of England,
he was fo totally overlooked, even by thofe who pro-
feffed to be patrons of orthodoxy, that towards the
clofe of bis life we find him complaining to Robert
earl of Oxford, that he was forced on the drudgery
of being editor of Mr Seldon’s books for a little
money to buy other books, to enable him to carry on
his liturgical labours. He died in the beginning of
the year 1712. Of his numerous publications, thofe
which are moft generally known arc, A Conference nvith
a Theifl, in five parts, and A Comment on the Book of
Common Prayer and Adminijlration of the. Sacraments, See-
A volume of letters in Latin between him and Joblon*
fid, Oftervald, and Wetftein, &c. was prefented, Oc¬
tober 28. 1712, by his widow to the archbilhop of
Canterbury ; and they are now preferved among the
valuable MSS. at Lambeth, nv 676.
NICHOLLS (Dr Frank), was born in London iot
the year 1699. His father was a barrifter at law f.
and both his parents were of good families in Corn¬
wall. After receiving the firft rudiments of his edu¬
cation at a private fchool in the country, where his
docility and fweetnefs of temper endeared him equally
to his mafter and his fchool-fellows, Frank was in a
few years removed to Weftminfter, and from thence
to Oxford, where he was admitted a commoner (or
fojournet) of Exeter college, under the tuition of Mr
John Haviland, on March 4th 1714. There he ap¬
plied himfelf diligently to all the ufual academical
ftudies, but particularly to natural phllofophy and po¬
lite literature, of which the fruits were moft confpi-
cuous in his fubfequent le&ures on phyfiology. Af¬
ter reading a few books on anatomy, in order to per-
feft himfelf in the nomenclature of the animal parts
then adopted, he engaged in diffeftions, and then de¬
voted himfelf to the ftudy of nature, perfectly free and .
unbiaffed by the opinions of others.
On his being chofen reader of anatomy in that uni-
verfity, he employed his utmoft attention to elevate,
and illuffrate a fcience which had there been long de-
preffed and negle&ed ; and by quitting the beaten
track of former ledlurers, and minutely inveftigating
the texture of every bowel, the nature and order of
every veffel, &c. he gained a high and a juft reputa¬
tion. He did not then refide at Oxford ; but, when
he had finifhed his ledtures, ufed to repair to London,
haps on account of the ftiell wherewith the tops of the place of his abode, where he had determined to
folne of them are adorned
NICHOLS (William), fon of John Nichols of
Donington, in Bucks, was bora in 1664. At .what
fehool he vras educated we have not been informed;
but in 1679 became a commoner of Magdalene
fettle. He had once an intention of fixing in Corn¬
wall, and for a fhort time praftifed there with great
reputation ; but being foon tired of the fatigues at¬
tendant on that profeffion in the country, he returned
to London, bringing back with him a great infight,
Hall, Oxford, whence he afterwards removed to Wad- acquired by diligent obfervation, into the nature of the
ham College, and took the degree of bachelor of arts miliary fever, which was attended with the moft fa-
Nov. 27. 1683.—In O&ober 1684, he was admitted
prbbationer-fellow of Merton College. At the com-
naencement of 1688 he took his mailer’s degree; and
and about thejame time being admitted into orders, he
became chaplain to Ralph earl of Montague, and was
in September 1791 preferred to the redtory of Selfey;
near Chichefter, in Suffex. He was admitted B.D.
July 2. 1692 ; and ,D. D. Nov. 29. 1695.; Though
his time was wholly devoted to piety and ftudy* and
lutary effe&s in his fubfequent praftice at London.
About this time he refolved to vifit the continent,
partly wfith a view of acquiring the knowledge of men,
manners, and languages ; but chiefly to acquaint him¬
felf with the opinions of foreign naturalifts on his fa¬
vourite ftudy. At Paris, by converfing freely with
the learned, he foon recommended himfelf to their no¬
tice and efteem. Winflow’s was the only good fyftem
of phyfiologv at that time known in Franoe* and Mor-
6 ^ gagni’3
NIC [
.#fch(ilT».’ ffapjni’sanc! Santorini’s of Venice in Ttaly, which Dr Ni-
'•^-v ^ cholls likewife foon after vifited. On his return to ^ng'"
land, he repeated his phyfiological lefturesin London,
which were much frequented, not only by fludents
from both the univerfities, but alfo by many furgeons,
apothecaries, and others boon after, his new and
fuccefoful treatment of the miliary fever, then very
S3 1 NIC
thing like the offer of a penfion, which he rejected
with difdain.
The caufes, &c. of the uncommon diforder of which
the late king died, viz. a rupture of the right ventricle
of the heart, our author explained in a letter to. the
earl of Macclesfield, prefxdent of the Royal Society,
which was published in the Philofophical 1 ranfactions
N'ehulls
II
Nickel.
' , to a.fecond edition of his treatife De
Anima Medica> he added a differtation De motu cordis
et fanguinis in honiine nato et non nato, inferibed to his
learned friend and coadjutor the late Dr Lawrence.
prevalent in the fouthern parts of England, .added, vol. 1.
much to his reputation. ’ In 172J, at a meeting of In ‘TT2*
the Royal Society, he gave his opinion on the nature
of aneurifms, in which he dififented from Dr Freind in
^U8A^ the beginning of the year 1728, he waschofen a Tired at length of London, and alfo defirous of
fellow of the Royal Society, to which he afterwards fupenntendmg the education of his fon, he removed
communicated the defeription of an uncommon difor- to Oxford where he had fpent moft agreeably fome
der (publifhed in the Tranfadions), viz. a polypus, years in his youth. Lut when the ftudy of the *a
lefembling a branch of the pulmonary vein (for which recalled Mr Nicholls to London, he too* a houfe at
Tulpius has ftrangely miflaken it), coughed up by an LPfom, where he palled the remainder of his Me an a
afthmatic perfon. He alfo made obfervations (in the literary retirement, not inattentive to natural philofo-
fame volume of the Tranfadiona) on a treatife, by M. phy, efpecially the cultivation of gram, and the im-
Hdvetius of Paris, on the Lungs. Towards the end provement of barren foils, and contemplating alfo with
of the year 1729, he took the degree of dodor of admiration the.internal nature ot plants,,as taught by
phyfic at Oxford. At his return to, London, he T
underwent an examination by the prefident and cen-
fors of the college of phyficians, previous to his being
admitted a candidate, which every praditioner muft be
a year before he can apply to be chofen a fellow. Dr
Nicholls was chofen into the college on June 26*
1732 ; and two years after, being chofen Gulftonian
reader of Pathology, he made the llrudure of the,
heart, and the circulation of the blood, the fubjed of
his ledures. In 1736, at the requeft of the prefident,
he again read the Gulftonian ledure ; taking for his
fubjed thofe parts of the human body which ferve for
the fecretion and difeharge of the urine } and the
caufes, fymptoms, and cure, of the difeafes occafioned
by the ftone. In 1739, he delivered the anniverfary
Harveian oration. Ih 1743, he married Elizabeth,
youngeft daughter of the cefebrated Dr Mead, by
whom he had five children, two of whom, died young.
Two fons and a daughter furvived him! In 1748, Dr
Nicholls undertook the office of chirurgical ledurer,
beginning with a learned and elegant differtation on
the Anima Medica. About this time, on the death of
Dr John Cuningham, one of the eleds of the college,
Dr Abraham Hall was chofen .to fucceed him, in pre¬
ference to our author, who was his fenior, without
any apparent reafon. With a juft refentment, he im¬
mediately refigned the office of chirurgical ledurer,
and never afterwards attended the meetings of the fel¬
lows, except when bufinefs of the utmoft importance
was in agitation.
In 1751, he took £bme revenge in an anonymous
pamphlet, intitled “ The Petition of the Unborn Babes
to the Cenfors of the Royal College of Phyficians of
London;” in which Dr Ncfbit {Pocus')i Dr Maule
{Maulm}, Dr Barrowby (Barebone'jy principally, and
. Sir William Brown, Sir Edward Hulfe, and tlie Scots
incidentally, a\e the objeds of his fatire-
In 1753, on the death of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart,
in his 94th year, Dr Nicholls was appointed to fuc¬
ceed him as one of the king’s phyficians, and held that
office till the death of his royal mafter in 1760, when
this moft Ikilful phyfician was fuperfeded with feme-
Linnaeus.
His conftitution never was rohuft. In his youth,
at Oxford, he was with difficulty recovered from a
dangerous fever by the Ikill of Dodors Frampton and
Frewen ; and afterwards at London he had frequently-
been affiided with a catarrh, and an inveterate afth¬
matic cough, which, returning with great violence at,
the beginning of the year 1778, deprived the world
of this valuable man on January 7th, in the 80th year
of his age.
Dr Lawrence, formerly prefident of the college of
phyficians, who gratefully aferibed all his phyfiologi¬
cal and medical knowledge to his precepts, and who,
while he lived, loved him as a brother* and revered
him as a parent, two years after printed, and gave to
his friends, a few copies of an elegant Latin Life of
Dr Nicholls (with his head prefixed, a ftriking like^
nefs, engraved by Hall from a model of Goffet, 1779);
from which, through the medium of the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine, the above particulars are chiefly ex-
traced.
NICIAS, a celebrated painter of Athens, fUmnffi'1
ed about 322 years before the Chriftian era; arid was
univerfally extolled for the great variety and noble
choice of his fubjedls, the force and relievo of his fi¬
gures, his Ikill in the diftribution of the lights and
fliadows, and his dexterity in reprefenting all forts of
four-footed animals, beyond any mafter of his time.
His moft celebrated piece was that of Tartarus or Hell, .
as it is deferibed by Homer, for which king Ptolemy
the fon of Lagus offered him bo talents, or 11,250!.
which he refufed, and generoufly prefented it to his :
own country. He was much efteemed likewife by
all-his cotemppraries for his excellent talent in fculp- -
ture.
NICKEL, in chemiftry and mineralogy, a fub--
ftance claffed among the femimetals, though feveral
eminent chemifts are of opinion that it is a compound ;
and Mr Beigman, who has made more experiments
upon it than any other perfon, conje&ures that it is
a modification of iron.
It was firft obtained from an ore .called kupfer-nickel, ,
fometlmes-
, . NIC [54
K'dtel. iooietimes grey coloured, but often of a reddifli-yel-
■ "r J 1°^ » though feveral others are now difeovered. “ It
had its name (fays Mr Bergman), and probably dill
-retains it, from this circumftance, that though it has
the appearance of containing copper, not the fmallefl:
particle of that metal can be extracted from it, even
by fire.” It was firft mentioned by V. Hiema, in
1694, in a book written in the Swedifh language,
concerning the difeovery of ores and other mineral
Jubilances. It is fuppofed by Henckel to be a fpecies
of cobalt, or arfenic alloyed with copper. Cramer
claHes it with the arfenical or cupreous ores ; though
both they and all other chemifts confefs that they were
»never able to extradl one particle of copper from it.
Mr Cronftedt, in the years 1751 and 1754, fliow'ed
by many accurate experiments that it contained a new
femimetal, or at lead that a regulus different from all
others was obtainable from its ore. This ore, called
hipftr-nickel, or falfe copper, as has already been ob-
ferved, is of a coppery lead colour, and almod always
covered with a greenilh-grey efflorefcence. “ It is
(fays Mr Fourcroy) very common at Freyberg in Sax¬
ony, where it is often mixed with the grey ore of co¬
balt ; but it is diftinguiihed from it by its red colour.”
Mr Bergman, however, complains greatly of thtfear-
city of this mineral, fo that he could hardly procure
a quantity fufficient to make experiments upon. Four¬
croy alfo tells us, that “ Mr Sage, having treated
this ore with fal-ammoniac, obtained iron, copper, and
cobalt, and thinks that it is compofed of thefe three
metallic matters, together with arfenic. It likewife
contains a fmall proportion of gold, according to this
chemid. It is proper to obferve, that thefe refults do
not agree with thofe of Mr Bergman ; he is laid to
have operated on the kupfer-nickel of Biber, in Heffe,
and of Allemont in Daufffuny. Mr Bergman himfelf,
however, informs us, that he undertook his experi¬
ments exprefsly with a view to difeover whether the
theory of Mr Sage was jud ; and that he operated
modly on fome regulus made by Mr Crondedt, and
found in the Suabian collection.
“ Cronftedt (fays Mr Fourcroy) affures us, that
the metallic matter, called fpeifs by the Germans,
Avhich is rollefted in the crucibles ufed in the melting
of fmalt, affords nickel. Mr Monnei thinks, that the
fpeifs of the manufacture of Gengenback, 14 leagues
Jrom Strafburg, is true nickel: and as the ore of co¬
balt made ufe of in that place to make fmalt is very
pure, he concludes, that nickel is neceffarily a pro¬
duct of cobalt itfelf. But Mr Beaume has obtained
nickel from almoft all the ores of cobalt by means of
fulphur ; it therefore feems, that the ore of cobalt,
which is wrought at Gengenback, contains nickel not
diftinguiffiable by the eye, on account of the intimate
union of thefe two metallic matters.”
“ lo obtain the regulus of nickel (fays Mr Berg¬
man), the ore muft be firft fubjefted to reading ; du-
jing which a quantity of fulphur and avfenic, greater
or lefs according to the nature of the ore, is expelled;
fo that it fometimes Iqfes above half its weight, but
frequently not above c.3. I his ore, though long and
completely calcined, does not always acquire the fame
colour, but in general becomes greener in proportion
as it is more rich. Sometimes (efpecially if fuffered to
rhe at reft) its up>per furface is covered with green ve-
] NIC
gelations, formewhat of the form of coral, which are Nickel,
hard and fonorous. A double or triple quantity of —■
black flux is to be added to the roafted powder, and
the mixture well fufed in a forge in an open crucible
covered with common fait, in the ufual method. The
veffel being broken, a metallic globule is found at the
bottom, the weight of which amounts to 0.1, 0.2, or
at the moil to 0.5 of the crude ore. The regulus thus
obtained, however, is far from being pure; for although
the roafting be ever fo violent and long continued, yet
a confiderable quantity of fulphur, but efpecially ar¬
fenic, ftill remains concealed, exclufive of cobalt, and
a great proportion of iron ; which laft is fo generally
prevalent, as to make the regulus magnetic : and this
variety of heterogeneous matter is the caufe why the
regulus varies much, not only in refpedl toils fradlure,
the poliftied furface of which is either fmooth or lamel-
lated, but alfo in regard to its white colour, which is
more or lefs yellow or red.”
He has not been able to determine the properties of
nickel when perfedlly pure, as the continual prefence
of iron in fome refpedl obfeures them : From the cal¬
culations which he makes, however, Mr Bergman con-
eludes, that the fpecific gravity of nickel is not lefs
than 9.000 at the leaft. If a fmall portion of gold
enter the compofition, the greatnefs of the weight
might thence be explained ; but though this metal is
almoft always abfent, yet 36 parts of it, 48 of iron,
and one of copper, were formed by fufion into a glo¬
bule, the fpecific gravity of which was 8.8571, but
was little foluble in nitrous acid ; yet after lying about
two hours in the acid, the gold was plainly t® be feen,
and with volatile alkali the menftruum yielded nothing
but a ferruginous brown precipitate, which in the fire
put on the appearance of calcined iron.
1 he folutions of nickel in all the acids are green.
The vitriolic fcarcely attacks the regulus unlefs by
evaporation to drynefs. The nitrous acid, by the
affiltance of heat, aiffolves both the calx and the re¬
gulus ; as does likewife the marine acid, but flowly,
and not without the affiftance of heat. Acid of arfe¬
nic unites with the calx into a green faline mafs ; but
with the regulus it feparates a faline powder difficult
of fnfion. Fluor acid diffolves the calx with difficulty,
and forms cryftals of a diluted green colour. Acid of bo¬
rax fcarce diffolves nickel direftly, but takes it up by
a double elective attra&ion. Vinegar forms with the
calx fpathofe cryftals of an intenfe green colour, which
can Icarce be decompofed by acid of tartar. The
laccharine acid converts both regulus and calx into
a white powder, not eaiily foluble in water. Acid of
phofphorus attracts it but little. The acid of ants,
by decobtion or long digeftion, attacks the newly
precipitated calx ; for the folution is green, and up¬
on evaporation yields cryftals of a deep green colour,
hemifpherical, formed of filaments diverging from a
centre, and pellucid. They are not foiublc in fpirit
of wine, and fcarcely in water, unlefs it he acidulated.
Lemon-juice feema not to a£l at all upon nickel. All
the acids are deeply tinged by diffolving nickel; and
this property belongs to the firft regulus as well as
that which is moil highly depurated. Volatile alkali
difiolves it, and the folution is of a blue colour:
the fixed alkali diffolves it very fparingly, and forms
a yellow folution.
Nickel
NIC [
Nickel becomes the more difficult of fnfion, in pro¬
portion to its purity, fo that at lad it re tires nearly
as jrreat a heat for this purpofe as malleable iron. It is
eafily melted with other metals, but its great fcr.rcity
has prevented this matter from being thoroughly in-
veftigated. It may, however, be obferved, that the
impure regains cannot be united with filver, which muft
be attributed to the cobalt it contains ; for when well
freed from that metal, it eafily unites in equal propor¬
tions with filver, and that without any remarkable dimi¬
nution of the whitenefs or du&ility of the latter. 'I his
mixture, fufed with borax, tinges it of an hyacinthine
colour. Copper unites more flowly with depurated
nickel, yielding a red and duftile metallic mafs, which
tinges borax of areddifh hyacinthine colour. It pro¬
duces only a brittle mafs with tin ; in which refpeft it
differs from cobalt. It could not be amalgamated with
mercury by trituration.
Nickel, when well depurated, does not eafily part with
its phlogifton, or, in the language of the new'nomen-
elature, receive an acceffion of Carbonne ; for it only af-
fumes a brown colour, and that with great difficulty in
the ordinary way of calcination in the affay furnace. By
means of nitre, however, it is more completely dephlo-
giftica.tcd, and becomes green. The metallic calx,
vitrified with borax, produces an hyacinthine tinge ;
which yet, if occafioned by a regulus not well depu¬
rated, vaniffies on continuing the fire, a flight blue
tinge being produced by the addition of nitre ; but
a calx of well depurated regulus of nickel forms a per¬
manent colour. The calx of. nickel communicates alfo
an hyacinthine colour to microcofmie fait ; which, by
long-continued fufion on charcoal, may indeed be
weakened, but can hardly be quite difebarged. On
the addition of nitre it changes to a violet, but be¬
comes again hyacinthine on augmenting the quantity
of microecdmic fait. If the calx of nickel be added
to fatuiation, the fufed glafs affumes a blood-colour;
but on being fufed, becomes more and more yellow.
Under the articleCHEMisTRY,n° 1316, andinthepre-
fent article, we have obferved, that Mr Bergman conjec¬
tures nickel to he only a modification of iron. He exa¬
mines, however, with gieat care,the opinion of other au¬
thors, who fuppofe it to be compofed of arfenic, copper,
col alt, and iron.—“With refpett to arfenic (fays he) we
may very fafely exclude it from the number ; as experi¬
ments fhow that it may be entirely expelled. It can-
net be doubted but that copper is prefent in feme
ores of nickel, and therefore may eafily be mixed with
the regulus ; but the greater number are entirely with¬
out it. It is true, that nickel is totally foluble in vo¬
latile alkali, and that this folution is of a blue colour ;
but if this argument held good, there would be no¬
thing found here but copper ; in which cafe very dif¬
ferent phenomena would take place from thofe which
are produced by nickel. The blue colour, produced
both by copper and nickel, can no more prove their
identity than the yellow colour produced both by gold
and iron, when diffolved in aqua regia, can-prove the
re.entity of thefe two metals. Nickel and copper agree
alfo in this property, that they are both precipitated
from acids and from volatile alkali by iron ; but a
confiderable difference appears in the manner in which
this precipitation is ace on pliihed. When a pelifhed
piece of iron is put into a folution of nickel, a yellow
pellicle of the latter will by degrees adhere-to it; but
55 1 • NIC
this foon difappears on touching, and grows black, un-
lefs the acid he well faturated, or- fufficiently diluted
with water. A fimilar precipitation is obferved if zinc
be made ufe of inftead of iron; but in folution of cop¬
per fo much diluted, that the precipitation on iron may
be nearly fimilar to that of nickel, zinc is immediate¬
ly covered with a cruft of the colour of mountain
brafs.,,
An invincible argument that cobalt is no effentia!
ingredient in nickel is, that a folution of the latter in
hepar fulphuris is precipitated by the former. In the
fame way nickel tinging borax, or the microcofmic
fait, in the dry way, is thrown down by the addition
of a proper quantity of copper ; but this is not ,the
cafe with cobalt. A remarkable difference likewife
occurs with all the acids. 1. Cobalt tinges all thefe
menitrua of a red colour,yielding cryftals either of a yel¬
low or bluiffi red. But nickel produces folutions and
concretions of a fine green : it fometimes happens, in¬
deed, that the red folutions yield greenifh cryftals; but
this is to be attributed to nickel in fmall proportion
mixed with the cobalt. 2. Cobalt united with the ma¬
rine acid yields fympatbetic ink, but depurated nickel
does not. 3. Cobalt, diffolved in volatile alkali, affords
a red folution, but nickel diffolved in'the fame alkali
is blue. 4. Cobalt does not, like nickel, feparate, on
the addition of arfenial acid-, a powder difficult of fo¬
lution. Iron therefore only remains; and indeed, fays
Mr Bergman, there are many and weighty reafons,
which induce us to think that nickel, cobalt, and man-
ganefe, are perhaps to be confidered in no other light
than modifications of iron.
1. Unequal portions of phlogifton, united to the
fame iron, or, according to the new nomenclature, iron
containing different proportions of carbone, changes
its qualities in a remarkable manner: for inftance, how
verymuchdo the different kinds of iron and fteel differ?
It is then to be obferved, that nickel, cobalt, and
manganefe, whatever operations they may be fubjeft-
ed to, are fo far from being deprived of iron, that, on
the contrary, they thereby become more dudtile, mag¬
netic, and refradlory. Again, the various colours
which nickel, cobalt, and manganefe exhibit, both by
folution and by fire, are alfo exhibited by iron. Co¬
balt and manganefe occafion a red colour in acids, and
the latter in glafs ; nickel and manganefe occafion an
hyacinthine colour when fufed with borax ; a green is
produced in acids by nickel, as alfo by its calx, and
by manganefe when long and ftrongly calcined ; and
it often leaves behind a ft oria of the fame colour, if the
rediftlion be performed with a faline flux. Laftly,
Col.alt occafions a blue or rather violet colour in glafs;
and the fame is true of manganefe diffolved in fixed,
and of nickel in volatile, alkali. Iron exhibits all thefe
varieties ; for the acids form with this metal folutions
of a green colour as long as it contains a certain quan¬
tity of phlogifton; but in proportion to the diminu¬
tion of this principle, a yellow, red, or brownifh red,
colour is produced. It tinges glafs in the fame man¬
ner, green, yellow, black, or red. Expofed to the five -
for many hours together with nitre, blue, greenifh
blue, or greenifli purple flowers, indeed are tranfmitted
through the crucible ; but an efflorefcence of the fame
kind is produced by nitre alone, which, by long con¬
tinued fire, penetrates the veffels, and is deeompoiVd
by the ccntad of the burning fuel, the alkaline efflo-
refeenea. &
Nickel.
NIC [ 56 1 NIC
’Mickel, refeences beln^ made blue by the manganefe, which is which is called Carnieobar, we have indeed, in the fe* NicoW.
.Nicobar. a}w3y8 prefent in the circumjacent afhes ; and thefe cond volunv of the Afiatic Refearches, fome interelt-
verge more to a green in proportion as the crocus mar- ing information refpeding both the produce and na-
tis is more copious; befides, iron itfelf is often found mix- tural hiftory of the country, and the manners of its
edvvith manganefe. Hence therefore it appears, that the inhabitants. The author of the memoir is Mr G. Ha-
blue flowers which are expelled from nickel by means of milton, who, in hia account of this ifland, fays, “It
nitre are the produce of manganefe, as thefe impart to is low, of a round figure, about 40 miles in circum-
glafs nothing of the cobalt colour ; befides, in the mi- ference, and appears at a diftance as if entirely cover-
neral kingdom,we find the nephritic ftones, and many ed with trees : however, there are feveral well cleared
others of blue, yellow, red, and g^een colours, all pro- and delightful fpots upon it. The foil is a black kind
ceeding from iron alone. of clay, and m-arfhy. It produces in great abundance.
The ores already mentioned, from which nickel has and with little care, moll of the tropical fruits, fuch
been obtained, are as follow : as pine-apples, plantains, papayas, cocoa-nuts, and
1. Mr Rinman afferts, that it has been found native areca-nuts ; alfo excellent yams, and a root called
in a mine of cobalt in Hefle. It is very heavy, and of
a liver colour or dark red When pulverifed, and roaft
ed under a muffle, it forms green excrefcences, and
fmokes; but its fmoke has no particular fmcll, nor can
any fublimate, either fulphureous or arfenical,becaught.
It is foluble in acids, and the folution is green, but a
polifhed iron plate difcovers no copper.
2. Aerated nickel is found in form of a calx, and is
commonly mixed with the calx of iron ; in which cafe
it has the name of nickel-ochre. This is green, and is
found in form of flowers on kupfer-nickel. It has been
found inJSweden, without any vilible quantity of nickel
in its compofition, in clay which contained much
filver.
3. Kupfer-nickel is of a reddifh yellow bright colour,
as has already been mentioned, and its texture is either
uniform, granular, or fcaly. It is bright when bro¬
ken, very heavy, and generally covered with a green-
ifh efflorefcence. By calcination it lofes much of its
fulphur, and becomes green, forming fungous ramifi¬
cations. Mr Rafpe informed M. Magellan, that nickel
was found mineralized with fulphurated iron and cop*
per in a mine near Nelftone in Cornwall. The fine
grained and fcaly kinds are found in loofe cobalt mines
in the province of Helfingeland in Sweden, where they
are of a lighter colour than in other countries, and
have often been confounded with the liver-coloured
marcafite.
4. Nickel mineralized with the acid of vitriol is of
a beautiful green colour, and may be extracted from
the nickel-ochre, or green efflorefcences of kupfer-nick¬
el already mentioned.
To the properties of nickel already mentioned, we
may add that of its being conftantly attracted by the
magnet, and that not at ail in proportion to the quan¬
tity of iron it contains ; for the more it is purified
from this metal, the more magnetical it becomes ; and
even acquires what iron does not, viz. the properties
of a true loadllone.
NICOBAR islands, the name of feveral iflands
in Afia, lying at the entrance of the gulph of Ben¬
gal. I he largell of thefe iflands is about 40 miles
long and 15 broad, and the inhabitants are faid to be
a harmlefs foi t-of people, ready to fupply the fhips that
flop there with provifious. rIhe fouth end of the
great Nicobar is by Captain Ritchie placed in eaft longi¬
tude 940 23' 30" ; and we colledf from Mr Rannel’s
Memoir, that it is within the 12th degree of north la¬
titude.
Of thefe iflands very little that can be depended
upon is known in Europe. Of the northernmoft,
.N° 242.
cachu. The only four-footed animals upon the ifland
are, hogs, dogs, large rats, and an animal of the li¬
zard kind, but large, called by the natives tolonqui;
thefe frequently carry oft fowls and chickens. The
only kiad of poultry are hens, and thofe not in great
plenty. There are abundance of fnakes of many dif¬
ferent kinds, and the inhabitants frequently die of
their bites. The timber upon the ifland is of many
forts, in great plenty, and fome of it remarkably
large, affording excellent materials for building or re¬
pairing fhips.
“ The natives are low in ftaturebut very well made,
and furpriiingly adtive and flrong; they are copper-
coloured, and their features have a call of the Malay {
quite the reverfe of elegant. The women in particu¬
lar are extremely ugly. The men cut their hair fhort,
and the women have their heads fhaved quite bare,
and wear no covering but a fhort petticoat, made of
a fort of rufti or dry grafs, which reaches half way
down the thigh. This grafs is not interwoven, but
hangs round the perfon fomething like the thatching
of a houfe. Such of them as have received prefents
of cloth-petticoats from the fhips, commonly tie
them round immediately under the arms. The men
wear nothing but a narrow ftrip of cloth about the
middle, in which they wrap up their privities fo tight
that there hardly is any appearance of them. The ears
of both fexes are pierced when young; and by
fqueezing into the holes large plugs of wood, or hang¬
ing heavy weights of (hells, they contrive to render
them wide, and di(agreeable to look at. They
are naturally difpofed to be good humoured and
gay, and are very fond of fitting at table with Eu¬
ropeans, where they eat every thing that is let be¬
fore them ; and they eat moll enormoufly. They
do not care much for wine, but will drink bumpers
of arak as long as they can fee. A great part of their
time is fpent in feafting and dancing. When a feall
is held at any village, every one that choofes goes
uninvited, for they are utter flrangers to ceremony.
At thofe feafts they eat immenfe quantities of pork,
which is their favourite food. Their hogs are re¬
markably fat, being fed upon the cocoa-nut kernel
and fea-water ; indeed all their domeftic animals, fowls,
dogs, &c. are fed upon the fame. They have like-
wnfe plenty of fmall fea-fifh, which they ftrike very dex-
teroufly with lances, wading into the fea about knee
deep. They are fure of killing a very fmall fifli at
10 or 12 yards diftance. They eat the pork almoft:
raw, giving it only a hafty grill over a quick fire.
They xoafl a fowl, by running a piece of wood thro*
it,
nic r 5'
Nicr^ar. it, by vny of fplt, and holding it over a brilk (ire
~^"v " until the feathers are burnt off, when it is ready for
eating, in their tafte. They never drink water ;
only cocoa-nut milk and a liquor called/earn, which
oozes from the cocoa-nut tree after cutting oft the
young fprouts or flowers. This they fufiti to fei
men't before it is ufed, and then it is intoxicating; to
which quality they add much by their method of
drinking it, by fucking it flowly through a finall
flraw. After eating, the young men and women, who
are fancifully dreffed with leaves, go to dancing, and
the old people furround them fmoking tobacco and
drinkingyiwrtf. The dancers, while performing, fing
fome of their tunes, which are far from wanting har¬
mony, and to which they keep exaft time. Of mufical
inftruments they have only one kind, and that the
fur pled. It is a hollow bamboo about feet long
and three inches in diameter, along the outfide of
which there is ftretched from end to end a fingle
firing made of the threads of a fplit cane, and the
place under the firing is hollowed a little to prevent
it from, touching. This inftrument is played upon in
the fame manner as a guitar. It is capable of pro¬
ducing hut few notes ; the performer however makes
it fpcak harmonioufly, and generally accompanies it
with the voice.
<4 Their houfes are generally built upon the beach in
villages of 15 or 20 houfes each ; and each houfe
contains a family of 20 perfons and upwards. 1 hefe
habitations are raifed upon wooden pillars about 10
feet from the ground ; they are round, and, having
no windows, are like bee-hives, covered with thatch.
The entry is through a trap-door below, where the
/nmily mount by a ladder, which is drawn up at night.
This manner of building is intended to fecure the
houfes from being infefted with fnakes and rats; and
for that purpofe the pillars are bound round with a
fmooth kind of leaf, which prevents animals from be¬
ing able to mount ; befides which, each pillar has a
broad round flat piece of wood near the top of it,
the proje&ing of which effedtually prevents the fur¬
ther progrefs of fuch vermin as may have pafled the
leaf. The flooring is made with thin ftrips of bam-
ifcoos, laid at fuch diftances from one another as to
leave free admiffion for light and air ; and the infule
is neatly finifhed and decorated with fifhing lances,
nets, &c.
“ The art of making cloth of any kind is quite un¬
known to the inhabitants of this ifland ; what they
have is got from the fhips that come to trade in co¬
coa nuts.
“ They purchafe a much larger quantity of cloth than
‘is confumed upon their own ifland. This is intended
for the Choury market. Choury is a fmall ifland to
the fouthward of theirs, to which a large fleet of their
boats fails every year about the month of November,
to exchange doth for canoes ; for they cannot make
thefe themfelves. This voyage they perform by the
help of the fun and ftars, for they know nothing of
the compafs.
“ In their difpofition there are two remarkable qua¬
lities. One is their entire negleft of compliment and
ceremony ; and the other, their averfion to diflionefty.
A Carnicobarian travelling to a diftant village, upon
bufinefs or amufement, paflea through many towns in
YouXIII. Parti.
7 ] NIC
his way without fpeaking to any one ; if he is hungry Nicobar,
or tired, he goes into the neareft houfe, and helps ^ '*
himfelf to what he wants, and fits till he is refted,
without taking the fmallelt notice of any of the fa¬
mily unlefs he has bufinefs or news to communicate.
Theft or robbery is fo very rare amongft them, that,
a man going out of his houfe never takes away his
ladder or (huts his door, but leaves it open for any
body to enter that pleafes, without the lead appre*
henfion of having any thing ftolen from him.
“Their intercourfe with firangers is fo frequent, that
they have acquired in general the barbarous Portu-
guefe fo common over India ; their own language has
a found quite different from moft others, their words
being pronounced wnh a kind of dop, or eaten m
the throat, at every fyllable.
“ They have no notion of a Ood, but they believe
firmly in the devil, and worfhip him from fear. In
every village there is a high pole eretled with long
firings of ground-rattans hanging from it, which, it
is faid, has the virtue to keep him at a diftance. When
they fee any ligns of an approaching dorm, they
imagine that the devil intends them a vifit, upon which
many fuperfiitious ceremonies are performed. The
people of every village march round their own boun¬
daries, and fix up at different diftances fmall (licks
fplit at the top, into which fplit they put a piece of
cocoa-nut, a wifp of tobacco, and the leaf of a cer¬
tain plant : whether this is meant as a peace offering
to the devil, or a fcarecrow to frighten him away,
does not appear.
“ When a man dies, all his live flock, cloth, hatchets,
fifhing-lances, and in fhort every moveable thing he
pofleffed, is buried with him, and his death is mourn*
ed by the whole village. In one view this is an ex¬
cellent cudom, feeing it prevents all difputes about
the property of the deceafed amongd his relations.
His wife mud conform to cudom by having a joint
cut off from one of her fingers ; and if flic refutes
this, (he muft fubmit to have a deep notch cut in one
of the pillars of her houfe.
“ I was once prefent at the funeral of an old woman.
When we went into the houfe which had belonged
to the deceafed, we found it full of her female rela¬
tions ; fome of them were employed in wrapping up
the corpfe in leaves and cloth, and others tearing to
pieces all the cloth which had belonged to her. In
another houfe hard by, the men of the village, with
a great many others from the neighbouring towns,
were fitting drinkingToanS and fmoking tobacco. In
the mean time two flout young fellows were btify
digging a grave in the fand near the houfe. When
the women had done with the corpfe, they fet up a ^
moft hideous howl, upon which the people began to
affemble round the grave, and four men went up into
the houfe to bring down the body; in doing this
they were much interrupted by a young man,.fon to
the deceafed, who endeavoured with all his might to
prevent them, but finding it in vain, he clung round
the body, and was carried to the grave along with
it: there, after a violent druggie, he was turned
away and condu&ed hack to the houfe. The corpfe
being now put into the grave, and the lafhings which
hound the legs and arms cut, all the live-dock which
had been the property of the deceafed, confiding of
H about
N I C
Niroka-, about half a dozen hogs, and as many fowls, was
^'e'^emu-killed, and flung in above it; a man then approached
with a bunch of leaves ftuck upon the end of a pole,
which he fwept two or three times gently along the
corpfe, and then the grave was filled up. During
the ceremony, the women continued to make the
moft horrible vocal concert imaginable : the men faid
nothing. A few days afterwards, a kind of monu¬
ment was erefted over the grave, with a pole upon it,
to which long {trips of cloth of diifercnt colours were
hung.
“ Polygamy is not known among them ; and their
punifhment of adultery is not lefs fevere than eflfe&ual.
They cut, from the man’s offending member, a piece
of the forelkin proportioned to the frequent com-
miflion or enormity of the crime.
“ There feems to fubfift among them a perfect equa¬
lity. A few perfons, from their age, have a little
more refpetS; paid to them ; but there is no appear¬
ance of authority one over another. Their fociety
feems bound rather by mutual obligations continually
conferred and received } the fimpleit and belt of ail
ties.”
It is our wifh to take all opportunities of laying
before our readers every authentic fad which can
throw light upon the philofophy of the human mind.
In this narrative of Mr Hamilton’s refpeding the na¬
tives of Carnicobar, there is however one circumftance
at which we flu ruble. It is known to the learned,
that the philofophers of Greece and Rome, as well
as the magi of Perfia, admitted two felf-exiftent be-
ings, a good and an evil (fee Polytheism) ; but we
never before read of any people who had no notion
of a God, and yet firmly believed in the devil. We
could give inftances of men worfhipping the evil prin¬
ciple from fear, and negleding the worfhip of the
benevolent principle, from a perfuafion that he would
do them all the good in his power without being
bribed by facrifices and oblations ; but this is the only
inifance of *hich we have ever heard, of a people,
under the influence of religion, who had no notion of
a God! As good is at leafl as apparent in the world
as evil, it Appears to us lo very unnatural to admit an
evi/ a?d deny a good principle, that we cannot help
thinking that Mr Hamilton, from his ignorance of
*.he language of Carnicobar, (which he acknowledges
to be different from moff others), has not a perfeft
acquaintance with the religious creed of the natives ;
and that they believe in a good as well as in an evil
principle, though they worfhip only the latter, from
a perfuafion, that to adore the former could be of no
advantage either to him or to themfelves.
NICODEMUS, a difciple of Jefus Chrift, a Tew
by nation, and by fed a Pharifee (John iii. i. &c.)
1 he icnpture calls him a ruler of the Jews,, and our
baviour gives him the name of a mailer of Ifrael.
When our baviour began to manifeft himfelf by his
miracles at Jerufalem, at the firft paffover that he ce-
lebrateo there after his baptifm, Nicodemus made no
doubt but that he was the Meffiah, and came to him
by mght, that he might learn of him the way of fal-
vation. Jefus told him that no one could fee the
kingdom of heaven except he fliould be born again.
Nicodemus taking this in the literal fenfe, made an-
*wer> JrIow can » roan that is old be born again i Can
[ 58 1
N I C
he enter a fecond time into his mother's womb ?” To Nitodenim,
which Jefus replied, “ If a man be not born of water NlColai:a!1k
and ef the fpirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of 'rmmJ
God. That which is born of the fltfh is flefh, and
that which is born of the fpirit is fpirit.” Nicodemus
afks him, “ How can thefe things be ?” Jefus an-
fwered, “ Are you a mafter of Ifrael, and are you ig¬
norant of thefe things ? We tell you what we know,
and you receive not our teftimony. If you believe
not common things, and which may be called earthly,
how will you believe me if I fpeak to you of heavenly
things ? Nobody has afeended into heaven but the fon
of God, who came down from thence. And juft as
Mofes lifted up the brazen ferpent in the wilder-
nefs, fo muft the Son of Man be lifted up on high.
For God fo loved the world that he has given his only
fon, fo that no man who believes in him fhall perifh,
but fhall have eternal life.”
After this converfation Nicodemus became a dif¬
ciple or Jefus Chrift; and there is no doubt to be made,
but he came to hear him as often as our Saviour came
to Jerufalem. It happened on a time, that the priefts
and Pharifees had fent officers to feize Jefus (John vii.
45, &c.), who returning to them, made their report,
that never man fpoke as he did ; to which tire Phari¬
fees replied, “ Are you alfo of his difciples ? Is there
any one of the elders or Pharifees that have believed
in him ?” Then Nicodemus thought himfelf obliged
to make anfwer, faying, ‘c Does the law permit us
to condemn any one before he is heard ?” To which
they replied, “ Are you alfo a Gallilean ? Read the
ic riptures, and you will find that never any prophet
came out of Gallilee.” After this the council was dif-
miffed. At laft Nicodemus declared himfelf openly a>
difciple of Jefus Chrift (id. xix. 39* 40.), when he
came with Jofeph of Arimathea to pay the laft duties
to the body of Chrift, which they took down from the
crofs, embalmed, and laid in a fepulchre.
We are told, that Nicodemus received baptifm from
the difciples of Chrift; but it is not mentioned whe¬
ther before or after the paffion of our Lord. It is
added, that the Jews being informed of this, depofed
him from his dignity of fenator, excommunicated him,
and drove him from Jerufalem ; but that Gamaliel,
who was his coufin-german, took him to his country
houfe, and maintained him there till hiVdeath, when
he had him buried honourably near St Stephen. There
is ftill extant an apocryphal gofpel under the name of
Nicodemus, which in fome manuferipts bears the title
of the si8s of Pilate^
NICOLAITANS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian
heretics who affumed this name from Nicholas of
Antioch ; who, being a Gentile by birth, firft emi
braced Judaifm and then Chriftianity ; when his zeal
and devotion recommended’ him to the church of Je¬
rufalem, by whom he was chofen one of the firft dea¬
cons. Many of the primitive writers believe that Ni¬
cholas was rather the occafion than the author of the
infamous pra&ices of thofe who affumed his name,
who were exprtfsly condemned by the Spirit of God-
And indeed their opinions and
actions were highly extravagant and criminal. They
allowed a community of wives, and made no diftiirc-
tion between ordinary me ats and thofe offered to idols.
According to Lufebius, they fubfifled but a fhort
time 1
NIG [ 59 1 NIG
NicoUs time j tut TertulUan fays, that they only changed
il their name, and that their hercfies pafled into the fe£t
.comedgs. Ca;n[tes.
NICOLAS (St), an ifland of the Atlantic Ocean,
and one of the moil coniiderable of thofe of Cape
Verde, lying between Santa Lucia and St Jago It
is of a triangular figure, and about 75 miles in
length. The land is ilony, mountainous, and bar¬
ren ; but there are a great many goats in a valley
inhabited by the Portuguefe. W. Long. 33. 35.
N. Lat. 17.0.
NICOLE (Peter), one of the fineft writers in
Europe, was born at Chartres in 1625, of a confpi-
cuous family. He adhered to the Janfenifts ; and
joined in the compofition of feveral works with Mr
Arnauld, whofe faithful companion he was during the
to or f 2 years of his retirement. He gave a Latin
tranflation of Pafcal’s Provinciates) and added a com¬
mentary to them. One of his fineft works is his Effais
de Morale. He wrote very iubtilely againft the Pro-
teftants. His treatife on the unity of the church
is efteemed a maftcrly piece. He died at Paris in
1695, a few days after the publication of his treatife
concerning the Quietifts. He was well /killed in
polite literature. To him is afcribed a colle&ion of
Latin epigrams, and of Greek, Spaniih, and Italian
fentences, which has borne feveral impreffions, and has
a learned preface to it.
NICOLO (St), the moft confiderable, ilrongeft,
and beft peopled of the ifles of Tremeti in the gulf of
Venice, to the eaft of St Domino, and to the fouth of
Caoparata It has a harbour defended by feveral
towers ; and a fortrefs, in which is an abbey, with a
veryhandfome church. E.Long. 15. 37. N. Lat.42 7.
NICOMEDES, the name of ieveral kings of the
ancient Bithynia. See Bithynia. 4
Nicomedes I. had no fooner taken pofiefiion of his
father’s throne, before Chrift 27c, than, according to
the cuftom which has in all ages been too prevalent
among the defpocs of the eaft, he caufed two of his
brothers to be put to death. The youngeft, Ziboeas,
having faved himfelf by timely flight, feized on the
coaft of Bithynia, which was then known by the names
of Tbracia, Thyniccia, and Thracia Afiatica> and there
maintained a long war with his brother. Nicomedes
being informed that Antiochus Soter, king of Syria,
was making great preparations to attack him at the
fame time, called in the Gauls to his afiillance ; and
on this occafion that people firit paffed into Alia.—
Nicomedes having with their afiiftance repuifed Anti¬
ochus, overcome his brother, and acquired the poflef-
fion of all his father’s dominions, bellowed upon them
that part of Alia Minor which from them was called
Gallo-C rtfcia, and Gallatia. Having now no enemies
to contend with, he applied himfelf to the enlarging
and adorning of the city of Aftacus, which he called
after his own name Nuomed/a. He had two wives,
and by one oi them he was perfuaded to leave his
kingdom to her fon, in preference to his elder bro¬
thers; but when or how he died is not certainly
known.
_ Nicomedes II. the grandfon of the former, began
his reign like him, by facrificing his brothers to his
jealoufy, after having waded to the throne in the blood
of Prufias his father. He afTumed the name of Epl- Nkoms'cs,
pbanes, or “ the Illuftrious,” though he performed no- Nicomtdia.
thing worthy of this title, or even of notice, during -Y""***
the whole time of his long reign. He was fucceeded
by his fon. 
Nicomeses III. furnamed by Antiphrafis, Philopa--
ter, becaufe he had murdered his father to get poflef-
fion of his crown. This monarch having entered into
alliance with Mithridates the Great king of Pontus,
invaded Paphlagonia ; and having feized on that coun¬
try, he attempted likewife to make himfelf mailer of
Cappadocia. This country, however, was at that time
fubjedl to his powerful ally ; who thereupon marching
into Bithynia at the head of an army, drove Nico¬
medes from the throne, and raifed his brother Socrates
to it in his room. The dethroned prince had recourfc
to the Romans, who expelled the ufurper, and refto-
red him to his hereditary dominions. For this favour
they preffed him, and at length prevailed upon him,
contrary to his own inclination, and the opinion of his
friends, to make inroads into the territories of Mithri¬
dates, with whom Rome wanted a fubjeft of difpute.
The king of Pontus bore for fome time the devafta*
tions committed by Nicomedes with great patience,
that he might not feem to be the aggreflbr; but at
laft he routed his army on the banks of the Am-
nius, drove him a fecond time from his dominions,
and obliged him to feek for flielter in Paphlagonia,
where he led a private life till the time of Sylla, who
replaced him on the throne. He was fucceeded by
his fon. 
Nicomedes IV. who performed nothing which
the many writers who flourifhed in his time have
thought worth tranfmitting to poilerity. As he
died without iifue male, he left his kingdom by his
laft will to the Romans, who reduced it to the form
of a province. Salluft. difagreeing with the ancients,
tells us, that Nicomedes left a fon named Mufa
or My fa ; and introduces Mithridates as complaining
of the Romans to At faces king of Parthia, for feizing
on the kingdom of Bithynia, and excluding the fon
of a prince who had on all occaiions fhown himfelf a
fteady friend to their republic. But this Mufa was
the daughter and not the fon of Nicornedes, as we are
told in exprefs terms by Suetonius, Velleius Patercu¬
lus, and Appian. All we know of her is, that upon
the death of her father ihe claimed the kingdom of
Bithynia for her fon, as the next male heir to the
crown ; but without fuccefs, no motives of juftice be¬
ing of fuch weight with the ambitious Romans as to
make them part with a kingdom.
NICOMEDIA (anc. geog.), metropolis of Bi¬
thynia, built by Nicomedes the grandfather of Piu-
fias. Situated on a point of the Sinus Aftacenus,
(Pliny).; furnamed the Beautiful, (Athemeus) : the
largeft city of Bithynia, (Paufonias), who fays it was
formerly called AJlacus ; though Pliny diftinguifhes
Aft acum and Nicomedia as difierent cities. Nicome-
dia was very famous, not only under its own kings, but
under the Romans : it was the royal refidence of Dio-
clefian, and of Conftantine while Conilantinople was
building, if we may credit Nicephorus. It is ftiil called
Nicomedia, at the bottom of a bay of the Propontis in
.the Hither Afia. E. Long. 30. o. N. Lat. 41. 20,
Ji ^ it
N I C
. [ 60 1 NIC
trade in filk, the difchurge of the office of patriarch, to which dig-^
nity he was appointed in 1652, in the 39th year of
his age.
N-or was he only diftinguifhed in his own profeffion,
for he (hone even as a ftatefman. At length, however,
he fellavidtim to popular difcontents; which misfortune,
Hicomedui, It is a place of confequence ; carries on
Nicer. Cotton,glafs; and earthen-ware, and is the fee of a Greek
NICOMEDUS, a geometrician, famous on ac¬
count of the invention of the curve called conchoid,
which is equally ufeful in refolving the two problems . . . . .
of doubling the cube and trifefting the angle. It though he was far from adervmg it, was certainly the
he lived foon after Eratofhenes, for he
Nicott
11
Ntcotiana.
appears that ,
raliied that philofpher on the mechanifm ot his mefo-
labe. Geminus, who lived in the fecond century
before Jefus Chriil, has written on the conchoid,
though Nicomedus was always efteemed the inventor
of it. Thofe who place him four or five centuries af¬
ter Jefus Chriil mutt be ignorant of thefe fails, by
which we are enabled to afeertain pretty nearly the
time in which he lived.
NICON, a native of Ruffia, was born in 1613, in
a village of the government of Niffinei Novogotod, of
fuch obfeure parents, that their names and llation are
not tranfmitted to pofterity. hie received at the bap-
tifmal font the name of Nikita, which afterwards, when
he became monk, he changed to Nicon, the appella¬
tion by which he is more generally known. He was
educated in the convent of St Macarius, under the
care of a monk. From the courfe of his iludies,
which were almoft folely dire&ed to the Holy Scrip¬
tures, and the exhortations of his preceptor, he im¬
bibed at a very early period the ilrongeft attachment
to a rnonafiic life ; and was only prevented from fol¬
lowing the bent of his mind by the perfuafions and
authority of his father. In conformity, however, to
the wiflres of his family, though contrary to his own
inclination, he entered into matrimony ; and, as that
{late precluded him from being admitted into a con¬
vent, he was ordained a fecular prieft. With his wife
he continued 10 years, partly in the country and
partly at Mofcow, officiating as a parifh-priell. The
lofs of three children, however, gave him a total dif-
guft to the world ; in confequence of which, his wife
Avas perfuaded to take the veil, and he became a monk;
his re'treat was in an ifiand of the White Sea, and a
Find of ccclefiaftical efiablifhment was formed, as re¬
markable for the aufterities of its rules as the iituation
was for its folitude. There were about 1 2 monks, but
they all lived in different cells. Such a fyftem, com¬
bined with the molt gloomy ideas, occationed fo much
cloiftered pride as tarnifhed his chara&er, when he
was afterwards called up to fulfil the duties of a pub¬
lic and exalted ftation. Our limits do not permit us to be
minute in our account of his life; we muft therefore be
contented with barely reciting general fails. Within
lefs than the fpace of five years, Nicon was fucceffively
created archimandrite, or abbot of the Novofpatfkoi
convent, archbifhop of Novogorod, and patriarch of
Ruffia. That he was worthy of thefe rapid promo¬
tions, few will doubt who are acquainted with his
chara&er ; for he was poffeffed of very extraordinary
qualities,fuch as even his enemies allow and admire. His
courage was undaunted, his morals irreproachable, his
charity extenfive and exalted, his learning deep and
comprehenfive, and his eloquence commanding.—
Wiien archbifhop, he obtained the refpeft of the in¬
habitants by his unwearied affiduity in the difeharge
of his trull; and conciliated their alfedlions by ads of
unbounded charity : Nor was he lefs confpicuous in
effeci of imprudence. He abdicated the office ol pa¬
triarch, which would otherwii'e have been taken from
him, in July 1658, and bore his i-everfe of fortune
with htroic magnanimity : he returned to a cel!, and
commenced his former aufterities. His innocence,
however, could not prated him from further malicehis
enemies obtained him to be formally depofed in 1 666.
This degradation was followed by imprifonment,
which was for fome time very rigorous, becaufe he, con-
feious of his own innocence, relufed to accept pardon
for crimes of which he was not guilty. In 1676,
however, he vyas removed to the convent of St Cyril,
and enjoyed perfed liberty.
Nicon furvived his depofition 15 years. In 1681,
he requefted and obtained permiffion to return to the
convent of Jerufalem, that he might end his days in
that favourite fpot ; but he expired upon the road
near Yarollaf, in the 66th year of his age. His re¬
mains were, tranfported to that convent, and buried
with all the ceremonies ufed at the interment of pa¬
triarchs.
NICOPOLI, a town of Turkey in Europe, and in
Bulgaria, famous for being the place where the firil
batde was fought between the Turks and Chriftians
in 1396; and where the latter were defeated with
the lofs of 20,000 men. E. Long. 25. 33. N. I^at.
43- 46. .
NICOSIA, the capital of the ifland of Cyprus,
where a Turkifh bafhaw refidcs. It is delightfully
fituated between the mountains of Olympus and a
chain of others; and was formerly well fortified by the
Venetians ; but the works are now in ruins. It is
about 31 miles in circumference ; and there are plan¬
tations of olives, almonds, lemons, oranges, mulber¬
ries, and cyprefs-trees, interfperfed among the houfes,
which give the town a delightful appearance. The
church of Sanfta Sophia is an old Gothic ftrufture,
which the Turks have turned into a mofque, and de-
ftroyed the ornaments. It is too miles weft of Tri¬
poli, and 160 fouth-weft of Aleppo. E. Long. 34*
45. N. Eat. 34. 54.
NICOT ( John), lord of Villemain, and mafter of
requelts of the French king’s houfehold, was born at
Nifmes, and was fent ambafl'ador to Portugal in 1559 ;
whence he brought the plant which, from his name, was
called but is now more generally known by the
name of Tobacco. He died atParis in 1603. Fie wrote a
French and Latin di&ionary in folio; a treatife on na¬
vigation ; and other works.
NICO FIANA,tobacco,in botany: Agenusof the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
28th order, Lurida. The corolla is funnel-lhaped, with
a plaited limb ; the ftamina inclined; the capfule
bivalved and bilocular. There are feven fpecies, of
which the moft remarkable is the tabacwv, or
common tobacco-plant. This was firft difeovered in
America by the Spaniards about the year 1560, and
7 by
NIC [
by them imported into Europe. It had linen ufed hy
the inhabitants of America long before; and was called
by thofe of the iflands _yo/i, and p<itun by the inhabitants
of the continent. It was fent into Spain from I abaco,
a province of Yucatan, where it was firlt difcovered,
and from whence it takes its common name. Sir
Walter Raleigh is generally faid to have been the hr;t
that introduced it into England about the year 158?,
and who taught his countrymen how to fmoke it. _ Dr
Cotton Mather, however, (in his Chriftian Fhilofo-
pher) fays, that in the above year one Mr Lane car
ried over fome of it from Virginia, which was the firft
that had ever been feen in Europe. Tobacco is com¬
monly ufed among the oriental nations, though it is
uncertain by whom it was introduced among them.
Confiderable quantities of it are cultivated in the Le¬
vant, on the coafts of Greece and the Archipelago, in
Italy, and in the ifland of Malta.
There are two varieties of that fpecies of Nicotiana
which is cultivated for common ufe, and which are
diitinguilhed by the names of Oronokoe, and fweet-
fccnted tobacco. They differ from each other only in
the figure of their leaves ; thofe of the former being
longer and narrower than the latter. _ They are tall
herbaceous plants, growing ere& with fine foliage,
and riling with a ftrong Hem from fix to nine feet high.
The (talk, near the root, is upward of an inch dia¬
meter, and furrounded with a kind of hairy or velvet
clammy fubftance, of a yellowilh green colour. The
leaves are rather of a deeper green, and grow alternately
at the diftance of two or three inches from each other.
They are oblong, of a fpear-lhaped oval, and Ample ;
the largeft about 20 inches long, but decreafing in
fj/e as they afcend, till they come to be only 10 inches
long, and about half as broad. The face of the haves
is much corrugated, like thofe of fpinage when full
ripe. Before they come to maturity, when they are
about five or fix inches long, the leaves are generaliy
of a full green, and rather fmooth ; but as they in-
crcafe in iize, they become rougher, and acquire a
yellowifh caff. The Item and branches are terminated
by large bunches of flowers collected into duffers, of
a delicate red ; the edges, when full-blown, inclining
to a pale purple. They continue in fucceffion till the
end of the fummer ; when they are fucceeded by feeds
of a brown colour, and kidney-lhaped. Thefe are very
fmall, each capfule containing about ioco; and the
whole produce of a fingle plant is reckoned at about
e;5C,ooo. The feeds ripen in the month of September.
Mr Carver informs us, that the Oronokoe, or, as
it is called, the long Virginian tobacco, is the kind bell
fe.ited for bearing the rigour of a northern climate, the
firength as well as the feent of the leaves being greater
thai^that of the other. The fweet-feented fort flou-
rilhes moff in a fandy foil, and in a warm climate,
where it greatly exceeds the former in the celerity of
its growth ; and is hkewife, as its name intimates,
much more mild and pleafant.
Culture. Tobacco thrives beft in a warm, kindly,rich
fail, that is not fubjeA to be over-run by weeds. In Vir¬
ginia, the foil in which it thrives beft, is warm, light,
and inclining to be fandy ; and therefore, if the plant
is to be cultivated in Britain, it ought to be planted
in a foil as nearly of the fame kind as poffible. Other
kinds of foil might probably be brought to fuit it, by
i ] NIC
a mixture of proper manure ; but we muft remember, Nr-ot'a*a;
that whatever manure is made ufe of,^ muft be tho¬
roughly incorporated with the foil. Ihe beft litua-
tion for a tobacco plantation is the fouthern declivity
of a hill rather gradual than abrupt, or a fpot that is
fheltered from the north winds : but at the fame time
it is neceffary that the plants enjoy a free air ; tor
without that they will not profper.
As tobacco is an annual plant, thofe who intend to
cultivate it ought to be as careful as poffibie in the
choice of the feeds; in which, however, with ad their
care, they may be fometimes deceived. The leeds
are to be fown about the middle of April, or rathei
fooner in a forward feafon, in a bed prepared fowms
purpofe of fuch foil as has been already deferibed,
mixed with fome warm rich manure. In a cold fprmg,
hot beds are moft eligible for this purpofe, and gar-
deners imagine that they are always neceiiaiy : th cJ!tur3
Mr Carver tells us, that he is convinced, when tne
weather is not very fevere, the tobacco-feeds may be
raifed without doors; and for this purpofe gives us the
foUowung directions.
“ Having fovvn the feed in the manner above di¬
rected, on the leaft apprehenfion of a froff after the
plants appear, it will be neceilary to fpread mats over
the beds, a little elevated from the ground by poles
laid acrofs, that they may not be crufhed. 1 hefe,
however, muft be removed in the morning foon after
the fun appears, that they may receive as much benefit
as poffible from its warmth and rrom the air. In this
manner proceed till the leaves have attained about
two inches in length and one in breadth ; which they
will do in about a month after they are fown, or near
the middle of May, when the frofts are ufually at an
end. One invariable rule for their being able to^ bear
removal is, when the fourth leaf is fprouted, and the
fifth juft appears. Then take the opportunity of the
firft rains or gentle (bowers to transplant them into
fuch a foil and iituation as before deferibed ; which
muft be done in the following manner.— The land
muft be ploughed, or dug up with fpades, and made as
mellow and light as poffible. When the plants are
to be placed, raife with the hoe fmall hillocks at the
diftance of two feet or a little more from each other,
taking care that no hard fods or lumps are in it; and.
then juft indent the middle of each, wituout drilling
holes, as for fome other plants.
“ When your ground is thus prepared, dig in a
gentle manner from their native lied fuch plants as
have attained the proper growth for tranfplanting
above-mentioned ; and drop, as you pafs, one on every
hillock. Infert a plant gently into each centre, pieffing
the foil around it gently with your fingers; and taking
the greateft care, during the operation, that you do
not break off any of the leaves, which are at this
time exquifitely tender. If the weather proves dry
after they are thus tranfplanted, they muft be watered
with foft water, in the fame manner as is ufu illy done
to coleworts, or plants of a fimilar kind. But though
you now feem to have a fufficient quantity of plants
for the fpace you inteild to cultivate, it is yet neceftary
that you continue to attend to your bed of feedlings,
that you may have enough to fupply any deficiencies
which through accident may.arile. From this time
great care muft be taken to keep the ground foft and
free
NIC r 1 NIC
Kicot.apa. ft-ee from weeds, by often 'ftirring with your hoe the whole field of plants may foon be loft,
mould round the roots; and to prune off the dead ' ^ * - - -
leaves that foroetimes are found near the bottom of
the ftalk.
“ The difference of this climate from that in which
I have been accuflomed to obferve the progrefs of this
plant, will not permit me to dired with certainty the
time which is moft proper to take off the top of it, to
prevent it from running to feed. This knowledge can
only be acquired by experience. When it has rifen
-to the height of more than two feet, it commonly be¬
gins to put forth the branches on which the flowers
and feeds are produced ; but as this expanfion, if fuf-
fered to take place, would drain the nutriment from
the leaves, which are the moft valuable part, and there¬
by leffen their fize and efficacy, it becomes needful at
this ftage to nip off the extremity of the ftalk to pre¬
vent its growing higher. In fome other climates, the
top is commonly cut off when the plant has 15 leaves;
but if the tobacco is intended to be a little ftronger
than ufual, this is done when it has only 13 ; and fome-
times, when it is defigned to be remarkably powerful,
II orf2 are only allowed to expand. On the con¬
trary, if the planter is defirous of having his crop very
mild, he fuffers it to put forth 18 or 20 : but in this
calculation, the three or four lower leaves next the
ground, which do not grow fo large and fine as the
others, are net to be reckoned.
“ This operation, denominated topping the tobacco,
is much better performed by the finger and thumb
than with any inftrument; becaufe the grafp of the fin¬
gers elofes the pores of the plant; whereas, when it is
done by inftruments, the juices are in fome degree ex-
haufted. Care mutt alfo be taken to nip off the fprouts
that will be continually fpringing up at the jun&ion
of the leaves with the ftalks. This is fuccour
ing, or flickering, the tobacco; and ought to be repeated
as often as occafion requires.
“ As it is impoffible to afcertain the due time for
topping the plant, fo it is equally impoffible, without
experiment, to afcertain the time it will take to ripen
in this country. The apparent figns of its maturity
ure thefe ; '1 he leaves, as they approach a ftate of ripe-
nefs, become more corrugated or rough; and when fully
ripe, appear mottled with yellowifh fpots on the raifed
parts; whilft the cavities retain their ufual green colour.
They are at this time alfo thicker than they have be¬
fore been ; and are covered with a downy velvet, like
that formerly mentioned, on the ftalks. If heavy rains
happen at this critical period, they will wafh off this
exciefcent fubftance, and thereby damage the plants.
In this cafe, if the frofty nights are not begun, it is
pioper to let them ft and a few days longer ; when, if
the weather be moderate, they will recover this fub-
itance again. Lut if a froft unexpectedly happens du¬
ring the night, they muff be carefully examined in the
morping, before the fun has any influence upon them ;
and thofe which are found to be covered with trolly
particles, whether thoroughly ripe or not, muff be cut
•up ; for though they may not all appear to be arrived
at a ftate of maturity, yet they cannot be far from it,
ana will differ but little in goodnefs from thofe that are
perfectly fo.”
Tobacco is fubjedt to be deftroyed by a worm ; and
without proper care to exterminate this enemy, a
8
. - _ , -    This animal
is of the horned fpecies, and appears to be peculiar to V""^
the tobacco-plant; fo that in many parts of America
it is diftinguilhed by the name of the tobacco-worm. In
what manner it is firft produced, or how propagated,
is unknown ; but it is not difcernible till the plants
have attained about half their height; and then ap¬
pears to be nearly as large as a gnat. Soon after this
it lengthens into a worm ; and by degrees increafes in
magnitude to the bignefs of a man’s finger. In ffiape
it is regular from its head to its tail, without any di-
minution at either extremity. It is indented or ribbed
round at equal diftances, nearly a quarter of an inch
from each other ; and having at every one of thefe di-
vifions a pair of feet or claws, by which it fallens itfelf
to the plant. Its mouth, like that of the caterpillar,
is placed under the fore-part of the head. On the top
or the head, between the eyes, grows a horn about half
an inch long, and greatly refembling a thorn; the ex-
treme part of which is of a brown colour, a firm tex¬
ture, and the extremity fharp-pointed. It is ealily
cruftied ; being only, to appearance, a colledion of
green juice_ inclofed in a membraneous covering,
without the internal parts of an animated being. The
colour of its Ik in is in general green, interfperfed with
feveral fpots of a yellowi/h white ; and the whole co¬
vered with a Ihort hair fcarcely to be difeerned. Thefe
worms are found the molt predominant during the lat¬
ter end of July and the beginning of Augult; at which
time the plants muff be particularly attended to, and
every leaf carefully fearched. As foon as a wound is
difeoyertd, and it will not be long before it is percep¬
tible, care muff be taken to deftroy the caufe of it,
which will be found near it, and from its unfubftantial
texture may eafily be cruffied : but the belt method is
to pull it away by the horn, and then crulh it.
When the tobacco is fit for being gathered, as will
appear from an attention to the foregoing directions
on the firil morning that promifes a fair day, before
the fun is rifen, take an ax or a long knife, and holding
the ftalk near the top with one hand, fever it from its
root with the other, as low as poffible. Lay it
gently on the ground, taking care not to break off
the leaves, and there let it remain expofed to the rays of
the fun throughout the day, or until the leaves, accord
mg to the American expreffion, are entirely wi/ted:
that is, till they become limber, and will bend any
way without breaking. But if the weather Ihould
prove rainy without any intervals of funftiine, and the
pi mts appear to be fully ripe, they muff be houfed
immediately This mult be done, however, with great
care, teat the leaves, which are in this ftate very
brittle, may not be broken. They are next to be placed
under proper ffielter, either in a barn or covered hovel
vyhere they cannot be affeCted by rain or too much air’
thinly fcattered on the floor; and if the fun does not
appear for feveral days, they mutt be left to wilt in that
manner; but in this cafe the quantity of the tobacco
will not be quite fo good.
When the leaves have acquired the above mentioned
flexibility, the plants mult be laid in heaps, or racher
in one heap if the quantity is not too great, and in
about 24 hours they will be found to fweat. But
during this time, when they have lain for a little while
and begin to ferment, it will be neceffary to turn
them;
NIG [ 63 1 NIG
5f«tiana them; bringing thofe which are in the middle to the
' furface, and placing thofe which are at the furface in
the middle. The longer they lie in this fituation, the
darker-coloured is the tobacco ; and this is termed
fiueatwg the tobacco. After they'have lain in this
manner for three or four days, for a longer con¬
tinuance might make the plants turn mouldy, they
may be faftened together in pairs with cords or wood¬
en, pegs, near the bottom of the ftalk, and hung aciofs
a pole, with the leaves fufpended in the fame covered
place, a proper interval being left between each
pair. In about a month the leaves will be thorough¬
ly dried, and of a proper temperature to be taken
down. This ftate may be afeertained by their appear¬
ing of the fame colour with thofe imported from Ame¬
rica. But this can be done only in wet weather.—The
tobacco is exceedingly apt to attract the humidity of
the atmofphere, which gives it a pliability that is ab-
folutely necelfary for its prefervation ; for if the plants
are removed in a very dry feafon, the external parts of
the leaves will crumble into dull, and a confiderable
waile will enfue.
Cure. As foon as the plants are taken down, they
mull again be laid in a heap, and preffed with heavy logs
of wood for about a week ; but this climate may
poffibly require a longer time. While they remain in
this (late, it will be necelfary to introduce your hand
frequently into the heap, to difeover whether the heat
be not too intenfe ; for in large quantities this will
fometimes be the cafe, and confiderable damage will
be occafioned by it. When they are found to heat
too much, that is, when the heat exceeds a moderate
glowing warmth, part of the weight by which they
are prelled muft be taken away ; and the caufe be¬
ing removed, the efftft will ceafe. This is called
the fccond or lajl /'wearing; and, when completed,
which it generally will be about the time juft men¬
tioned, the leaves may be ftripped from the ftalks for
ufe. Many omit this laft fweating ; but Mr Carver
thinks that it takes away any remaining harfhnefs,
and renders the tobacco more mellow. The ftrength
of the ftalk alfo is diffufed by it through the leaves,
and the whole mafs becomes equally meliorated.—When
the leaves are ftripped from the ftalks, they are to be
tied up in bunches or hands, and kept in a cellar or
ether damp place ; though if not handled in dry
weather, but only during a rainy feafon, it is of little
confequence in what part of the houfe or barn they
are laid up. At this period the tobacco is thoroughly
cured, and as proper for manufa&uiing as that im¬
ported from the colonies.
Okt author advifes the tobacco-planter, in his ftrft
trials, not to be too avaricious, but to top his plants
before they have gained their utmoft height ; leaving
only about the middle quantity of leaves dire&ed before,
to give it a tolerable degree of ftrength. For though
this, it exceffive, might be abated during the cure by an
increafe of fweating, or be remedied the next feafon by
fullering more leaves to grow, it can never be added;
and, without a certain degree of ftrength, the tobacco
will always be taftelefs and of little value. On the Nicotiana*
contrary, though it be ever fo much weakened by ’""“■v-'-*'*:
fweating, and thereby rendered mild, yet it will never
lofe the aromatic flavour, which accompanied that
ftrength, and which greatly adds to its value. A fquare
yard of land, he tells us, will rear about 500 plants,
and allow proper fpace for their nurture till they are fit
for tranfplanting.
The following extract, which is copied from a ma-
nufeript of Dr Barham (a), for direfting the railing,,
cultivating, and curing tobacco in Jamaica, is perhaps
worthy of the attention of thofe who wifh to be fur¬
ther acquainted with this fubjedt.
“ Let the ground or woodland wherein you intend
planting tobacco be well burned, as the greater the
quantity of wood allies the better. The fpot you in¬
tend railing your plants on muft be well ftrewed with
alhes, laid fmooth and light : then blow the feed from
the palm of your hand gently on the bed, and cover
it over with palm or plantain leaves.
“ When your plants are about four inches high,
draw them and plant them out about three feet afun-
der; and when they become as high as your knee, cut
or pluck off the top; and if there are more than
12 leaves on the plant, take off the overplus, and leave
the reft entire.
“ The plant Ihould now be daily attended to, in
order to deftroy the caterpillars that are liable to infell
it; as alfo to take off every fprout or fucker that puts
out at the joints, in order to throw the whole vege¬
table nourifhment into the large leaves.
“ When the edges and points of the leaves begin ta
turn a little yellow, cut down the ftalks about ten
o’clock in the morning, taking the opportunity of a
fine day, and be careful the dew is fully off the plant,
and do not continue this work after two in the after¬
noon. As faff as it is cut let it be c '.rried into your
tobacco-houfe, which muft be fo clofe as to ftnit out
all air, (on this much depends), and hung up on lines
tied acrofs, for the purpofe of drying.
“ When the ftalks begin to turn brownifti, take
them off the lines, and put them in a large binn, and
lay on them heavy weights for 1 2 days ; then take
them out, and ftrip .off the leaves, and put them again
into the binn, and let them be well preffed, and fo as
no air gains admiffion for a month. Take them out ;
tie them in bundles about 60 Ie?tves in each, which are
called menocoes, and are ready for fale. But obferve to
let them always be kept clofe till you have occafion to
difpofe of them.
“ Let your curing-houfe be well built, and very
clofe and warm : if a boarded building, it will not be
amifs, in a wet fituation, to cover the whole outfide
with thatch and plantain trafti, to keep off the damps;
for by this care you preferve the fine volatile oil in the
leaves. Obferve, no fmoke is to be made ufe of or
admitted into your curing-houfe.”
Ufe. Since the introduction of tobacco into Europe
1560, various medical properties have been aferibed to
it at different times by Stahl and other German phyli-
cians;
(a) This gentleman was cotemporary with Sir Hans Sloan. He was a man of great probity, an able
phyiician, and a ftnh ul na urahft. He colkaed and arranged a number of the plants of Jamaica, which he
prelented to Dr Sloan, and made feveral communications to the Royal Society.
N I C'
[ 64 1
N I C
J-Jicritiana, clan
, but tbe manner in which of late years it has
been fpoken of by the generality of writers on materia
rredica, has occafioned it to be almoft whony difmifTed.
from modern praaice,at leaft from internal ufe: but this
circumftance has not deterred Dr Fowler, a phyfician
of eminence in Staffordflrke, from commencing; an
eminence in dtanoroimre, uuui
inquiry into its medicinal efietis; and he has given
the refult of his experiments, which ftem to be accu¬
rately and faithfully related.
That tobacco, under proper regulations, may be ad-
nhniffered internally, nor only as a fafe but as an effi¬
cacious remedy, efpecially as a diuretic in cafes of
dropfy and dyfury, feems certain enough. This pro¬
perty, amongft the vaft number that have oecn attri¬
buted to it, however, feems fcarceiy ever to have been
hinted at.
The forms in which Dr Fowler ordered it were ei¬
ther in infufion, tinfture, or pills.
Take of tobacco leaves dried an ounce ; boding
water one pound : infuft them for an hour in a dole
vefi'el fet in a warm place, and ilrain off about 14
ounces. Then add two ounces of rcfiified fpirit of
wine.
Take of dried tobacco leaves an ounce, of reftilied
fpirits, Spanilh white wine, or vinegar, one pint, to
be infufed for four days.
Take of dried tobacco leaves in powder 1 drachm,
of the conferve of rofes enough to make it in a mafs ;
which is to be divided into 60 pills.
Of the infufion, er tindure, Dr Fowler gives from
•fix to 100 drops twice a day in water, or in a cordial
julip, or other proper vehicle, fufficient to produce
the effed in adults ; but in irritable habits he feldom
exceeded 25; drops. To a patient of 10 years old he
gave 50 drops ; to a child of five years old 20 drops ;
but to patients under five years old he never ventured
to preferibe it.
The firft effeds of the infufion is a tranfient heat in
the llomach and throat, as if the patient had taken a
dram. The next general effed in a moderate dofe is
diuretic, with or without a flight vertigo and giddi-
nefs, and frequently naufea. In painful cafes, it proves
anodyne, and in fome cafes occafions drowfinefs and
fleep ; in others drowfinefs, with a fenfe of heat and
reftleffnefs.
Dr Fowler gave this medicine in 115 cafes : in 93
of which it proved diuretic ; in 40 of thefe cafes it
occafiontd purging ; 79 of thefe patients complained
of vertigo. In 52 of the number it excited naufea ;
in the two laft cafes he direds the medicine to lie fuf-
pended, and the doles leffened. Dr Fowler tried it
in 50 cafes of dropfy, viz. four of anafarca, or general
dropfy ; two of afcites ; and 12 of dropfical fwellings
of the legs, were all cured. In ten other cafes it af¬
forded coniidcrable relief; and in three cafes only it
was of no uic. In ten inftances of dyfury, the infu¬
fion was anodyne and diuretic, thereby abating pain,
relaxing the urinary paffages, and promoting urine.—
In dyfuries from gravel, it facilitates the expulfion of
calcareous or gritty matter.
Dr Fowler fpeaks of the ufe of tobacco in injec-
t’.ons ; an ounce of the infufion in a pint of water-
gruel at a time, and repeated in cafes of obftinate
conftipation, as the cafe may require. In the
dry belly ach, in the Weft Indies, injedions of the
242.
fmoke of tobacco have long been employed with the N^hn»,
happleft effefts.
/ fter all, the internal ufe of tobacco flhould be very
limited, and can only be fafe in the hands of a fkilru! -
and attentive praditioner. Tobacco is fometimes ufed
externally in unguents for deftroying cutaneous infeds,
clean fin g old ulcers, &c. Beaten into a mafh with vi¬
negar or brandy, it has fometimes proved ffrviceable
for removing hard tumours of the hypochondres : an
account is given in the Edinburgh Efiuys of two cafes
of this kind cured by it. The moft common ufes of
this plant, however, are either as a fternutatory -when
taken by way of fnuff, as a mafticatory by chewing it
in the mouth, or as effluvia by ftnoking it ; and when
taken in moderation, it is not an unhealthful amufement.
Before pipes were invented, it was ufually fmoked in
fegars, and they are ftill in ufe among feme of the
fouthern n Tons. The method of preparing thefe is
at once fimple and expeditious A leaf of tobacco
being formed into a fmall twifted roll, fomewhat larger
than the ftem of a pipe, and about eight inches long,
the fmoke is conveyed through the winding folds which
prevent it from expanding, as through a tube ; fo that
one end of it being lighted, and the other applied Ur
the mouth, it is in this form ufed without much in¬
convenience. But, in procefs of time, pipes being
invented, they were found more commodious vehicles
for the fmoke, and are now in general ufe.
Among all the produ&ions of foreign climes intro¬
duced into thefe kingdoms, fcarce any has been held
in higher eftimation by perfons of every rank than to¬
bacco. In the countries of whigh it is a native, it is
confidered by the Indians as the moft valuable offer¬
ing that can be made to the beings they worfhip. They
ufe it in all their civil and religious ceremonies. When
once the fpiral wreaths of its fmoke afeend from the
feathered pipe of peace, the compaft that has been
juft made is confidered as facred and inviolable. Like-
wife, when they addrefs their great Fatlier, or his
guardian fpirits, redding, as they believe, in every ex¬
traordinary production of nature, they make liberal
offerings t© them of this valuable plant, not doubting
but that they are thus lecured of protection.
Tobacco is made up into rolls by the inhabitants of
the interior parts of imerica,by means of a machine
called a tobaccn-whed. With this machine they fpin
the leaves after they are cured, into a twift of any
fize they think fit; and having folded it into rolls of
about 20 pounds each, they lay it by for ufe. In this
ttate it will keep for feveral years, and be continually
improving, as it always grows milder. The Illinois
ufually form it into carrots; which is done by laying a
number of leaves, when cured, on each otlier after the
ribs have been taken out, and rolling them round
with packthread, till they become cemented together.
Thefe rolls commonly meaiure about 18 or 20 inches
in length, and nine round in the middle part.
Tobacco forms a very confiderable article in com¬
merce; for an account of which fee the articles Glas¬
gow and Virginia.
NICTITATING membrane, a thin membrane
chiefly found in the bird and fifti kind, which covers
the eyes of thefe animals, flieltering thtm from the
duff or too much light ; yet is fo thin and pellucid,
that they can fee pretty well through it.
NIDDUI,
N I £ [ 6? ] NIG
Nulf’ui NIDDUI, in the Jewifh cuffoms, is ufed to fig-
I! nify “ feparated or excommunicated.” This, accord-
^'e^er' , ing tp fome, was to be underftood of the leflfer fort of
excommunication in ufe among the Hebrews. He
that had incurred it was to withdraw himfelf from his
relations, at lead to the diftance of four cubits : it
commonly continued a month. If it was not taken
off in that time, it might be prolonged for 60 or even
90 days: but if, within this term, the excommuni¬
cated perfon did not give fatisfaftion, he fell into the
cherem, which wasa fecond fort of excommunication;
and thence into the third fort, called fmmmata ox fhe-
rratta, the moft terrible of all. But Selden has proved
that there were only two kinds of excommunication,
viz. the greater and lefs ; and that thefe three terms
were ufed indifferently.
NIDUS, among naturalifts, fignifles a nefl or
proper repofitory for the eggs of birds, infefts, &c.
where the young of thefe animals are hatched and
nurfed.
NIDIFICATION, a term generally applied to the
formation of a bird’s neft, and its hatching or bring¬
ing forth its young. See Ornithology.
NIECE, a brother’s or filler’s daughter, which in
the civil law is reckoned the third degree of confan-
guinity.
NIEMEN, a .large river of Poland, which rifes in
Lithuania, where it paffes by Bielica, Grodno, and
Konno: it afterwards runs through part of Samogitia
and Ducal Pruffia, where it falls into the lake called
the Curifch-hajfy by feveral mouths, of which the moft
northern is called the Rujst being the name of a town
it paffes ! y.
N iENBURG, a rich and flrong town of Germany,
in the duchy of Brunfwic-Lunenburg, with a ftrong
caftle. It carries on a confiderable trade in corn and
wool, and is feated in a fertile foil on the river Wefer.
E. Long. 9. 26. N. Lat. 52. 44.
NIEPER, a large river of Europe, and one of the
moft confiderable of the North, formerly called the Bo-
rifthenes. Its fource is in the middle of Mufcovy, run¬
ning weft by Smolenfko, as far as Orfa; and then turns
fouth, paffinghy Mohilow, Bohaczo,Kiow, Czvrkaffy,
the fortrefs of Kudak, DefTau, and Oczakow, falling
into the Black Sea ; as alfo in its courfe it divides
Little Tartary from Budziac Tartary.
NIESS, a mountain in the environs of Berne in
Switzerland. It is the laft mountain in a high calca¬
reous chain of hills, of which the Stockhorn, the
Neuneren, and the Ganterifh, have been illuftrated by
the botanical labours of the celebrated Haller. Niels
Hands on the borders of the lake Thun, and feparates
the valley of Frutingen from that of Simme. It is
very interefting to the curious traveller, on account of
the fine view from its top ; and to naturalifts, becaufe
it joins the Alps. Towards its foot, beds of Hate
have been difeovered ; it is of calcareous ftone higher
up ; and near its top is found a fpecies of pudding-
ftone, filled with fmall fragments of broken petrifac¬
tions.
NfESTER, a large river of Poland, which has its
fource in the Lake Neifter, in the palatinate of Lem-
burg, where it paffes by Halicz. Then it feparates
Podolia and Oczakow Tartary from Moldavia and
Budziac Taitary ; and falls into the Black Sea at
Vol. XIII. Parti.
Belgorod, between the mouths of the Nieper and the
Danube.
NIEUHOFF (John de), a Dutch author, was born
about the beginning of the laft century. We are in¬
debted to him for a valuable and curious account,
written in Dutch, of his embaffy from the Dutch Eaft
India Company to. the emperor of China. Jean le
Carpentier publifhed an excellent tranflation of it into
French, in folio, Leyden, 166$. This edition is rare,
and the book is in great requeft.
NIEUWENTY r (Bernard), an able philofopher
and learned mathematician, was born at Weftgraafdyk,
in the year 1654, and became counfellor and burgo-
mafter of the town of Purmerend, where he was efteem-
ed for his integrity and learning, and died in 1*718.
He wrote, in Dutch, 1. An excellent treatife, intitled.
The Exiftence of God demonflrated by the Works of
Nature. 2. A Refutation of Spinoz.a. 3. Some Pieces
againft the Infinitefimals, &c.
NIGELLA, fennel-flower, or Devil in a Bujh:
A genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the
pentandria clafs of plants. There is no calyx ; the
petals are five ; and five trifid nedftaria within the co¬
rolla ; there are five connefted capfules. There are
five fpecies, all of them natives of the warm parts of
Europe, and rifing from a foot to a foot and an half
high, adorned with blue or yellow flowers. They are
propagated by feeds, which in a dry and warm fitua-
tion will thrive very well; and the plants ripen feeds
in this country.
NIGER (C. Pcfcennitis Juftus), a celebrated gover¬
nor in Syria, well known by his valour ir the Roman
armies while but a private man. At the death of Per-
tinax he was declared emperor of Rome ; and his
clajms to that elevated ftation were fupported by a
found underftanding, prudence of mind, moderation,
coinage, and virtue. He propofed to imitate the ac¬
tions of the venerable Antoninus, of Trajan, of Titus,
and M. Aurelius. He was remarkable for his fond-
nefs of ancient difeipline. He never fuffered his foldiers
to drink wine, but obliged them when thirfty to ufe
water and vinegar. He forbad the ufe of filver or
gold utenfils in his camp. All the bakers and cooks
were driven away, and the foldiers were ordered to
live during the expedition they undertook merely up¬
on bifkets. In his punilhments Niger was inexorable :
he condemned ten of his foldiers to be beheaded in
the prefence of the army, becaufe they had ftolen and
eaten a fowl. The fentence was heard with groans.
The army interfered; and when Niger contented to
diminilh the punifhment, for fear of kindling rebel¬
lion, he yet ordered the criminals to make each a re-
ftoration of ten fowls to the perfon whofe property
they had ftolen. They were befides ordered not to
light a fire the reft of the campaign, but to live upon
cold aliments and to drink nothing but water. Such
great qualifications in a general feemed topromife the
reftoration of ancient difeipline in the Roman armies ;
but the death of Niger fruftrated every hope of re¬
form. Severus, who had alfo been invefted with the
imperial purple, marched againft him ; fome battles
were fought, and Niger was at laft defeated A.D. 195.
His head was cut off and fixed to a long fpear, and
carried in triumph through the ftreets of Rome. He
reigned about a year.
STeuhoC
I
Niger,
N'rper,
Night.
NIG [65
Niger, a great river of Africa, fuppofed to have its
origin near that of the Nile ; but this is very uncer-
' tain. We are affured, however, that it is a river of
very great extent: efpecially if we fuppofe, according
to the opinion of the heft modern geographers, that it
has its fource in the kingdom of Gorhan, not far from
the confines of Upper Ethiopia ; for then it will crofs
almoft the whole continent of Africa, where it is wideft.
In its courfe it receives many confiderable rivers, which
fwell it high enough to be able at all times to carry
veflels of good burden ; it fplits itfelf into feveral
branches, which uniting again form very large and
fertile iflands, well filled with towns and villages. It
pafies alfo through feveral lakes, and has many cata-
rafts. After having run from eaft to weft during a
prodigious long courfe, it turns at laid fhort to the
fouth, at a league and a half diftance from the weftern
ocean ; leaving but a very narrow traft between it and
the fea, into which it opens its way in lat. 15. 55.
after having run about 25 leagues from north to fouth.
Its mouth is fometimes half a league broad ; but is
ftlut up by a bank of quick-fand, called the bar of Se¬
negal, where the water is fo {hallow, that it is very dif¬
ficult and dangerous to pafs over ic. The bar is form¬
ed by the mud and fand which the river brings with
it during the inundation, and which the fea continually
drives back upon the fhore. This would effeftually
exclude all (hipping, had not the violence of the cur¬
rent, and the weight of the waters, made .wo open¬
ings or channels, which are commonly called the pajfes
of the bar. The largefl of thefe is generally not above
150 or 200 fathoms broad, and about 10 feet deep,
fo that none but barks of 40 or 50 tons can get thro’
this channel; the other is fo narrow and {hallow, that
it is paffable by canoes only. Thefe channels are not
always in the fame place; for the river, as it is more
or lefs fweiled, or the current more orlefs rapid, opens
thofe pafles fometimes in one place and fometimes in
another. The bar itfelf alfo frequently ftiifts its place;
fo that the ifland of Senegal is fometimes four leagues
diftant from it, at other times only two. It is this
bar only which hinders {hips of qco or 500 tons to go
up the river. See Guinea and Negroland.
NIGHT, that part of the natural day during which
the fun is underneath the horizon ; or that fpaee
wherein it is dulky.
Night was originally divided by the Hebrews and
other eaftern nations into three parts or watches.
The Romans, and after them the Jews, divided the
night into four parts or watches; the firft of which
began at funfet, and lafted till nine at night, accord¬
ing to our way of reckoning ; the fecond lafted till
midnight; the third till three in the morning ; and
the fourth ended at funrife. The ancient Gauls and
Germans divided their time not by days but by nights ;
and the people of Iceland and the Arabs do the fame
at this day. The like is obferved of the Anglo-
Saxons.—The length and fhortnefs of night or of
darknefs is according to the feafon of the year and
pofition of the place ; and the caufes of this variety
are now well known. See Astronomy, &c.
Night, in fcripture-language,is ufed for the time&of
heatheniih ignorance and profanentfs (Rom. xiii. 12.);
for adverfity and aftliftion (If. xxi. 12.); and, laftly,
for death (John ix. 4.)
] NIG
NiGFT-^ngling, a method of catching large and Ihy Night-ang.
fi{h in the night-time. Trout, and many other of the “"g
better forts of fiftu are naturally (by and fearful; they Ni.J'ltin_
therefore prey in the night as the fecureft time. — 1 he gaie-
method of taking them on this plan is as follows :
The tackle muft be ftrong, and need not be fo fine as
for day-fifhing, when every thing is feen ; the hook
muft be baited with a large earth-worm, or a black
fnail, and thrown out into the river ; there muft be
'no lead to the line, fo that the bait may not fink, but
be kept drawling along, upon or near the furface.
Whatever trout is near the place will he brought thi¬
ther by the motion of the water, and will feize the
worm or fnail. The angler will be alarmed by the
noife which the fiftr makes in rifing, and muft give him
line, and time to fwallow the hook ; then a flight
touch fecures him. The beft and largeft trouts are
found to bite thus in the night; and they rife moftly
in the ftill and clear deeps, not in the fwiftand {hallow
currents. Sometimes, though there are fifti about the
place, they will not rife at the bait: in this cafe the
angler muft put on fome lead to his line, and fink it
to the bottom.
Night-Mare, or Incubus. See Medicine, ^329.
Night- Walkers, in medicine. Sec Medicine, n° 3 29,
and Noctambuli.
Night-Walkers, in law, are fuch perfons as deep by
day and walk by night, being oftentimes pilferers or
difturbers of the public peace. Conftables are autho-
rifed by the common law to arreft night-walkers and
fufpicious perfons, &c. Watchmen may alfo arreft
night-walkers, and hold them until the morning : and
it is faid, that a private perfon may arreft any fufpi¬
cious night-walker, and detain him till he give a good
account of himfelf. One may be bound to the good
behaviour for being a night-walker ; and common
night-walkers, or haunters of bawdy-houfes, are to be
indifted before jaftices of peace, &c. But it is not
held lawful for a conftable, &c.to take up any woman
as a night-walker on bare fufpicion only of being of
ill fame, unlefs {he be guilty of a breach of the peace,
or fome unlawful aft, and ought to be found mif-
doing.
NIGHTINGALE, in ornithology; a fpecies of
motacilla. See Motacilla, and Plate CCCXV.
The nightingale takes its name from night, and the
Saxon worU galan, “ to fing ;” expreflive of the time
of its melody. Its fize and colour has been defcribed
already under Motacilla : to which account we add,
that its eyes are remarkably large and piercing; and
though it is about equal in fize to the redftart, it is
longer in body, and more elegantly made.
Mr Hunter found, by difleftion, that the mufcles
of the larynx are ftronger in the nightingale than in
any other bird of the fame fize.—Sibbaid places them
in his lift of Scotch birds ; but they certainly are un¬
known in that part of Great Britain, probably from
the fcarcity and the recent introduftion of hedges
thei'e. Yet they vifit Sweden, a much more fevere
climate. In England they frequent thick hedges, and
low coppices; and generally keep in the middle of the
bufh, fo that they are very rarely feen. When the
young ones firft come abroad, and are helplefs, the
old birds make a plaintive and jarring noife with a fort
5 of
Niphtin-
rgale.
NIG t 67 ] NIG
o? fnapplna' as If in menace, purfuing along the hedge
the pafTengers.
T^iey begin their fong in the evening, and continue
it the whole night. Thefe their vigils, did not pafs
unnoticed by the ancients: the flumbers of thefe birds
werp proverbial; and not to reft as much as the night¬
ingale, exprefied a very bad deeper (a). This was the
favourite bird of the Britifh poet, who omits no op¬
portunity of introducing it, and almoft conflantly no¬
ting its love of folitude and night. How finely does
it feive to compofe part of the folemn fcenery of his
Ptnfcrofo; when he defcribes it
In her faddefi; fweeteft plight.
Smoothing the rugged brow of night;
While Cynthia checks her dragon yoke,
Gently o’er th’ accuftom’d oak.
Sweet bird, that fiiunn’ft the noife of folly,
Mofi: mufical, moft melancholy !
Thee, chauntrefs, oft the woods among,
I woo to hear thy evening fong.
Thefe quotations from the beil judge of melody,
we thought due to the fweeteib of our feathered choi-
rifters; and we believe no reader of tafte will think
them tedious.
Virgil feems to be the only poet among the an¬
cients who hath attended to the circumftance of this
bird’s finging in the night-time.
Qualis populea mtzrens Philomela fub umbra
slm'tjfos queritur fains, quos dwus arator
Obfervans mdo implumes detraxlt: at ilia
Flet nodcm, ramoque fedens miferabile carmen
Integrat, et mcejiis late loca quejlibus implet.
Georg. IV. 1. 511.
As Philomel in poplar (hades, alone,
For her loft offspring pours a mother’s moan,
Which fome rough ploughman marking for his prey,
From the warm neft, unfledg’d, hath dragg’d away;
Perch’d on a bough, (he all night long complains.
And fills the grove with fad repeated (trains.
F. Warton.
In another place he ftyles it the folemn bird; and
again fpeaks of it,
As the wakeful bird
Sings darkling, and, in (hadieft covert hid,
Tunes her no6turnal note.
The reader will excufe a few more quotations from
the fame poet, on the fame fuhjeft ; the firft defcribes
the approach of evening, and the retiring of all ani¬
mals to their repofe.
Silence accompanied; for bead and bird,
They to their graffy couch, thefe to their nefts,
Were flunk ; all but the wakeful nightingale.
She all night long her am’rous defcant fung.
When Eve paffed the irkfome night, preceding her
fall, (he, in a dream, imagines herfelf thus reproached
with lofing the beauties of the night by indulging too
long a repofe.
Why fleep’ft thou, Eve? now is the pleafant time,
The cool, the filent, fave where filence yields
To the night-warbling bird, that now awake
Tunes fweeteft his love-labour’d fong.
The fame birds fing their nuptial fong, and lull them
to reft. How rapturous are the following lines! how
expreffive of the delicate fenfibility of our Milton’s
tender ideas !
The earth
Gave fign of gratulation, and each hill;
Joyous the birds; frefli gales and gentle airs
Whifper’d it to the woods, and from their wings
Flung rofe, flung odours from the fpicy (hrub,
Efifporting, till the am’rous bird of night
Sung fpoufal, and hid hafte the evening ftar
On his hill-top to light the bridal lamp,
f hefe, lull’d by nightingales, embracing flept j
And on their naked limbs the flow’ry roof
Shower’d rofes, which the morn repair’d.
Pliny has defcribed the warbling notes of this bird
with an elegance that befpeaks an exquifite fenfibility
of tafte, lib. x. c. 29.
If the nightingale is kept in a cage, it often begins
to fing about the latter end of November, and conti¬
nues its fong more or lefs till June.—A young canary-
bird, linnet, (ley-lark, or robin (who have never heard
any other bird), are faid beft to learn the note of a
nightingale.
Mock-NiGHTiNGjiLE. See Motacilla, fp. 8.
Virginian Nightingale, in ornithology, the com¬
mon, but improper, name of a bird of the grofs-
beaked kind, called by authors the coccothraujles 'indica
crifata.
It is a little fmaller than our blackbird ; it has a
black ring furrounding the eyes and noftrils; the beak
is very large and thick, but not altogether fo large as
in the common grofs-beak ; and its head is orna¬
mented with a very high and beautiful creft, which
it moves about very frequently; it is all over of a very-
fine and lively red, but paler on the head and tail than
elfewhere ; it is brought to us from Virginia, and is
much valued in England for its beauty and delicate
manner of finging ; it is very fond of almonds and the
like fruits.
NIGHTSHADE, in botany. See Solanum.
Deadly Nightshade. See Atropa The berries
of this plant are of a malignant poifonous nature; and,
being of a fweet tafte, have frequently proved deftruc-
tive to children. A large glafs of warm vinegar, ta¬
ken as foon as poflible after eating the berries, will pre¬
vent their bad effefts.
NIGIDIUS figulus (Publius), one of the mod:
learned men of ancient Rome, flouriftied at the fame
time with Cicero. He wrote on various fubje&s; but
his pieces appeared fo refined and difficult that they
were not regarded. He affixed Cicero, with great
prudence, in defeating Catiline’s confpiracy, and did
him many fervices in the time .of his adverfity. He
1 3 adhered
Var‘ ^'7* ^ t^ie text am^ no^e* It rauft be remarked, that nightingales fing alfo m
Sale
IF ■
M.!*.
NIL [ 6!
jSJ"frint adhered to Pompey in oppofition to Caefar ; which
II occafioned his exile, he dying in banifhment. Cicero,
Nile. who had alwayS entertained the higheft efteem for
w*-* * him, wrote a beautiful confolatory letter to him ^the
13th of lib. 4. ad Familiares).
' N1GRINA, in botany ; a genus of the monogyma
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
The corolla is funnel-fhaped ; the calyx inflated ; the
ftigma obtufe* the capfule bilocular.
NIGRITIA. See Negroland.
NIGUA. See Chegoe.
MILE, a large and celebrated river of Africa, to
which the country of Egypt owes its fertility ; and
the exploring of the fources of which has, from the
remote!! ages, been accounted an impracticable under¬
taking. Of late this problem has been folved by
fames Bruce, Efq; of Kipnaird, in Scotland ; who
fpent feveral years at the court of Abyffinia, and by
the favour of the emperor and great people of the
country was enabled to accomplifh the arduous talk
In the account of his travels lately publilhed, this
gentleman has been at particular pains to Ihow, that
none of thofe who updertook this talk ever fucceeded
in it but himfelf. The inquiry concerning its fprings,
he fays, began before either hiftory or tradition, and
is by fome ftippofed to be the origin of hieroglyphics.
Though Egypt was the country which received the
greatel! benefit from this river, it was not there that
the inquiries concerning its inundation began ; it be¬
ing probable that every thing relative to the extent
and periodical time of that inundation would be accu¬
rately fettled (which could not be done but by a long
ferles of obfervations) before any perfon would venture
to build houfes within its reach.
The philofophers of Meroe, in our author’s opinion,
were the firft who undertook to make a number of ob¬
fervations fufiicient to determine thefe points ; their
country being fo fituated, that they could perceive
every thing relative to the increafe or decreafe of the
river without any danger from its overflowing. Being
much addicted to aftronomy, it could not long efcape
them, that the heliacal riling of the dog liar was a lig-
nal for Egypt to prepare for the inundation ; without
which it was vain to expe£t any crop. The connec-
tion of this celeftial fign with the annual riflng of the
river would undoubtedly foon become a matter of cu-
riolity; and as this could not ealily be difcovered, it
was natural for an ignorant and fuperAitiou's people to
afcribe the whole to the aftion of the dog liar as a
deity. Still, however, by thofe who were more en¬
lightened, the phenomenon would be afcribed to na¬
tural caufes; and a great ftep towards the difcovery of
thefe, undoubtedly was that of the fources ol the river
itfelf. In the early ages, when travelling into foreign
countries was impracticable by private perfons, the
inquiry into the fources of the Nile became an objedl
to the greatell monarchs. Sefollris is faid to have
preferred the honour of difcovering them almolt to all
the vi&ories he obtained. Alexander the Great is
well known to have had a great curioflty to difcover
thefe fountains. On his arrival at the temple of Ju¬
piter Ammon, he is faid to have made inquiry con¬
cerning the fountains of the Nile, even before he alked
about his own defcent from Jupiter. The priefts are
laid to have given him proper diredlions for finding
I] NIL
them'} and Alexander took the moll ready means of Nil?,
accomplilhing his purpofe, by employing natives of r-
Ethiopia to make the fcarch. Thefe difeoverers, in
the opinion of Mr Bruce, miffed their aim, by reafon
of the turn which the Nile takes to the call in the la¬
titude of 90, where it begins to furround the kingdom
of Gojam ; but which they might imagine to be only
a winding of the river, foon to be compenfated by an
equal turn to the well. “ They therefore (lays he)
continued their journey fouth till near the line, and
never faw it more ; as they could have no poffible no¬
tion it had turned back behind them, and that they
had left it as far north as latitude 90. They report¬
ed then to Alexander what was truth, that they had
afeended the Nile as far fouth as latitude 90 ; where
it unexpectedly took its courfe to the call, and was
feen no more. The river was not known, nor to be
heard of near the line, or farther fouthward, nor was
it diminilhed in fize, nor had it given any fymptom
that they were near its fource ; they had found the
Nile calentem (warm), while they expedled its rife
among melting fnows.”
Mr Bruce is of opinion that this turn of the Nile
to the eallward was the occafion of Alexander’s ex¬
travagant millake, in fuppofing that he had difcovered
the fountains of the Nile when he was near the fource
of the Indus; and which he wrote to his mother,
though he afterwards caufed it to be erafed from his
books.
Ptolemy Phlladelphus fucceeded Alexander in big
attempts to difcover the fource of the Nile ; but he
likewife proving unfuccefsful, the talk was next un¬
dertaken by Ptolemy Euergetes, the moll powerful of
the Greek princes who fat on the throne of Egypt.
“ In th;s (fays Mr Bruce) he had probably fucceeded,
had he not miftaken the river itfelf. He fuppofed
the Siris, now the Tacazze, to be the Nile; and
afeending in the direction of its llream, he came to
Axum, the capital of Sira and of Ethiopia. But the
llory he tells of the fnow which he found knee-deep
on the mountains of Samen, makes me quellion whe¬
ther he ever crofled the Siris, or was himfelf an ocu¬
lar witnefs of what he fays he obferved there.”
Caefar had the fame curiofity with other conquerors
to vifit the fprings of the Nile, though his fituation
did not allow him to make any attempt for that pur¬
pofe. Nero, however, was more a&ive. He fent two
centurions into Ethiopia, with orders to explore the
unknown fountains of this river; but they returned
without having accomplilhed their errand. They re¬
ported, that, after having gone a long way, they
came to a king of Ethiopia, who furnilhed them with
neceffaries, and recommendations to fome other king¬
doms adjacent; palling which, they came to immenfe
lakes, of which nobody knew the end, nor could they
ever hope to find it. Their llory, however, is by Mr
Bruce fuppofed to be a fidlxon ; as the Nile forms no
lakes throughout its courfe, excepting that of Tzana
or Dembea, the limits of which^re eafily perceived.
No other attempt was made by the ancients to dif¬
cover the fources of this celebrated river; and the mat¬
ter was looked upon to be an impoflibility, infoinuch
that caput Nili quarere became a proverb, denoting
the impoffibility of any undertaking. The firtfc
who, in more modern ages, made any attempt of this
6 kind
NIL [ 69 ] NIL
kind was a monk fent into Abyfiinia in tbe year 522,
r-v1 by Nonnofus, ambafTador from the Emperor Juilin.
This .monk is called Cofmas the Hermit, and likewiie
Jndoplauf's, from Lis fuppofed travels into India. He
proceeded as far as the c:ty of Axum, but did not
vifit that part of the country where the head of the
Nile lies; nor, in Mr Bruce’s opinion, would it have
been practicable for him to do fo. The difcovery,
however, is faid to have been made at laft by Peter
Paez the miflionary. But the truth of this account is
denied by Mr Bruce, for the following reafons: 1.
“ No relation of this kind (fays he) was to be found
in three copies of Peter Paez’s hillory, to which I had
accefs when in Italy, on my return home. One of
thefe copies I faw at Milan ; and, by the intereil of
friends, had an opportunity of perufing it at my lei-
fure. The other two were at Bologna and Rome. I
ran through them rapidly; attending only to the place
where the defcription ought to have been, and where
I did not find it: but having copied the firft and lad:
page of the Mdan manufcript, and comparing them
with the two lall mentioned, I found that all the three
were, word for word, the fame, and none of them con¬
tained one fyllable of the difcovery of the fource.
2. Alphonfo Mendaz came into Abyffinia about a
year after Paez’s death. New and defirable as that
difcovery muft have been to himfclf, to the pope, king
of Spain, and all his great patrons in Portugal and
Italy ; though he wrote the hiftory of the country,
and of the particulars concerning the million in great
detail and with good judgment, yet he never men¬
tions this journey of Peter Paez, though it probably
muft have been conveyed to Rome and Portugal after
his infpe&ion and under his authority. 3. Balthazar
1 ellez, a learned Jefuit, has wrote two volumes in
folio, with great candour and Impartiality, confidering
the fpirit of thofe times ; and he declares his work to
be compiled from thofe of Alphonfo Mendez the pa¬
triarch, from the two volumes of Peter Paez, as well
as from the regular reports made by the individuals of
the company in fome places, and by the provincial
letters in others; to all which he had complete accefs,
as alfo to the annual reports of Peter Paez, among the
reft from 159S to 1622 ; yet Tellez makes no men¬
tion of fuch a difcovery, though he is very particular
as to the merit of each miffionary during the long
reign of Facilidas, which occupies more th«m half the
two volumes.”
1 he firft, and indeed the only account of the foun¬
tains of the Nile publiffied before that of Mr Bruce,
was Kircher’s; who fays that he took it from the
writings of Peter Paez. The time when the difcovery
is faid to have been made was the 21ft of April x618;
at which feafon the rains are begun, and therefore very
unwholefome ; fo that the Abyffinian armies are not
without extreme neceffity in the field ; between Sep¬
tember and February at fartheft is the time they are
abroad from the capital and in aftion.
“ The river (fays Kircher) at this day, by the
Ethiopians, is called Hbavy ; it rifes in the kingdom
of Gojam, in a territory called Sabala, whofe Inha¬
bitants are called Hgows. The fource of the Nile is
htuated in the weft part of Gojam, in the higheft
part of a valley which refembles a great plain on every
ide fuiTounded by high mountains.. On the 21ft o
April 1618, being here, together with the king and Nile,
his army, I afeended the place, and obfervei every
thing with great attention : I difeovered firft. two
round fountains each about four palms in diameter,
and faw, with the greatell delight, what neither Cy¬
rus the Perfian, nor Cambyfes, ncr Alexander the
Great, nor the famous Julius Casfar, could ever dif-
cover. The two openings of thefe fountains have no
iffue in the plain on the top of the mountain, but
flow from the root of it. The fecond fountain lies
about a flone-caft weft from the former : the inha¬
bitants fay that this wlrole mountain is full of water;
and add, that the whole plain about the fountain is
floating and unfteady, a certain mark that there is
water concealed under it ; for which reafon the water-
does not overflow at the fountain, but forces itfelf
with great violence out at the foot of the mountain. "
The inhabitants, together with the emperor, who
was then prefent with his army, maintain, that that
year it trembled very little on account of the drought;
but in other years, that it trembled and overflowed fa
that it could fcarce be approached without danger.
The breadth of the circumference may be about the
call of a fling : below the top of this mountain the
people live about a league diilant from the fountain
to the weft ; and this place is called Geejh ; and the
fountain feems to Be about a cannon-ffiot diftant from
Geeflx ; moreover the field where the fountain is, is
on all fides difficult of accefs, except on the north
fide, where it may be afeended with eafe.”
On this relation Mr Bruce obferves, that there is
no fuch place as Saba/a; it ought to have been named
Saca/a, fignifying the higheft ridge of land, where the
water falls equally down on both fides, from eaft and
weft, or from north and fouth. So the fti&rp roofs
©f our houfes, where the water runs down equally
on the oppofite fides, are called by the fame name.
Other objections are drawn from the fituation of
places, and from the number and fituation of the
fountains themfelves, every one of which Mr Bruce
found by actual menfuration to be different from
Kircher’s account. The following, however, he looks
upon to be decifive that Paez never was on the fpot.
“ He fays, the field in which the fountains of the
Nile are, is of very difficult accefs ; the afoent to it
being very fteep, excepting on the north, where it
is plain and eafy. Now, if we look at the beginning
of this defcription, we lliould think it would be the
defeent, not the afeent, that would be troublefome
for the fountains were placed in a valley, and people
rather dejeend into valleys than afeend into them ; but
fuppofing it was a. valley in which there was a field up¬
on which there was a mountain, and oil-the mountain
thefe fountains ; ft ill, I fay, that thefe mountains are
nearly inacceffible on the three fides; but that the
moft difficult of them all is the north, the way we
afeend from the plain of Goutto. From the eaft,
by Sacala, the afeent is made from the valley of Lit-
chambara, and from the plain of AfFoa to the fouth
you have the almoft perpendicular craggy cliff of
Geeffi, covered with thorny bufhes, trees, and bam¬
boos, which cover the mouths of the caverns ; and on
the north you have the mountains of Aformafha,,
thick fet with all forts of thorny trees and fhrubs^.
efpecially with the kantuffa t thde thickets-ate, morc-
o.ver*
N I L
r 70 1
N I L
■Nile, over, filled with wild beafts, efpeeially huge, long-
"•"y1 haired baboons, which we frequently met walking up-
■right. Through thefe high and dtfticuit mountains
avc have only narrow paTs, like thofe of (heep, made
by the goats, or the wild beads we are fpeaking of,
■which, after we had walked on them for a long fpace,
landed us frequently at the edge of fome valley or
•precipice, and forced us to go back again to feek a
new road. From towards Zeegam to the weft ward,
.and from the plain where the river .winds fo much,
is the only eafy accefs to the fountains of the Nde ;
and they that afcend to them by this way will not
even think that approach too eafy.”
* Peter Heyling, a proteftant of Lubec, refided fe-
veral years in the country of Gojam, and was even
governor of it, but he never made any attempt to dif-
cover the fource of the Nile; dedicating himfelf en¬
tirely to a ftudious and folitary life. 1 he moft ex*
traordinary attempt, however, that ever was made
to difcover the fource of this or any other river, was
that of a German nobleman named Peter Jofeph de
Roux, comte de Defreval. He had been in the Da-
nifh navy from the year 1721 ; and, in 1739, was
made rear-admiral. That fame year he refigned his com-
miffion, and began his attempt to difcover the fource
of the Nile in Egypt. To this country he took.his
wife along with him; and had no fooner reached Cairo,
than he quarrelled with a Turkifh mob ©n a point of
etiquette ; which inftantly brought upon them the
janizaries and guards of police, to take them into
cuftody. The countefs exerted herfelf in an extra¬
ordinary manner ; and, armed only with a pair of
fcifiars, put all the janizaries to flight, and even
wounded feveral of them ; fa that her hufband was
left at libeity to purfue his plan of difcovery. To
accomplifh this, he provided a barge with fmall
cannon, and furnifhed with all neceflary provifions
for himfelf and his wife, who was ftill to accom¬
pany him. Before he fet out, however, it was
fuggefted to him, that, fuppoiing government might
protect him fo far as to allow his barge to pafs the
confines of Egypt fafely, and to the firft cataradf; fup-
pofing alfo that Ihe was arrived at Ibrim, or Deir,
the laft garrifons depending on Cairo ; yet ftill fome
days journey above the garrifons of Heir and Ibrim
began the dreadful defarts of Nubia; and farther fouth,
at the great cataradft of Jan Adel, the Nile falls 20 feet
down a perpendicular rock—fo that here his voyage
mull undoubtedly end. The count, however, flat¬
tered himfelf with being able to obtain fuch affiftance
from the garrifons of Ibrim and Deir, as would en¬
able him to take the veflel to pieces, and to carry it
up above the cataradt, where it could again be launch¬
ed into the river. To facilitate this fcheme he had
even entered into a treaty with fome of the barbarians
named Kennoufs, who refide near the cataradl, and
employ themfelves in gathering fena, which abounds
in their country. Thefe promjfed to aftift him in
. this extraordinary adventure; but, luckily for the
count, he fuffered himfelf at laft to be perfuaded by
fome Venetian merchants at Cairo not to proceed in
perfon on fuch a dangerous and unheard of naviga¬
tion, but rather to depute Mr Norden, his lieutenant,
who was likewife to ftrve as his draughtfman to re-
eonnoitxe the forts of I brim and Heir, as well
as
the cataradl of Jan Adel, and renew his treaty with
the Kennoufs. This gentleman accordingly embark-
ed upon one of the veffels common on the Nile, but
met with a great many difficulties and difafters before
he could reach Syene and the firft cataradl ; after
which having with ftill greater difficulty reached Ibrim,
inftead of meeting with any encouragement for the
count to proceed on his voyage, he was robbed of
all he had by the governor of the fort, and narrowly
efcaped with his life ; it having been for fome time de¬
termined by him and his foldiers,that MrNorden fhould
be put to death. By thefe difficulties the count was
fo much difheartened, that he determined to make
no more attempts on the Nubian fide. He now re-
folved to enter Abyffinia by the ifland of Mafuah.
With this view he undertook a voyage round the
Cape of Good Hope, in order to reach the Red Sea by
the ftraits of Babelmandel: but having begun to ufe
his Spanifh commiffion, and taken two Engliffi fhips,
he was met by commodore Barnet, who made prizes
of all the veflels he had with him, and fent home the
count himfelf pafienger in a Portuguefe fliip to Lifbon.
Thus Mr Bruce confiders himfelf as the firft Eu¬
ropean who reached the fources of this river. He
informs us that they are in the country of the Agows,
as Kircher had faid ; fo that the latter muft either have
vifited them himfelf, or have had very good informa¬
tion concerning them. The name of the place thro*
which is the paflage to the territory of the the d\gows,
is Abala ; a plain or rather valley, generally about half
a mile, and never exceeding a whole mile, in breadth.
The mountains which furround it are at firft of an in-
confiderable height, covered to the very top with her¬
bage and acacia trees; but as they proceed to the
fouthward they become more rugged and woody.—
On the top of thefe mountains are delightful plains,
producing excellent pafture. Thofe to the weft join
a mountain called Aformafka, where, from a direction
nearly fouth-eaft, they turn fouth, and inclofe the
villages and territory of Sacala, which lie at the foot
of them; and ftill lower, that is, more to the weftward
is the fmall village of Geefh, .where the fountains of
the Nile are fituated. Here the mountains are in the
form of a crefcent; and along thefe the river takes
its courfe. Thofe which inclofe the eaft fide of the
plain run parallel to the former in their whole courfe,
making‘part of the mountains of Lechtambara, or
at leaft joining with them ; and thefe two, when be¬
hind Aformafka, turn to the fouth, and then to the
fouth-weft, taking the fame form as they do ; only
making a greater curve, and inclofing them likewife
in the form of a crefcent, the extremity of which ter¬
minates immediately above a fmall lake named Goode-
roo in the plain of Aflba, below Geefh, and diredlly
at the fountains of the Nile.
Having paffed feveral confiderable ftreams, all of
which empty themfelves into the Nile, our traveller
found himfelf at laft obliged to afcend a very iteep and
rugged mountain, where no other path was to be found
but a very narrow one made by the fheep or goats, and
which in fome places was broken, and full of holes ; ir
others,he was obftrufted with large ftones, which feemec
to have remained there fince the creation. The whol
was covered with thick wood ; and he was every whtr
flopped by the kantuffa, as well as by fcveral other thorn
plant
Nile.
Me.
NIL [7
plants, almoft as troublefome as that. Having at laft,
" however, reached the top, he had a fight of the Nile
immediatedy below him ; but fo dimtnifhed in fize,
that it now appeared only a brook fcarce fufficient
to turn a mill. The village of Geefh is not within
fight of the fountains of the river, though not more
th in 600 yards diftant from them. The country about
that place terminates in a cliff of about 3C0 yards high,
which reaches down to the plain of Afiba, continuing
in the fame degree of elevation till it meets the Nile
again about 17 miles tothe fouthward, after having made
the circuit of the provinces of Gojam and Damot. In
the middle of this cliff is a vaft cave running ftraight
northward, with many bye-paths forming a natural
labyrinth,of fufficient bignefs to contain the inhabitants
of the whole village with their cattle. Into this Mr
Truce advanced about 1 oc yards; but he did not choofe
to go farther, as the candle he carried with him feem-
ed ready to go out ; and the people affured him that
there was nothing remarkable to be feen at the end.
T he face of this cliff, fronting the fouth, affords a
very pi&urffque view from the^plain of Affoa below ;
parts of the houfes appearing at every fiage through
the bufhes and thickets of trees. The mouths of the
cavern above-mentioned, as well as of feveral others
which Mr Bruce did not fee, are hid by almoft im¬
penetrable fences of the worfl kind of thorn; nor is there
any other communication betwixt the upper part and
the houfes but by narrow winding fheep-paths, very dif¬
ficult to be difeovered ; all of them being allowed to be
overgrown, as a part of the natural defence of the
people. The edge of the cliff is covered with lofty and
hightrees, which feem to form a natural fence to prevent
people from falling down; and the beauty of the flowers
which the Abyfiinian thorns bear, feems to make fome
amends for their had qualities. From the edge of the
cliff of Geefh, above where the village is fituated, the
ground dopes with a defeent due north, till we come
to a triangular marfh upwards of 86 yards broad, and
2b6 from the edge of the cliff, and from a prieft’s houfe
where Mr Bruce refided. On the eaft, the ground
defeends with a very gentle flope from the large village
of Sacala, which gives its name to the territory, and
is about iix miles diftant from the fomree, though to
appearance not above two. About the middle of this
marfh, and not quite 40 yards from the foot of the
mountain of Geefh, rifes a circular hillock about three
feet from the fiirface of the marfh itfelf, though found¬
ed apparently much deeper in it. The. diameter of
tins hillock is not quite 1 2 feet, and it is furrounded
by a (hallow trench which collets the water, and fends
it off to the eaftward. This is firmly built of fad
brought from the Tides, and kept conftantly in repair
by the Agows, who woifhip the river, and perform
their religious ceremonies upon this as an altar. In
the midft of it is a circular hole, in the formation or
enlargement of which the work of art is evidently dif-
cermble. It is always kept clear of grafs and aquatic
plants, and the water in it is perfeftly pure and lim¬
pid, but without any ebullition or motion difcernible
on its furface. The mouth is fome parts of an inch
Ids than three feet diameter, and at the time our au¬
thor f.rft vi filed it (Nov. 5. 1770), the waterflood
stout two inches from the brim, nor did it either in-
i ] NIL
creafe or diminish during all the time of his refidence
at Geefh. On putting down the flraft of a lance, he
found a very feeble refiftance at fix feet four inches,
as if from weak nifties and grafs; and, about fix inches
deeper, he found his lance had entered into foft earth,
but met with no ohfmidion from flones or gravel: and
the fame was confirmed by ufing a heavy plummet,
with a line befmeared with foap.—This is the firft foun¬
tain of the Nile.
The fecond fountain is fituated at about ten feet
diftant from the former, a little to the weft of fouth ;
and is only 11 inches in diameter, but eight feet
three inches deep. The third is about 20 feet SSW
from the.firft: ; the mouth being fomewhat more than
two feet in diameter, and five feet eight inches in depth.
Thefe fountains are made ufe of as altars, and from the
foot of each iffues a briik running rill, which, uniting,
with the. water of the firft trench, goes off at the
eaft fide in a ftream which, our author conjeaures,
would fill a pipe about two inches diameter. The wa¬
ter of thefe fountains is extremely light and good, and
intenfely cold, though expofed to the fcorching heat
of the fun without any fhelter j there being no trees
nearer than the cliff of Geefh. The longitude of the
principal fountain was found by Mr Bruce to be
55' 3°'' E- from Greenwich. The elevation of the
ground, according to his account, muff be very great,
as the barometer flood only at 22 Englifh inches.
“ Neither (fays he) did it vary fenfibly from that
height any of the following days I ftaid at Geefh ; and
thence 1 inferred, that at the fources of the Nile I '
was then more than tw-o miles above the level of the
fea ; a prodigious height, to enjoy a Iky perpetually
clear, as alfo a hot fun never overcaft for a moment
with clouds from rifing to fetting.” In the morning
of Nov. 6. the thermometer flood at 44% at noon
96°, and at funfet 46°. It was fenfibly cold at night, .
and ftill more to about an hour before funrife.
The Nile thus formed by the union offtreams from
thefe three fountains runs eaftward through the marfh
for about 30 yards, with very little increafe of its water,
but ftill diftin&ly vifible, till it' is met by the graffy
brink of the land defcending from Sacala. By this it
is turned gradually NE, and then due north ; and in
the two miles in which it flows in that direftion it
receives many fmall ftreams from fprings on each
fide ; fo that about this diftance from the fountains it
becomes a ftream capable of turning a common mill.
Uur traveller was.much taken with the beauty of this
finall .rifing hills about us (fays he) were
aft thick covered with verdure, efpecially with clover,
tue large ft and fineft I ever faw ; the tops of the
heights covered with trees of a prodigious fize ; the
itreum, at the banks of which we were fitting, waslim-
pu., and pure as the fineft cryftal; the fod covered
Nile.
pi. _ „  
thick with a kind of buftiy tree, that feemed to affedf
to grow to no height,but, thick with foliage and young-
branches, rather to affift the furface of the water ;
wh.lft it bore, in prodigious quantities, a beautiful
yellow fiftwer not unlike a fingle rofe of that colour,
but without thorns; and indeed, upon examination,
w-e found , that it was not a fpecies of the rofe, but of
tne hypencum.
Here Mr Bruce exults greatly in his fuccefs ; as
Nit [72
having not only feen the fountains of the Nile, but
the liver itfelf running in a {mall ilream ; fo that the
ancient laying of the poet,
Nec licuit popuhs parrum tc A ifs vtdcfCy
could not be applied to him. Here \s.z Jlepped over it*
he fays, more than 53 times, though he had told us,
in the preceding page, that it was thru yards over.
From this ford, however, the Nile turns to the welt-
ward ; and, after running over loofe Hones occafionally
in that direction about four miles farther, there is a
fmall cataraft of about fix feet in height \ after which
it leaves the mountainous country7, and takes its courfe
through the plains of Goutto. Here k flows fo gently
that its motion is fcarcely to be perceived, but turns
and winds in its direction more than any river he ever
law ; forming more than 20 fliarp angular peninfulas
in the fpace of five miles. Here the foil is compofed
of a mailhy clay, quite deftitute of trees, and very dif¬
ficult to travel through ; and where its ftream receives
no confiderable addition. Ifluing out from thence,
however, it is joined by feveral rivulets which fall from
the mountains on each fide, fo that it becomes a con¬
fiderable flream, with high and broken banks covered
with old timber trees for three miles. In its courfe it
inclines to the north-eaft, and winds very much, till it
receives firfi: a fmall river named Diwa, and then ano¬
ther named Dee-ohha, or the river Dee. Turning then
fharply to the eaft, it falls down another cataraft, and
about three miles below receives the Jemma, a pure
and limpid flream, not inferior in fize to itfelf. Pro¬
ceeding Hill to the northward, it receives a number of
other If reams, and at lafl croffes the fouthern part of
the lake Tzana or Dembea, preferring^ the colour of
its ftream during its pafiage, and iffuing out at the
weft fid«" of it in the territory of Dara.
There is a ford, though very deep and dangerous,
at the place where the Nile firft affumes the name of
a river, after emerging from the lake Dembea; but the
ftream in other places is exceedingly rapid : the banks
in the courfe of a few miles become very high, and are
covered with the moft beautiful and variegated verdure
that can be conceived. It is now confined by the
mountains of Begemder till it reaches Alata, where
is the third cataraft. This, we are informed by Mr
Bruce, is the moft: magnificent fight he ever beheld ;
but he thinks that the height has rather been exagge¬
rated by the miffionaries, who make it 50 feet ^ and
after many attempts to meafure it, he is of opinion
that it is nearly 40 feet high. At the time he vifited
it, the river had been pretty much fwelled by rains,
and fell in one ftieet of water, without any interval, for
the fpace of half an Engliih mile in breadth, with fuch
a noife as ftunned and made him giddy for feme time.
The river, for fome fpace both above and below the
fall, was covered with a thick mift, owing to the fmail
particles of the water daflied up into the air by the
violence of the {hock. The river, though fwelled be¬
yond its ufual fize, retained its elearnefs, and fell into
a natural bafon of rack ; the flream appearing to run
back againft the foot of the precipice over which it
falls with great violence ; forming innumerable ed¬
dies, waves, and being in excefiive commotion, as may
eafily he imagined. Jerome Lobo pretends that he
was able to reach the foot of the rock, and fit under
N° 242.
y nil
the prodigious arch of water fpouting over it'; but Nik
Mr Bruce dots not hefitate to pronounce this to be v-
an abfolute falfehood. The noife of the catarad,
which, he fays, is like the loudeft thunder, could not
to confound and deftroy his fenfe of hearing ; while
the rapid motion of the water before his eyes would
dazzle the fight, make him giddy, and utterly de¬
prive him of all his intelledlual powers. “ It was a
moft magnificent fight (fays Mr Bruce), that ages,
added to the greatell length of human life, would not
deface or eradicate from my memory : it ftruck me
with a kind of ftupor, and a total oblivion of where
I was, and of every other fublunary concern.”
About half a mile below the cataraft, the Nile rs
confined between two rocks, where it runs in a narrow
channel with impetuous velocity and great noife. At
the village of Alata there is a bridge over it, confiding
of one arch, and that no more than 25 feet wide.
This bridge is ftrongly fixed into the folid rock on
both fides, and fome part of the parapets ftill remain.
No crocodiles ever come to Alata, nor are any ever
feen beyond the cataradf.
Below this tremendous water-fall the Nile takes a
fouth-eaft dire&ion, along the weftern fide of Begem¬
der and Amhara on the right, inclofing the province
of Gojam. It receives a great number of ftreams from
both fides, and after feveral turns takes at laft a di-
rettion almoft due north, and approaches within 62
miles of its fource. Notwithftanding the vafi: increafe
of its waters, however, it is ftill fordable at fome fra-
fons of the year; and the Galla crofs it at all times
without any difficulty, either by fwimming, or on
goats fluns blown up like bladders, it is likewilc
crofted on fmall rafts, placed on two Ikins filled with
wind ; or by twilling their hands round the tails of
the horfes who fwim over ; a method always ufed by
the women who follow the Abyffinian armies, and are^
obliged to crofs unfordable rivers. In this part of
the river crocodiles are met with in great numbers ;
but the fuperftitious people pretend they have charms
fufficiently powerful to defend themfelves againft their
voracity. The Nile now feems to have forced its paf-
fage through a gap in fome very high mountains which
bound the country of the Ganges, and falls down a
cataraft of 280 feet high ; and immediately below this
are two others, both of very confiderable height.
Thefe mountains run a great way to the weftward,
where they are called Dyre or Tegla, the eaftern end of
them joining the mountains of Kueira, where they
have the name of Fazuclo. Thefe mountains, our
author informs us, are all inhabited by Pagan nations ;
but the country is lefs known than any other on the
African continent. There is plenty of gold walked
down from the mountains by the torrents in the rainy
leafon; which is the fine gold of Sennaai named
Tibbar.
The Nile, now running clofe by Sennaar in a direc¬
tion nearly north and fouth, makes afterwards a ftiarp
turn to the eaft ; affording a pleafant view in the fair
feafon, when it is brim-full, and indeed the only orna¬
ment of that bare and inhofpitable country. Leaving
Sennaar, it paffes by many large towns inhabited by
Arabs, all of them of a white completion ; then pal¬
ling Gerri, and turning to the north-eaft, it joins tne
Tacazze, palling, during its courfe through this conn-
73
Nile.
n 1 l ^ r
try a larre and populous town named Chendi, pro¬
bably the°Candace of the ancients. Here Mr Bruce
fuppofes the ancient ifland or peninfula of Meroe to
have been fituated. Having at length received the
great river Atbara, the Aftaboras of the ancients, it
turns direaiy north for about two degrees 5 then ma¬
king a very unexpected turn weft by fouth for more
than two degrees in longitude, and winding very little,
it arrives at Korti, the firft town in Barabra. or king¬
dom of Dongola. From Korti it runs almo't fouth
weft till it paffes Dongola, called alfo Beja, the capital
of Barabra ; after which it comes to Mofcho, a con-
fiderable town and place of refrelhment to the cara¬
vans when they were allowed to pafs from Egypt to
Ethiopia. From thence turning to the noith eaft it
meets with a chain of mountains in about il° 15' of
N. latitude, where is the feventh cataradft named Jan
Jdel. This is Hkewife very tremendous, though not
above half as high as that of Alata. This comfe is
now continued till it fails into the Mediteiranean ,
there being only one other cataraft in the whole
fpace, which is much inferior to any of thole already
defcribed.
This very particular and elaborate account of the
fources of the Nile and of the courfe of the river given
by Mr Bruce, hath not efcaped criticifm. We find him
accufed by the reviewers, not only of having brought
nothing to light that was not previoufly known to the
learned, but even of having revealed nothing which was
not previoufly publilhed in Guthrie’s Geographical
Grammar. This, however, feems by no means a fair
and candid criticifm. If the fources of the Nile, as
defcribed by Mr Bruce, were known to the author of
Guthrie’s Grammar, they mull likewife have been fo
to every retailer of geography fince the time of the
mifiionaries; which, as the reviewers have particu¬
larized that book, would not feem to have been the
cafe. If any thing new was publilhed there previous
to the appearance of Mr Bruce’s work, it mull probably
have been derived indireftly from himfelf; of which clan-
deltine method of proceeding that gentleman has had
frequent occafion to complain in other cafes. It is al¬
leged, however, that he has given the name of Nile
to a ftream which does not deferve it. This, like all
other large rivers, is compofed of innumerable branches;
to vifrt the top of every one of which would be in¬
deed an Herculean talk. The fource of the largeft
branch therefore, and that which has the longeft
courfe, is undoubtedly to be accounted the fource of
the river ; but here it is denied that Mr Bruce had
fufficient information. “ Of the innumerable Itreams
(fay they) that feed the lake of Tzana, there is one
that ends in a bog, to which Mr Bruce was eondinSed
by Woldo, a lying guide, who told him it was the
fource of the Nile. Mr Bruce, in a matter of far
lefs importance, would not have taken Woldo’sword;
but he is perfuaded, that in this cafe he fpoke truth.;
becaufc the credulous barbarians of the neighbouring
diftriA paid fomething like worlhip to this brook,
which, at the diftance of 14 miles from its fource, is
not 20 feet broad, and nowhere one foot deep. Now
it is almoft unneceflary to obferve, that the natives of
that country being, according to Mr Bruce’s report,
pagans, might be expected to,worlhip the pure and falu-
tary ftream; to which, with other extraordinary quali-
Vol.XIII. Part. I.
] NIL
ties, their fuperftition afcribed the power of curing the ,
bite of a mad dog. Had he traced to its fource any '
of the other rivulets which run into the lake 1 '/ana,
it is not unlikely that he might have met with fimilar
inilances of credulity among the ignorant inhabitants
of its banks. Yet this would not prove any one of
them in particular to be the head of the Nile. It
would be trifling with the patience of our readers to
fay one word more on the queftion, whether the Por-
tuguefe Jefuits or Mr Bruce difeovered what they er-
roneoufly call the head ol the Nile. Before either
they or lie had indulged themfelves in a vain triumph
over the labours of antiquity, they ought to have been
fure that they had effected what antiquity was unable
to a /complifh. Now the river defcribed by the Jefutt
Kircher, who colle&ed the information of his bre¬
thren, as well as by Mr Bruce, is not the Nile of which
the ancients were in quell. I his is amply proved by
the prince of modern geographers, the incomparable
D’Anville (at leaft till our own Henna! appeared), in
a copious Memoir publiflied in the 26th volume of the
Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, p. 45.
To this learned differ!anon we refer our readers ; ad¬
ding only what feems probable from the writings of
Diodorus Siculus and Herodotus, that the ancients
had two meanings when they fpoke of the head or
fource of the Nile: Firfl, Literally, the head or fource
of that great weftern ftream now called the While
River; which contains a much greater weight of wa¬
ters, and has a much longer courfe than the river de¬
fcribed by the Jefuits and by Mr Bruce : and, zdly. Me¬
taphorically, the caufe of the Nile’s inundation. This
caufe they had difeovered to be the tropical rains,
which fall in the extent of 16 degrees on each fide of
the line; which made the Sacriftan of Minerva’s temple
of Sais in Egypt tell that inquifitive traveller Hero¬
dotus, that the waters of the Nile run in two oppo-
lite dire&iens from its fource; the one north into
Egypt, the other fouth into Ethiopia ; and the re¬
ports of all travellers into Africa ferve to explain and
confirm this obfervatien. The tropical rains, they
acknowledge, give rife to the Nile and all its tributa¬
ry ftreams which flow northward into the kingdom
of Sennaar, as well as to the Zeboe, and fo many
large rivers which flow fouth into Ethiopia ; and
then, according to the inclination of the ground, fall
into the Indian or Atlantic Ocean. Such then, accord¬
ing to the Egyptian priefts, is the true and philofo-
phical fource of the Nile ; a fource difeovered above
^oco years ago, and not, as Mr Bruce and the Je¬
fuits have fuppofed, the head of a paltry rivulet, one
of the innumerable ftreams that feed the lake Tzana.”
On this fevere criticifm, howrever, it is obvious to re¬
mark, that if the fource of the Nile had been difeo¬
vered fo many years ago, there is not the leaft proba¬
bility that the finding of it ihould have been deemed
an impollible undertaking, which it moll certainly was,
by the ancients.—That the finding out the fountains
of the river itfelf was an objedl of their inquiry, can¬
not be doubted ; and from the accounts given by Mr
Bruce, it appears very evident that none of the an¬
cients had equal fuccefs with himfelf; though indeed
the Jefuits, as has already been obferved, feem to have
a right to difpute it with him. From the corre-
fpondence of his accounts with that of the Jefuits, it
K appears
Nib.
NIL, [ 74- J NIL
Nile, appears certain that the mofi conuderable flream
which flows into the lake Tzana takes its rife fiom
the fountains at Gcefli already defcribed ; and that
it is the molt confiderable plainly appears from its
flream being vifible through the whole breadth of
the lake, which is not the cafe with any of the reft.
The preference given to this flream by the Agows,
who worfhip it, feems alfo an inconteflible proof that
they look upon it to be the great river which pafles
through Ethiopia and Egypt; nor will the argument
of the Reviewers hold good in fuppnjin^ that ether
itreams are worflipped, unlefs they could prove that
they are fo. As little can it be any objection or
difparagement to Mr Bruce’s labour?, that he did not
difeover the fources of the weftern branch of the Nile
called the White River. Had he done fo, it might
next have been objedfed that he did not vifit the fprings
of the Tac azze, or any other branch. That the ori¬
gin of the White River was unknown to the ancients
may readily be allowed ; but fo were the fountains of
Geefh, as evidently appears from the erroneous po-
fition of the fources of the eaftern branch of the Nile
laid down by Ptolemy. Our traveller, therefore,
certainly has the merit, if not of difeovering the
fources, at lead of confirming the accounts which the
Jefuits have given of the fources, of the river called
the Ni/e; and of which the White River, whether
greater or fmaller, feems to be accounted only a
branch. The fuperior veneration paid to the eaftern
branch of this celebrated river will alfo appear from
the variety of names given to it, as well as from the
import of thefe names; of which Mr Bruce gives the
following account.
By the Agows it is named Gzeir, Geefa, or Stir;
the flrft of which terms ftgnifies a god. It is like-
wife named Ah, father; and has many other names, all
of them implying the moft profound veneration.
Having defeended into Gojam it is named Abay;
which, according to Mr Bruce, fignifies the river that
fuddenly fwells and overflows periodically with rain.
By the Gongas on the fouth fide of the mountains
Dyre and Tagla, it is called Dahli, and by thofe on
the north fide Kovuafs; both which names flgnify a
•watching dog, the latrator anubis, or dog-Jlar. In the
plain country between Fazurlo and Sennaar it is called
Nile, which flgnifles blue i and the Arabs interpret
this name by the word Azergue; which name it re-
tains till it reaches Halfaia, where it receives the
White River.
Formerly the Nile had the name of Sin's, both be¬
fore and after it enters Beja, which the Greeks ima¬
gined was given to it on account of its black colour
during the inundation ; but Mr Bruce allures us that
the river has no fnch colour. He affirms, with great
probability, that this name in the country of Beja
imports the river of the dog-Jlar, on whole vertical ap¬
pearance this river overflows ; “ and this idolatrous
worlhip (fays he) was probably part of the reafon of
the queftion the prophet Jeremiah alks: And what
haft thou to do in Egypt to drink the water of Seir,
or the water profaned by idolatrous rites ?” As for
the firft, it is only the tranflation of the word bahar
applied to the Nile. The inhabitants of the Barabra
to this day call it Bahar el Nil, or the fea of the Nile,
jn contyadiftinftion to the Red Sea, for which they
have no other name than Bahar el Molech, or the Nile.
Salt Sea. The junction of the tfiree great rivers, the —v—
Nile flowing on the weft fide of Meroe ; the Tacazze,
which vvalhes the call fide, and joins the Nile at Mag-
giran in N. Lat. 17-; and the March, which falls into
this laft fomethinqr above the jundlion, gives the name
of 'Triton to the Nile.
The name JEgyptus, which it has in Plomer, and
which our author fuppofes to have been a very an¬
cient name even in Ethiopia, is more difficult to ac¬
count for. This has been almoft univerfally ffip-
pofed to be derived from the black colour of the in¬
undation ; but Mr Bruce, for the reafons already
given, will not admit of this. “ Egypt (fays he) in
the Ethiopxe is called y Gipt, Agar ; and an inhabi¬
tant of the country, Gypt, for precifely fo it is pro¬
nounced ; which means the country of ditches or canals,
drawn from the Nile on both Tides at right angles
with the river: nothing furely is more obvious than
to write y Gipt, fo pronounced, Egypt ; and, with its
termination us or os, Egyptus. The Nile is alfo called
Aron/V/er,'Jupiter ; and has had feveral other appella¬
tions bellowed upon it by the poets; though thefe
are rather of a tranfitory nature than to be ranked
among the ancient names of the river. By fome of
the ancient fathers it has been named Geon; and by a
ftrange train of miracles they would have it to be one
of the rivers of the terrellrial paradife ; the fame which
is faid to have encompafied the whole land of Culh or
Ethiopia. To effedl this, they are obliged to bring
the river a great number of miles, not only under the
earth, but under the fea alfo ; but fuch reveries need
no refutation.”
Under the article Egypt we have fo fully explain¬
ed the caufe of the annual inundation of the Nile,
that, with regard to the phenomena itfelf, nothing far¬
ther feems neceflary to be added. We ffiall therefore
only extrad from Mr Bruce’s work what he has faid
concerning the mode of natural operation by which
the tropical rains are produced ; which are now uni¬
verfally allowed to be the caufe of the annual overflow¬
ing of this and other rivers.
According to this gentleman, the air is fo much ra¬
refied by the fun during the time that he remains al¬
moft llationary over the tropic of Capricorn, that the
other wunds loaded with vapours rulh in upon the land
from the Atlantic ocean on the weft, the Indian ocean
on the call, and the cold Southern ocean beyond the
Cape. Thus a great quantity of vapour is gathered,
as it were, into a focus ; and as the fame caufes conti¬
nue to operate during the progrefs of the fun north¬
ward, a vaft train of clouds proceed from fouth to
north, which, Mr Bruce informs us, are fometimes ex¬
tended much farther than at other times. Thus he tells
us, that for two years fome white dappled clouds were
feen at Gondar on the 7th of January ; the fun being
then 34O diftant from the zenith, and not the leaft
cloudy fpeck having been feen for feveral months
before. About the firft of March, however, it begins
to rain at Gondar, but only for a few minutes at a time,
in large drops ; the fun being then about 5s diftart
from the zenith. The rainy feafon commences with
violence at every place when the fun comes diredlly
over it ; and beiore it commences at Gondar, green
boughs and leaves appear floating in tire Bahar elAbiad,
cr
NIL
Nile, or White River, which, according to the accounts gj-
  ' ven by the Galla, our author fuppofes to take its rile
in about 50 north latitude. o
The rains therefore precede the fun only about 5 _ ;
but they continue and increafe after he has palled it.
In April all the rivers in the fouthern parts of Abyi-
fmia begin to fwell, and greatly augment the Nile,
which is now alfo farther augmented by the vatl quan¬
tity of water poured into the lake 1 zana. On the
fir It days of May, the fun pafies the village of Gern,
which is the limit of the tropical rains ; and it is ve¬
ry remarkable, that, though the fun ftiil continues to
operate with unabated vigour, all his influence cannot
bring the clouds farther northward than this village ;
the reafon of which Mr Bruce, with great reafon, fup¬
pofes to be the want of mountains to the northward.
In confirmation of this opinion, he obferves, that the
tropical rains flop at the latitude of 140 initead of
j 6° in the weftern part of the continent. All this
time, however, they continue violent in Abyflinia ;
and in the beginning of June the rivers are all full, and
continue fo while the fun remains ftationary in the tro¬
pic of Cancer.
Thisexceflive rain, which would fweep off the whole
foil of Egypt into the fea were it to continue with¬
out intermiflion, begins to abate as the fun turns fouth-
Ward ; and on his arrival at the zenith of each place,
on his paflfage towards that quarter, they ceafe entire¬
ly : the realon of which is no lefs difficult to be dif-
covered than that of their coming on when he arrives
at the zenith in his paflage northward. Be the rea-
f@n what it will, however, the fadt is certain ; and not
only fo, but the time of the rains ceafing is exadl to a
Angle day; infomuch, that on the 25th of Septem¬
ber the Nile is generally found to be at its higheft at
Cairo, and begins to diminifh every day after. Im¬
mediately after the fun has paffed the line, he begins
the rainy reafon to the fouthward ; the rains conftant-
ly coming on with violence as he approaches the ze¬
nith of each place; but the inundation is now pro¬
moted in a different manner, according to the difler-
ence of circumftances in the fituation of the places.
From about 6° S. Lat. a chain of high mountains runs
all the way along the middle of the continent tov^ards
the Cape of Good Hope, and interfefts the fouthern
part of the peninfula nearly in the fame manner that
the Nile does the northern. A ftrong wind from the
fouth, Hopping the progrefs of the condenfed vapours,
dallies them againtl the cold fummits of this ridge of
mountains, and forms many rivers, which efcape in the
direction either of eait or weft as the level prefents it-
felf. If this is towards the weft, they fall down the
fides of the mountains into the Atlantic, and if on the
call into the Indian ocean.The clouds (fays Mr
Bruce), drawn by the violent a&ion of the fun, are
condenfed, then broken, and fall as rain on the top of
this high ridge, and fwell every river ; while a wind
from the ocean on the eaft blows like a monfoon up
each of thefe ftreatus, in a direction contrary to their
current, during the whole time of the inundation ; and
this enables boats to afeend into the weftern parts of
Sofala, and the interior country to the mountains,
where lies the gold. The fame effect, from the fame
caufe, i* produced on the weftern fide towards the At¬
lantic } the high ridge of mountains being placed be-
N I L
tween the different countries weft and eaft, is at once
the fource cf their riches, and of thofe rivers which
conduit to the treafures, which would be otherwife in-
acceffible, in the eaftern parts of the kingdoms of Be¬
nin, Congo, and Angola.
“ There are three remarkable appearances attend¬
ing the inundation of the Nile. Every morning in
Abyffinia is clear, and the fun fliines. About nine, a
fmall cloud, not above four feet broad, appears in the
eaft, whirling violently round as if upon an axis ;
but, arrived near the zenith, it firft abates its motion,
then lofes its form,and extends itfelf greatly, and feems
to call up vapours from all the oppofite quarters Thefe
clouds having attained nearly the fame height, rufir
againit each other with gref:t violence, and put me al¬
ways in mind of EUfha foretelling rain on mount Car¬
mel. The air impelled before the heaviell mafs, or
fwifteft mover, makes an impreffion of its form on the
colle£iion of clouds oppoiite ; and the moment it has
taken poffeffion of the fpace made to receive it the
moft violent thunder poffible to be conceived inftantly
follows, with rain : after feme hours the iky again
clears, with a wind at north ; and it is always difa-
greeably cold when the thermometer is below 63°.
“ The feccnd thing remarkable is the variation of
the thermometer. When the fun is in the fouthern
tropic, 36° diftant from the zenith of Gondar,it is fel-
dom lower than 720; but it falls to 6©°, and 63°,
when the fun is immediately vertical ; fo happily does
the approach of rain compenfate the heat of a too
fcorching fun.
“ The third is that remarkable-flop in the extent
of the rain northward, when the fun, that has con-
dufted the vapours from the line, and fliould feem
now more than ever to be in poffeffion of them, is
here over-ruled fuddenly ; till, on its return to Gorri,
again it refumes the abfolute command over the rain,
and recondufts it to the Line, to furnifh dillant de¬
luges to the fouthward.”
With regard to the Nile itfelf, it has been faid that
the quantity of earth brought down by it from Abyf¬
finia is fo great, that the whole land of Egypt is pro¬
duced from it. This queftion, however, is difeuffed
under the article Egypt, where it is ffiown that this
cannot poffibiy be the cafe.—Among other authori¬
ties there quoted was that of Mr Volney, who ftrenu-
oufly argues againft the opinion of Mr Savavy and
others, who have maintained that Egypt is the gift of
the Nile. Notwithstanding this, however, we find
him afferting that the foil of Egypt has undoubtedly
been augmented by the Nile : ia which cafe it is not
unreasonable to fuppofe that it has been produced by
it altogether—“ The reader (fays he) will conclude,
doubtlefs, from what I have faid, that writers have
flattered themfelves too much in fuppoling they could
fix the precife limits of the enlargement and rife of
the Delta. But, though I would rejeeft all illufory eir-
cumftances, I am far from denying the fad to be well
founded ; it is too plain from reafon, and an examina¬
tion of the country. The rife of the ground appears
to me demonflrated byr an obfervation on which little
ftrefs has been laid. In going from Rofetta to Cairo,
when the waters are low, as in the month of March,
we may remark, as we go up the river, that the (hore
rifes gradually above the water; fo that if it overflowed
K 2 ■ two
[ 75 1
NIL f 76 1 NIL
Nile. two feet at Rofetta, it overflows frotr. three to four Egypt ; an opiruon which he 13 at great pains to
at Faona, and upwards of twelve at Cairo (a). Now refute. Under the article Egypt, however, it is —
by reafoning from this fad, we may deduce the proof ihown that the Nile does not bring down any
of an increafe by Pediment; for the layer of mud be- quantity of mud fufficient for the purpofes affign-
ing in proportion to the thicknefs of the flieets of wa- ed ; and with regard to the argument drawn from the
ter by which it is depofited, mult be more or lefs con- (hallownefs of the inundation when near the fea, this
fiderable as tliefe are of a greater or lefs depth ; and does not pr’ve any rile ot the land ; but, as Mr Ren-
we have feen that the like gradation isobfervable from nel has judicioully obferved in his remarks on the in-
Afouan to the fea. undation of the Ganges, arifes from the nature of the
“ On the other hand, the increafe of the Delta ma- fluid itlelf. The reaion, in fhort, is this: The furface
nifefts itfdf in a ftriking manner, by the form ot Egypt of the fea is the lowdl point to which the waters of
along the Mediterranean. When we confider its figure every inundation have a tendency ; and when they ar-
on the map, we perceive that the country which is in rive there, they fpread themfelves o*ver it with more
the line of the river, and evidently formed of foreign cafe than any where elfe, becaufe they meet with lefs
materials, has aflumed a femicircular fhape, and that reflftance. Their motion, however, by reafon of the
the fhores of Arabia and Africa, on each fide, have a fmall declivity, is lefs fwift than that of the waters
diredtion towards the bottom of the Delta; which ma- farther up the river, where the declivity is greater ;
nifeftly difcovers that this country was formerly a and confequently the latter being fomewhat impeded
gulf, that in time has been filled up. in their motion, are in fomc degree accumulated. The
“ This accumulation is common vo all rivers, and is furface of the inundation, therefore, does not form a
accounted for in the fame manner in all: the rain wa- peifedlly level plain,but one gradually doping from the
ter and the fnow defcending from the mountains into interior parts of the country towards the fea ; fo that
the valleys, hurry incefiantly along with them the at the greatdl diflance from the ocean the water will
earth they wafh away in their defcent. The heavier always be deepeft, even if we flrould fuppofe the whole
parts, fuch as pebbles and funds, foon flop, unlefs for- country to be perfectly fmooth, and compofed of the
ced along by a rapid current. But when the waters rnoft lolid materials.—This theory is eafily underlfood
meet only with a fine and light earth, they carry away from obferving a quantity of water running along a
large quantities with the greateft facility. The Nile, wooden fpout, which is always more fliallow at the
meeting with fuch a kind of earth in Abyflinia and end of the fpout where it runs off than at the other. 
the interior parts of Africa, its waters are loaded and With regard to Mr Volney’s other arguments, they
its bed filled with it ; nay, it is frequently fo embar- are without doubt contradi&ory ; for if, as he fays,
raffed with this fediment as to be (traitened in its the river takes from Abyflinia to give to the Thebais,
courfe. But when the inundation rettores to it its from Thebais to give to the Delta, and from Delta to
natural energy, it drives the mud that has accumu- the fea, it undoubtedly follows, that it gives nothing to
lated toward the fea, at the fame time that it brings any part of the land whatever, but that altogether
down more for the enfuing fenfen ; and this, arrived is fwept into the Mediterranean fea ; which, indeed,
at its mouth, heaps up, and forms fhoals, where the fomc very trifling quantities excepted, is molt probably
declivity does not allow' fufficient adtion to the cur- the cafe.
rent, and where the fca produces an equilibrium of it has been remarked by Mr Pococke,-a very judi-
reliitance. The ftagnation which follows occafions cious traveller, that, in the beginning of the inunda-
the groffer particles, which till then had floated, to tion, the waters of the Nile turn red, and fometimes
fink ; and this takes place more particularly in thofe green ; and while they remain of that colour, they arc
places where there is kail motion, as towards the unudiolefome. He explains this phenomenon by fup-
Ihores, till the iides become gradually enriched by the poling, that the inundation at lirll brings away that red
fpoils of the upper country and of the Delta itfelf; or green filth which may be about the lakes where it
for if the Nile takes from Abyflinia to give to the takes its rife ; or about the fources of the fmall river#
Thebais, it likewife takes from the Thebais to give which flow into it, near its principal fource ; “ for,
to the Delta, and from the Delta to carry to the fea. fays he, though there is fo little water in the Nile
Wherever its waters have a current, it Sefpoils the when at lowed, that there is hardly any current in
fame territory that it enriches. As w'e afeend towards many parts of it, yet it cannot be fuppofed that the
Cairo, w hen the river is low, we may obferve the banks water Ihould llagnate in the bed of the Nile fo as to
worn lleep cn each fide and crumbling in large flakes, become green. Afterwards the water begins to be
The Nile, which undermines them, depriving their red and Hill more turbid, and then it begins to be
light earth of fupport, it falls into the bed of the ri- wholefomeT—This circumftance is explained by Mr
yer ; for when the water is high, the earth imbibes Bruce in the following manner. The country about
it; and wffien the fun and drought return, it cracks and Narea and CafFa, udiere the river Abiad takes its rife
moulders away in great flakes, which are hurried along is full of immenfe marlhes, where, during the dry fea-
by the Nlle-” fon, the water ftagnates, and becomes impregnated
1 hus does Mr V olney argue for the increafe of the with every kind of corrupted matter. Thefe, on the
Delta in the very fame manner that others have ar- commencement of the rains, overflow into the river
gued for the produ&ion of the whole country of Abiad, which takes its rife there. The overflowing
of
(a) “ It would be curious to afeertain in what proportion it continues up to Afouan. Some Copts, whom
I have interrogated on the fubjed, allured me that it was much higher through all the Said than at Cairo.’'
N I L
[ 77 J
N I L
of thefe vaft marfhes Hrft carry the dlfcoloured water
into Eeyyt; after which follows that of the great lake
Txaoa through which the Nile paifes ; which, having
been ftagnated, and without ram, under a fcorching
?un for fix months, joins its putrid waters to the
’ former. In Abyffinia alfo, there are very few rivers
that run after November, but all of them iW in pro-
digLs pools, which, by the heat of the ^ ^
turn putrid, and on the commencement of the rains
throw off their ftagnant water into the Nile ; but at
laft the rains becoming conllant, all this putrid mat¬
ter’is carried off, and the fources of_ the inundation
become fweet and wholefome. The river then Pa nng
thro’the kingdom of Sennaar the foil of ^hu-lm a red
bole, becomes coloured with that eaiti , an °
ture, along with the moving fands °fthe d^1 ’ o
which it receives a great quantity when ^fed by the
wind, precipitates all the vffcous and putrid matte s
which float in the waters; whence Mr I ocock ji -
cioufly obferves, that the Nile is not wbolefome«h
the water is clear and green, but when fo red and tur¬
bid that it ftains the water of the Mediterranean.
The rains in Abyffinia, which ceafe about, the 8t
of September, generally leave a liekly feafon in
low country ; but the difeafes produced by the^ rain*
are removed by others which come on about the end
of Oaober, and ceafe about the 8th of ^ov^b^*
On thefe rains depend the latter crops of the Abyll -
nians; and for thefe the Agows pray to the river, or
the genius or fpirit refiding in it. In “ *
ever, the effedt of them is feldom perceived; but in
fome years they prove exceflive : and it has been o -
ferved^that the Nile, after it has fallen,has again nfen
in fuch a manner as to alarm the whole country, i u
is faid to have happened in the time of Cleopatra
when it was fuppofed to prefage the extinaion of
government of the Ptolemies; and ir* 1
likewife imagined to portend fome dreadful calamity.
The quantity of rain, by which all this inundation
is occafioned, varies confiderably in different years ;
at lead at Gondar, where Mr Bruce had an opportu¬
nity of meafuring it. In 1770 it amounted to 35x
inches; but in 1771 it amounted to no ltis than
41.3CC inches from the vernal equinox to the »th o«
September.—What our author adds concerning the
variation of the rainy months feems totally irvecon-
cileable with what he had before advanced conceinmg
the extreme regularity of the natural caufes by wmch
the tropical rains are produced. “ in 1770 (%* he)
Auguft was the rainy month ; in 177*5 y "en
July is the rainy month, the rains generally ceaie for
fome days in the beginning of Auguft, and then a
prodigious deal falls in the latter end of that month
and ftrft week of September. In other years July and
Auguft are the violent rainy months, while June is
fair.’ And laftly, in others, May, June, July, Auguft,
and the firft week of September.”—If this is the cafe,
what becomes of the regular attraaion of the clouds
by the fun as he advances northward; of the coming
©n of the rains when he arrives at the zenith of any¬
place, in his paffage to the tropic of Cancer; and of
their ceafing when he comes to the fame point in his
return fouthward ?
Under the article Ethiopia we have mentioned a
threat of one of the Abyflinian monarchs, that he
1
would dirca the courfe of the Nile and prevent it from
fertilizing the land of Egypt; and it has hkewife been
related, that conflderable progrefs was made in this
undertaking by another emperor. Mr Bruce has be¬
llowed an entire chapter on the fubjea; and is of opi¬
nion, that “ there fee ms to be no doubt that it is pof-
fible to diminiih or divert the courfe of the' Nile, that
it fhould be infufficient to fertilize the country ot
Egypt; becaufe the Nile, and all the rivers that run
into it, and all the rains that fwell thefe rivers, fall in
a country two miles above the level of the fea; there¬
fore it cannot be denied, that there is level enough to
divert many of the rivers into the Red Sea, or perhaps
ilill eafier by turning the courfe of the river Abiad
till it meets 'the level of the Niger, or pafs through
the defart into the Mediterranean.”—Alphonfo Albu¬
querque is faid to have written frequently to the king
of Portugal to fend him pioneers from Madeira, with
people accuftomed to level grounds, and prepare them
for fugar canes; by whofe affiftance he meant to turn
the Nile into the Red Sea. This undertaking, how¬
ever, if it really had been projeded, was never accom-
plifbed ; nor indeed is there any probability that ever
fuch a mad attempt was propofed. Indeed, though
we cannot deny that there is a poflibiltty in nature ot
accompliftiing it, yet the vaft difficulty of turning
Nile.
the courfe of fo many large rivers may juftly ftigma-
tize it as ineradicable ; not to mention the obftacles
which muit naturally be luggefted from the apparent
inutility of the undertaking, and which would ante
from the oppofition of the Egyp'-I?'n3*
It has already been obferved in a quotation from
the Reviewers, that Herodotus was informed by the
facriftan or fecretary of the treafury of Minerva, that
one half of the waters of the Nile ran north and the
other fouth. This is alfo taken notice of by Mr
Bruce ; who gives the following explanation of it;
“ The fecretary was probably of that country himfel?,
and feems by his obfervation to have known more of it
than all the ancients together. In fad we have feen,
that between 130 and 14^ north latitude, the Nile,
with all its tributary ftreams, which have their pie
and courfe within the tropical rains, falls down into
the flat country (the kingdom of Sennaar), which is
more than a mile lower than the high country in
Abyffinia; and thence, with ? little inclination, it
runs into Egypt. Again, in latitude 90, in the king¬
dom of Gingiro, the Zebte runs fouth or fouth-eatt,
into the Inner Ethiopia, as do alfo many other rivers,
and, as I have heard from the natives of that country,
empty themfelves into a lake, as thoie on the north
fide of the line do into the lake I zana, thence diftri-
bating their waters to the eaft and weft. Thefe be¬
come the heads of great rivers, that run through the
interior countries of Ethiopia (corresponding to the
fea-coaft of Melinda and Momboza) into the Indian
Ocean ; whilft, on the weftveard, they are the origin
of the vaft ftreams that fall into the Atlantic, paf-
fmg through Benin and Congo, fouthward of the
river Gambia and the Sierra-leona. In ftiort, the
periodical rains from the tropic of Capricorn to the
line, being in equal quantity with thofe that fall be¬
tween the line and the tropic of Cancer, it is plain,
that if the land of Ethiopia doped equally from the
line fouthward’and northward, the rains that fall would
S°>
NIL [ 7
'k* go, the one half north and the other half fouth ; but
'' as the ground from north declines all fouthward, it
follows, that the rivers which run to the fouthward
mud be equal to thofe that run northward, plus the
rain that falls in the 5° north latitude, where the
ground begins to dope to the fouthward * and there
can be little doubt that this is at lead one of the
reafons why there are in the fouthern continent fo many
rivers larger than the Nile, that run both into fhe
Indian and Atlantic Oceans.”
From this account given to Herodotus, it has been
fuppofed, by fome writers on geography» that the
Nile divides itfelf into two branches, one of which
runs northward into Egypt, and one through the
country of the negroes wedward into the Atlantic
ocean. This opinion was fird broached by Pliny.
It has been adopted by the Nubian geographer, who
urges in fupport of it, that if the Nile carried down
ail the rains which fall into it from Abyffinia, the
people of Egypt would not be fafe in their houfes.
But to this Mr Bruce anfwers, that the wade of wa¬
ter in the burning defarts through which the Nile
pafles is fo great, that uhlefs it was fupplied by ano¬
ther dream, the White river, equal in magnitude to
itfelf, and which, rifing in a country of perpetual
rains, is thus always kept full, it never could reach
Egypt at all, but would be lod in the fands, as is the
cafe wdth many other very confiderable rivers in Afri¬
ca. “ The rains (fays he) are colle&ed by the four
great^rivers in AbylTinia ; the Mareb, the Bowiha,
the I acazze, and the Nile. All thefe principal, and
their tributary dreams, would, however, be abforbed,
nor be able to pafs the burning defarts, or find their
way into Egypt, were it not for the White river,
which having its fource in a country of almod per¬
petual rains, joins to it a never-failing dream equal
to the Nile itfelf.”
We diall conclude this article with fome account
of the Agows who inhabit the country about the
fources of the Nile. Thefe, according to Mr Bruce,
are one of the mod confiderable nations in Abyffinia,
and can bring into the field about 4000 horfe and a
great number of foot ; but were once much more
powerful than they are now, having been greatly re¬
duced by the invafions of the Oalla. Their province
is nowhere more than 60 miles in length, or than 30
in breadth ; nothwithdanding which they fupply the
capital and all the neighbouring country with cattle,
honey, butter, wax, hides, and a number of other
necefiary articles ; whence it has been cudomary for
the Abyffinian princes to exadt a tribute rather than
military fervice from them. The butter is kept from
putrefaction during the long carriage, by mixing it
with a fmall quantity of a root fomewhat like a car¬
rot, which they call mormoco. It is ef a yellow co¬
lour, and anfwers the purpofe perfectly well; which
in that climate it is very doubtful if fait could do.
The latter is befides ufed as money ; being circulated
indead of diver coin, and ufed as change for gold.
Brides paint their feet, hands, and nails, with this
root. A large quantity of the feed of the plant was
btought into Europe by Mr Bruce.
The Agows carry on a confiderable trade with the
ohangalla and other black favages in the neighbour-
hood; exchanging the produce of their country for
S 1 NIL
gold, ivory, horns of the rhinoceros, and fome fine Nile
cotton. The barbarity and thieviffi difpofition of^'Wer.
both nationsj however, render this trade much infe-
rior to what it might be.
In their religion the Agows are grofs idolaters
paying divine honours to the Nile, as has already
been obferved. Mr Bruce, who lodged in the houfe
of the pried of the river, had an opportunity of be¬
coming acquainted with many particulars of their de-
votion. He heard him addrefs a prayer to the Nile, in
which he dyled it the 44 Mod High God, the Sa¬
viour of the world.” in this prayer he petitioned
for feafonable rain, plenty of grafs, and the prefer-
vation of a kind of ferpents; deprecating thunder alfo
very pathetically. The mod fublime and lofty titles
are given by them to the fpirit which they fuppofc
to reiide in the river Nile; calling it everlading God,
Light of the world, Eye of the World, God of
Peace, their Saviour, and Father of the Univerfe.
The Agows are all clothed in hides, which they
manufa&ure in a manner peculiar to themfelves. Thefe
hides are made in the foim of a Ihirt reaching down
to their feet, and tied about the middle with a kind
of faffi or girdle. The lower part of it refembles a
large double petticoat ; one fold of which they turn
back over their (boulders, fattening it with a broach
or fkewer acrofs their breatt before, and the married
women carry their children in ic behind. The younger
fort generally go naked. The women are marriageable
at nine years of age, though they commonly do not
marry till eleven ; and they continue to bear children
till 30, and fometimes longer. They are generally
thin, and below the middle fize, as well as the men.
Barrennefs is quite, unknown among them.
The country of the Agows has a very elevated
fituation, and is of courfe fo temperate that the heat
may eafily be borne, though little more than io° from
the equator. The people, however, are but fliort-
lived ; which may in part be owing to the oppreffion
they labour under. I ms, accoruing to Mir Bruce,
is exceffive. “ Though their country (fays he)
abounds with all the neceflaries of life, their taxes,
tributes, and fervices, efpecially at prefent, are fo
multiplied upon them, whiltt their dittreffes of late
have been fo great and frequent, that they are only
the manufafturers of the commodities they fell, to
fatisfy thefe conftant exorbitant demands, and can¬
not enjoy any part of their own produce themfelves,
but live in penury and mifery fcarce to be conceived.
We law a number of women wrinkled and fun-burnt fo
as xcarce to appear human, wandering about under a
burning fun, with one and fometimes two children
upon their backs; gathering the feeds of bent grafs
to make a kind of bread.”
MLOlviE 1 ER, or Niloscope, an inftrument ufed
among the ancients to meafure the height of the
water of the river Nile in its overflowings.
Ihe word comes from Niie (an(j ,4^ from
y(a “newmud,”or,asfbme others will have it, from
‘‘ I flow,” and «a.k, “ mud”,) and ^rp0», « mea.
fure.” I he Greeks more ordinarily call it NnAotrxo-
1 he nilometer is faid, by feveral Arabian writers,
to have been firft fet up, for this purpoft, by Jofeph
during his regency in Egypt; the meaiure of it
was
NIL C 79 1 N I M
, he;„„ the height of the increafe chief is the principal ufe of the n.lometer, though
16 cubits, this being tne^ g ^ r .ir ^ Xurkifh goverment makes it an engine of taxa¬
tion. From time immemorial the Egyptians paid, as
tribute to the king, a certain proportion of the fruit
of the ground ; and this was anciently afcertained by
pNdcmeter. was^iu ^neCefl\iry to the fxuitfulnefs
+ Scripture From the meafure of this column, Dr Cumb^rJand t
-weights and deduces an argument, in order to prove that t ic Jewi
nscufurcs,
p. 18.
Nimbus
il
Nimrod.1
* 'Bruce's
‘Travels,
vol. 3.
and Egyptian cubit were of the fame length.
In the French king’s library is an Arabic treatife
on nilometers, intitled Neitji alnal al Nil;, wherein are
defcribed all the overflowings of the Nile, from the
firft year of the Hegira to the 875th.
Herodotus mentions a column ere&ed in a point
of the ifland Delta, to ferve as a nilorneter; and there
is {fill one of the fame kind in a mofque of the lame
P As all the riches of Egypt arife from the inunda¬
tions of the Nile, the Inhabitants^ ufed to fupplicate
them at the hands of their Serapis ; and committed
the moft execrable crimes, as aftions, torfooth, of re¬
ligion, to obtain the favour. T. his occalioned Con
flantine exprefsly to prohibit thefe facnfices, &c. and
to order the nilometer to be removed into the church;
whereas, till that time, it had been in the temple of
Serapis. Julian the apoflatc had it icplaced 111 the
temple, where it continued till the tune of the great
Theodofius.
The only rational and confident account, however,
which we have of the nilometer is given by the cele¬
brated traveller Mr Bruce. “ On the point * of the
ifland Rhode, between Geeza and Cairo, near the
middle of the river, is a round tower inclofing a neat
well or ciftern lined with marble. The bottom of this well
is on the fame level with the bottom of the Nile, which
has free accefs to it through a large opening like an
embrafure. In the middle of the well rifes a thin
column of eight faces of blue and white marble; of
which the foot is on the fame plane with the bottom
of the river. This pillar is divided into 20 pecks, of
22 inches each. Of thefe pecks the two lowermoft
are left, without any divifion, to hand for the quan¬
tity of fludge which the water depofits there. Two
pecks are then divided, on the right-hand, into 24
digits each ; then on the left, four pecks are divided
into 24 digits ; then on the right, four ; and on the
left another four: again, four on the right, which com¬
pletes the number of 18 pecks from the firft divifion
marked on the pillar, each peck being 22 inches. Thus
the whole marked and unmarked amounts to fome-
thing more than 36 feet Englifh.
On the night of St John, when, by the falling of
the dew, they perceive the rain-water from Ethiopia
mixed with the Nile at Cairo, they begin to announce
the elevation of the river, having then five pecks
of water marked on the nilometer, and twp unmarked
for the fiudge, of which they take no notice. Their
firft proclamation, fuppofing the Nile to have rifen
12 digits, is 12 from 6, or it wants 12 digits to be
fix pecks When it has rifen three more, it is nine
from fix; and fo on, till the whole 18 be filled, when
all the land of Egypt is fit for cultivation. Several
canals are then opened, which convey the water into
the defart, and hinder any further ftagnation on the
fields. There is indeed a great deal of more water
to come from Ethiopia ; but were the innundation
fuffered to go on, it would not drain foon enough to
fit the land for tillage ; and to guard againft this mif-
4 :
the elevation of the water on the nilometer, and by
the menfuration of the land actually overflowed. But
the. Saracen goverment, and afterwards the Turkifh,
has taxed the people by the elevation alone of the wa¬
ter, without attending to its courfe over the country,
or the extent of the land aftually overflowed ; and this
tax is fometimes cruelly oppreflive.
NIMBUS, in antiquity, a circle obferved on cer¬
tain medals, or round the heads of fome emperors ;
anfwering to the circles of light drawn round the
images of faints.
NIMEGUEN, a large, handfome, and ftrong town
of the Netherlands, and capital of Dutch Guelder-
land, with a citadel, an ancient palace, and feveral
forts. It is noted for the peace concluded there in
1679. It has a magnificent town-houfe, and the in¬
habitants are greatly given to trade. It is feated on
the Vahal or Wahal, between the RFine and the
Maefe. It is the utmoll eaftern boundary of the Ne¬
therlands. It contains two Dutch churches, a French
Calvinift and a Lutheran church, five Popifh, an I
feveral hofpitals. It was once a Hans-town and an
imperial city. It is now the feat of government, has
a canal to Arnheim, and confiderable trade to fome
parts of Germany: it trades alfo in fine beer-brewing,
fattening of cattle, and exporting of its butter, which
is extremely good, into all the other provinces. It is
in E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 51..55.
NIMETULAHITES, a kind of Turkifh monks,
fo called from their founder Nimetulahi, famous for
his doctrines and the aullerity of his life.
NIMPO, a city and fea-pert town of China, in the
province of Chekiang. It is feated on the eaftern fea
of China, over-againft Japan. It is a city of the firfi:
rank, and ftands at the confluence of two fmall rivers,
which, after their union, form a channel that reaches
to the fea, and is deep enough to bear veflels of 200
tons burden. The walls of Nimpo are 5000 paces in
circumference, and are built with free-ftone. There
are five gates, befides two water-gates for the paffage
of barks into the city ; a tower feveral ftories high,
built of bricks ; and a long bridge of boats, fattened
together with iron chains, over a very broad canal.
This city is commanded by a citadel built on a very
high rock, by the foot of which all veflels mufl: ne-
ceflarily pafs. The Chinefe mefchants of Siam and
Batavia go to this place yearly to buy filks, which
are the find! in the empire. They have alfo a great
trade with Japan, it being but two days fail from
hence : thither they carry filks, fluffs, fugar, drugs,
and wine ; and bring back copper, gold, and filver.
E. Long. 1 22. o. N. Lat. 30. o.
NIMROD, the fixth fon of Cufh, and in all ap¬
pearance much younger than any of his brothers : for
Mofes mentions the fons of Raamah, his fourth bro¬
ther, before he fpsaks of him. What the facred hi-
ftorian fays of him is fhort; and yet he fays more of.
him than of any other of the pofterity of Noah, till
he comes to Abraham. He tells us, that “ Nimrod
began to be a mighty one in the earth $” that he was.
a .;
N I M [ 80 ] HIM
Nunrot’. a mighty hunter before the Lord,” even to a pro-
—"v " verb ; and that “ the beginning of his kingdom was
Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land
of Shinaar.”
From this account he is fuppofed to have been a
man of extraordinary ftrength and valour. Some re-
prefent him as a giant; all confider him as a great
warrior. It is generally thought, that by the words
a mighty hunter, is to be undcrftood, that he was a
great tyrant ; but fome of the rabbins interpret thofe
words favourably, faying, that Nimrod was qualified
by a peculiar dexterity and ftrength for the chace,
and that he offered to God the game which he took;
and feveral of the moderns are of opinion, that this
paffage is not to be underftood of his tyrannical op-
prefiions, or of hunting of men, but of beafts. It muft
be owned, that the phrafe before the Lord may be taken
in a favourable fenfe, and as a commendation of a per-
fon’s good qualities; but in this place the generality
of expofitors underftand it otherwife.
Hunting muft have been one of the moft ufeful em¬
ployments in the times juft after the difperfion, when
all countries were over run with wild beafts, of which
it was neceflary they fhould be cleared, in order to
make them habitable; and therefore nothing feemed
more proper to procure a man efteem and honour in
thofe ages, than his being an expert hunter. By that
exercife, we are told, the ancient Perlians fitted their
kings for war and government ; and hunting is (till,
in many countries, confidered as one part of a royal
education.
There is nothing in the fhort hiftory of Nimrod
which carries the leaft air of reproach, except his
name, which fignilies a rebel; and that is the circum-
ftanee which feems to have occafioned the injurious
opinions which have been entertained of him in all
ages. Commentators, being prepofiefled in general, that
the curfe of Noah fell upon the pofterity of Ham, and
finding this prince ftigmatized by his name, have in¬
terpreted every paffage relating to him to his difadvan-
tage- They reprefent him as a rebel againft God, in
perfuading the defcendants of Noah to difobey the
divine command to difperfe, and in fetting them to
build the tower of Babel, with an impious defign of
feeing heaven. They brand him as an ambitious
ufurper, and an infolent oppreffbr; and make him the
author of the adoration of fire, of idolatrous worfhip
given to men, and the firft perfecutor on the fcore of
religion. On the other hand, fome account him a
virtuous prince, who, far from advifing the building
of Babel, left the country, and went into Aflyria, be-
caufe he would not give his confent to that projedl.
Nimrod is generally thought to have been the firft
king after the flood; though fome authors, fuppofing
a plantation or difperfion prior to that of Babel, have
made kings in feveral countries before his time. Miz-
raim is thought by many who contend for the anti¬
quity of the Egyptian monarchy, to have begun his
reign much earlier than Nimrod; and others, from the
uniformity of the languages fpoken in Aflyria, Babylo¬
nia, byna, and Canaan, affirm thofe countries to have
been peopled before the confufion of tongues.
The four cities Mpfes gives to Nimrod conftituted
a large kingdom in thofe early times, when few kings
had more than one; only it muft be obferved, that
N° 242.
pofleffions might at firft. have been large, and after-
wards divided into feveral parcels ; and Nimrod being Nine
the leader of a nation, we may fuppofe his fubjefta'““V'*
fettled within thofe limits: whether he became pef.
felled of thofe cities by eonqueft or otherwife, does
not appear; it is moft probable he did not build Ba¬
bel, all the pofterity of Noah feeming to have been
equally concerned in that affair ; nor does it appear
that he built the other three, though the founding of
them, and many more, with other works, are attribu-
ted to him by fome authors. It may feem alfo a little
ftrange, that Nimrod fhould be preferred to the regal
dignity, and enjoy the moft cultivated part of the
e'^rth then known, rather than any other of the elder
chiefs or heads of nations, even of the branch of Ham.
Perhaps it was conferred on him for his dexterity in
hunting ; or, it may be, he did not aflume the title
of king till after his father Cufli’s death, who might
have been fettled there before him, and left him the
fovereignty ; but we incline to think, that he feized
Shinaar from the defcendants of Shem, driving out
Afhur, who from thence went and founded Nineveh
and other cities in Aflyria.
The feripture does not inform us when Nimrod be*
gan his reign : Some date it before the difperfion ;
but fuch a conjecture does not feem to full with the
Mofaical hiftory : for before the difperfion we read
of no city but Babel; nor could there well be more,
while all mankind were yet in a body together; but
when Nimrod aflumed the regal title, there feem to
have been other cities ; a circumtlance which fhows it
was a good while after the difperfion. The learned
writers of the Univerfal Hiftory place the beginning
of his reign 30 years from that event, and in all like¬
lihood it fhould be placed rather later than earlier.
Authors have taken a great deal of pains to find
Nimrod in profane hiftory : fome have imagined him
to be the fame with Belus, the founder of the Baby-
lonifh empire ; others take him to be Ninus, the firll
AfTyrian monarch. Some believe him to have been
Evechous, the firft Chaldean king after the deluge;
and others perceive a great refemblance between him
and Bacchus, both in aCtions and name. Some of the
Mohammedan writers fuppofe Nimrod to have been
Zohak, a Perfian king of the firft dynafty ; others
contend for his being Cay Cans, the fecond king of
the fecond race ; and fome of the Jews fay he is the
fame with Amraphel, the king of Shinaar, mentioned
by Mofes. But there is no certainty in thefe con¬
jectures, nor have we any knowledge of his immediate
fuccefl’ors.
The feripture mentions nothing as to the death of
Nimrod; but authors have taken care that fuch an ef-
fential circumftance in his hiftory fhould not be want¬
ing. Some of the rabbins pretend he was flain by
Efau, whom they make hts contemporary. There is
a tradition that he was killed by the fall of* the tower
of Babel, which was overthrown by tempeftuous winds.
Others fay, that as he led an army againft Abraham,
God fent a fquadron of gnats, which deftroyed moft
of them ; and particularly Nimrod, whole brain was
pierced by one of thofe infeCts.
NINE, the laft of the radical numbers or charac¬
ters ; from the combination of which any definite
number, hewever large, may be produced. “ It is
obferved
I' rNitteve'b.
N I N [ 81 j
obferved by hrithmeticians (fays Hume), that the
nrodufts of 9 compofe always either 9 or fome leiiet*
moduas of 9, if you add together all the charadera
of which any of the former promifts is compoled:
thus of 18, 27, s6* which are Produfts of 9’ y°u
make 9, by adding r to 8, 2 to 7, 3 to 6. Thus
?6q is a produa alfo of 9; and if you add 3, 6, and
o, you make 18, a Idler produa of 9.” See Hume s
Dialog on Nat. Reiig. p. 167, 168, &C. 2d edit.
NINEVEH (anc. geog.), the capital city of Atly-
ria, founded by Afhur the fon of Shem (Gen.x. 11.);
or, as others read the text, by Nimrod the fon of
Cnfh.
However this be, yet it muft be owned, that Nine¬
veh was one of the rooft ancient, the moft. famous, the
molt potent, and largeft cities of the world. It is
very difficult exaaiy to affign the time of its founda¬
tion ; but it cannot be long after the building of
Babel. It was fituated upon the banks of the Tigris;
and in the time of the prophet Jonas, who was fent
thither under Jeroboam IT. king of Ifrael, and, as
Calmet thinks, under the reign of Pul, father of Sar-
danapalus, king of Aflyria, Nineveh was a very great
city, its circuit being three days journey (Jonah rii. 3.)
Iviodorus Siculus, who has given us the dimenfions ef
it, fays it was 48oftadesrn rircumference, or 47 miles;
and that it was furrounded with lofty walls and towers;
the former being 200 feet in height, and fo very broad
that three chariots might drive on them abreaft ; and
the latter 200 feet in height, and J50O in number;
and Strabo allows it to have been much greater than
Babylon. Diodorus Siculus was, however, certainly
miftaken, or rather his tranferihers, as the authors of
the Univerfal Hiflory think, in placing Nineveh on
the Euphrates, fince all hiftorians as well as geogra¬
phers who fpeak of that city, tell us in exprefs terms
that it flood on the Tigris. At the time of Jonah’s
million thither, it was fo populous, that it was reck¬
oned to contain more than fix fcore thoufand perfons,
who could not diftinguifh their right hand from their
left (Jon. iv. n.), which is generally explained of
young children that had not yet attained to the ufe of
reafon ; fo that upon this principle it is computed
that the inhabitants of Nineveh were then above
60c,000 perfons.
Nineveh was taken by Arbnces and Belefis, in the
year of the world 3257, under the reign of Sardana-
palus, in the time of Ahas king of Judah, and about
the time of the foundation of Rome. It was taken a
fecond time by Aftyages and Nabopolaflar from Chy-
naladanus king of Affyria in the year 3378. After
Vol. XIII. Parti.
N I N
this time, Nineveh no more recovered its fcfrmer ipien-'
dor. It was fo entirely ruined in the time of Lucia-
nus Samofatenlis, who lived under the emper or Adi ian>
that no footfteps of it colild be found, nor fo much as
the place where it flood. However, it was. rebuilt
under the Perfians, and deflroyed again by the Saia-
cens about the feventh age.
Modern travellers fay (a), that the ruins of ancient
Nineveh may flill he feen oh the eaflern banks 01 tud
Tigris, oppofit# to the city Moful or Mouftil: (Sec
MoUsul). Profane hiilorrans tell us, that Ninus firft
founded Nineveh ; but the (cripture allures us, that it
was Afhur or Nimrod.
The facred authors make frequent mention of this
city ; and Nahum and Zephaniah foretold its ruin in
a very particular and pathetic manner,
NINIA, or Ninian, commonly called St Ninian, a
holy man among the ancient Britons. He refided at
or near a place called by Ptolemy Luecopibia, and by
Bede Candida Rafa ; but the Enghfh and Scotch called
it Whitherne. We mention him, becaufe he is faid to
have been the fir ft who converted’ the Scots and Pi£t»
to the Chriftian faith ; which he did during the reigif
of Theodofius the Younger. Bede informs us, that
he built a church dedicated to St Martin, in a ftyle
unknown to the Britons of that time ; and a'dds, that
during his time the Saxons held this province (Gallo-^
v'tdia now Galloway), and that, as in cotifequence ot
the labours of this faint the converts to Chriftianity
increafed, an Epifcopal fee was eftablifhed there. Dr
Henry, confidertng that “ few or none of the writings
of the moft ancient fathers of the Britifh church are
now extant, and fince little being faid of them by
their cotemporaries, we can know little of their per-
fonal hiftory and of the extent of their erudition,”
gives a fhort account of fome of them. Of St Ninian
he fays, “ he was a Briton of noble birth and excel¬
lent genius. After he had received as good an edu¬
cation at home as his own country could afford, he
travelled for his further improvement, and fpent feve-
ral years at Rome, which was then the chief feat of
learning as well as of empire. From thence he re¬
turned into Britain, and fpent his life in preaching the
gofpel in the moft uncultivated parts of it, with equal
zeal and fuccefs.”
There is a fmall town called St Ninian about a mile
fouth of Stirling. Its church had been occupied by thd
rebels in 1745 as a powder-magazine ; who on their re¬
turn blew it up in fuch haite, as to deftroy fome of theiif
own people and about fifteen fpeftators.
NING-po-fou, called by the European# i3
ir1
e 1
\V
1C 1
aik
ic
w :
ra’1
nit
tm
(A) Th is affertion, however, is far from feeming probable ; for every trace of it feems to have fo totally
difappeared, even fo early as A, D. 627, that the vacant fpace afforded a fpacious field for the celebrated
battle between the Emperor Heraclius and the Perfians. There are few things in ancient hiflory which
have more puzzled the learned world, than to determine the fpot where this city flood. Mr Ives informs
Us, that fome have imagined it flood near Jonah’s tomb; others, however, place it at another place, fome
hours journey up the Tigris. Thefe different opinions, however, feem perfedlly reconcileable ; for it appears
at leaft probable, that ancient Nineveh took in the whole of the ground which lies between thefe two ruined
places. Mr Ives adds, that “ what confirms this conjedlurc is, that much of this ground is now hilly, owing
no doubt to the rubbifh of the ancient buildings. There is one mount of 200 or 300 yards fquare, which
ftands fome yards r.orth-eaft of Jonah’s tomb, whereon it is likely a fortification once flood. It feems to
bare been made by nature, or perhaps both by nature and art, for fuch an ufe.”
Ninon
II
Ni>.
N I N [
an excellent port, on the eaftern coafl: of China, op-
pofite to Japan- Eighteen or twenty leagues from
_ this place is an ifland called Tcheou-chan, where the
Engli/h iirfl; landed on their arrival at China.
The lilks manufadtured at Ning-po are much edeem-
ed in foreign countries, efpecially in Japan, where the
Chinefe exchange them for copper, gold, and filver.
This city has four others under its jurifdidlion, belides
a great number of fortreffes.
NINON lenclos, a celebrated lady in the court
©f France, was of a noble family, and born at Paris in
the year 1615; but rendered herfelf famous by her
wit and gallantries. Her mother was a lady of exem¬
plary piety; but her father early infpired her with
the love of pleafure. Having loft her parents at 14
years of age, and finding herfelf miftrefs of her own
actions, fhe refolved never to marry: fhe had an in¬
come of 10,000 livres a year ; and, according to the
leffbns flie had received from her father, drew up a
plan of life and gallantry, which fhe purfued till her
death. Never delicate with refpeft to the number,
but always in the choice, of her pleafures, fhe facrificed
nothing to intereft ; but loved only while her taftefor
it continued; and had among her admirers the greateft
lords of the court. But though Hie was light in her
amours, fhe had many virtues.— She was conftant in
her friendfhips, faithful to what are called the laws of
honour, of ftridl veracity, difinterefted, and more par¬
ticularly remarkable for the exa&eft probity. Women
of the moft refpe£tahle characters were proud of the
honour of having her for their friend ; at her houfe
was an aftemblage of every thing moft agreeable in the
city and the court ; and mothers were extremely de-
firous of fending their fons to that fchool of polite-
nefs and good tafte, that they might learn fentiments
of honour and probity, and thofe other virtues that
tender men amiable in fociety. But the illuftrious
Madame de Sevignewith great juftnefs remarks in her
letters, that this fchool was dangerous to religion and
the Chriftian virtues ; becaufe Ninon Lenclos made
life of feducing maxims, capable of depriving the mind
of thofe invaluable treafures. Ninon was efteemed
beautiful even in old age ; and is faid to have infpired
violent pafilons at 80. She died at Paris in 1705.
This lady had feveral children ; one of whom, named
Chevalier de Villiers, oocafioned much difeourfe by
the tragical manner in which he ended his life. He
became in love with Ninon, without knowing that fhe
was his mother; and when he difcovered the fecret of
his birth, ftabbed himfelf in a fit of defpair. There have
been publifhed the pretended Letters of Ninon Lenclos
to the marquis de Sevigne.
NINTH, in mufic. See Interval.
NINUS, the firft king of the AfTyrians, was, it is
faid, the fon of Belus. It is added, that he enlarged
Nineveh and Babylon ; conquered Zoroafter king of
tbe Baftrians ; married Semiramis of Afcalon ; fub-
dued almoft all Afia; and died after a glorious reign
of 52 years, about 1150 B. C.? but all thefe fa&s are
uncertain. See Semiramis.
NIO, an ifland of the Archipelago, between Naxi
82 ] N I O
to the north, Armago to the eaft, Santerino to the
fouth, and Sikino to the weft, and is about 35 miles
in circumference. It is remarkable for nothing but
Homer’s tomb, which they pretend is in this ifland ;
for they affirm that he died here in his paffage from
Samos to Athens. The ifland is well cultivated, and
not fo fteep as the other iflands, and the wheat which
it produces is excellent; but oil and wood are fcarce.
It is fubjeft to the Turks. E. Long. 25. 53. N. Lat.
35*
NIOBE, (fab. hift ) according to the fi&ions of the
poets was the daughter of Tanta'us, and wife of Ampht-
on king of Thebes ; by whom fhe had feven fons and as
many daughters. Having become fo proud of her fer¬
tility and high birth, as to prefer herfelf before La-
tona, and to flight the facrifices offered up by the
Theban matrons to that goddefs, Apollo and Diana
the children of Latona, refented this contempt. The
ormer flew the male children and the latter the fe¬
male ; upon which Niobe was ftruck dumb with grief,
and remained without fenfation. Cicero is of opinion,,
that on this account the poets feigned her to be turned
into ftone.
The ftory of Niobe is beautifully related in the
fixth book of the Metamorphofes of Ovid. That poet
thus defcribeslier transfoimation into ftone.
Widow’d and childlefs, lamentable ftate !
A doleful fight, among the dead fhe fat ;
Harden’d with woes, a ftatue of defpair,
To ev’ry breath of wind unmov’d her hair ;
Her cheek ftill redd’ning, but its colour dead.
Faded her eyes, and fet within her head.
No more her pliant tongue its motion keeps.
But Hands congeal’d within her frozen lips.
Stagnate and dull, within her purple veins,
Its current flopp’d, the lifelefs blood remains.
Her feet their ufual offices refufes,
Her arms and neck their graceful geftures lofe :
Adlion and life from every part are gone,
And ev’n her entrails turn to folid ftone.
Yet ftill fhe weeps; and whirl’d by ftormy winds,
Borne thro’ the air, her native country finds ;
There fix’d, fhe Hands upon a bleaky hill;
There yet her marble cheeks eternal tears diftil.
Niobe in this ftatue is reprefented as in an ecftacy
of grief for the lofs of her offspring, and about to be
converted into ftone herfelf. She appears as if de¬
prived of all fenfation by the excefs of her forrow, and
incapable either of fhedding tears or of uttering any
lameetations, as has been remarked by Cicero in the
third hook of his Tufculan Queflions. With her right
hand fhe clafps one of her little daughters, who throws
herfelf into her bofom ; which attitude equally fhows
the ardent affe&ion of the mother, and expreffes that
natural confidence which children have in the pro-
teftion of a parent. The whole is executed in fuch
a wonderful manner, that this, with the other ftatues
of her children, is reckoned by Pliny among the moft
beautiful works of antiquity : but he doubts to whom
of the Grecian artifts he ought to aferibe the honour
ofthem(A). We have nocertain inforraatfon at what pe¬
riod
Niobe.
(a) Pat hxfitatio in templo Apollmis fofianx, Niobem cum libcris morientem, Scopas an Praxiteles fecerit.
N I S [ S
Niobc. riod this celebrated work was tranfported from G'I^ece
II to Rome, nor do we know where it was firft eredted.
Nifan* Flaminius Vacca only fays, that all thefe rtatues were
found in his time not far from the gate of St John,
and that they were afterwards placed by the Grand
Duke Ferdinand in the gardens of the Villa de Medici
near Roire.—An ingenious and entertaining traveller
(Dr Moore), fpeaking of the ftatue of Niobe, fays,
“ The author of Niobe has had the judgment not to
exhibit all the diitrefs which he might have placed in
her countenance. I his confummate artift was afraid
of difturbing her features too much, knowing full well
that the point where he was to expert moft fympathy
was there, where diflrefs co-operated with beauty, and
where our pity met our love- Had he fought it one ftep
farther in expreflion, he had loit it.
In the following epigram this ftatue is afcribed to
-Praxiteles:
Ex fcuf P ©£0< 8‘U 3-a.Xi?oy. Ex (hxifloM
Zaxv IIpa^fTsXrK t/j.Tra.K 'v fipyae-aro.
While for my childrens fate I vainly mourn’d,
The angry gods to maffy ftone me turn d ;
Praxiteles a nobler feat has done,
He made me live again from being ftone.
The author of this epigram, which is to be found
in the 4th book of the Anthologia, is unknown. Sca-
liger the father, in his Farrago Epigrammatum, p. 172.
afcribes it to Callimachus, but this appears to be only
conjedure. Coelius Calcagninus has made a happy
tranflation of it into Latin.
Vlvam olim in lapidem vertemnt numina ; fed me
Praxiteles vivam reddidit ex lapide.
And perhaps the following French verfion of it will
appear no lefs happy ;
T)e •vine que fetois^ les Dieux
M’ont changee en pierre majfive :
Praxitele a fait beaucoup mieux,
De pierre il ml a fed rendre vive.
NIPHON, the largeft of the Japan iflands, being
€00 miles long and 100 broad. See Japan.
NIPPERS, in the manege, are four teeth in the
fore-part of a horfe’s mouth, two in the upper, and
two in the lower jaw. A horfe puts them forth be¬
tween the fecond and third year.
NIPPLES, in anatomy. See there, n° 112.
NIPPLE-wort, in botany. See Lapsana.
NISAN, a month of the Hebrews, anfwering to
our March, and which fometimes takes from February
or April, according to the courfe of the moon. It
was the firft month of the facred year, at the coming
out of Egypt (Exod. xii. 2 and it was the feventh
month of the civil year. By Mofes it is called Abib.
The name Nifan is only fince the time of Ezra, and
the return from the captivity of Babylon.
On the firft day of this month the Jews fafted for
the death of the children of Aaron (Lev x. 1, 2, 3.}
On the tenth day was celebrated a faft for the death
of Miriam the fifter ol Mofes; and every one pro¬
vided himfelf with a lamb for the paffover. On
this day the Iftaelites pafled over Jordan under the
eondud of Jolhua (iv. 19.) On the fourteenth day
in the evening they facrificed the pafchal lamb; and
3 1 N I S
the day following, being the fifteenth, was held the Nift
folemn palfover (Exod. xii. 18. &c.) I he fix-
teenth they offered the fheaf of the ears ol barley
as the firft-fruits of the harveft of that year (Levit*
xxiii. 9. &c.) The twenty-firft was the odave of the
paffover, which was foiemnized with particular cere¬
monies. The twenty-fixth the Jews fafted in memory
of the death of Joihua. On tins day they began their
prayers to obtain the rains of the fpring. On the
twenty-ninth they called to mind the lall 01 the walls
of Jericho. # . .
NISI prius, inlaw, ajudicial writ which lies in
cafes where the jury being impannelled and returned
before the juftices of the bank, one of the parties re-
quefts to have fuch a writ for the eafe of the country,
in order that the trial may come belore the juftices in
the fame county on their coming thither. The pur¬
port of a writ of tif prius is, that the fheriff is thereuy
commanded to bring to Weilminfter the men impan-
nelled, at a certain day, before the juitices, “ ni/i
prius jvfiiciarii domini regis ad qjffas cap'tendas ver/e-
rintP
NISIBiS (ane. geog.), a city both very ancient,
very noble, and of very confiderable ftrength, fituated
in a diftrid called Mygdama, in the north of Mefo-
potomia, towards the Tigris, from which it is diilant
two days journey. Some aferibe its origin to Nimrod,
and fuppoie it to be the jicbad of Mofes. Phe Mace¬
donians called \t xlntwchia of Mygdonia (Plutarch) j
fituated at the foot of mount Mafius (Strabo). It was
the Roman bulwark againft the Parthians and Perfians.
It fuftained three memorable fieges againft the power
of Sapor, A. D. 338> an<^ 35° > emPe*
ror Jovianus, by an ignominious peace, delivered it up
to the Perfians, A. D. 363. - A colony called Sep-
timia Nefibitana. Another hiifibiiy of Aria, (Ptole¬
my), near the lake Arias.
Mr Ives, who paffed through this place in 1758*
tells us, that “ it looked pretty at a diftance, being
feated on a confiderable eminence, at the foot of which,
runs a river, formerly called the Mygdoniusy with a ftone
bridge of eleven arches built over it. Juft by the ri¬
ver, at the foot of the hill, or hills (for the town is
feated on two), begins the ruins of a once more flou-
rilhing place, which reach quite up to the preknt town.
From every part of this place the molt delightful pro-
fpeds would appear, were the foil but properly culti¬
vated and planted ; but initead of thofe extentive woods
of fruit trees, which Rawolf fpeaks of as growing
near the town, not above thirty or forty draggling
trees of any kind can be perceived ; and initead ot that
great extent of arable land on which he dwells io much,
a very iaconfiderable number of acres are now remain¬
ing. The town itfelf is defpicable, the Itreets extreme¬
ly narrow, and the houfes, even thofe which are of it one,
are mean. It fuffered grievoully by the famine of
1757, lofing almoft all its inhabitants either by death
or defertion. The ftreets prefented many miferable
objefts, who greedily devoured rinds of cucumbers,
and every other refufe article of food thrown out into
the highway. Here the price of bread had rifen near
4000 per cent, within the laft 14 years.
NISMES, an ancient, large, and flouriftiing town
of France, in Languedoc, with a bithop’s fee, and an
academy, it has fuch a number of manuta&ures of
L 2 doth
NIT { f
Nifmfs cloth of gold and filk, and of fluffs formerly known
Nithll'ale. ^ name ftrge of Nlfmes, as exceeds that of all
the reft of the province. There are feveral monuments
of antiquity, of which the amphitheatre is the principal,
built by the Romans. The mat/in quanee^ox the fquare-
houfe, is a piece of architefture of the Corinthian or¬
der, and one of the finelt in the world. The temple
of Diana is in part gone to ruin. It was taken by
the Englifti in 1417. the inhabitants were all Cal-
vinifts ; hut Louis XIV. demoliihed their church in
1( 85, and built a cable to keep them in awe. It is
feated in a delightful plain, abounding in wine, oil,
game, and cattle It contains a great number of ve¬
nerable relicks of R<*nan antiquity and grandeur,
'which it is not our bufinefs to defcribe, though it is
chiefly remarkable for thefe and its delightful fituation.
It owed much to Vl.de Becdelievre, ?. late bifhop there:
A prelate (fays MrTownfend) equally diftinguifh-
ed for wifdom, benevolence, and piety ; who, by his
wifdom and beneficence, in the fpaee of 45 years
much more than doubled the number of inhabitants of
Nifines ; for, having found only 20,000, he had the
happinefs before his death of feeing 50,000 rife up to
call him blefled.” Mr Wraxal fays, “it is an ill-built
place, containing in itfelf nothing extraordinary or re¬
markable.*’ A hundred fables are related concerning
its origin, which is carried into times anterior by ma¬
ny centuries to the Roman conquefb. It probably does
not occupy at prefent the fourth part of the ground
on which it formerly flood. E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat.
43/ i°;
N1SROCH, a god of the Aflyrfans. Sennache¬
rib was killed by two of his fons while he was psy'ng
his adoration to his god Nifroch in his temple (2
Kings xix. 37.) It is not known who this god Nif¬
roch was. The feptuagint calls him Mefrach, Jofe-
phus calls him Arafkes. T he Hebrew of Tobit-pub-
liftied by Munfter calls him Dagon. The Jews have
a ft range notion concerning this deity, and fancy him
to have been a plank of Noah’s ark. Some think the
word fignifies a dove ; and others underftand by it an
eagle, which has given occafion to an opinion, that
Jupiter Bellis, from whom the Aflyrian kings pretend¬
ed to be derived, was worfhipped by them under the
form of an eagle, and called Nifroch. Our poet
Milton gives this name to one of the rebel angels
  In the aftembly next up flood
Nifroch, of principalities the prince.
Par. LvJ, B. VI. v. 447.
NISSOLIA, in botany : A genus of thedecandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants*
and in the natural method ranking under the 32d or¬
der, Papilwnacea. The calyx is quinquedentate ; the
capfule monofpermous, and terminated by a ligulated
wing. e
NITHSDALE^Nijhisdale, or Nnldifdale, a di-
wfion of Dumfriesfhire in Scotland, lying to the well-
ward of Annandale. It is a large and mountainous traft,
deriving its name from the river Nid, which iHues from
a lake called Loch-cure, runs by the towns of Sanquhar,
Morton, and Drumlanrig, and difcliarges itfelf into
the Solway Frith. This country was formerly lhaded
with noble forefts, which are now almoft deftroyed ;
©i that, at prefent, nothing can be more naked, wild,
1-1 N I V
and favage. _ Yet the bowels of the earth yields leai?, Nitecri,
and, as is faid, filver and gold : the mountains arc co- 1!
vered with Iheep and black cattle ; and here are ftill Nlvdl«<
fome confider,:b!e remains of the ancient woods, parti- ~
cularly tliat of HolywootJ, three miles from Dumfries,
noted lor an handfome church, built out of the mins of"
an ancient abbey ; and a!fo for being the birth-place of
the famous afirologer, hence called Joannes de dacro
Pojco. Mr Pennant calls it a beautiful vale, improved
m appearance by the hold curvatures o» the meandting
ft ream, and for fome fpace, he fays, it is adorned with
groves and gentlemens feats
Ni 1 OCR IS, the mother of Bellhazxar (vvhofe fa¬
ther was Evil Merodaeh aad his grandfather Nebu-
chadnez/.ar), was a woman of extraordinary abilities 1
Hie took the burden of all public affairs upon herfelf; .
and, while her ion followed his pleafures, did all that:
could he done by human prudence t» fuftain the totX
tering empire. She perfs&ed the works which Ne-
bucaadnezzar had begun for the defence of Babylon *
railed ftrong fortifications on tire file of the river,
and caufed a wonderful vault to be made under it, lead¬
ing from the old palace to the new, 12 feet high and
15 wide. She likewife built a bridge acrofs the Eu¬
phrates, and acc.ompliihed fevera! other works, which
were afterwards nferibed to Nebuchadnezzar. Philo-
ttrates, in deferibing this bridge, tells us, that it was
built by a. queen, who was a native of Media ; whence
we may conclude this illuilrious queen to have been
by birth a riede. Nitocris is faid te have placed her
tomb over one of the moft remarkable gates of the ci¬
ty, with an infeription to the following effedl :
//' any king of Babylon after me Jhall be in diftrefs
for money, he may open this fepulchre, and tale out as.
much as may ferve him; but if he be in no real neccffity,.
let him forbear, or he Jhall have caufe to repent of his pre»
fumption.
Phis monument and infeription are faid to have re¬
mained untouched till the reign of Darius, who,
coufidering the gate was ufelefs, no man caring" to,-
pafs under a dead body, aid being invited by the
hopes of an immenfe treafure, broke it open : but, in-
ftead of what he fought, is laid to have found nothing
but a corpfe ; and another infeription. to the follow¬
ing effefk
Hadji thou not been moJlinfaUably avaricious and greedy
o f the mojh fordid gain, thou wouldji never have violated?
the abode, of the dead.
NITRARIA, in botany: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the dodecandria elafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is- pen-
tapetalous, with the petals arched at the top ; the ca¬
lyx quinquefid; the Hamina 15 ; the fruit a mono-
fpermous plum.
NITRE, or Saltpetre. See ChemistrYj,
n° 740.
Calcareous Nitre. Ibid. n° 74.7.
Cubic Nitrk, Ibid n° 741.
Nil ROUS, any thing impregnated with nitre.
AtTRous Air. See Aerology and Eudiometer,
. NIVELLE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,,
m the province of Brabant, remarkable for its abbey
of Canoneffes. Here is a manufadure of cambrics,
and the town enjoys great privileges. The abbey juft
mentioned
jjiv.’l'e
No.
N I Z T 85
mentioned is inhabited by young ladies of the firft
quality, who are not confer* therein as in nunneries,
but may go out and marry whenever they fee conve¬
nient, or'a proper match offers. E. Long. 4. 20.
N. Lat. 50. 4^* .
Nirtil* de la Chavfcc (Peter Claude), a comic
poet, born in Paris; acquired great reputation by m-
vcntinr a new kind of entertainment, which was call-
td the IVeeptng Comedy. Inhead of imitating Anito-
phanes, '< erence, Moliere, and the other celebrated
comic poets who had preceded him ; and intfead of
exciting laughter by painting the different ridiculous
chap’£iers, giving ftrokes of humour and'-abfurchties
in ootiduft ; he applied himfelf to reprcfentthe weak-
nefles of the heart, and to touch and {often it. In
this manner he wrote five comedies : \ ■ La jautfe Arti-
■pothte. l. Le Pr'jug': a la Mods ; thispiece met with
great fuccefs. 3. Mclmidc. 4. Amour pour Amour ;
and, 5. L'Ecole des Meres. He was received into the
French academy in 1736 ; and died at Pans in 1754.
at 6' years of age. He alfo wrote a tragedy, intitlcd,
"Maxhnatms ; and an Epiflle to Clio, an ingenious di-
daftic poem
N1VERNOIS, an inland province or France, with
the title of a duchy, lying on the weft fide ot. Burgundy,
and between it Bourbonnois and Barri. It is pretty fer¬
tile in wine, fruit, and corn ; except the part called
Morvunt, which is a mountainous country, and bar
ren. There is a great deal of wood, and feveral
iron-mines ; as alio mines of pit-coal, which ferves to
work their forges. This province is watered by a
great number of rivers; of which the Allicr, tne
Loire, and the Yonne, are navigable. Nevers is the
capital city.
NIWEGAL, in Pembrokeftiire, South Wales, a
fmall village and beach on the coaft, remarkable only
for the difcoveiy of an immenfe quantity of the flumps
of trees appearing be'ow low-water-mark, after and
during a ftorm in the year 1590, notwithftandmg the
country all round it is entirely barren of wood,
NIXAPA, a lich and confiderable town in New
-Spain, with a rich convent of Dominicans. i he
country about it abounds in cochineal, indigo, and fu-
gar. E. Long. 97. 23. N. Lat. 15. 20.
NIZAM (fays Gibbons), one of the moll illuftrious
winifters of the eaft, was honoured by the caliph 4s
an oracle of religion and fcience ; he was trufted by
the fultan as the faithful vicegerent of his power and
jufttce. After an adminiftration of 30 years, the
fame of the vizir, his wealth, and even his fervices,
were transformed into crimes. He was overthiown
by the infidious arts of a woman and a rival; and his
fail was haftened by a rafli declaration, that his cap
and ink-horn, the badges of his office, were cpnnefted
by the divine decree with the throne and diadem of
the fultan. At the age of 93 years, the venerable
fiatefman was dimiffed by his matter, accufed by his
enemies, and murdered by a fanatic : the laft ''•crds
of Nizam attefted his innocence, and the remainder of
Malek’s life was ftiort and inglorious.
NO, (Jeremiah, Ezekiel), No-Ammon, (Nahum) ;
a corifiderable city of Egypt, thought to be the name
of an idol which agrees with Jupiter-Ammon. The
Septuagint tranflate the name in Ezekiel, Dlofpolu,
the city of JupiterW Bcchait takes it to be Thebes of
1
N O A
which, according to Strabo and Ptoiemy, *
Egypt; winen, according tu "Ad L ^ Land,
was called Dhjpolis. Jerome, after the Chaldee para- Noah,
phralt Jonathan, fuppofes it to be Alexandria, named v
by way of anticipation ; or an ancient city of that
name is fuppofed to have ftood on the fpot where
Alexandria was built. .
No. Man’s‘Land, a fpace between tae after part of
the belfrey and the fore-part of a fmp s boat, when
thefaid boat is {lowed upon the booms, as in a deep-
waifted veffel. Thefe booms are laid from the tore-
ca(lie nearly to the quarter-deck, where their after¬
ends are ufually fuftained by a frame called the gal-
lows, which coniifts of two ftrong polls, about fix teet-
hi Hi, with a crofs piece reaching from one to tie
other, athwart {hips, and ferving to fupport the enda
of thofe booms, mails, and yards, winch he m iefer e
to fun ply the place of others carried away, &c. i he
fpace called No-Man’s land is ufed to contain any
blocks, ropes, tackles, ftc. which may be necefiary on -
the forecaille. It probably derives tins name horn its
fituation, as being neither on the {larboard nor lar¬
board fide of the (hip, nor on the waift or forecaitle
but, being fituated in the middle, partakes equally o£
all thofe places. ,
NOAH, or Noe, the fon of Lamech, was born in
the year of the world 1056. Amidft the general cor¬
ruption into which all mankind were fallen at this
time, Noah alone was found to be juft am, peiiea m
his generation, walking with God. (Gem vl* ^
T'his extroardmary perion having therefore found a-
vour in the eyes of the Lord, and God teeing that all
flefh had corrupted their ways, told Noah, that he was
refolved to deilroy mankind trom the face of tne earth,
by a Hood of waters; and not them alone, but all the
beafts of the earth, and every creeping thing, as wfti
as the fowls of the air. (Id. ib. 7.) 1 he Lord
therefore direfted Noah, as a means of prtferving him
and his family (for he had three Ions, bhem, Ham,
and Japheth, who were all married before the flood),to
build an ark or veffek of a certain form and lize luted
to that end, and which might betides accommodate
fuch numbers of animals ot all forts, that.were liable
to perifh in the flood, as would be fuihcient to piciei ve
the feveral fpecies, and again replemfh the eaiin ; to-
eether with aft neceffary provifions for them;_dU
which Noah performed, as may be ieen more particu¬
larly under the article Ark. , . , ,
In the year of the world 1656, and nithefiooth year
of his age, Noah, by God’s appointment, entered the
ark, together with his wife, hk three funs, their Wives,,
and alb the animals which God caufed to come to
Noah ; and being, all entered, and the door of the ark
being fhut upon the outfide, the waters ol the deluge
began to fall upon the earth, and increafcd m fuch a
manner, that they were fifteen cubits above the tops
of the higheft mountains, and continued thus upon the
earth for 150 days; fo that whatever had life upon
the earth, or in the air, was deftroyed, except inch
as were.with Noah in the ark. But the Lord remem¬
bering Noah, fent a wind upon the earth, which cauied
the waters to fubfide ; fo that upon the leventeenth day-
o£.the feventh month the ark relied on the mountains
of Ararat: and Noah having uncovered the roof ot the
ark, and obferving the earth was dry, he received or¬
ders from the Lord to come out of it, with all the am-
Noah.
N O A [
mals that wete therein ; and this he did in the fix hun¬
dred and firft year of his age, on the 27th day of the
fecond month. But the hidory of the deluge is morecir-
cumftantially related already under the article Deluge.
Then he offered as a burnt facrificc to the Lord one
of all the pure animals that were in the ark ; and the
Lord accepted his facrifice, and faid to him, that he
would no more pour out his curfe upon the whole
earth, nor any more dellroy all the animals as he had
now done. He gave Noah power over all the brute
creation, and permitted him to eat of them, as of the
herbs and fruits of the earth ; except only the blood,
the ufe of which God did not allow him. He bid
him increafe and multiply, made a covenant with him,
and God engaged himfelf to fend no more an univer-
ial deluge upon the earth ; and as a memorial of his
promife, he fet his bow in the clouds, to be as a pie !ge
of the covenant he made with Noah. ^Gen. ix.)
Noah being an hufbandman, began now to cultivate
the vine ; and having made wine and drank thereof,
he unwarily made himfclf drunk, and fell afleep in his
tent, and happened to uncover himfelf in an indecent
poiture. Ham, the father of Canaan, having obferved
him in this condition, made himfelf fport with him
and acquainted his two brothers with it, who were
without. But they, inffead of making it a matter of
Jport, turned away from it, and going backwards they
covered their father’s nakednefs,by throwing a mantle
over him. N°ah awaking, and knowing what Ham
hac. done, faid, that Canaan the fon of Ham fiiould be
accurled, that he fhould be a Have of flaves in refpea
of his brethren. It is thought he had a mind to fpare
the perfonof his fon Ham, for fear the curfe might light
iipon the other children of Ham, who bad no pan in
ns adtion. He cur fed Canaan by a fpirit of prophe¬
cy, becaufe the Canaanites his defeendants were after
tins to be rooted out by the Tfraelites. Noah added,
Let the Lord, the God of Shem, be bleffed, and let
Canaan be the fervant of Shem. And he was fo in
ettett, in the perfon of the Canaanites fubdued by the
Hebrews. Laftly, Noah faid, Let God extend the
pofftffion °f Japheth ; let Japheth dwell in the tents
of Sh^ let Canaan be hfs fervant ts
phecy had its accomphfiiment, when the Grecians, and
afterwards the Romans, being defeended from Japheth,
Shem3 COri<1Ue* Afa, which was the portion of
lived yeVafter the dcI,1ge ^ree hundred
and fifty y ears ; and the whole time of his life having
been nine hundred and fifty years, he died in the yeaf
of the world 2006 He left three Ions, Shem, Ham
anc. Japheth, of which mention is made under their
fevera! names; and according to the common opinion,
?t T C*! T d am0n!;ft them> iD to
repeopk it. To Shem he gave Aha, to Ham Africa
fides S't'l? JaPr th', S?mc wiU have that be
tides thefe three fona, he had feveral othets. The
thcTame oftl “ g‘vet,hi” !hir'y. oaUed Titans, from
ihe Tewola nr rm° O'13' Tht>r Pr«c“d 'hat
Noah caUed ThnS."”
Jonithua orJoI-l^Z^
(zplJrlr/fh N°ah ,a Proacher of righteoufnefs
12 i eter u. 5.), becaufe before the deluge he was in-
GO J
preaching and declaring to men, fiot only by
his difcourfes, but by his unblameable life, and by the
building of the ark, in which he was employed fix
fcore years, that the wrath of God was ready to pour
upon them. But his preaching had no effeft, fince,
when the deluge came, it found mankind plunged in
their former enormities* (Mat. xxiv. 37 )
Several learned men have obferved, that the Hea*
then confounded Saturn, Deucalion, Ogvges, the god
Codus or O s, Janus, Protheus, Prometheus^
&c. with Noah. The wife of Noah is called Noriah
by the Gnofhcs ; and the fable of Deucalion and his
wife Pyrrha is mamfefily invented from the Uiftory of
Noah. 1
The Rabbins pretend, that God gave Noah and his
Ions (all who are not of the chofen race of Abra¬
ham ^ they call Noachidae) certain general precepts,
which contain, according to them, the natural right
which is common to all men indifferently, and the
older vat ion of which alone will be fufficient to fave
them. After the law of Mofes, the Hebrews would
not fuffer any ftranger to dwell in their country, un-
lefs he would conform to the precepts of the Noachida:.
In war they put to death, without quarter, all that
were ignorant of them. Thefe precepts are feven in
number.
The frjl direds, that obedience be paid to judges,
naagutrates, and princes. 6
By the/rW, the worfhip of falfe gods, fuperftition
and facnlege, are abfolutely forbidden.
The third forbids curling the name of God blaf-
phemies, and falfe oaths.
. '‘ he fourth forbids all inceffuous and unlawful eon-
jundfions, as fodomy, befliality, and crimes againff na¬
ture. °
fifth forbids the effufion of blood of all forts of
animals, murder, wounds, and mutilations.
'Yhtfixth forbids thefts, cheats, lying, &c.
y^Jeventh forbids to eat the parts of an animal flill
alive, as was pra£tifed by fome pagans.
To thefe the Rabbins have added fome others: but
what inclines us to doubt the antiquity of thefe" pre¬
cepts is, that no mention is made of them in ferip.
ture, or in the writings of Jofephus or Philo; and that
none of the ancient fathers knew any thing of them
NOB, a facerdotal city of the tribe of Benjamin or
Tphraim. St Jerom fays, that in his time it was en¬
tirely deftroyed, and that the ruins of it might be feeu
not far from Diofpolis. When David was drove away
by Saul, he went to Nob, and afking the high-prielt
Abimelech for fome provihons and arms, the prieff
gave him the ihew-bread which had been lately taken
off the holy table, and the fword of Goliah. Saul be-
ing mfotmed ofthis by Doeg, caufed all the prielts
of Nob to be flam, and the city to be deftroyed. i Sam.
XXI. xxn.
nf 3 CltyT!?e>’ond Jordan‘ It took the name
of Nobah from an Ifraehte of this name who had made
thf°ivr!r v (Numb, xxxii. 42.) Gideon purfued
e Midranites as far as this city, (Jndg viii. 2.1 Eufe-
abolt^G3' -ihere 18 3 r ef°Iate Pls^ of th>s
about eight mdes from Hefirbon towards the fouth.
1 *_ ‘is could not be the Nobah now mentioned, bc-
CaU^rTa&,rch tarther t0 the north.
NOBILIARY, in literary hiftorjq a book con.
^ taining
—v  or province : fuch are Chonere 8 JNobmary or i^au F „ ,t m r(fadil be allowed that this rea-
c'ermanr'are^fald^o bi^particu^ar^y^careful of their foniog is concluflve; hot the great queilion return,
Sbiliarie., in orjer to keep up tire dignity of their “^^3^ U
"ffL't [oinedwith rLhes : in the S^ accepta! ing on the rights and equality of men; and the an-
^ o/ythJe wordT U mean, that quality or dignity freer, which have fometrmes been green to thetnfup.
L1UU Ui t-aav. ervr.v^, --   a a . “ -
which raifes a man above the rank of a peaiant or a
At a time when the public mhul is fo much agita¬
ted on this fubjeft, ®r fubjefts nearly allied to it, per¬
haps the lefs that is faid on it the better. We mould
therefore (as far as concerns the queftion about its ex-
pofe a degree of perfection in human nature, which,
if it were real, would make all civil in ftitutions ufelefs,
as well as the reveriesof thofe reformers. The conduct of
the democratic dates of Pagan antiquity, together with
the opprefiive anarchy and fhameful violences which we
have feen and {till fee in a neighbouring kingdom, will be
therefore (as as conce s n ^ ^ ‘0„fldered by many as a full and fatisfadory anfwer, de
itTIZ it oh„r dut duced from /xperijnce. to aU the fchemes of .he erfrona-
« uiee our reade" ai lead fome Idea of It, and were ry theorift : fuch fads at lead render the abolmon of
it not our hufmefs to lay before them a few of thofe the order of nobility a matter of more importance.
arguments which of late have been focoplo,,(ly retail- and of infinitely greater difficulty, than thofe who.
eel both for and againft this illullnous older of civil plead for it are dlfpofed to allow.
fociety : leaving them, however, that liberty which
every man unqueftionably ought to be allowed, of jud¬
ging for themfdves as they (hall fee moft proper.
Whether that equality of rank and condition which
has of late been fo loudly contended for would be more
agreeable to the order of nature, or more conducive
to the happinefs and profperity of mankind, may in¬
deed be made a queftion ; but it is a queftion, we ap¬
prehend, which cannot receive different anfwers from
men capable of reflefting without prejudice and par¬
tiality. A ftate of perfect equality can fubfift only
among beings poffefiing equal talents and equal vir¬
tues ; but fuch beings are not men. Were all man¬
kind under the conftant influence of the laws of vir¬
tue, a diftinftion of ranks would be unneceffary ;^but
It is an opinion not uncommon, and at lead plaufi-
ble, that the nobility of a well regulated ftate is the
heft fecurity againft monarchial defpotifm or lawlefs
ufurpation on the one hand, and the confuflon of de¬
mocratic infolence on the other. Self-intereft is the
moft powerful principle in the human breaft ; and it
is obvioufly the intereft of fuch men to prefer ve that
balance of power in fociety upon which the very ex-
iftence of their order depends. Corrupted as the pre-
fent age confefledly is, a very recent inftance could be
given, in which the Britifti Houfe of Peers refcued at
once the fovereign and the people from the threaten¬
ed tyranny of a factious junto. As it is our bufxnefs,.
however, to exhibit all opinions of any celebrity, we
{hall lay before our readers a fhort extract from Du-
government itfelf would likeieife be lame's Critical Hiftory of the French Nobility which,
unneceffary, becaufe men would have attained all that contains, in few but forcible words, fome of the com.-
uerfe&ion^to which it is the object of civil govern- mon arguments againft; this diftmdtion of ranks. _
merit as well as of religion to guide them : every man “ Nobility (fays he), a diftinflion equally impo-
then would he a law unto himfelf. But whilft, in fo litic and immoral, and worthy of the times of igno-
many breafts, the felfilh paflions predominate over ranee and of rapine, whtch gave it birth, is a violation
thofe which are fecial, violence muff be reftrained by of the rights of that part of the nation that is depn-
authority ; and there can be no autboiity without a
diftin&ion of ranks, fuch as may influence the public
opinion.
It is well obferved by Hume, that government is
ved of it; and as equality becomes a Jlhnulus towards
diftinftion, fo on the other hand this is the radical
vice of a government and the fource of a variety or
evils. It is almoil impoffible that there fljould be any.
founded"only on opinion ; and that this opinion is of uncommon inftances of virtue in a ftate, when recom
, * • • -r  a n vlerVii- nenres belonff excluhvelv to a certain clafs or fociety
two kinds, opinion of intereft, and opinion of right
When a people are perfuaded that it is their inteieft
to fupport the government under which they live, that
government muft he very {fable. But among the
■worthlefs and unthinking part of.the community, this
perfuafion has feldom place. All men, however, have
pences belong exclufively to a certain clafs of feeiety,,
and when it cofts them no more to obtain thefe than
the trouble of being born. Amongft. this lift of privi¬
leged perfens, virtues, talents, and genius, muft of
courfe be much lefs frequent than in the other claffes,
fince, without the poffeflion of any of thefe qualities,
n place. .mi men, nuwever, uavt mivv,   - r _ ^ , j ij
a action of right.- of a right to property and a right they who belong to ,t are (1,1 honoured and rewarded,
to power: and when the majoriiy of a nation conft- Thofe who profit by th,> abfurd fubverfion of pnne,-
ders a certain order of men as haring a right to that pies, and thofe who lofe by th.s unjuft d.ftnbut,on of
eminence in which they are placed, this opinion, caU favours, wh.ch feem to have grown into a nght can-
it prejudice or what we will, contributes much to the not have any other than falfe, immoral, and pernic.oua
peaf e and happinefs of civil feciety. There are many, ideas concerning merit. # . , f
however,whothinkotherwife,and imagine that« thefe- A perfed equality, however, in rank ^Jortunt
eiety in whic'1 the greateft equality prevails muft always has feldom been contended for, except by the mo t
fce the moll fecure. Thefe men conceive it to be the ignorant enthufiAfts, It is indeed doubtful whether
Hohr'ity
it/lac ip.
N 0 B [ 88 I
it could pcfllbly exiH:. The more moderate and ra- dignity, which
tional reformers have acknowleged, that as thefe diffe¬
rences have always exifted in fome way or other, fo,
from the infinite variety of talents and attainments in
the world, we have reafon to expeft they will exift
in every form of government and among every people.
The qtreftion, therefore is reduced to this : Whether
'the prefent mode of diftinftion, or any other which
could be inftftuted in its Head, be upon the whole the
bell ? That the prefent is not perfeft, or wholly with¬
out faults, few will-be fanguine enough to contradict :
and a wife man in the fober hour of philofophical
reflection will fcarce prefume to affert, that any other
fcheme which human ingenuity can plan would be
wholly without imperfection, or altogether free from
error. JThe cafe is, the errors of our own fyftem are
prefent, and on this account we fee and feel them with
peculiar force: the other plan we look forward to,
perhaps in too fanguine a manner, and we probably
forget, in the delufive heat of imagination, that if di-
'ftinCtion depended entirely on merit, we fhouid fcarce
find a fociety of men fo honeft, or fo able, as alwavs
to reward it according to its deferts ; or if this were
pofuble, as perhaps in the nature of things it is not,
fuch is the felf partiality of the generality of men,
that few would think he were dealt juftly by if he
were not promote 1 as well as his neighbour; and it
rs clearly impoffible to promote every one. For fuch
reafons then, and many more which our limits oblige
us to omit, many think (and we are inclined to think
with them), that it is fafer to remain as we are, as
we know the evils that attend our fituation, and
are ftiil able to bear them, rather than to hazard a
change, which, with fome benefits, might alfo perhaps
fncreafe the troubles, and deftroy many of the plea-
fures, of focial life.
Perhaps it may not be amifs to lay before our
readers the following obfervatlons from that molt ju¬
dicious commentator on the laws of England, Mr Ju-
ftice Blackftone, on this important fubjeCf.
“ The diftmCHon of rank and honours (fays he) is
neceflary in every well-governed {late, in order to
reward fuch as are eminent for their fervices to the
public, in. a manner the moll defirable to individuals,
and yet without burden to the community ; exciting
thereby an ambitious, yet laudable ardour, and gene¬
rous emulation, in others. And emulation, or vir¬
tuous ambition, is a fpring of adion which, however
dangerous or invidious in a mere republic or under a
d*fpotic fway, will certainly be attended with good
effeds under a free monarchy ; where, without deftroy-
rng its exigence, its excefies may be continually re-
flrained by that fuperior power from which all ho¬
nour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally dif-
fufed, gives life and vigour to the jeommtmfty ; it fets
ail the wheels of government in motion,'which, under
a wife regulator, mny be direded to any beneficial
purpofe ; and thereby every individual rnay be made
fubfervient to the public good, while he principally
means to promote his own particular view's. A body
of nobility is alfo mare peculiarly necefibry in our
mixed and compounded conflitution, in order to fup-
port the rights of both the crown and tire people, by
forming a barrier to withftand the encroachments of
*oth. it creates and preferves that gradual fcale of
243. .
Na
NOB
v - proceeds from the peafant to the fMilfw
prince; rifing jike a pyramid from a broad foundation “y*"***
and dimmifhtng to a point as it rifes. It is this
afcendtng and contrading proportion that adds ft*-
r j / torany government; for when the depaiture is
fudden from one extreme to another, we may pro¬
nounce that. Hate to be precarious. The nobility
therefore, are the pillars, which are reared from among
the people, more immediately to fupport the throne-*
and, if th ft falls, they muft alfo be buried under its
ruins. Accordingly, when in the laft century the
commons had determined to extirpate monarchy, they
alfo voted the houfe of lords to. be ufelefe and dan-
gerous. rtnd fince titles of nobility are thus expe¬
dient m the ftate, it is alfo expedient that their own-
ers ftiould form an independent and feparate branch-
ol the legiflature. If they were confounded with the
mafs of the people, and like them had only a vote
.in eleding representatives, their privileges would foou '
be borne.down and overwhelmed by the popular tor¬
rent, which would effe&ualiy level all diftin&ions. It
is therefore highly necefl'ary that the body of nobles
{houlu harea diftmtt aftembly, diftintt deliberations,
and diltinct pow'ers from the commons.”—Thefe re¬
marks, at a time like the prefent, deferve our ferious
attention ; nor do we fuppofe our readers will be dif-
Fu-iir WC io^°'v'iig obfervations on the
iubject rrom a periodical publication of long {landing
and very confiderable merit. ^
“ Birth and nobility are a ftronger obligation to vir- Gent. Mar.
tuethan is laid upon meaner perfons. A vicious or Vd. xti.
“"honourable nobleman is in etfedt perjured ; for his
honour is his oath.
. w Under the patriarchal fcheme, and at the firft fet-
tmg.out of the tribes, the heads of families had their
particular efcutcheons, and their genealogies record¬
ed with the utmoft exaftnefs : Even the Ancient of
Days confirmed this; he often.put his people in
mind of the glory and virtues of their forefathers ;
and hath fet a precedent for attainders, by vTfiting
the third and fourth generation. 6
“It is a_ vulgar error to fuppofe, that his blefted Se»
chofe his followers out of the meaneit of the people,
b.ecaufe mehnnics ; for this was part of the educa¬
tion of every Jewifti nobleman r Two of the number,
being his kinlmen, were of the royal houfe of David;
one was a Roman gentleman, and another of the
royal tamily of Syria ; and for the reft, he had the
fame right of creation as his father and his vicegerents,
of advancing the poor to honour, and of exalting the
lowly and meek. °
d he ancient Clreeks and Romans paid great regard
to nobility; but when the levelling principle obtained,
and the people ftiared power and honour, thofe ftate*
foon dwindled and came to ruin. And in prefent *
Rome, great refpe& is paid to the renowned fami¬
nes of Colonna and Ctefarini. In Venice, the notion'
of nobility is carried fo high as to become inconfiftent
witn a republican fcheme. The Spaniards pay more
regard to their old nobles than to their old Chriftians;
and the French are but little behind them. What
was faid ©t the duke of Montmorency by Henry IV.
I hat he was a better gentleman than himfelf,**
was, perhaps, the reafon why the laft heir of fo il~
lullnous a lamily was cut off, to make the houfe of
3 Bourbon
nob r Sg. ] NOB
JIoHHty. Bourbon the fir(l in France.—The Welfli, Irifh, and
Polanders, are remarkable for their attachments to
blood and pedigree.
“ It is for the fake of the meaneft of our people, that
the high value and regard for quality fhould be kept
up ; for they are beft governed by thofe who feem
formed for power : the robe of authority fits eafy
upon them, and fubmiflion is as much our choice as
our duty ; but upftarts prove the won't of tyrants.
“ The ancient legifiators, who ftudied human nature,
thought it advifeable, for the better government of
itates, that the people fhould be divided into the
noble and the common. They judged it for the'uni-
verfal good of mankind, that the valiant and the wife
fhould be feparated from the reft, and appointed for
council and command.
“ To this I take it that the inftitution of nobility
is owing in all countries; even thofe nations which
we are pleafed to call favage, diilinguifh the wife and
the valiant, obey them as counfellors, and commanders
which is placing them in the rank of nobles.
“ Some, I know, look upon the inftitution of nobi¬
lity to be one of the grofteft impofirions upon the com¬
mon fenfe of mankind ; they confine it indeed to he¬
reditary nobility ; they allow, that, thofe who have
done the commonwealth any fignal fervice fhould be
diftinguifhed with honours, but it feems an abfurdity
to them that a man fhould be born a legiflator, as if
wifdom or a knowledge of government run in the blood.
But it they would confider how ftrong the love of po-
llerity is planted in human nature, they muft allow
that nothing can be a ftronger motive to great and
worthy aftions, than the notion that a man*s pofte-
nty will reap the honour and profit of his labours.
Befides, we are to fuppofe that men born to honours
and a high fortune may be bred up in generous fenti-
ments, and formed for the ftation they are to fill;
that they muft be ftrangers to thofe vicious falfehoods
qnd corruptions which neeeflity firft, and then habit,
puts men upon praftiling, whofe lives are fpent in
purfuit of their fortunes. I will own, notwithlfand-
ing all thefe advantages, that many of them are like
rocks whofe heads are in the clouds, but are fo barren
that they are quite incapable of producing any thing ;
but in general, were their minds only upon a level
with thofe of other men, we fhould expeft better fiuit
from them.
“ As authority is founded in opinion, all wife com¬
monwealths have been extremely jealous in keeping
up the honour of their nobility. Wherever they be¬
come bafe, effeminate, cowardly, or fervile, their au¬
thority finks, they fall into contempt; then the people
begin to confider them as ufelefs to government, and
<look upon their privileges as a grievance to fociety,
and perhaps they think how to get rid of them, as
happened in the commonwealth of Florence, where,
aiter the expulfion of the duke of Athens, a petty
• yrant of that city, many of the nobility having be-
naved fervilely to him, and infolently to the people,
were degraded from the fenate and the magiftracy, and
rendered incapable of holding any employment'in the
'commonwealth.
“ Father Paul, the Venetian, fays, that you muft
other keep your nobility free from taint, or have no
Vol.XIII. Parti.
nobility at all: That the high employments of the Nobility,
commonwealth fhould be beftowed amongft the moft
ancient families, unlefs where a. perfon fltould diftin-
guifh himfelf by fome fignal fervice to the ftate. Such
a man w'ould think himfelf fufficiently rewarded by
the honour of being put upon a foot with the ancient
nobility; and the nobility would be pleafed to find
that no commoner, except fome of great reputation
and merit, was to hold any of the employments ufual-
ly poffeffed- by their body. If the perfon fo prefer-
ed fhould not be rich enough to fupport the dignity
of the office, the ftate may give him a penfion, but
by no means fhould employments be made lucrative ;
which not only exhauft and weaken the commonwealth,
but wherever the high employments are fought for
profit, the nobility lofe their generous fenticnents,
and it is a means of introducinar corruption a mo tic ft
them.” b
The origin of nobility in Europe is by fome referred
to the Goths ; who, after they had feized a part of
Europe, rewarded their captains with titles of honour,
to diftinguilh them from the common people. We
fhal] only in this place further confider the manner in
which in our own country they may becreated, and the
cents attending th em ; referring for a fuller ac¬
count of their origin in Europe to the articles Revo¬
lution, and Society (Civi/J.
i. The right of peerage feems to have been origi¬
nally territorial; that is, annexed to lands, honours,
caftles, manors, and the like ; the proprietors and
poffeffors of which were (in right of thofe eftates)
allowed to be peers of the realm, and were fummoned
to parliament to do fuit and fervice to their fovereign:
and, wdien the land was alienated, the dignity paffed
with it cis appendant. Thus in England "the hifhops
ftill fit in the houfe of lords in right of fucceffion to
certain ancient baronies annexed, or fuppofed to be
annexed, to their epifcopal lands ; and thus in i r
Henry VI. the poffeflion of the caftle of Arundel
was adjudged to confer an earldom on its poffeffor.
But afterwards, when Alienations grew to be fre¬
quent, the dignity of peerage was confined to the li¬
neage of the party ennobled, and inftead of territorial
became perfom l. A6hral proof of a tenure by barony
became no longer neceffary to conftitute a lord of par¬
liament ; but the record of the writ of fummons to
him or his anceftors was admitted as a fulficient evi¬
dence of the tenure.
Peers of Great Britain are now created either, by £Wy?.
writ or by patent: for thofe who claim by preferip- Comment,
tion muft fuppofe either a writ or patent made to their
anceftors ; though by length of time it is loft. The
creation by writ, or the king's letter, is a fummons to
attend the houfe of peers, by the ftyle and title of that
barony which the king is pleafed to confer : that by
patent is a royal grant to a fubjedb of any dignity and
degree of peerage. The creation by writ is the more
ancient way; but a man is not ennobled thereby, unlefs
fie actually take his feat in the houfe of lords; and
fome are of opinion that there muft be at leart two
writs of fummons, and a fitting in two diftind parlia.
ments, to evidence an hereditary barony : and there¬
fore the moft ufual, becaufe the fureft, way is to grant
the dignity by patent, which endures to a man and hia
M heirs
NOB [ 90 ] NOB
■ty heirs according to the limitation thereof, though he non credilur ritjijuratus. The honour of peers is how- Nobility,
 never himfelf makes ufe of it. Yet it is frequent to ever fo highly tendered by the law, that it is much
call up the eldeft fon of a peer to the houfe of lords more penal to fpread falfe reports of them, and cer- ^
by writ of fummons, in the name of his father’s baro- tain other great officers of the realm, than of other
ny: becaufe in that cafe there is no danger of his chil- men : fcandal againft them being called by the pecu-
drens lofing the nobility in cafe he never takes his liar name otfcandalum magnatum, and fubje&ed to pe-
feat; for they will fucceed to their grandfather. Crea- culiar punifliment by divers ancient ftatutes.
tion by writ has alfo one advantage over that by pa- A peer cannot lofe his nobility but by death or at-
tent; for a perfon created by writ holds the dignity tainder ; though there wao an inilance, in the reign ot
to him and his heirs, without any words to that pur- Edward IV. ot the degradation or George Nevile duke
port in the writ; but in letters patent there muft be of Bedford by aft of parliament, on account of his
words to direft the inheritance, elfe the dignity en- poverty, which rendered him unable to fupport his
dures only to the grantee for life. For a man or wo- dignity. But this is a fingular inftance : which ferves
man may be created noble for their own lives, and the at the fame time, by having happened, to (how the
dignity not defcend to their heirs at all, ordefcend on- power of parliament; and, by having happened but
ly to fome particular heirs : as where a peerage is li- once, to fhow howr tender the parliament hath been
mited to a man and the heirs male of his body by E- in exerting fo high a power. It hath been faid in*
lizabeth his prefent lady, and not to fuch heirs by any deed, that if a baren waftes his eftate, fo that he is not
former or future wife. able to fupport the degree, the king may degrade him:
2. Let us next take a view of a few of the principal but it is exprefsly held by later authorities, that a peer
incidents attending the nobility,—exclufive of their cannot be degraded but by aft of parliament,
capacity as members of parliament, and as heredi- Anton. Matthteus obferves, that nobility, among
tary counfellors of the crown, for both which the Romans, was a quite different thing from w'hat it
we refer to the articles Lords and Parliament, is among us. The nobles, among the Romans, were
And firft we muft obferve, that in criminal cafes a either thofe raifed to the magiftrature, or defeended.
nobleman fhall be tried by his peers. The great are from magiftratea : there was no fuch thing as nobility
always obnoxious to popular envy: were they to be by patent.
judged by the people* they might be in danger from Baitoli fays, that doftors, after they have held a pro*
the prejudice of their judges; and would moreover be feffor’s chair in an univerfity for 20 years, become
deprived of the privilege of the meaneft fubjefts, that noble; and are intitled to all the rights of counts,
of being tried by their equals, which is fecured to all But this claim is not admitted at court, 6cc. though
the realm by magna charta, c. 29. It is faid, that Bartoli’s fentiments be backed with thofe of feveral
this does not extend to bifhops ; who, though they other authors, particularly Chaffanasus in his Confuetu-
are lords of parliament, and fit there by virtue of their din. Burgundia; Bvyer fur la Coutume de Berry; Faber
baronies which they hold jure ecclefue, yet are not en- C. de Dig. Def. 9. &c. which 1 aft, however, reftrains
nobled in blood, and confequently not peers with the Bartoli’s rule to doftors in law, and princes phyfi-
nobility. As to pcereffes, no provifion was made for cians. . . .
their trial when accufed of treafon or felony, till after By an edift of the French king in 1669, it is de-
Eleanor duchefs of Gloucefter, wife to the lord pro- clared, that trade ffiall not^ derogate irom nobility,
teftor, had been accufed of treafon, and found guilty provided the perfon do net tell by retail,
of witchcraft, in an ecclefiaftical fynod, through the In Bretagne, by ancient cuftom, a nobleman lofes
intrigues of Cardinal Beaufort. This very extraordi- nothing by trading even in retail: but he reaflumes all
aary trial gave occafion to a fpecial ftatute, 20 Hen. his rights as foon as he ceafes tiallic, his nobility ha—
VI. c. 9. which enafts, that peereffes, either in their ving dept all the time.
own right or by marriage, ftiall be tried before the In Germany, a woman, not noble by_ birth, doth
fame judicature as peers of the realm. If a woman, not become, v. gr. a countefs or baronefs by marry-
noble in her own right, marries a commoner, ffie ing a count or baron : a lady of the higher degree in-
ftill remains noble, and ffiall be tried by her peers : deed becomes a princefs by marrying a prince ; but
but if fhe be only noble by marriage, then by a lecond this doth not hold of a lady of the lower nobility,
marriage with a commoner ffie lofes her dignity ; for On the coaft of Malabar, children are only capable
as by marriage it is gained, by marriage it is alfo loft, of being noble by the mother’s fide ; it being allowed
Yet if a duchefs-dowager marries a baron, ffie conti- them to take as many huffiands as they pleafe, and to
aues a duchefs ftill; for all the nobility are pares, and. quit them whenever they think good,
therefore it is no degradation. A peer or peerefs (ei- NOBLE, Nobilis, a perfon who has a privilege
ther in her own right or by marriage) cannot be ar- which raifes him above a commoner or peafant, either
refted in civil cafes: and they have alfo many peculiar by birth, by office, or by patent from his prince. I he
privileges annexed to their peerage in the courfe of word comes from the Latin nobilis; formed
judicial proceedings. A peer fitting in judgment, gives ancient nofeibilis, “ diftinguiffiable, remarkable. .
not his verdift upon oath, like an ordinary juryman,. In England, the word nobk is of a narower import
but upon his honour; he anfwers alfo to bills in chan- than in other countries; being confined to peifons*
eery upon his honour, and not upon his oath : but, above the degree of knights; whereas, aoroad, it com-
when he is examined as a witnefs either in civil or cri- prebends not only knights, but what we fimply call
minal cafes, he muft be fworn ; for the refpeft which gentlemen. The nobles of England are alfo called pares
the law ffiows to the honour of a peer does not extend regni, as being nobilitatis pares, though gradu impares.
fo far as to overturn a fettled maxim, that in judicio The Venetian ncbkjfc is famous;. it iu.this ffiat.
N O C [9
KoMm, the fovcreignty of the flatc refide?. It is divided into
Noccra. three clafTes. The firft only comprehends 24 families.
The fecond includes the defcendants of all thofe who
were entered in the golden book, in 1289, and defti-
ned to govern the ftate, which then began to be ari-
ilocratic. The third confifts of fuch as have bought
the dignity of noble Venetians. This laft clafs is only
admitted to the inferior employs ; the two former to
all indifferently. The title of noble Venetians is fome-
times alfo given to foreign kings, princes, &c.
Nobles, among the Romans, were fuch as had
thejttj imaginum, or the right of ufing the pi&ures or
ftatues of their anceftors ; a right which was allowed
only to thofe whofe anceftors had borne fome curule
office, that is, had been curule adile, cenfor, prxtory or
conful. For a long time, none but the Patricii were
the noliles, becaufe no perfon but of that fuperior rank
could bear any curu/e office ; hence in Livy, Saluft,
&c. nabilitas is ufed to fignify the Patrician order, and
fo oppofe l to plebs. To make the true meaning of
nnbiles ftill more clear, let it be obferved, that the Ro¬
man people were divided into noliles^ novi, and ignobiles.
Nobiles were they who had the pictures, &c. of their
anceftors; novi were fuch as had only their own; igno¬
biles were fuch as had neither. See Jus Imaginis.
The Roman nobility, by way of diftinftion, wore
an half moon upon their fhoes, tfpecially thofe of Pa¬
trician rank.
The Grecian nobility were called as being
defeended from thefe old heroic anceftors fo famous
in hiftory. Such were the Praxizrgid.e, Etrobutida,
Ahmceonida, &c. all which had many privileges an¬
nexed to their quality ; amongft which was this, that
they wore gralhoppers in their hair as a badge of no¬
bility.
Noble, a money of account containing fix ftiil-
lings and eight pence.
The noble was anciently a real coin ftruck in the
reign of Edward III. and then called the penny of
gold; but it was afterwards called rofe-noble, from its
being ftamped with a rofe : it was current at 6s. 8d.
NOCERA, atown in Italy, in the dominions of the
king of Naples and Sicily, or, as he is more com¬
monly called, the king of the Two Sicilies. It is an
epifcopal city, but might with greater propriety be
ftyled a clufter of villages : its feveral parts being ex¬
tended along the foot of the mountains, form the
Citta Sotana, or low town ; and'the biftiop’s palace,
together with fome convents embowered in cyprefs
groves, cover the peak of a fingle hill in a very pic-
turefque manner, and compofe the Citta Soprana.
Nocera (a), it is reported, contains near 30,000
inhabitants; they are difperfed in forty patches of ha¬
bitation. Their lioufes are conftrudled of two kinds
of llone : the common walls are built with yellow tufa
dug out of the hills that lie about a mile to the eaft
ot the town ; which ft one feems unqueftionably to have
been formed by a confolidation of fubftances thiown
out of Vesuvius ; becaufe, on opening thefe quarries,
the workmen have frequently difeovgred tombs, vafes.
’ Nocturnal.
1 ] NOG
and coins locked up in the body of the ftony ftratum. Noccr’ar.i
The cafes of their doors and windows are made of a
black ftone drawn from the hill of Fiano, two miles
to the north ; it lies eight feet below the furface, in
a bed or vein 140 feet thick, refting upon a bafe of
fand. This feems evidently to be a ftream of lava con¬
gealed.
Nocera is a place of very confiderable antiquity : in
the 13th century it was called de Pagani, todiftin-
guifh it from a city in Umbria of a fimilar name ; this
addition was in allufion to a colony of Saracens which
Frederick of Suabia brought from Sicily, and fettled
here, that they might be out of the way of their danger-
ousconneftions with Africa: hence Noccra has often been
confounded with Lucera by the negligent or ignorant
chroniclers of the fucceeding ages. The moft remark-
able event that occurs in its hiftory is the fiege of it*
caftle, A. D. 1384. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat.43. 2-
Terra Noceriana, Earth of Nocera, in the materia
medica, a fpecies of bole remarkably heavy, of agrey-
ifti-white colour, of an infipid tafte, and generally with
fome particles in it which grit between the teeth. It as
much efteemed by the Italians as a remedy for venomous
bites, and in fevers; but, excepting as an abforbent and
aftringent, no dependence is to be had on it.
NOCTAMBULI, Noctambulones, or Night-
walkers; a term of equal import with fomnamtuli,
applied to perfons who have a habit of rifing and
walking about in their fleep. The word is a com¬
pound of the Latin nox, “ night," and ambulo, “ I
walk." ’
Schenkms, Plorftius, Clauderus, and PLldanus,
who have wrote of fleep, give us divers unhappy hi-
ftories of fuch no&ambuli. When the difeafe is mo¬
derate, the perfons affefted with it only repeat the
actions of the day on getting out of bed, and go
quietly to the places they frequented at other times ;
but thofe who have it in the moft violent degree, go up
to dangerous places, and do things which would ter¬
rify them to think of when they are awake. Thefe
are by fome called lunatic night-walkers, becaufe fits
are obferved to return with the moft frequency and
violence at the changes of the moon.—For the cure
fome recommend purging and a cooling regimen :
others are of opinion that the beft method is to place
a veflel of water at the patient’s bedfide in fuch a man¬
ner that he will naturally ftep into it when he gets out
of bed ; or if that Ihould fail, a perfon fhould fit up
to watch and beat him every time it happens. See
Sleep walkers, or Somnambuli. ,
NOC I ILUCA, a fpecies of phofphorus, fo called
becaufe it {bines in the dark without any light being
thrown upon it : fuch is the phofphorus made'of urinef
NOCTURNAL, fomething relating to the night,
in contradiftindlion to diurnal.
Nocturnal, NoSurlabium, an inftrument chiefly
ufed at fea, to take the altitude or depreffion of fome
liars about the pole, in order to find the latitude and
hour of the night.
Some nofturnals are hemifpheres, or planifpheres,
M2 oni
(a) Anciently, Nuceria Alphaterna, a word of unknown etymology. It was a Roman colony, and had its mint.
... Num. Nucerin.
-i. Caput virile -imberbe—Equus flans capite I'tflexo inter crura. A 4 . IN . .
•NOD [ 92 ] NOE
on the plane of the equ?no£lial. Tbofe commonly in
li life among feamen are two ; the one adapted to the
^ Node. pa]ar ^arj anj fir^ 0f t{ie guards of the Little Bear;
the other to the pole liar, and the pointers of the
Great Bear.
This inftrument confifts of two circular plates,
applied to each other. The greater, which has a
handle to hold the inftrument, is about 24- inches dia¬
meter, and is divided into twelve parts, agreeing to the
twelve months; and each month fubdivided into every
fifth day ; and fo as that the middle of the handle
comfponds to that day of the year wherein the ftar
here regarded has the fame right afcenfion with the
fun. If the inftrument be fitted for two ftars, the
handle is made moveable. The upper left circle is
divided into twenty-four equal parts for the twenty-
four hours of the day, and each hour fubdivided into
quarters. Thefe twenty-four hours are noted by
twenty-four teeth to be told in the night. Thofe at
the hour 12 are diflinguiftied by their length. In
y[ the centre of the two circular plates is adjufted a long
’ ' index, moveable upon the upper plate ; and the three
pieces, viz. the two circles and index, are joined by
a rivet which is pierced through the centre with a hole,
through which the liar is to be obferved.
To life the noflurnal, turn the upper plate till the
long tooth, marked 12, be againft the day of the
month on the under plate ; then, bringing the in-
Ilrument near the eye, fufpend it by the handle with
the plane nearly parallel to the equinoctial; and
viewing the pole ftar through the whole of the centre,
turn the index about, till, by the edge coming from
the centre, you fee the bright ftar or guard of the
Little Bear, (if the inftrument be fitted to that ftar);
then that tooth of the upper circle, under the edge of
the index, is at the hour of the night on the edge of
the hour circle ; which may be known without a light,
by counting the teeth from the longeft, which is for
the hour 12.
NOD, or the land of Nod. It was to this country
that Cain withdrew after his fratricide, (Gen. iv. 16.)
The feptuagint, as well as Jofephus, read Naid inftead
of Nod, and have taken it for the name of a place. It
is not eafily known what country this was, unlefs
perhaps it was the country of Nyfe or Nyfea, towards
Hyrcania. St Jerem and the Chaldee interpreters
have taken the word Nod in the fenfe of an appella¬
tive, for vagabond or fugitive } “ He dwelt a fugitive
in the land.” But the Hebrew reads, “ He dwelt in
the land of Nod.” (Gen. iv. 16.)
NODAB, a country bordering upon Iturea and
Idumcea, but now unknown. We read in the Chro¬
nicles, that the tribe of Reuben, affifted by thofe of
Gad and Manafieh, had a war againft the Hagarites,
the Jeturites, and the people of Nephifh and of No¬
dab, in which the Ifraelites had the advantage.
1 Chr. v. 19. But the time and the other particulars
of this war are unknown.
NODATED hyperbola, a name given by Sir
ifaac Newton to a kind of hyperbola, which, by turn¬
ing round, decufiates or croffes itfelf.
NODDY. See Sterna.
NODE, a tumour arifing on the bones, and ufually
proceeding from fome venereal caufe ; being much the
fame with what is otherwife called exojlods.
1
NODES, in aftronomy, the two points where the No'les-
orbit of a planet interfeds the ecliptic. II
Such are the two points C and D ; of which the node ^oetian*-,
C, where the planet afcends northward above the
plane of the ecliptic, is called the afcending node, or CCCXLVl
the dragon's head, and is marked thus (Q,. The other
node D, where the planet defcends to the fouth, is
called the defending node, or the dragon’s tail, marked
thus clf.
The line CD, wherein the two circles CEDE and
CGDH in ter fed, is called the line of nodes. It ap¬
pears from obfervation, that the line of the nodes of
all the planets conftantly changes its place, and fhifts
its fituation from eaft to weft, contrary to the order
of the figns; and that the line of the moon’s nodes,
by a retrograde motion, finhhes its circulation in the
compafs of 19 years; after which time, either of the
nodes having receded from any point of the ecliptic,
returns to the fame again ; and when the moon is in
the node, fire is alfo feen in the ecliptic. If the line
of nodes were immoveable, that is, if it had no other
motion than that whereby it is carried round the fun,
it would always look to the fame point of the ecliptic,
or would keep parallel to itfelf, as the axis of the
earth does.
From what hath been faid, it is evident, that the
moon can never be obferved precifely in the ecliptic,
but twice in every period ; that is, when (he enters
the nodes. When fire is at her greateft diftance from
the nodes, viz. in the points E, F, fne is faid to be
in her limits.
ft he moon mull be in or near one of the nodes, when
there is an eclipfe of the fun or mo@n.
To make the foregoing account of the motion of the
moon's nodes ftili clearer, let the plane of n® 2. ibid.
reprefent that of the ecliptic, S the fun, ft' the centre
of the earth, L the moon in her orbit D N r/n. N re
is the line of the nodes palling between the quadrature
Q^and the moon’s place L, in her laft quarter. Let
now LP, or any part LS, reprefent the excefs of
the fun’s adftion at T ; and this being refolved into the
force LR, perpendicular to the plane of the moon’s
orbit, and PR parallel to it, it'is the former only that
has any efTe<5t to alter the pofition of the orbit, and in
this it is wholly exerted. Its eft'eft is twofold : 1. It
diminifhes its inclination by a motion which we may
conceive as performed round the diameter Dr/, to which
L T is perpendicular. 2. Being compounded with the
moon’s tangential motion at L, it gives it an inter¬
mediate direction L t, through which and the centre a
plane being drawn, muft meet the ecliptic nearer the
conjunftion C than before.
NODUS, or node, in dialling, a certain point or
pole in the gnomon of a dial, by the lhadow or light
whereof either the hour of the day in dials without
furniture, or the parallels of the fun’s declination, and
his place in the ecliptic, &c. in dials with furniture,
are fhown. Sec Dialling.
NOEOMAGUS lexuviorum, (Ptol.) ; thought
to be the Civilas Lexoviorum of the lower age. Now
JJJieux, a city in Normandy.—Another of the Trica-
Jiini; a town of Gallia Narboneniis ; thought to be
S. Pol de Trois Chateaux, fix miles to the weft of Ny-
ons in Dauphine.
NOETIANS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics
in
N O L [ 93 I N O L
Kola in the third century, followers ot Noetius, a philofo-
•11 pher of Ephefus, who pretended that he was another
^Jo'leN Mofes feat by God, and that his brother was a
‘“nr new Aaron. His herefy confided in affirming that
there was but one perfon in the Godhead ; and that
the Word and the Holy Spirit were but external de¬
nominations given to Gad in confequence of different
operations: that,as Creator, he is calledFather;as Incar-
natc, Son; and as defcending on the a pottles, Ho/y Ghojl.
NOL A, a very ancient city, formerly populous and
flrong, fituated in a plain to the north-eall of Vefuvius
in Campania, faid to be built by the Chalcidians,
(Juflin, Silius Italicus) ; according to others, by the
Tufcans. At this place Hannibal met with the firft
check by Marcellas. Vefpafian added the appellation
Augufla Co/onia, (Frontinus). At this place, or in
its neighbourhood, Auguttus is faid to have expired. It
is alfo faid that bells were firft invented there in thebe-
ginning of the 5th century ; hence their Latin names
NoLe or CamfMius. It retains its old name to this day,
but it hath vailly fallen ffiort of its ancient fplendor.
A town of the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 15. N.
Lat. 41.5.
NOLANA, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clals of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
41 ft order, Jfperfoii*. The corolla is campanulated;
1 he ilyle fituated betwixt the germens ; the feeds are
bilocular, and referable berries.
NOLLE prosequi, is where a plaintiff in an ac¬
tion does not declare in a reafonable time ; in which
cafe it is ufual for the defendant’s attorney to enter a
rule for the plaintiff to declare, after which a non
prof, may be entered. A nolle profequi is efteemed a
voluntary confeffign, that the plaintiff has no caufe of
a&io» : and therefore if a plaintiff enters his nolle pro-
fequi, he ihall be amerced : and if an informer caufe
the fame to be entered, the defendant (hall have coils.
NOLLET (Jean Antoine), a deacon, licentiate in
theology, preceptor to the Enfans de France for phy-
hes and natural hiftory, regius profeffor of phyfics in
the college of Navarre, member of the academy of
fciences at Paris, of the royal fociety of London, of
the inftitutiem of Bologna, and of the academy of
fciences of Erfort; was born at Pimbre, in the dio-
cefe of Neyon, on the 17th of November 1700, of
refpe&able but not wealthy parents. To make up the
want of riches, they determined, to give their fon a
good education. They fent him to the college of
Clermont in Beauvoiiis, and afteiwards to Beauvais,
there to finiih his introdudlory ftudies. The progrels
which he made in the different claffes, determined
them to fend him to ftudy pbilofophy at Paris. Thence¬
forward they intended him for the clerical order ; and
they confideied the llridlnefs and purity of his mo¬
rals, together with his unwearied application to ftudy,
as fufficient proofs of his vocation. The young Nol-
let yielded without relutlance to the wlfties of his pa¬
rents. As foon as he was capable of {flowing an in¬
clination for any thing, he had difeovered a tafte for
phyfics; but this was not become his ruling paffion; he
therefore facrificed it to the ftudy of fcholaftic divinity,
to which he wholly dedicated himfelf during his time
of probation in 1728. No fooner had he been invefted
with the deaconffiip, than he folicited and obtained a
licence to preach. This new occupation, however, No’let.
did not make him entirely lofe fight of thofe ftudies ' v l’"_
which had firft. engaged his attention. They infenfibly
began to occupy a greater portion of his time, which
was now more equally divided between theology and
the fciences. The latter, however, prevailed ; and
thenceforth he entered into the ftudy of phyfics with
an ardour which was only increafed by that kind of
privation to which he had been long fubjeCt. He
was received into the fociety of arts, eftablifhed
at Paris under the patronage of the late count de
Clermont, in 1730, ffte Abbe Nollet was engaged
in a work conjunftly with Reamur and du Fay of the
academy of fciences. In 1734, he went to London
in company with M. M. du Fay, du Hamel, and de
Juffieu. His merit procured him a place in the royal
fociety without any felicitation. Two years after, he
went to Holland, where he formed an intimate con¬
nexion with Defaguliers, Gravefande, and Mufch-
enbroeck. On his return to Paris, he refumed the
courfe of experimental phyfics which he had begun in
1735, and which he continued till 1760. Thefe
couifes of phyfics firft fuggeited the idea of particular
courfes in other branches of fcience, fuch as in che-
miftry, anatomy, natural hiftory, &c. In 1738, the
count de Maurepas prevailed on the cardinal Fleury
to eftablifn a public clafs for experimental phyfics ^
and the Abbe Nollet was appointed the firft profef¬
for. In the beginning of the year 1739, was a<^"
mitted a member of the royal academy of fciences ;
and in the month of April following, the king of Sar¬
dinia intending to eftablifih a profefforfhip of phyfics
at Turin, invited the Abbe Nollet into his dominions.
From thence he travelled into Italy. In 1744, he
was honoured with an invitation to Verfailles, to in-
ftruA the dauphin in experimental philofophy ; the
king and royal family were often prefent at his lec¬
tures. The qualities as well of his underft inding as
of his heart gained him the efteem and confidence of
his pupil. Going one day in ftate to Paris, he caufed.
intimation to be made that he was to dine at the
Thuilleries. M. Nollet having gone thither to. pay
his court, the dauphin no fooner perceived him, than
he had the goodnefs to fay, “ Binet has the advan¬
tage of me, he has been at your houfe.” Till the
period of his death, this prince fiiowed marks of the
ftrongeit attachment and favour for this ingenious phi-
lofopher. He would have wiftied that he had been
a little more attentive to the improvement of his for¬
tune. He prevailed upon him to go and pay court
to a man in power, whofe patronage might have been
of fervice to him. The Abbe Nollet accordingly
waited upon the placeman, and made him a prefent
of his works. “ I never read any. works of that
kind,’’ faid the patron coldly, and calling a look at
the volumes before him. “ Sir (replied the Abbe),
will you allow them to remain in your anti-chamber ?
There perhaps there may be found men of genius
who will read them with pleafure.” In the month of
April 1749» made a grand tour into Italy, being
fent thither for the purpofe of making obfervations.
At Turin, Venice, and Bologna, the Abbe Nollet
appeared as a deputy from the philofophers of the
reft of Europe. During his fhort flay in Italy, the
woaders of elc&ricity were not the only objeft of his
refearches j
et tefearchcs • every part of phyfics, the arts, agrlcul*
K m'bre t;ure, ^iC' came equally under his notice. Upon hia
1 return through Turin, the king of Sardinia, always
truly fenfible of his merit, offered him the order of
Saint Maurice, which he did not think proper to ac¬
cept without his fovereign’s permiffion. In 1753 the
king inlfituted a clafs of experimental philofophy in
the royal college of Navarre, and appointed the Abbe
Nollet profeffor. In 1757, he received from the
king a brevet appointing him preceptor in phyfics
and natural hiflory to the Enfans de France. In the
month of Auguft, the fame year, he was appointed
profeffor of experimental philofophy in the fchool of
Artillery, at that time eftabliihed at la Fere. In
the month of November following, he was admitted
as a penfionary of the royal academy of fciences.
M. de Cremillo, diredfor-general of artillery and forti¬
fication, having founded a clafs of experimental phi¬
lofophy at Mezieres in 1761, the Abbe Nollet was
appointed profeffor. This celebrated and laborious
philofopher, who has rendered the mofl: important
fervices to phyfics by the difeoveries with which he
has enriched every branch of this fcience, but par¬
ticularly ele&ricity, died at Paris on the 25th of
April 1770, aged 70; much regretted by the lite¬
rary world, and by his friend?, of whom his gentle
-chararSter and beneficent heart had procured him a
great number. He often retired from the gay and
fplendid focieties of Paris, to give alfiftance to his
relations, who were by no means in affluent circum-
flances. His works are, 1. Several papers inferted
dn the memoirs of the academy of fciences ; among
which one on the Hearing of Fiffles is particularly
valuable. 2. Legons de Phy/ique Experimentale, 6 vols
izxno; a book well compofed, and uniting pleafure
with inftruftion. 3. Recueil de Lettres fur I'Eledri-
cite, 3 vols. 12 mo. 1753. 4. EJfai fur PEkaricite
des corps, 1 vol. 12mo. $. Recherches fur les caufes
particulieres des Phenenienes Eleclriques, one vol. l2mo.
L’Andes experiences^ 3 vols. izmo. with figures, 1770.
NOMADES, a name given, in antiquity, to
feveral nations whofe whole occupation was to
feed and tend their flocks; and who had no fixed
place of abode, but were conftantly Ihifting, accord¬
ing to the conveniences of pafturage.—-The word
comes from the Greek pafco, “ I feed.”
The moft celebrated among the Nomades were
thofe of Africa, who inhabited between Africa, pro¬
perly fo called, to the eaft, and Mauritania to the
weft. They are alfo called Numidee, or Nunnd'ians. —
balluft fays, they were a colony of Perfians brought
into Africa with Hercules.
The Nomades of Afia inhabited the coafts of the
Cafpian Sea.—ft he Nomades of Scythia were the in¬
habitants of Little ft artary ; who Hill retain the an¬
cient manner of living.
NOMARCHA, in antiquity, the governor or com¬
mander of a nome, or nomos.— Fgypt was anciently
divided into feveral regions or quarters, called nomesy
from the Greek taken in the fenfe of a divifion;
and the officer who had the adminiftration of each
nome or nomos., from the king, was called tnonarcha,
from vojt©' anft ap^» « command.”
NOMBRE-de-dios, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Darien, a little to the eaftvvard of Porto-
Mo. It was formerly a famous place j but it is now
abandoned, oh account of its unhealthy fituation, W. Nomkril
Long. 78. 35. N. Lat. 9. 43. xr II
NOMBRIL point, in heraldry, is the next below Nomin^;^
the fefs-point, or the very centre of the efcutchecm. ‘Y"*"
Suppofing the efeutcheon divided into two equal
parts below the fefs, the firft of thefe divifions is the
nombril, and the lower the bafe.
NOME, or Name, in algebra, denotes any quan¬
tity with a fign prefixed or added to it, whereby it is
connedled with fome other quantity, upon which the
whole becomes a binomial, trinomial, or the like. Sec
Algebra.
NOMENCLATOR, in Roman antiquity, was
ufually a Have who attended upon perfons that flood
candidates for offices, and prompted or fuggefted to
them the names of all the citizens they met, that they
might court them and call them by their names, which
among that people was the higheft piece of civility.
Nomenclators, among the botanical authors,
are thofe who have employed their labours about
fettling and adjufting the right names, fynonyms, and
etymologies of names, in regard to the whole vege¬
table world.
NOMENCLATURE, nomenclatura, a cata-
logue of feveral of the more ufual words in any lan-
guage, with their fignifications, compiled in order to
facilitate the ufe of fuch words to thofe who ate to
learn the tongue : fuch are our Latin, Greek, French,
&c. Nomenclatures.
The chemical nomenclature has within thefe few
years undergone a total change: we have given a
table exhibiting thefe new names facing page 598 of
Volume IV. At that time we were not convinced
of the propriety of the new theory, nor was it pof-
fible to forefee that it would fo foon obtain the appro¬
bation of the literary world. 'True philofophy requires,
however, that we fhould readily change our opinions
when we fee fufficient grounds, for to err is human In
confequence of Lavoifier’sfyftem being nowfo uni verfally
adopted, it becomes neceftary for us to explain his prin¬
ciples at more length than was thought proper before.
This we think our duty, and it therefore ffiall be our
endeavour, in fome part of the work, to introduce a fuf¬
ficient analyfis of this celebrated and now almoft uni-
verfally adopted fyftem.
NOMENEY, a town in Germany, in the duchy
of Lorrain, fituated on the river Stille, 15 miles north
of Nancy.
NOMINALS, or Nominalists, a fe£l of fchool-
philofophers, the difciples and followers of Occam, or
Ocham, an Engliffl cordelier, in the 14th century.
They were great dealers in words, whence they were
vulgarly denominated Word-fellers ; but had-the deno¬
mination of Nominalifls, becaufe, in oppofition to the
Realijls) they maintained, th?t words, and not things,
were the objetift of dialectics.
This fed had its firft rife towards the end of the
Iith century, and pretended to follow Porphyry and
Ariftotle; but it was not till Ocham’s time that they
bore the name. The chief of this fed, in the nth
century, was a perfon called John, who, on account
of his logical fubtilty, was called the fophijl ; and his
principal difciples were Robert of Paris, Rofcelin of
Compiegne, and Arnoul of Laon. At the beginning,
the nominals had. the upper hand : but the realilH,
though greatly divided among themfelves, were fup-
8 ported
Nona.
NON [
STotninali ported by men of great abilities; fuch as Albertus
il Magnus, T. Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. The no¬
minal fe& became hereby into difrepute ; till William
Occam, in the 14th century, again revived it, and
filled France and Germany with the flame of difputa-
tion. Having joined the party of the Francifcan
monks, who ftrenuoufiy oppofed John XXII. that
pope himfelf, and his fuccefibrs after him, left no means
untried to extirpate the philofophy of the nominalifts,
which was deemed highly prejudicial to the interefts
of the church : and hence it was, that, in the year
1339, the univerfity of Paris, by a public edidt, fo-
lemnly condemned and prohibited the philofophy of
Occam, which was that of the nominalilts. The
confequence was, that the nominalifts flourifhed more
than ever. In the 15th century, the controverfy was
continued with more vigour and animofity than before;
and the difputants were not content with ufing merely
the force of eloquence, but had frequently recourfe
to more hoftile and dangerous weapons; and battles
were the confequence of a philofophical qiieftion,
which neither fide underftood. In molt places, how¬
ever, the realifts maintained a manifeft fuperiority
over the nominalifts. While the famous Gerfon, and
the molt eminent of his difciples were living, the no¬
minalilts were in high efteem and credit in the uni¬
verfity of Paris. But upon the death of thefe pa¬
trons, the face of things was much changed to their
difadvantage. In the year 1473, Louis XL by the
iniligation of his confcltor, the bilhop-of Avranches,
iflued out a fevere edi<£t againll the doctrines of the
nominalifts, and ordered all their writings to be feized
and fecured, that they might not be read by the
people : but the fame monarch mitigated this edift
the year following, and permitted feme of the books
of that fe£t to be delivered from their confinement.
In the year 1481, he not only granted a full liberty
to the nominalifts and their writings, but alfo re-
ftored that philofophical fefk to its former authority
and luftre in the univerfity.
The nominalifts were the founders of the univerfity
of Leipfic : and there are many yet abroad w'ho pique
themf^lves on being nominals.
The nominals, with the Stoics, admit the formal
conceptions or ideas of things, as the fubjeA and
foundation of univerfality: but to this they add names,
which reprefent and fignify, after the fame uni vocal
manner, and without any diftinftion, a great variety
of fingle things alike in genus and fpecies.
Whence it is that they are called nominals ; as pre¬
tending, that to become learned, it is not enough to
have juft ideas of things, but it is likewife required
to know the proper names of the genera and fpecies
of things, and to be able to exprefs them clearly and
precifdy, without eonfufion or ambiguity.
NOMINATIVE, in grammar, the frrlt case of
nouns which are declinable.
'ihe fimple pofition, or laying down of a noun, or
name, is called the nominative cafe ; yet it is not fo
properly a cafe, as the matter or ground whence the
other cafes are to be formed, by the feveral changes
and inflexions given to this firft termination. Its chief
ufe is to be placed in riifcourfe before all verbs, as the
fubjeX of the propofition or affirmation.
NONA, a city of Dalmatia, remarkable at prefentonly.
95 J NON
for its ruins, wdiich might furniffi abundant materials
to gratify the curiofity of antiquaries ; but indeed they
are fo buried by repeated devaftations, to which that
unhappy city has been expofed, that rarely any veftige
of them appears above ground. “ I went thither (fays
Fortis in his Travels), in hopes of finding fomething'
worthy of notice, but was difappointed. Nothing is
to be i'een that indicates the grandeur of the Roman
times; neither are there any remains of barbarous
magnificence, to put one in mind of the ages in
which the kings of the Croat Slavi had their refi-
dence there. It lies on a fmall ifland, furrounded by
a harbour, which in former times was capable of re¬
ceiving large ftiips ; but is now become a fetid pool
by means of a little muddy river that falls into it, after
a courfe of about fix miles through the rich aban¬
doned fields of that diftriX. The ancient inhabi¬
tants turned this water into another channel, and
made it run through the valley of Drafnich into the
fea ; and the remains of the bank raifed by them for
that purpofe are ftill to be feen. Notwithftanding,
however, the depopulation of this diftriX, and the
dreary fituation of Nona in particular, the new inha¬
bitants have not loft courage ; and animated by the
privileges granted to them by this moft ferene repu¬
blic, are endeavouring to bring the population and
agriculture once more into a flouriftiing ftate, Pro¬
per drains for the water would not only render that
rich territory habitable, but moreover very fertile ; and
the brackiffi marfti that furrounds the walls of Nona>
is well calculated to fupply a confiderable quantity of
fifh, efpecially eels. The government generoufly grant¬
ed the inveftiture to private perfons, who already draw
no inconfiderable advantage from the fifhing; and did
they but adopt better methods, they might every year ■
fait many thoufands of eels, which would greatly an-
fwer our internal commerce, and fave at leaft a part
of the money that goes out of the country for foreign
fait fiffi. To the left of the city of Nona, the walls
of fome ancient ruinous buildings appear ; which pro¬
bably in ancient times were fituated on the main land,-
though now furrounded by water. The fea forms a
narrow channel in this place, which is eafily fordable,
and, at low water, the fmalleft boat can fcarcely pafs.”
NONAGE, in law, generally fignifies all the time
a perfon continues under the age of 2 1 ; but, in a
fpecial fenfe, it is all the time that a perfon is under
the age of 14.
NON-cape, a promontory on the weft coaft ®f
Africa, oppofite to the Canary iflands. W. Long.
12. o. N. Lat. 44. 28.
NONCONFORMISTS, thofe who refufe to join
the eftabliftied worfhip.
Nonconformifts, in England, are of two forts. Firft,
fuch as abfent themfelves from divine worfhip in the efta-
blifhed church through total irreligion, and attend the
fervice of no other perfuafion. Thefe, by the ftat. 1 Eliz.-
c. 2. 23 Eliz. c. 1. and 3 Jac. I.. c. 4. forfeit one
(hilling to the poor every Lord’s-day they fo abfent
themfelves, and 20I. to the king if they continue
fuch default for a month together. And if they keep
any inmate thus irreligioufly difpofed in their houfes,.
they forfeit 1 ol. per month.
The fecond fpecies of nonconformifts are thofe who
offend through a miftaken or perverfe zeal. Such.
were
Nona
11
Noncon-
fomnifK
B lad ft*
Cummer,t*
Tvisncon*
formiftg.
Blcehjl.
Comment.
NON I 96 ] NON
were efteemed, by the Englifh laws enabled fince the
time of the Reformation, to be Papifts and Proteftant
diffenters : both ©f which were fuppofed to be equally
fchifmatics, in not communicating with the national
church ; with this difference, that the Papifts divided
from it upon material, though erroneous, reafons ; but
many of the diflenters upon matters of indifference,
or, in other words, for no reafon at ail. “ Yet cer¬
tainly (fays Sir William Blackftone) our anceftors
were miftaken in their plans of compulfion and intole¬
rance. The fin of fchifm, as fuch, is by no means
the objetd of temporal coercion and punifhment. If,
through weaknefs of intelleft, through mifdiredled
piety, through perverfenefe and acerbity of temper, or
(which is often the cafe) through a profpedt of fecular
advantage in herding with a party, men quarrel with
the ecclefiaftical eftabliftiment, the civil magiftrate has
nothing to do with it; unlefs their tenets and practice
are fuch as threaten ruin or difturbance to the ftate.
He is bound indeed to pioteft the eftablifhed church :
and if this can be better eft'e&ed by admitting none
but its genuine members to offices of truft and emolu¬
ment, he is certainly at liberty fo to do ; the difpofal
of offices being matter of favour and diferetion. But
this point being once fecured, all perfecution for di-
verfity of opinions, however ridiculous or abfurd they
may be, is contrary to every principle of found policy
and civil freedom. The names and fubordination of
the clergy, the pofture of devotion, the materials and
colour of the minifter’s garment, the joining in a known
or unknown form of prayer, and other matters of the
fame kind, mud be left to the option of every man’s
private judgment.
“ With regard therefore to Protejlant (UJJmters,
although the experience of their turbulent difpofition
in former times occafioned feveral difabilities and re-
ftriftions (which I ftiall not undertake tojuftify) to be
laid upon them by abundance of ftatutes; yet at length
the legiflature, with a true fpirit of magnanimity, ex¬
tended that indulgence to thefe fe&aries, which they
themftlves, when in power, had held to be counte¬
nancing fchifm, and denied to the church of Eng¬
land. The penalties are conditionally fufpended by
the ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. 1. c. 18. “ for exempting
their Majefties Proteftant fubje&s, diffenting from the
church of England, from the penalties of certain laws,”
commonly called the toleration ad; which declares, that
neither the laws above-mentioned, nor the ftatutes
1 Eliz. c. 2. § ‘4-3 Jac. I. c. 4. & 5. nor any other
penal laws made againft P©pifh recufants (except the
teft afts) ffiall extend to any diffenters, other than Pa¬
pifts and fuch as deny the Trinity: provided, 1. That
they take the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy, (or
make a fimilar affirmation, being Quakers), and fub-
i'eribe the declaration againft Popery. 2. That they
repair to tome congregation certified to and regifter-
ed in the court of the bilhop or archdeacon, or at
the county-feffions. 3. That the doors of fuch meet-
ing-houfe fhall be unlocked, unbarred, and unbolted;
in default of which, the perfons meeting there are (fill
liable to all the penalties of the former afts. Diffent¬
ing teachers, in order to be exempted from the penal¬
ties of the ftatutes 1 3 & 14 Car. II. c. 4. 17 Car. II.
c. 2. and 22 Car. II. c. 1. are alfo to fnbfcribe the
^articles of religion mentioned in the ftatute 13 Eliz.
N° 243.
c. 12. (viz. thofe which only concern the confeffion Nr.nem*.
of the true Chriftian faith, and the do&rine of the fa-
craments), with an exprefs exception of thofe relating 'r^
to the government and powers of the church, and to
infant-baptifm. And by ftatute 10 Ann. c. 2. this
toleration is ratified and confirmed ; and it is declared,
that the faid aft fhall at all times be inviolably obfer-
ved for the exempting fuch Proteftant diffenters as are
thereby intended from the pains and penalties there¬
in mentioned. Thus, though the offence of noncon- v -
formity is by no means ainiverfally abrogated, it is
fufpended, and ceafes to exift: with regard to thefe
Proteftant diffenters, during their compliance with
the conditions impofed by the aft of toleration : and,
under thefe conditions, all perfons, who will approve
themfelves no Papifts or oppugners of the Trinity, are
left at full liberty to aft as their confciences fhall di-
reft them in the matter of religious worfhip. And
if any perfon fhall wilfully, maliciouOy, or contemp-
tuoufly difturb any congregation, affembled in any
church or permitted meeting-houfe, or fhall mifufe any
preacher or teacher there, he ffiall (by virtue of the
fame ftatute) be bound over to the feffions of the peace,
and forfeit 201. But by ftatute 5 Geo. I. c. 4. no
mayor or principal rnagiftrate muft appear at any dif¬
fenting meeting with the enfigns of his office, on pain
of difability to hold that or any other office : the le¬
giflature judging it a matter of propriety, that a mode
of worffiip, fet up in oppofition to the national, when
allovced to be exerciftd in peace, ffiould be exercifed
alfo with decency, gratitude, and humility. Neither
doth the aft of toleration extend to enervate thofe
claufes of the ftatutes 13 & \a Car. II. c. 4. & 17
Car. II. c. 2. which prohibit (upon pain of fine and
imprifonment) all perfons from teaching fchool, unlefs
they be licenfed by the ordinary, and fubferibe a de¬
claration of conformity to the liturgy of the church,
and reverently frequent divine fervice eJlabHJhed by the
laws of this kingdom.
“ As to Papijls, what has been faid of the Proteftant
diffenters would hold equally ftrong for a general tole¬
ration of them ; provided thejr feparation was found¬
ed only upon difference of opinion in religion, and
their principles did not alfo extend to a fubverflon of
the civil government. If once they could be brought
to renounce the fupremacy of the Pope, they might
quietly enjoy their feven facraments ; their purgatory,
and auricular confeffion ; their worfliip of relics- and
images; nay, even theirtranfubftantiation. But while
they acknowledge a foreign power, fuperior to the fo*
•vereignty of the kingdom, they cannot complain if the
laws of that kingdom will not tieat them upon the foot¬
ing of good fubjefts. *
“ The following are the laws that have been crafted
againft the Papifts; who may be divided into three
claffes, perfons profeffing Popery, Popiffi recufants
convift, and Popiffi priefts. 1. Perfons profeffing the
Popiffi religion, betides the former penalties For not
frequenting their pariffi-church, are di fable ft from
taking any lands either by defeent or purchafe, after
18 years of age, until they renounce their errors; they
muft at the age of 21 regifter their eftates before
acquired, and all future conveyances and wills relating
to them ; they are incapable of prefenting to any ad-
vowfon, pr granting to any other perfon any avoid-
“ ance
NON [ 97 ] NON
Noncon. a;,ce of the fame! they may not keep or teach any the dominions of the crown of England, who (hall Noncon-
formift*. fchool, under pain of perpetual imprifonment; and, if come over hither from beyond fea (unlefs driven by. or ^1
~7?r7rJ they willingly fay or hear mafa, they forfeit the one ftrefs of weather and tarrying only a reafonable time),
Cmmnt. 200, the other i oo merka, and each ihall fuffer a year’s or (hall be in England three days without conforming
imprifonment. Thus much for perfcxis who, from the and taking the oaths, is guilty of high treafon : and
misfortune of family-prejudices, or otherwife, have all perfons harbouring him are guilty of felony without
conceived an unhappy attachment to the Romilh the benefit of clergy.
church from their infancy, and publicly profefs its This is a fhort fummary of the laws agarnft the Pa-
errors. But if any evil induftry is ufed to rivet thefe pifts; of which the prefident Montefquieu obferves,
errors upon them; if any perfon fends another abroad that they are fo rigorous, though not profeffedly of
to be educated in the Popifh religion, or to refide in any the fanguinary kind, that they do all the hurt that
religious houfe abroad for that purpofe, or contributes can poflibly be done in cold blood. But in anfwer to
to their maintenance when there; both the fender, the this, it may be obferved (what foreigners who only
fent, and the contributor, are difabled to fue in law or judge from our ftatute-book are not fully apprized of),
equity, to be executor or adminiftrator to any perfon, that thefe laws are ftldom exerted to their utmofl: ri-
to take any legacy or deed of gift, and to bear any gour: and indeed, if they were, it wmuld be very dif-
office in the realm ; and fhall forfeit all their goods ficult to excufe them, her they are rather to be ac-
and chattels, and likewife all their real eftate for life, counted for from their hiftory, and the urgency of
And where thefe errors are alfo aggravated by apo- / the times which produced them, than to be approved
ftacy or perverlion ; where a perfon is reconciled to (upon a cool revjewr) as a {landing fyftem of law. The
the fee of Rome, or procures others to be reconciled, reftlefs machinations of the Jefuits during the reign of
the offence amounts to high treafon. 2. Popifh re- Elizabeth, the turbulence and uneafinels of the Pa-
cufants, convifted in a court of law of not attending pifts under the new religious eftablifhmeut, and the
the fervice of the church of England, are fubjeft to boldnefs of their hopes and wiflres for the fucceffion of
the followung difabilities, penalties, and forfeitures, the queen of Scots, obliged the parliament to coun-
over and above thofe before-mentioned. They are con- teradl fo dangerous a fpirit. by laws of a great, and
fidered as perfons excommunicated ; they can hold no then perhaps neceffary, feverity. The powder-treafon,
office or employment; they muff not keep arms in in the fucceeding reign, ftruck a panic into James I.
their houfes, but the fame may be feized by the juf- which operated in different ways : it occafioned the
tices of the peace ; they may not come within io miles enading of new laws againft the Papifts ; but deter-
of London, on pain of iool.; they can bring no ac- red him from putting them in execution. The in-
tion at law or fuit in equity ; they are not permitted trigues of queen Henrietta in the reign of Charles I.
to travel above five miles from home, unlefs by li- the profped of a Popifh fucceffor in that of Char. II.
cence, upon pain of forfeiting all their goods ; and the affaffination-plot in the reign of king William, and
they may not come to court, under pain of rool. No the avowed claim of a Popifh pretender to the crown
marriage ©r burial of fuch recufant, or baptifm of his in fub'fequent reigns, will account for the exteniion of
child, fhall be had otherwife than by the minifters of thefe penalties at thofe feveral periods of our hiftory.,,
the church of England, under other fevere penalties. But now that all juft fears of a pretender may be faid
A married woman, wdien recufant, fhall forfeit two fo have vanifhed, and the power and influence of the
thirds of her dower or jointure, may not be executrix pope has become feeble, ridiculous, and defpicable,
or adminiflratrix to her hufband, nor have any part of not only in Britain, but in almoft every kingdom of
his goods ; and during the coverture may be kept in Europe ; and as in faft the Britifh Catholics folemnly
prifon, unlefs her hufband redeems her, at the rate of difclaim the dangerous principles aferibed to them f ; | see their
lol. a-month, or the third part of all his lands. And the Britifh legiflature, giving way to that liberality ofl >y&l Ad-
laflly, as a feme-couvert recufant may be imprifoned, fo fentiment becoming Proteftants, have lately repealed to ^
all others muft, within three months after convi6lion, the moft rigorous of the above ediefs, viz. The pu-‘Tc’
either fubmit and renounce their errors, or, if requi- nifhment of Popifh priefts or Jefuits who fhould be, -8,asin-
red fo to do by four juftices, muft abjure and renounce found to teach or officiate in the fervices of that church; ferted in the
the realm : and if they do not depart, or if they re- which a£ls were felony in foreigners, and high treafon lVla^azl' es
turn without the king’s licence, they fhall be guilty of in the natives of this kingdom :—The forfeitures °f
felony, and fuffer death as felons without benefit of Popiflr heirs, who had received their education abroad; ^at year.
clergy. There is alfo an inferior fpecies of recufaucy, and whofe eftates went to the next Proteftant heir-—.
(refufing to make the declaration againft Poperv en- The power given to the fon, or other relation, being
joined by ftatute , 30 Car. II. ft. 2. when tendered by a Proteftant, to take poffeffioh of the father’s or other
the proper magiftrate);. which, if the party refides relation’s eflate, during the life of the real proprietor:
within ten miles of London, makes him an abfolute —And the debarring Papifts from the power of ac-
recufant convift ; 0r, if at a greater diflance, fufpends quiring any legal property by purchafe.— In propo-
hun from having any feat in parliament, keeping arms fing the repeal of thefe penalties, it was obferved,That,
in his houfe, or any horfe above the value of 5I, 3 Po- befides that fome of them had new ceafed to be nccef-
pifii pnefts are in a ftdl more dangerous condition. By faiy, others were at all times a difgrace to humanity,
flatuie I 1 & 12 W. III. c. 4. Popifh priefts, or hi- The imprifonment of a Popifh prieft for life, only for
ffiops, celebrating mafs or exercifing any part of their officiating in the fervices of his religion, was horrible
fundions in England, except in the houfes of ambaf- in its nature : And although the mildnefs of govern-
fadors, are liable to perpetual imprifonment. And by menthad hitherto foftened the rigour of the law in the
the ftatute 27 Lliz. c. 2. any Popifh prieft, born in pradlice, it was to be remembered that the Roman Ca-
Vot. XIII. Part L. . N tholic
NON [ 98 J NON
Noncon- tholic priefts conftantly lay at the mercy of the bafeft
formifts an(j mo{j- abandoned of mankind—of common xnform-
I4on-Suit. crs > ^or on the evidence of any of thefe wretches, the
■ - magillerial and judicial powers were of neceffity bound
to enforce all the fliameful penalties of the aft. Others
of thefe penalties held out the moft powerful tempta¬
tions for the commiflion of afts of depravity, at the
very thought of which our nature recoils witli horror:
They feemed calculated to loofen all the bands of fo-
ciety ; to diffolve all civil, moral, and religious obliga¬
tions and duties, to poifon the fources of domeftic fe¬
licity, and to annihilate every principle of honour.
The encouragement given to children to lay their
hands upon the ellates of their parents, and the re-
itriftion which debars any man from the honeft acqui-
fition of property, need only to be mentioned to ex¬
cite indignation in an enlightened age.
In order the better to fecure the Englilh eflablifhed
church againil perils from non-conformilts of all deno¬
minations, infidels, Turks, Jews, heretics, Papifts, and
feftaries, there are, however, two bulwarks erefted ;
called the corporation and tcj} aBs : By the former of
which, no perfon can be legally tlefted to any office
relating to the government of any city or corporation,
tmlefs, within a twelvemonth before, he has received
the facrament of the Lord’s fupper according to the
rites of the church of England ; and he is alfo en¬
joined to take the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy
at the fame time that he takes the oath of office : or,
in default of either of thefe requifites, fuch eleftion
ftall be void. The other, called the tejl utf, direfts
all officers civil and military to take the oaths and
make the declaration again!! tranfubftantiation, in any
of the king’s courts at Weftminfter, or at the quarter-
feffions, within fix kalendar months after their admif-
jion ; and alfo within the fame time to receive the fa¬
crament of the Lord’s Supper, according to the ufage
of the church of England, in fome public church im¬
mediately after divine fervice and fermon, and to deli¬
ver into court a certificate thereof figned by the mi-
nifter and church-warden, and alfo to prove the fame
by two credible witnefles ; upon forfeiture of 500I.
and difability to hold the faid office. And of much
the fame nature with thefe is the llatute 7 Jac. I c. 2*
which permits no perfons to be naturalifed or reftored
in blood, but fuch as undergo a like tell : which teft
having been removed in 1753, ’n favour °f the Jews,
was the next feffion of parliament reitored again with
Jome precipitation.
NoN-Natura/s, in medicine, fo called, becaufe by
their abufe they become the caufcs of difeafes.
Phyficians have divided the non-naturals into fix
clafles, viz. the air, meats and drinks, deep and
watching, motion and reft, the paffions of the mind,
the retentions and excretions. Sec Medicine, pajjlm.
Non Oljlante, (notivithjlanding,) a claufe frequent
in ftatutes and letters patent, importing a licence from
the king to do a thing, which at common law might
be lawfully done, but being reftrained by aft of par¬
liament cannot be done without fuch licence.
Non Pros. See Nolle Profequi.
NoN-Suit, fignifies the dropping of a fuit or aftion,
or a renouncing thereof by the plaintiff or defendant;
which happens moft commonly upon the difeovery of
fome error in the plaintiff’s proceedings when the None*
caufe is fo far proceeded in, that the jury is ready at N M.
the bar to deliver in their verdift. °^lttil
NONES, (non;e,) in the Roman kalendar, the fifth
day of the months January, February, April, June,
Auguft, September, November, and December; and
the feventh of March, May, July, and Oftober. March,
May, July, and Oftober, had lix days in their nones;
becaufe thefe alone, in the ancient conftitution of the
year by Numa, had 3 i days a-piece, the reft having
only 29, and February 30: but when Csefar reformed
the year, and made other months contain 3 I days, he
did not allot them fix days of nones.
NONJURORS, thofe who refufed to take the
oaths to government, and who were in confequence
nnder certain incapacities, and liable to certain fevere
penalties. It can fcarcely be faid that there are any
nonjurors now in the kingdom ; and it is well known
that all penalties have been removed both from
Papifts and Proteftants, formerly of that denomina¬
tion, as well in Scotland as in England. The mem¬
bers of the Epifcopal church of Scotland have long
been denominated Nonjurors ; but perhaps they are
n.ow called fo improperly, as the ground of their dif¬
ference from the eftablifhment is more on account of
ecclefiaftical than political principles.
NONIUS (Peter), in Spanifh Nunez, a learned
Portuguefe, and one of the ableft mathematicians of
the 16th century, was born at Alcacer. He was pre¬
ceptor to Don Henry, king Emmanuel’s fon, and
taught the mathematics in the univerlity of Coimbra.
He publiffied the following works, by which he gain¬
ed great reputation: 1. Dc arte navigandi. 2. Anno~
tationes in theonas planetarum Purbachii ; which arc
greatly efteemed. 3. A treatife De Crepufculis. 4. A
treatife on algebra. It is obferved in Furetiere’s dic¬
tionary, that Peter Nonius, in 1530, firft invented the
angles of 45 degrees made in every meridian, and that
he called them rhumbs in his language, and calculated
them by fphcrical triangles. Nonius died in 1577*
aged 80.
Nonius, the name which was not many years ago
given to the common device for fubdividing the arcs
of quadrants and other aftronomical inftruments, from
the perfuafion that it was invented by Nonius or Nunezt,
of whom fome account has been given in the preced¬
ing article. The generality of aftronomers of the
piefent age, transferring the honour of the invention
from Nunez to Peter Vernier, a native of Tranche
Comte, have called this method of divifion by his
name. (See Vernier). Mr Adams, however, in his
Geometrical and Geographical Effays, has lately ffiowrt
that Clevius the Jefuit may difpute the invention with
them both. The truth fet ms to be, that Nunez ttart-
ed the idea, Clevius improved it, and Vernier carried
it to its prefent ftate of perfeftion. The method of Nu¬
nez, deferibed in his treatife De Crepufculis, printed at
Liffion 1542, confifts in deferibing within the fame
quadrant 45 concentric circles, dividing the outermoft
into 90 equal parts, the next within into 89, the
next into 88, &c. till the innermoft was divided into
46 only. On a quadrant thus divided the plumb line
or index muft crofs one or other of the circles very-
near a point of divilion } whence, by computation, the
I degrees
NOO [99] NOO
Ifaniu* degree# and minute* of the arch might be eafily afeer-
II tained. This method is alfo deferibed by Nunez in
Sound his treatife De arte atque ration* navigmdi, where he
—V—'would fain perfuade himfelf, that it was not unknown
to Ptolemy. But as the degrees are thus divided
very unequally, and as it is very difficult to attain ex*
a<ftnefs in the divifion, efpecially when the numbers
into which the arches are to be divided are incom*
pwfite (of which there are no lefs chan nine), the me¬
thod of diagonals, firft publiffied by Thomas Digges
Efq; in a treatife intitled Ala feu fcala mathematics^
printed at London in 1573, and faid to be invented
by one Richard Chenfeler.was fubftituted in its room.
Nonius’s method was, however, improved at differ¬
ent times and by different perfons; and it mult be ac¬
knowledged, that if Vernier faw either the original or
any of the improvements (and there can be little doubt
of his having feen them all), his merit is only that of
having applied to an ufeful practical purpofe the fpe-
culative invention of another perfon.
Nonius (Marcellus), a grammarian and peripate¬
tic philofopher, born at Tivoli, wrote a treatife, in-
titled De proprietate fermonum. T his author is only
valuable for his giving fragments of ancient authors
that are nowhere elfe to be found. The above treatife
was printed at Paris in 1614, with notes.
NONN1US, or Nonius (Lewis,) a learned phy*
fician of Antwerp in the 1 7th century, wrote feveral
works which are efteemed ; the principal of which are,
1. An excellent treatife intitled Ichthyophagia, five de
Pifcium efu. 2. Hifpania ; which is of great ufe in
underflanding the ancient geography of Spain. 3. A
commentary on the medals of Greece, and thofe of Ju¬
lius Crefar, Auguftus, and Tiberius, in folio; it con¬
tains Goltzius’s two words on the fame fubjedt. 4. A
commentary on Goltzius’s account of Greece, the
i(lands, &c. 5. Poems, &c.
NONNUS, a Greek poet of the 5th century, and
native of Panopilis in Egypt, was the author of an
heroic poem in 48 books, intitled Dionyfacorurn, and
a paniphrafe in verfe of St John’s Gofpel, which may
ferve as a commentary upon it.
NONUPLA, in the Italian mufic, denotes a quick
time, peculiar to jigs. This fpecies of time is other-
wife called the meafure of nine times, which requires two
falls of the hand, and one rife. There are three forts
of nonupla. I. Nonup/a di femi minirne, or duplafefjw-
quarta, thus marked where nine ciotchets are to be
in the bar, of which four make a femi-breve in com¬
mon time, i e. in the down ilroke fix, and but three
up : it is ufnally beat adagio. 2. Nonupta di creme, or
fefqui ottava, marked thus $, wherein nine quavers
make a bar inflead of eight in common time, i. e.
fix down and three up: it is beat prefo. 3. No-
mipla di femi-crome or fuper fetti partiente nena, thus
diilinguifhed T’, in which nine femi-quavers are con
tained in a bar, whereof lixteen are required in com¬
mon time, fix down, and three up : it is ordinarily
beat prejliffimo. Befide thefe, there are two other fpe¬
cies of nonupla, for which fee Triple.
NOQ.TK A-sound, or, as it was called by Captain
Cook, King George's Sound, lies in N. Lat. 49. 33.
W. Long. 153. 12. It is an entrance or Itraic to a
vafl inland fea on the weft coaft of North America,
and is faid to refemble the Baltic or Mediterranean in
Europe. Upon the fca-coaft the land is tolerably high
and level ; but within the found it rifes into ftcep hills, Nootka*
which have an uniform appearance. The treesof which Sout)c*’
the woods are compofed, are the Canadian pine, white
Cyprus, and two or three other forts of pine. In ge¬
neral, the trees grow here with great vigour, and are
of a large fize. About the rocks and borders of the
woods were feen fome ftrawberry plants and rafpberry,
currant, and goofeberry bufhes, all in a flourifhing
ftate. The principal animals feen here were racoons,
martens, and fquirrels. Birds are far from being nu¬
merous, and thofe that are to be feen are remarkably
fhy, owing perhaps to tin ir being continually ha-
rafi'ed by the nitives, either to eat them, or to become
poffefled of their feathers to be worn a® ornaments.
The quebrantahueflbs, (hags, and gulls, were feen off
the coaft ; and the two lalt were alfo frequent in the
found. rI hough the variety of fiih is not very great,
yet they are in greater quantities than binks. The
principal forts are the common herring, a filver-colour-
ed bream, and another of a brown colour. Captain
Cook and Doftor King, who vifited this place, con-
fider it as an excellent ffielter for fhips: and in the
account of a Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, they give
fome directions for failing into it. Thefe and other
matters of that kind we (hall not trouble our readers
with; and perhaps the generality of them will be bet¬
ter pleafed with the following extraCt from Meares’s
Voyages to the North-weft Coaft of America.
“ The people of the Nootka nation are, in general,
robuft and well proportioned their faces are large
and full, their cheeks high and prominent, with final!
black eyes their nofes are broad and flat, their lips
thick, and they have generally very fine teeth, and of
the moft brilliant whitenefs.
“ The manner in which the children of Nootka are
treated, when young, is not more extraordinary from
its ftrange, and, as it ffiould appear, total inutility, as
from its agreement with the cuftoms of the Chinefe
and Tartars, to whom this pra&ice gives thefe people
a confiderable refemblance. The head of the infant
is bound by the mother with a kind of fillet of feveral
folds, as low down as the eyes, in order to give it a
certain form, which, at this tender age, it is capable
of receiving. It might be fuppofed, that fuchatight «
drawn ligature mull caufe confiderable pain to the
child ; but we never obferved that any of the infants,
in fuch a flate of preparation for fugar-loaf heads, fuf-
fered any viiible pain or inconvenience
Though the cuftom of compreffing the head in
this manner gives them an unpleafant appearance, by-
drawing up the eye-brows, and fometimes producing
the difagreeable effeeft of fquinting, as well as of flatten¬
ing the nofe and diftending the noftrils, they are by
no means an ill looking race of people. 1 hey have
alfo the cuitom, which is known to prevail in fo many
Indian nations, of plucking out the beard by the roots,
on its firft appearance ; and, as it continues to fprout,
to keep it down by the fame pradtice. It is one of
the domeftic employments affigned to their wives, to
watch this appearance of manhood, and to eradicate
the hairs as they come forth ; which they do in a very
dexterous mannerwith their fingers, and without giving
theleaft pain in the operation.— Some of them, however,
though we faw but very few of this di.pofition, when
they advance in years and become infirm, fuffer their
beards to grow without interruption. But, notwith-
N 2 Handing
N O O [ ioo 1 N O O
Nootka- ftanding they have fo great an averfion to the hair of
Sound. the{r chin, that of the head is an objeft of their atten¬
tive vanity : it is ftrong, black, and glolTy, grows to a
confiderable length, and is either tied in a kind of knot
on the top of their heads, or fuffered to hang down
their backs in flowing negligence.
“ In their exterior form they have not the fymme-
try or elegance which is found in many other Indian
nations.—Their limbs, though flout and athletic, are
crooked and ill-ihaped ; their flcin, when cleanfed of
filth and ochre, is white ; and we have feen fome of the
v/omen, when in a date of cleanlinefs (which, however,
was by no means a common light, and obtained with
difficulty), who not only poflefled the fair complexion
of Europe, but features that would have at traded no¬
tice, for their delicacy and beauty, in thofe parts of
the world where the qualities of the human form are
beft underftood. But thefe examples of beauty are
by no means numerous among the women of Nootka,
who are calculated rather to difguft than to charm an
European beholder. Their hair, like that of the men,
is black ; their eyes are of the fame colour; and, in
exterior appearance, they are not to be immediately
diftinguiflied from the men. In their charafters they
are referved and chafte ; and examples of ioofe and
immodeft condiuT were very rare among them. There
were women it St George’s Sound, whom no offers
could tempt to meretricious fubmiffions.”
All reports concerning Nootka Sound agree in cha-
ra&erizing the inhabitants as “ a very inoft'enfive race
of people.”—Inoffenfive, however, as they are, a cu-
ftom of a very unnatural, and we fhould imagine cruel,
kind prevails among them : for, together with many
other articles which they expofed to fale to Cap¬
tain Cook’s (hips, they brought human fkulls and
hands (part of the flelh ftiil remaining on them),
which they acknowledged they had been feeding on ;
and fome of them, we are told, had evident marks of
the fire.
From hence it is too apparent, that the horrid prac¬
tice of devouring their enemies exifts here as well as at
New Zealand and other South fea-llands: and hence,
too, appears w hat men of even the beft natural difpofi-
tions will be,if left entirely to the freedom of their own
will, without law to controul or religion to inftrutt
them. As there are hut two villages of the Sound in¬
habited, the number of people cannot be many ; per¬
haps they are about 2oco in all. Our limits pre¬
vent us from being fo minute as we could wilh to be,
refpe&ing the form of their houfes and their manner
of building them ; of their furniture, decorations, and
other things of that kind : we can therefore only re¬
fer thofe who wifh for further information on this fub*
je£t to Cook and other voyagers and travellers, &c.
The employment of the men is chiefly fifhing, &c.
whilft the women manufa&nre their garments. Their
ingenuity in this and in the mechanic arts is far from
being inconfiderable ; and in the imitative arts their
fkill is very great. On thefe fubje&s, however, we
cannot enlarge : we have in general made it our bu»
finefs, and it certainly is our duty, to dwell, wnere it
can he done, on the manners or religion of the fnhar
bitants of the feveral places which come under our
notice ; and they who know the utility of this in dev&-
loping the philofophy of the human irind, the molt
important of all fciences, will not blame our intentions, Nootka-
even if they fhould not approve of the execution. In Sound.
Cook’s Voyages before referred to, we find the fol- "n~v~"L'
lowing obfervations on the religion and language of
the inhabitants of Nootka Sound.
“ Little knowledge we can be fuppofed to have ac¬
quired of the political and religious inflitutions efta-
bifhed among thefe people. We difeovered, however,
that there were fuch men as chiefs, diftinguiflitd by
the title of Acweek, to whom the others are, in fome
degree, fubordinate. But the authority of each of
thefe great men feems to extend no farther than to
his own family, who acknowledge him as their head.
As they were not all elderly men, it is poffible this
title may he hereditary.
“ Nothing that vve faw could give us any infight
into their notions of religion, except the figures alrea¬
dy mentioned, called Klumma. Thefe, perhaps, were
idols ; but as the word aciveek was frequently men¬
tioned when they fpoke of them, we may fuppofe
them to be the images of fome of their anceftors,
whofe memories they venerate. This, however, is all
conjecture ; for we could receive no information con¬
cerning them ; knowing little more of their language
than to enable us to afk the names of things, and
being incapable of holding any converfation with,
the natives relative to their traditions or their infli¬
tutions.
“ Their language is neither harfh nor difagreeable,
farther than proceeds from their pronouncing the k
and h with lefs foftnefs than we do. As to the com-
pofition of their language, we are enabled to fay but
little. It may, however, be inferred from their flow
and diftinft method of fpeaking, that it has few pre-
pofitions or conjunctions, and is deftitute of even a
Angle interjeCtion to exprefs furprife or admiration.
The affinity it may hear to other languages, we have
not been able fufficiently to trace, not having proper
fpecimens to compare itwith; but from thefewMexican
words we have procured, there is an obvious agreement
throughout the language, in the frequent terminations
of the words in /, ^/, or %.
“ The word -zvakafi was frequently in the mouths
of the people of Nootka. It feemed to exprefs appro-.
bation, applaufe, and friendlhip. Whenever they ap¬
peared to he pleafed or fatisfied at any fight or oc¬
currence, they would call out zvakaflzj zvakq/h ! — It
is worthy of remark, that as thefe people do effentially
differ from the natives of the iflands in the Pacific
Ocean, in their perfons, cufloms, and language, we
cannot fuppofe their refpeftive progenitors to have
belonged to the fame tribe, when they emigrated into
thofe places where we now find their defeendants.”
We cannot finifh this article without taking notice *
of a circumftance, which at the time made a great
noife in Europe, and which it is probable will find a
place in the future hiftoriesof the contending countries.
A fmall affociation of Britilh merchants refident
in the Eall Indies had, early in the year 1786, form¬
ed the projeCt of opening a trade to this part of the
world, for the purpofe of fupplying the Chinefe mar¬
ket with furs. The principal point towards which
thefe expeditions were directed, was Port Nootka, or
King George’s Sound ; and the,ad venturers, being in
fotae degree fa defied with their traffic* took meafuresy
Nopal
II
Norden.
NOR r
in the year 1788, to fecure to themfelves a permanent
fettlement ; at the fame time that the {hipping em¬
ployed in this expedition was generally two, and never
exceeded the amount of four, fmall veiTels. The Spa¬
niards conceived fome jealoufy of the intruhon of the
Englifh into a part of the world which they had long
been defirous to regard as their excluiive property ;
and accordingly a Spanifh frigate of 26 guns was dif-
patched from the province of Mexico, for the pur-
pofe of putting an end to this commerce. The Spa-
nifh frigate arrived in May 1789, and captured two
Englifh veffels in the following July, at the fame time
taking poffeffion of the little fettlement which had
been formed upon the coal!. Such, in fhort, is the
circumltance which was likely to involve us in
in an expenfive war. Happily, however, for both
countries, and perhaps for Europe, the matter was at
length, after great altercation, amicably fettled ; and
it mull Hill be fo frefh in the memories of our readers,
that we trull they will excufe us from enlarging fur¬
ther upon it—the whole article having extended per
haps to more than a fufficient length.
NOPAL, Raquette, or Indian Jig; plants fo
named by the Indians from which the cochineal is
colle&ed in Mexico. Thefe plants bear fruits which
refemble our figs ; tinge the urine of thofe who eat
them ; and probably communicate to the cochineal
the property which makes it ufeful to the dyer. The
Indians of Mexico cultivate the nopal near their habi
tations, and fow, as it were, the in fed! which affords
the cochineal. They make fmall nefts of mofs or
fine herbs ; put twelve or fourteen cochineals into
each nell; place three or four of thefe nefls on each
leaf of the nopal; and fallen them there by the prickles
of the plant. In the courfe of a few days, thoufands
of fmall infedls iffue out, and fix themfelves upon the
parts of the leaf which are bell flickered and afford
the mofl nourifhment. The cochineals are collecled
feveral limes in the courfe of the year; and are de
prived of life by fcalding them, or by putting them
into an oven. See Cochineal.
NOPALXOCHQUETZALLI, or Nopalcoch-
CCCNLVI QdJETZALLI' lhe prickly pear of Mexico, and com¬
mon over all the Wefl Indies. See Cactus.
NOPH. See Memphis.
NORBURY, atownin England, inStaffordlhire,on
the fouth-weft fide of Ecclefhall. Here is a furprifing
echo, which, taken 440 yards north-eafl from themanor-
houfe, near a little bank under a wood fide, repeats
in a Hill day 10 or n fyllables very dillindlly, or 12
or 13, if fpoke very quick. It is remarked that the
banks of the Black Meer, in this parifh, grow forward
every year over the furface of the water, at the rate
of three or four yards every feven years.
NORDEN (Frederic Lewis), an ingenious travel¬
ler and naval officer in the Danifh fervice, was bom
at Gluckfladt in Holflein tn the year 1708. He was
well fkilled in mathematics, fhip-building, and efpe-
cially in architefture ; and in 1732 obtained a penfion
to enable him to travel for the purpofe of Undying
the conflru£lion of Ihips, particularly the galleys and
other rowing veffels ufed in the Mediterranean. Fie
fpent near three years in Italy ; and Chrillian VI.
b£ing defirous of obtaining a circumflantial account of
Egypt,,Mr Norden at Florence received an order to
Norfolk.
Plate
1 o 1 1 NO R
extend his travels to that country. How lie acquitted Nordheiia
himelf in this commiffion, appears from his Travels
into Egypt and Nubia, printed at Copenhagen in
folio, 1756; and which were foon after tranflated in-
to Englilh by Dr Peter Templeman. In the war be¬
tween England and Spain, Mr Norden, then a cap¬
tain in the Danifh navy, attended Count Ulric Adol¬
phus, a fea captain, to England ; and they went out
volunteers under Sir John Norris, and afterwards un¬
der Sir Chaloner Ogle. During his flay in London,
Mr Norden was made a fellow of the royal fociety,
and gave the public drawings of fome ruins and coloffal
ftatues at Thebes in Egypt, with an account of the
fame in a letter to the Royal Society, fyq t. His
health at this time was declining ; and taking a tour
to France, he died at Paris in 1742.
NORDHEIM, a town in Germany, in the Hano¬
ver quarter. Of the four larger towns of this princi¬
pality", it is the third in order. It is fituated on the
Ruhme, which runs into the Leine. It contains 500
houfes, and, befide a fecularized Lutheran abbey, has
one parifh-church, and fome charitable foundations,
and alfo enjoy’s fome manufactures.
NORES (Jafon de), a fcholar, poet, and philofo-
pher, was born at Nicofia in Cyprus. He loft his for¬
tune when the Turks made themfeives mailers of that
ifiand in 1570. He retired to Padua; where he ac¬
quired great reputation by teaching moral philofophy.
His character had that call of feverity which is often
the confequence of fcholaftic habits. He was one of
thofe men who difeufs every thing without being ca¬
pable of feeling any thing. The Pajlor Fuio of Gua-
rini made its appearance ; and paftorals became a fa-
Ihionable fpecies of reading throughout all Italy. No-
res, who did not relifh works of this kind, attacked
the production of Guarini ; who entirely confuted him
in a little piece printed at Ferrara in 1588. Nores
made a reply two years after ; and the poet was pre¬
paring an anfwer Hill move fevere than the former,
when his antagonift died of grief occafioned by the
banilhment of his only fon for having killed a Vene¬
tian in a duel. He left behind him a great many works,
fome in Italian, and others in Latin. The chief of
his Italian works, are, 1. The Poeticks, Padua, 1588,
4to ; this edition is rare. 2. A Treatife on Republics,
1578, 410 ; which he forms on the model of that of
the Venetians, his mafters. 3. A Treatife on the
World and its Parts, Venice, 1571, 8vo. 4. Intro*
du&ion to three books of Ariftotle’s Rhetoric, Venice,
1584, 4to, valuable. 5. A treatife on what Comedy,
Tragedy, and Epic Poetry, may receive from Moral
Philofophy. His Latin works are, 1. Injlitutio in
Pbilofophiam Ciaronis, Padua, 1576, 8vo. 2. Brevis
et dtftinfia fimma praceptorum de arte difeendi, ex libris
Ciceronis culled a, Venice, 1553, 8vo; a good work.
3. De Conjiitutione purlium humance et civi/is philofo phis:,
4to. 4. Interpretatio in artem poet team Horatii, &c.
In all his works we remark great perfpicuity and ac¬
curacy, profound erudition, happy cxprelfions, an
elevated and fometimes forcible ftyle.—His fon Peter
Nores, fuccelfively fecretary to feveral cardinals, at. once
a man of letters and a man of bufinefs, left behind him
different manuferipts; among others, the life of Paul
IV. in Italian.
NORFOLK* a county of England, fo called from
its *
NOR [ 102 ] NOR
its northen fituation in rcfptrdt of Suffolk, is bounded
on the eaft and north by the German ocean ; on the
fouth by Suffolk, from which it is parted by the
rivers Waveney, and the Leffer Oufe ; and on the
weft it is feparated from Cambridgeftiire by the
Greater Oufe, and from a fmall part of Lincolnftiire
by the Wsfties. According to Templeman, it extends
in length 57 miles, in breadth 35, and 140 in cir¬
cumference. It contains an area of 1426 fquare
miles, one city, 32 market-towns, 711 villages, ac¬
cording to the book of rates; though fome make
them 1500, and 236,000 inhabitants, as fome have it,
and 283,000, according to others. It is divided into
31 hundreds, 164 vicarages, and 660 parifhes.
The air differs in different parts of the county ac¬
cording to the foil, which in fome places is marfhy,
efpeciafty on the fea coaft, and there the air is foggy
and unwholefome ; in others it is clayey and chalky,
poor, lean, and fandy, and there the air is good. The
county is almoft all champaign, except in fome places,
where rife gentle hills. The marffi-lands yield rich
pafture for cattle ; the clay-grounds peafe, rye, and
barley ; and the fandy-heaths feed vaft flocks of large
flieep, of which fome villages are faid to keep 4000
or 5000. Thefe heaths abound alfo in rabbits of a
filver-grey colour. Walfingham is noted for produ¬
cing the beft faffron. Great quantities of mackarel
and herring are caught upon the coafts of this county,
the former in the fpring, and the latter in September;
efpecially at Yarmouth, where they are cured in a
particular manner, and to great perfe&ion. Wood
and honey are alfo very plentiful in this county ; and
on the coafts jet and ambergreafe are fometimes found.
The inhabitants are generally ftrong and a£tive, fa-
gacious and acute. That they are fo robuft, is the
more to be wondered at, becaufe the common people
live much on puddings, Norfolk dumplings. They
are for the moil part in eafy circumftancea, and were
formerly very quarrelfome and litigious. In confe-
quence of this difpolition, lawyers fwarmed among
them to fuch a degree, that a ftatute was made fo
early as the reign of Henry VI. to reftrain their uum-
btr. The manufactures of the county, which is ex¬
ceedingly populous, are chiefly woollen and worfted
fluffs and ftockings, for which they are well fupplied
with wool fiom the vaft flocks of (heep bred in it. It
gives tide of duke to the elder branch of the family
of Howard, lies in the diocefe of Norwich, and fends
twelve members to parliament, viz. two knights for
the (hire, two citizens for Norwich, and two burgeffes
for each of the boroughs of Lynn Regis, Great Yar¬
mouth, Thetford, and Cattle rifing.
The county is u’ell watered, and fupplied with
flfli by the rivers Yare, Thyrn, Waveney, the Greater
and Leffer Oufe, and the Rure, befides rivulets. The
Eure abounds in excellent perch, and the Yare has
a tith peculiar to it called the ruffe. The latter rifes
about the middle of the county ; and after being
joined by the Waveney and Bure, falls into the fea at
Yarmouth. At the equinoxes, efpecially the autum¬
nal, the Oufe is fubjeCf to great inundations, being
forced back by the fea, that enters it with great
fury. This county was famous at a very early period
for its fjfheries, which were extenfive and valuable, and
feera to have been carried on with fpirk. It has alfo
been remmkable, for at leaft 400 years paft, for the
manufacture of hue worfted fluffs.
Norfolk, a county of Virginia contiguous to
North-Carolina.
Norfolk-JJland, a pretty little ifland of the South
Sea, lying in 290 J2 30" fouth latitude, and 1680 t6'
call longitude. A colony was lately fettled on it;
and the following account of it is given in Governor
Phillip’s Voyage to Botany Bayy See.
“ Norfolk-Ifland is about feven leagues in circum¬
ference; and if not originally formed, like many other
finall iflands, by the eruption of volcanic matter from
the bed of the fea, muft doubtlefs have contained
a volcano. This concluiion is formed from the vaft
quantity of pumice-ftone which is fcattered in all parts
of it, and mixed with the foil. The crater, or at
leaft fome traces of its former exiftence, will probably
be found at the fummit qf a fmall mountain, which
rifes near the middle of the ifland. To this mountain
the commandant has given the name of Mount Pitt,
The ifland is exceedingly well watered. At or near
Mount Pitt rifes a ftrong and copious ftream, which
flowing through a very line valley, divides itfelf into
feveral branches, each of which retains fufficient force
to be ufed in turning mills ; and in various parts of
the ifland fprings have been difeovered.
“ The climate is pure, falubrious, and delightful,
prefervtd from oppreflive heats by conftant breeze*
from the fea, and of fo mild a temperature through¬
out the winter, that vegetation continues there with¬
out interruption, one crop fucceeding another. Re-
frefhing fhowers from time to time maintain perpetual
verdure: not indeed of grafs, for none has yet been
feen upon the ifland; but of the trees, fhrubs, and other
vegetables, which in all parts grow abundantly. On
the leaves of thtfe, and of fome kinds in particular,
the fheep, hogs, and goats, not only live, but thrive
and fatten very much. To the falubrity of the air
every individual in this little colony can bear ample
teftimony, from the uninterrupted ftate of good health
which has been in general enjoyed-
“ When our fettlers landed, there was not a Angle
acre clear of wood in the ifland, and the trees were fo
bound together by that kind of creeping fhrub called
Jupple jack, interwoven in all dire&ions, as to render it
very difficult to penetrate far among them. The
commandant, fmall as his numbers were at firft, by
indefatigable aftivity foon caufed a fpace to be cleared
fufficient for the requifite accommodations, and for
the produdlion of efculent vegetables of all kinds in
the greateft abundance. When the laft accounts ar¬
rived, three acres of barley were in a very thiiving
ftate, and ground was prepared to receive rice and In¬
dian corn. In the wheat there had been a difappoint-
ment, the grain that was fown having been fo much
injured by the weevil as to be unfit for vegetation.
But the people were all at that time in commodious
houfes ; and, according to the declarations of Mr King
himfelf, in his letters to Governor Phillip, there wa*
not a doubt that this colony would be in a fituation
to fupport itfelf entirely without affiftance in lefs than
four years ; and with very little in the intermediate
time. Even two years would be more than fufficient
for this purpofe, could a proper fupply of black cattle
be fent.
Narvik,
Norfdftj,
Ifland.
“ Filh
NOR
Norfolk- « Fi(K are canght in great plenty, and in the pro-
llland pCr feafon very fine turtle. The woods are inhabited
Gorham. innumerable tribes of birds, many of them very
•—V—gay in plumage. The moft ufeful are pigeons, which
are very numerous; and a bird not unlike the Guinea
fowl, except in colour (being chiefly white), both of
which were at tirft fo tame as to fuffer themfelves to
be taken by hand. Of plants that afford vegetables
for the table, the chief are cabbage palm, the wild
plantain, the fern tree, a kind of wild fpinage, and a
tree which produces a diminutive fruit, bearing fome
refemblance to a currant. This, it is hoped, by tranf-
planting and care, will be much improved in fize and
flavour.
“ But the produ&ions which give the greateft im¬
portance to Norfolk-Ifland are the pines and the flax
plant ; the former rifing to a fize and perfe&ion un¬
known in other places, and promifmg the molt valuable
fupply of malts and fpars for our navy in the Ealt In¬
dies ; the latter not lefs, eltimahle for the purpofes of
making fail-cloth, cordage, and even the finell manu-
faftures, growing in great plenty, and with fuch
luxuriance as to attain the height ef eight feet. The
pines meafure frequently 160, or even 1B0 feet in
height, and are fometimes 9 or 10 feet in diameter at
the bottom of the trunk. They rife to about 80 feet
without a branch : the wood is faid to be of the
bell quality, almoft as light as that of the heft Norway
mails ; and the turpentine obtained from it is remark¬
able for purity and whitenefs. The fern tree is found
alfo of a great height for its fpecies, meafuring from
70 to 80 feet, and affords excellent food for the fheep
and other fmall cattle. A plant producing pepper,
and fuppofed to be the true oriental pepper, has been
difcovered lately in the ifland, growing in great plen¬
ty ; and fpecimens have been fent to England in order
to afcertain this important point.”
NoRFOLK-Souruly according to the account of Cap¬
tain George Dixon, is fituated in 570 3' north lati¬
tude, and 1350 36' weft longitude. It is a very ex-
tenfive place, but how far it llretches to the north¬
ward is not known. There may pofiibly be a paffage
through to the Bay of Elands, but neither is this cer¬
tain. The (bore, in common with the red of the
coaft, abounds with pines; there is alfo great quanti¬
ties of the witch-hazel. There are various kinds of
flowering trees and Ihrubs, wild goofeberies, currants,
and rafpberries ; wild parfley is found here in great
plenty, and it eats excellently either as a falad or boil¬
ed amongfl: foup. The faranne, or wild lily-root,
grows alfo in great plenty and perfection. Tlu-re are
a very few wild geefe or ducks feen here, but they are
(hy and difficult of approach.
NO RH AM, a town inEngland.in the county ofNor-
thumbtrland, on the river Tweed, near the mouth of the
Till, under the cable, which was anciently erefted on a
lleep rock moated round, for the better fecurity againft
the incurfions of the Scotch mofs-troopers. It is of
great antiquity ; and its old church has lately received
repairs, and been made a decent place of worfliip. An¬
tiquities have been difcovered here. The church had
the privilege of a fandluary. The caftle has been fre¬
quently honoured with the prefence of fovereigns, par¬
ticularly Edward I. here received the oath of treaty
NOR
from John Baliol of Scotland. It has been a for¬
midable ftrudlure, a great part of which is in ruins ;
the fite of which, with its demefnes, conliiled of 1030
acres.
NORIA,an hydraulic machine much ufed in Spain.
It confifts of a vertical wheel of 20 feet diameter, on
the circumference of which are fixed a number of little
boxes or fquare buckets, for the purpofe of raifing the
water out of the well, communicating with the canal
below, and to empty it into a refervoir above, placed
by the fide of the wheel. The buckets have a lateral
orifice to receive and to difeharge the water. The
axis of this wheel is embraced by four fmall beams,
croffing each other at right angles, tapering at the ex¬
tremities, and forming eight little arms. This wheel
is near the centre of the horfe walk, contiguous to
the vertical axis, into the top of which the horfe-beam
is fixed; but near the bottom it is embraced by four
little beams, forming eight arms fimilar to thofe above
deferibed, on the axis of the water wheel. As the
mule which they ufe goes round, thefe horizontal
arms, fupplying the place of cogs, take hold, each in
fucceffion, of thofe arms which are fixed on the axis
of the water wheel, and keep it in rotation.
This machine, than which nothing can be cheaper,
throws up a great quantity of water; yet undoubtedly
it has two defers ; the flrft is, that part of the water
runs out of the buckets and falls back into the well
after it has been railed nearly to the level of the refer¬
voir : the fecond is, that a confiderable proportion of
the water to be difeharged is rrifed higher than the
refervoir, and falls into it only at the moment when
the bucket is at the higheil point of the circle, and
ready to defeend.
Both thefe defe&s might be remedied with cafe,
by leaving thefe fquare buckets open at one end, ma¬
king them fwing on a pivot fixed a little above their
centre of gravity, and placing the trough of the re¬
fervoir in fuch a pofition as to Hop their progrefs whillt
perpendicular ; make them turn upon their pivot, and
fo difeharge their contents.
From the refervoir the water is conveyed by chan¬
nels to every part of the garden ; thefe have divifions
and fubdiviiions or beds, fome large, others very final!,
feparated from each other by little channels, into
which a boy with his fhovel or his hoe direfts the
water, firit into the moil ditlant trenches, and fuccef-
fively to all the red, till all the beds and trenches have
been either covered or filled with water.
Mr Townfend, from whom we base taken the above
account, thinks, that on account of the extreme fim-
plicity of this machine, it is an invention of the mod
remote antiquity. By means of it the inhabitants every
morning draw as much water from the well as will
ferve through the day, and in the evening didribute
it to every quarter according to the nature of their
crops. The refervoirs into which they raife the wa¬
ter are about 20, 30, or even 40 feet fquare, and
three feet high above the furface of the ground, w ith
a done cope on the wall, declining to the water for
the women to wadi and beat their cloths upon.
Our limits preclude us from following Mr Townfend
farther in the defenption of a particular noria ufed at
Barcelona; which he conceives to be the original chain-
pump,
[ i°3 1
NOR [ 104 ] NOR
Noricum pump* or at leaft its parent. He compares it with ii-
-Jl . milar inflruments. and Ihows its advantages and difad-
Nons. ' 0
? vantages.
NORICUM (Ptolemy, Tacitus); a Roman pro¬
vince, fituated between the Danube on the north, and
thus feparated from ancient Germany; the Alpes No-
rica: on the fouth ; the river ./finus on the weft, which
feparates it from Vindelicia ; and Mons Cetius on the
eaft, which divides it from Pannonia. Now contain¬
ing a great part of Auftria, all Saltzburg, Stiria, and
Carinthia. It was anciently a kingdom under its own
kings (Casfar, Velleius, Suetonius). Norici the people,
fubdued by Tiberius under Augulfus, as allies of the
Pannonii (Dio, Velleius). Tacitus reckons Noricum
among thofe provinces which were governed by pro¬
curators, officers fent by the emperors to receive and
difpofe of the public revenue according to order. It
was divided into two provinces, but at what time un¬
certain ; fuppofed as low down as Dioclelian and Con-
flantine, viz., the Noricum Ripenfe, running along the
fouth fide of the Danube ; and the Noricum Mediter-
raneum^ extending towards the Alps. How far each
of thefe extended in breadth does not appear: all the
account we have of the matter being from Sextus Ru¬
fus, and the Nctitia Imperii Occidentalis. Anciently a
country famous for its iron and Iteel (Horace) ; as is
Stiria at this day, a part of Noricum. A climate cold
and more fparingly fruitful (Solinus).
NOR IN, a river which rifes in a corner of the Ve¬
netian confines, that runs between the rugged matble
hills, and is left entirely to itfelf from its very fource ;
hence a vaft traft of land is overflowed by it, and en¬
cumbered with iceds, willows, and wild elders. A
fmall fpace of ground only remains dry between the
roots of the hills and the marfli at a place called Prud,
and that is all covered wich pieces of ancient hewn
Hones, fragments of infcriptions, columns, and capitals,
and bafs-reliefs of the heft age, w orn and deformed by
time, and the barbarifm of the northern people, who
begun on that fide to deftroy Narona. The inhabi¬
tants, who go often to cut reeds in the marfti, afiert,
that the veftiges of that large city may ftill be feen
underwater. It appears to have been extended over
the plain a great way, and undoubtedly it wras three
miles in length at the foot of the hills. The ancient
road is now under water; and it is neceflary to afcend
a very fteep road, in order to pafs the point of a crag¬
gy hill, on w'hich probably before the Roman times
thofe fortifications were eretted that coll Vetinius fo
much labour.
NORIS (Henry), cardinal, who was a great orna¬
ment of the order of the monks of St Augiiftine, was
defcended from the prefident Jafon, or James de No-
ris, and born at Verona 1631. He was carefully
educated by his father Alexander Noris, originally of
v Ireland, and well known by his Hiftory of Germany.
He difcovered from his infancy an excellent under-
ftanding, great vivacity, and a quick apprehenfion.
H is father inftrufted him in the rudiments of gram¬
mar, and procured an able profefibr of Verona, called
Mcjfoleim, to be his preceptor. At 15 he was admit¬
ted a penfioner in the Jefuits college at Rimini, where
he ftudied philofophy ; after which he applied himfelf
to the wikings of the fathers of the church, particu¬
larly thofe of St Auguftine ; and taking the habit in
N" 243.
the convent of the Auguftine monks of Rimini, he NorU.
diftinguilhed himfelf among that fraternity in a ffiort v—
time by his erudition ; infomuch, that as foon as he
was out of his noviciate or time of probation, the ge¬
neral of the order fent for him to Rome, in order to
give him an opportunity of improving himfelf in the
more folid branches of learning. He did not difap-
point his fuperior's expectations. He gave himfelf up
entirely to his ftudy, and fpent whole days, and even
nights, in the library of the Angeliques of St Auguf¬
tine. His conftant coutfe was to flick to his books
14 hours a day; and this courfe he continued till he
became a cardinal. By this means he became quali¬
fied to inftrudl others ; and on this errand he was fent
firft to Pezaro, and thence to Peroufa, where he took
his degree of doftor of divinity ; after which proceed¬
ing to Padua, he applied himfelf to finifli his Hiftory
of Pelagianifm. Pie had begun it at Rome at the age
of 26 ; and having completed his defign, the book
was printed at Florence and publiihed in 1673. The
great duke of Tufcany invited him the following year
to that city, made him his chaplain, and profeffor of
ecclefiaitical hiftory in the univerfity of Pifa, which
his highnefs had founded with that view.
In his hiftory he fet forth and defended the condem¬
nation pronounced, in the eighth general council,
againft Origen and Mopfuefta, the firft authors of the
Pelagian errors: he alfo added An Account of the
Schifm of Aquileia, and a Vindication of the Books
written by St Auguftine againft the Pelagians and
Semi-Pelagians. The work had procured him a great
reputation, but met with feveral antagonifts, to whom
he publiflied proper anfwers : the difpute grew warm,
and was carried before the fovereign tribunal of the
inquifition. There the hiftory was examined with
the utmoft rigour, and the author difmiffed without
the leaft cenfure. It Was reprinted twice afterwards,
and Mr Noris honoured by Pope Clement X. with
the title of Qualificator of the Holy Office. Notwith-
ftanding this, the charge was renewed againft the Pe¬
lagian Hiftory, and it was dilated afrefh before the
inquifition in 1676 ; but it came out again with the
fame fuccefs as at firll. Mr Noris was now fuffered
to remain in peace for fixteen years, and taught eccle-
fiaftical hiftory at Pifa, without any moleftation, till
he was called to Rome by Innocent XII. who made
him under-librarian of the Vatican in 1692. This
pofl; was the way to a cardinal’s hat; his accufers there¬
fore took frefh fire, and publifhed feveral new pieces
againft. him. Hence the Pope appointed fome learned
divines, who had the charafter of having taken neither
fide, to re examine Father Noris’s books, and make
their report of them. Their teftimony was fo advan¬
tageous to the author, that his holinefs made him
counfellor of the inquifition. Yet neither did this
hinder one of his adverfaries, the moft formidable on
account of his erudition, to rife up againft him, and
attack him warmly, under the affumed title of a Scru¬
pulous Dofdor of the Sorbonne. Noris tried to remove
thefe fcruples in a work which appeared in 1695, un¬
der the title of An Hiftorical Differtation concerning
one of the Trinity that fuffered in the Fltffi ; wherein,
having juftified the monks of Scythia, who made ufe.
of that expreffion, he vindicated himfelf alfo from the
imputation of having attainted the Pope’s infallibility.
NOR
y.-l<op:ng\ of having abufed Vincentius Lirinenfis, and other bi-
hirmandy f^fjpg Df Gaul, as favourers of Semi-pelagianifm, and
w*> T of having himfelf gone into the errors of the bifhop of
Ypres.
His anfwers to r.ll thefe aecufations were fo much
to the fatisfadlion of the Pope, that at length his ho-
linefs honoured him with the purple in 1695. After
this, he vvns in all the congregations, and employed in
the molt important affairs ; fo that he had little time to
fpend in his fludy, a thing of which he frequently
complained to his friends. Upon the death of cardi¬
nal Cafanati, he was made chief library-keeper of the
Vatican in 1700; and two years afterwards nomina¬
ted, among others, to reform the calendar : but he
died at Rome in 1704 of a dropfy. He was one of
the mod learned men in the laft century: his writings
abound with erudition, and are very elegantly tinifhed.
He was a member of the academy ; whence he affumei
the name of Eucrates Agoretico. His works are nu¬
merous, and were publifhed at Verona, in 1729 and
1730, in five volumes folio.
NORKOPING, a town of Sweden, in the pro¬
vince of Eaft Gothland, in eafl longitude 15O 30', la¬
titude 58° 20'. Its name fignifies “ the northern mar¬
ket” in the Swedifh language. It hands on the banks
of a large river called Motala, which coming from the
lake Vetter, falls a little lower into a gulf called Bra-
nvtken. It is the largeit and molt populous town in
Sweden, next to Stockholm, conveniently fituated
near the fen on a navigable river, which brings large
veffels up to the middle of the town. There are fome
bandfome ftreets, and the houfes in general are neatly
built. Some of the churches are worth feeing ; but
the greateft curiofity are the famous copper mines,
where there is a vaft number of people conftantiy at
work. In this article the town carries on a very good
trade ; as alfo in feveral other manufaftures, as lea¬
ther, heel, and guns, which they make the bed in
Sweden.
It covers a large (pace of ground, being ten miles
in circumference ; but the houfes are fmall and feat-
tered, and the inhabitants do not exceed 10,000. The
river Mctala flows through the town, forms a feries of
catarafts, and is divided into four principal ftreams,
which encircle feveral rocky iflands, covered with houfes
and manufa&ories. At the extremity of the town it-is
navigable for fmall veflels. Several manufa&ories are
eftabhfhed in the town ; 55 fabrics of cloth, which
employ 1500 men; 3 fugar-houfes ; 1 of fnuff; 50
mills for giinding corn, which is exported in large
quantities ; and a brafs fousdery. A fahnon-fifhery
gives employment and riches to many of the inhabi¬
tants.
NORMANDY, a province of France, bounded
on the north by the Englifh channel; on the eafl by
Picardy and the ifle of France ; on the fouth by
Perche and Maine, and one part of Bretagne; and
en the wed by the ocean. It is about i?5 miles in
length, 85 in breadth, and 600 in circumference.
It is one of the mod fertile, and brings in the larged
revenue of the kingdom. It abounds in all things
except wine, but they fupply that defe& by cyder and
perry. There are vafl meadows, fat paftures, and
the fea yields plenty of fifh. It contains iron, copper,
and a great number of rivers and harbours. It carries
Vol. XIII. Part I.
t 105 1
NOR
Norris.
on a great trade, is very populous, and comprehends Normans
a vab number of towns and villages. It is divided ^
into the Upper and Lower ; the Upper borders upon
Picardy, and the Lower upon Bretagne. It contains
feve-n dfocefes or bifhoprics, Rouen, Bayeux, Avran-
ches, Evreux, Sees, Liiieux, and Coutances, in which
they compute 4189 pariihes, and 80 abbeys. The in¬
habitants are ingenious, and capable of underbanding
any arts and fciences, but they are chiefly fond of law.
The Normans, a people of Denmark and Norway,
having entered France under-Rollo, Charles the Sim¬
ple ceded this country to them in 912, which from
that time was called Normandy, and contains about
8200 fquare miles. Its chief city is Rouen. Rolio
was the fird duke, and held it as a fief of the crown
of France, and feveral of his fucceflbrs after him, till
William, the feventh duke, conquered England in
1066 : from which time it became a province of Eng¬
land, till it-was loft in the reign of king John, and re¬
united to the crown of France ; but the Englifti ftill
keep the iflands on the coafts of Normandy.
The principal rivers are the Seine, the Eure, the
Aure, the Iton, the Dive, the Andelle, the Rille,
the Touque, the Dr6mee, and the Orne : among the.
fl aports, the principal are thofe of Dieppe, Havre,
Honfleur, Cherbutg, and Granville. Rouen is the
principal city.
NORMANS, a fierce warlike people of Norway,
Denmark, and other parts of Scandinavia. They at
different times over-ran and ravaged moft countries in
Europe 1 to the refpe&ive hiftories of thofe countries
we therefore refer for a fuller account of them, as it
is impoffible to enlarge upon particulars in this place
without repeating what has been already faid, or may
be faid, in different parts of the work.
Norman Charatters, a fpecies of writing introduced
into England by William I. From fome old manu-
feripts the Ncrman writing appears to have been com-
pofed of letteis nearly Lombardic. In regal grants,
charters, public inftruments, and law proceedings, this
charatter was ufed with very little variation from the
reign of the Conqueror to that of Edward III. See
Wr 1 t i n g .
NORRIS, or Noris. See Noris.
NORRIS (John), a learned Englifh divine and Pla¬
tonic phllofopher, was born in 161;7 at Collingborne-
Kingfton, in Wiltfhire, of which place his father Mr
John Norris was then minifter. He bred his fan firil
at Winchefter fchool, and afterwards fent him to Ex¬
eter college in Oxford, where he was admitted in
1676 ; but was elefted fellow of All Souls in 1680,
foon after he had taken his degree of bachelor of arts.
From his firft application to philofophy, Plato became
his favourite author ; by degrees he grew deeply ena¬
moured with the beauties of that divine writer, as he
thought him; and took an early occafion to communi¬
cate his ideal happinefs to the public, by printing an
Englifh tranflation of a rhapfody, under the title of
The Pifture of Love unveiled, in 1682. He com¬
menced mafter of arts in 1684, and the fame year
opened a correfpondence with that learned myftic di¬
vine Dr Henry More of Chrift’s college in Cambridge.
He had alfo a correfpondence with the learned lady
Mafham, Dr Cudworth’s daughter, and the ingenious
Mrs Aftell. He refided at his college, and had been
O ij%
N O
Norris,
North.
TX [ 106 ] NOR
when he was prefented to lating to the long parliament; The hillory of the
* ' ‘ "■ life of Lord Edward North, the firft Baton of the
in holy orders five years,
the re£ory of Newton StLoe, in Sotnerfetihire, 1689 ;
' upon which occafion he married and refigned his fel-
lowfhip. In 1691, his diftinguilhed^ merit procured
him the reftory of Bemerton, near Sarum. This li¬
ving, upwards of 2001. a-year, came very feafonably
to his growing family ; and was the more acceptable,
for the eafinefs of the parochial duty, which gave him
leifure to make an addition to his revenues by the h ints
of his genius ; the activity of which produced^ large
harveft, that continued increafing till 1710. But this
activity feems to have become fatal to him ; for^ to¬
wards the latter end of his life, he grew very infirm,
and died in 1711, in his 55th year, at Bemerton. Lie
was interred in the chancel of that church, where there
is a handfome marble monument credited to his memo¬
ry, with this infcription : “ H. S. E. Johannes Norris,
pirochise hujus re&or, ubi annos viginti bene Irtuit
euros paftorali et hteris vacans, quo in recefiti iibi
pofuit late per orbem fparfa ingenii paris ac pietatis
monumenta. O.biit an. Dorn. 1711, gratis 54.” _ As
to his char after, he had a tinfiure of enthufiafm in his
compofiticn, which led him to imbibe the piinciples
of the idealifts in philofophy, and the mytlics in theo-
logy ; and the whole turn of his poetry fhows, that this
enthufiafm alone made him a poet. As an ideal;fi, he
oppofed Locke, and adorned Malebranche’s opinion,
of feeing all things in God, with all the advantages
of flyle and perfpicuity of expreflion. In fhort, his
errors, which are harmlefs enough of themfelves, ought
to be eafily pardoned, on account of the g '.eral ex¬
cellence of his writings, efpecially upon fubjefts of
pra&ieal divinity, wLich are univerfally efteemed.
NORTH, one of the four cardinal points of the
world ; being that point of the horizon udiich is di-
retlly oppofite to the fun in meridian. The north
wind is generally accompanied with a confiderabie de¬
gree of cold. It fometimes blows with almoft irrefift-
ible fury. It is often mentioned by the claffic authors
under the name of Boreasy. which is of GreeK original.
See Boreas.
North Pole. See Pole.
North (Dudley, lord), the third baron of that
accomplilhed family, was one of the fined gentlemen
in the court of king James ; but in fupporting that
chara&er, difupated and gamed away the greateft part
of his fortune. In 1645, he appears to have a£ed
with the parliament; and was nominated by them to
be adminidrator of the admiralty, in conjun&ion with
the great earls of Northumberland, Efiex, Warwick,
and otheis He lived to the age of 85, the latter
part of which he pafied in retirement ; and wrote a
fmall folio of mifcelianies, in profe and verfe, under
this title, A Fored promifeueus of feveral Seafons
Prcdu&ions, in four parts, 1659.
North (Dudley, lord), fon of the former, was
made knight of the bath in 1616, at the creation of
Charles prince of Wales ; and fat in many parliaments,
till excluded by the prevailing party in thaf which
condemned the king. From that period lord North
lived privately in the country, and towards the end
of his life entertained himfelf with books, and, as
his numerous ifiue required, with economy ; on which
he wrote a little traft, called Obfervations and advices
economicaly 12mo. His other works are, Paffages re¬
North.
family, addreiTed to his tided fon ; and a volume of
Effays.
North (Francis lord Guildford, lord-keeper of the
great feal in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.)
was a third fon of the fccond Dudley lord North,
baron of Kertling ; and dudied at St John’s college
in Cambridge, from whence he removed to the Middle
Temple. He acquired French, Italian, Spaniih, and
Dutch ; and became not only a good lawyer, but was
well verfed in hidoty, mathematics, philofophy, and
mufic. He was afterwards made the king’s folicitor-
general, and was chofen to reprefent the borough of
Lynn in parliament. Fie fucceeded Sir Heneage
Finch in the pod of attorney-general ; and lord chief-
juftice Vaughan, in the place of lord chief-judice of
the common pleas. He was afterwards made keeper
of the great feal; and in 16S3 was created a baron,
by the title of Lord Gnddford. He died at his houfe
at Wroxton in 1685. He wrote a philofophical eflay
on mufic ; a paper on the gravitation of fluids, con-
fidered in the bladders of iiflies, printed in I.owthorp’s
abridgement of the Philofophical TranfaHions; and
fome other pieces.
North ( Right Hon. Frederick), earl of Guild¬
ford, lord North, lord warden and admiral of the
Cinque Ports, governor of Dover cadle, lord lieute¬
nant and cuflos roculorum of Somerfetdiire, chancellor
of the univerfity of Oxford, recorder of Gloucefttr
and Taunton, an elder brother of the Trinity-houfe*
prefident of the Foundling hofpital and of the Afylurtv,.
a governor of the Turkey Company atid of the Char¬
ter houfe, K. G. and LL. D. was born April 13.
1732; and married, May 20. 1756, Mifs Ann Speke,
an heirefs of the ancient family of Dillington in So~
merfetfnire, by whom he has left two fons and three
daughters: the eldeft fon George-Auguftus, born
Sept. 11. 1757, and married, Sept. 30. 1785, to Mif»
Hobart, fucceeds to the earldom and edates. The
late earl fucceeded his father Auguff 4. 1790. Hia-,
lordfhip fuccceded the celebrated Mr Charles Townf-
end as manager of the houfe of commons and chan-,
cellor of the exchequer; and in 1770, on the refig-
nation of the duke of Grafton, was made firft lord of
the treafury ; in which office he continued until the
clofe of the American war, or rather unt/1 the forma¬
tion of the Rockingham miniftry, which began the
bufkiefs of peace with the colonies. He was a man-
of ftrong mental faculties ; and as an orator, at once
commanded attention and enforced conviction : but
taking the helm at a time when the king’s party were
unpopular, and when it was fuppofed that the late
earl of Bute was the great machine by which the ca¬
binet was moved, fo he continued in that Hate of un»
popularity until he refigned the feals. During the
whole of his premierfhip (and to conduft the helm at
that time required uncommonly great abilities) he ftu-
dioufly avoided impofing any taxes that fliould mate¬
rially affedl the lower c’afs of people. The luxuries,
and not the necefLries, of life were repeated objects
of his budget. As a financier, he flood high, even
in the opinion of oppofition ; and they were a combi¬
nation of all the great talents in the kingdom : but,
fatally wedded to the definitive plan of fubduing the
republican
NOR [ i
North republican fpirit of the Americans, his adminiilratioH
'I ^ will not only Hand marked in the page of hiltory with
IMTaec* an wafteof public treafure, but it will appear
—- befprinkled with the kindred blood of thoufands of
Britifh fubje&s. To the very laft moment he fpoke in
the fenate, however, he defended that war; and faid,
he was then, as he was formerly, prepared to meet the
minuteft inveftigation as to his conduil in that bufi-
nefs; which nothing but the unforefeen intervention
of France could have prevented from being crowned
with faccefs. His lordlhip was one of the firmed and
mofl flrenuous fupporters of the conliitution in church
and date. He died on the yth of Augud 1792. His
recollection he retained to his lad moments : his fa¬
mily, except lord North, who came within a few mi¬
nutes afterwards, were affembled round his bed, and he
took leave of them individually. Their grief did not
fuffer them to leave the room for feme time after the
event; and Lady Caroline Douglas was at lad forced
from it. Even Dr Warren, who mud be itrengthened
as far as habit can operate againd nature to endure
fuch feenes, ran from this, convulfed with forrow. If
any extent of fympathy can leffen affliction, this fa¬
mily may find fuch relief; for perhaps no man was ever
more generally beloved by all who had accefs to him
than the earl of Guildford.
We may form an opinion of the edimation the cele¬
brated univerfity of Oxford entertained of their chan¬
cellor while living, by the very great honour they
■paid to his remains. About five o’clock in the after¬
noon of the 15th, the great bell at St Mary’s church
at Oxford rang out, which was a iignal that the fune¬
ral procellxon had arrived in the environs of that city.
The officers of the univerfity, and the whole body of
refident dudents, were previoufly adembled in Mag¬
dalen College, in order to pay fome tribute to the
memory of their deceafed chancellor. They joined
the proceffion at Magdalen Bridge, and paraded on
foot before the hearfe up the high-dreet to Carfax ;
from thence down the corn market to St Giles’s church
at the town’s end, in a mod folemn manner. Here
they halted, and opening to the right and left, the
hearfe and other carriages paffed through, the whole
univerfity being uncovered. The hearfe and attend¬
ants then proceeded to Banbury, where his Lord-
- fhip’s remains were depofited in the family vault.
NoRTH-Cape, the mod northerly promontory in
Europe, on the coad of Norway. E. Long. 21. o.
N. Lat. 78.0.
NokTR-Ferry, a fmall village, on the north fide of
the Firth of Forth, at the Chieen’s-Ferry paffage.
There was here formerly a chapel, ferved by the monks
of Dunfermline, and endowed by Robert I. Near it
are large granite quarries, which partly fupply London
■with paving dones, and employ many vedels for the
conveyance. “ The granite (Mr Pennant fays) lies
in perpendicular drata, and above is a reddifh earth,
filled with micaceous friable nodules.”
NoRiH-Fore/aiid) a cape or promontory of Kent,
in the ille of Thanet, four miles ead of Margate. Be¬
tween this and the South-Foreland arc the Downs,
through which nil diips pafs that are bound to or from
the wed. E. Long. x. 25. N. Lat. 51. 25.
North-JVeJi Paffage, a paffage to the Pacific Ocean
through Hudfon’s Bay or Davis’s Straits, and which
bath been frequently attempted without fuccefs; not-
07 ] N O It
withdanding which, many people are dill of opinion North-wed
that it is prafticable. Paflage. ^
The idea of a paffage to the Eaft Indies by the "“v -
north pole, or through fome opening nearto it, was
fuggeded as early as the year 1527. The perfon who
had the honour to conceive this idea was Robert
Thorne, a merchant of Bridol, who addreffed two pa¬
pers on the fubjeft, the one to king Henry VIII. the
other to Dr Ley, ambaffador from that monarch to
the emperor Charles V. To remove any objection to
the undertaking, which might be drawn from the
fuppofed danger, he infills, in his addrefs to the king,
upon the great advantages of condant day-light in the
polar feas, and the probability of the climate being
in thofe regions temperate during the dimmer months.
In the paper addrefied to Dr Ley, he obferves that
cofmographers may as probably be miilaken in the
opinion which they entertain of the polar regions be¬
ing impaffable from extreme cold, as it lias been found
they were in fuppofing the countries under the line
to be uninhabitable from exceffive heat.
“ The poffibility of the paffage was, in confequence
of thefe addreffes, very generally fuppofed ; and hi
I $57, Sir Martin Forbifher failed to 62° north lati-
titude, where he difeovered the draits which have
fince bore his name. In 1577, Barne; in a book intit-
led the Regiment of the Sea, mentions a north-wed pad
fage as one of the five ways to Cathay; and dwells on
the mildnefs of the climate, which, from the condant
prefence of the fun during dimmer, he imagines mud
be found near the pole. In 1578, George Bed, a
gentleman who had been with Sir Martin Forbifher
in his voyages of difeovery, wrote a very ingenious
difeourfe to prove all parts of the world habitable. It
does not, however, appear that any voyage was un¬
dertaken, for the exprefs purpofe of attempting to fail
to India in a north-weft diredion, till the year 1607,
when Henry Hudfon' was fent, at the expence of fome
merchants in London, to difeover a paffage by the
north pole to Japan and China. He faiKl from
Gravefend on the iff of May, and on the 21ft of June
fell in with the land to the weftward, in latitude 730,
which he named Hold-with-hope. On the 27th he dif¬
eovered Spitfbergen, and met with much ice. The
higheft latitude in which he made an obfervation was
So® 27'. See Hudson.
In March 1609, Jones Poole was fent by Sir Tho¬
mas Smith, and the reft of the MufcOvy company, to
make further difeoveries towards the north pole. Af¬
ter great feverity of weather, and much difficulty from
ice, lie made the fouth part of Spitfbergen on the 16th
of May? and failing along and founding the coad, he
made many accurate difeoveries ; but was not in that
voyage able to proceed beyond 790 50'. He was
again employed (i6ii), in a fmall veffel called the
Elifahelh, to attempt the north-weft paffage; but af¬
ter furmounting numberlefs difficulties, and penetra¬
ting to 809 of latitude, he loft his fhip at Spitfber¬
gen. Two voyages, equally unfuccefsful, were made
in 1614 and 1615, by Baffin and Fotherby; the latter
of whom concludes the account of his difeoveries and
dangers, with exhorting the company which employed
him not to adventure more than 150 or 200 pounds
at moft on yearly voyages to thefe feas.
Hitherto nothing h^d been done in this great un¬
dertaking but by private adventurers, fitted out for
O 2 the
NOR f 10S ] NOR
North-weft tne double purpofe of difcovery and prefent advantage;
, <>a^a>?e' and the polar regions were fuffered to remain untx-
* plored in that dire&ion, from the year 1615 till I773>
when the earl of Sandwich, in confequtnce ol an ap¬
plication which had been made to him by the Roy. 1
Society, laid before his majefty a propofal for an ex¬
pedition to try how far navigation is practicable to¬
wards the north pole. Upon receiving this propofal,
his majefty was pleafed to direCt that the voyage ihouid
he immediately undertaken, with every affiftance that
could contribute to its fuccefs. Accordingly, the Race-
horfe and Carcafs bombs were fitted out for the pur
pofe, and the command of the expedition given to
Captain Phipps, now Lord Mulgrave. His Lord
fhip’s inllrudtions were to proceed up to the pole, or
as far towards it as pofhble, and as nearly upon a me
ridian as the ice or other obifruCtions fhould admit;
and during the courfe of the voyage, to make fuch
obfervations of every kind as might be ufeful to navi¬
gation, or tend to the promotion of natural know¬
ledge. A. very accurate account of this voyage was
publifhed by his Lordlhip in 1774. He had, by ex¬
erting all the powers of a Ikilful and intrepid featnan,
forced his way, on the ill of Augult, to 8o° 37' ; but
could proceed no farther, as he was there oppofed by
one continued plain of fmooth unbroken ice, bounded
only by the horizon.
Many other attempts have been made to difeover
this paflage, by failing along the weftem coaft of Ame¬
rica ; but hitherto none of them has been crowned
with fuecefs. So early as 1579, Sir Francis Drake
allured queen Elifabeth that he had failed feme leagues
up the {traits of Anian (feeAMAN), and difeovered
New Albion, to the north of Calefornia; but the llrait
is now known to have no exigence ; and Drake’s real
difeoveries were not improved. In 1630, king Cha. I.
fent captain Luke Fox in one of his pinnaces to at¬
tempt the paffage ; but of his proceedings we know
nothing, but that he reached port Nelfon in Hudfon’s
bay, \w.iere he found fome remains of former naviga¬
tors. Next year captain James was fitted out by the
merchants of Briftol for the fame purpofe. James
was one of the ableft navigators that ever failed from
England or any other country ; and his voyages to
the north were printed ia 1633. After all the expe¬
riments he had made, he concluded that there was no
fuch paflage ; or if there be, he affirmed that the difco¬
very of it would not be attended with chofe advantages
which are commonly expedled. His reafons, how¬
ever, for thefe opinions have been anfwered, and ma¬
ny fubfequent attempts have been made to perform
what he thought impeffibie. The arguments for a
north-well palfage were fo plaufible, that, in 1744, an
aft of parliament was palled to encourage the difcove¬
ry of it. Among many others, captain Cook attempted
the difcovery in vain, and thence adopted James’s opi¬
nion. (See Cook's Difcoverits, h 103.) This cele¬
brated navigator, after having proceeded northwards
to the we Hern extremity of America, and afeertained
the proximity ol the two great continents of Alia and
America, returned to the Sandwich ifiands, firmly
perfuaded of the impracticability of a paflage in that
hemifphere from the Atlantic into the Pacific Ocean,
fithe? by an eallern or a wellern courfe.
Later voyagers, however, have pretended to deted
fome errors in Cook’s difeoveries *, and the author of No th-eaft
a fmall traCt, intitled /In authentic htatement of all the
Fads relative to Nootka-Souncl, goes a great way to ” » J
make the difcovery not yet hopelefs. in nis account
cf the expedition under the direction of Meflrs Etches,
he fays, that “ one of the firlt difeoveries made by
thefe Ihips *as, that what was by the immortal Cook
laid down as a continuation of the north-weft continent
of America, and lying between the northern latitudes
of 48 and 57, is on the contrary an extenfive duller
of unexplored Hands inhabited by numerous tribes of
friendly Indians, with whom a regular connection was
formed.”
Thefe Hands they difeovered, contrary to the af-
fertion of captain Cook, to conceal the opening of a
vail inland fca, or archipelago, in all probability
equal to the Mediterranean or Baltic feas, and divid¬
ing tire great northern continent of America. The
Princefs Royal penetrated fome hundred leagues among
them, in a north-eaft courfe, to within 200 leagues of
Hudfon’s houfe, but had not then an opportunity to
explore the extreme termination of that archipelago,
their commercial concerns obliging them to return to
the China market ; but the commanders had the
ftrongeft reafons to believe, had time favoured their
furvey, that they Ihouid have been able to difeover the
long-wilhed for palfage between the Atlantic and
South Sea. They conceived, that Ihould neither the
inland aim of the fea through which the Princels
Royal penetrated, nor a large ftrait named Sir Charles
Middleton’s, about three degrees to the fquthward, be
found to reach acrofs the continent, yet that the land
barrier mull be very inconfiderable ; and that at the
extremity of this bay a pradlicable paflage, either by
rivers or lakes, will, by perftverance, be found ter¬
minating towards Hudfon’s bay.
Upon the whole, however, it appears to us extremely
doubtful whether there be fuch a pallage ; but it is
much more likely to be difeovered, if difeovered at all,
by the progreffive advances of mercantile enterprife
than by any immediate expedition undertaken for that
purpofe.
North-EoJI Paffage, a paflage to the Eaft Indies
along the northern coafts of Afia, which, like the
former, hath frequently been attempted, but hitherto
without fuccefs. The firft attempt was made in 1 i 53
by Sir Hugh Willoughby, who commanded three
(hips. He departed from the 1 hames and failed to
the North Cape, where one of his Ihips left him, and
returned home. The other two ffiips being feparated.
Sir Hugh proceeded farther northward, and difeover¬
ed that part of Greenland which the Dutch have
finee called Spiazberg; but the feverity of the cold
obliging him to return to the fouthward, he wras for¬
ced, by bad weather, into the river Arzina, in Mus¬
covite Lapland, where, not being able to come out,
he was found the next fpring frozen to death, with all
his (hip’s company ; having the notes of his voyage
and his laft will lying before him, whereby it appear¬
ed that he lived till January. But Richard Chancel¬
lor, in the thira ffiip, with better fuccefs, in the mean¬
while entered Wardhuys, where he waited fome time
for his companions to no purpofe ; uncertain whether
they were loll, or driven farther by ftrefs of weather.
He held a council on what he Ihouid do j whether to
return
NOR r ICO ] NOR
|n rth-eafl return, or purfuc his voyage. Whatever danger might
Paffage. jn Isft, every one agreed to it, that they miglrt
r * not feem to have lefs courage tixan their captain.
They therefore fet fail, and in a few days found them-
felves in a fea where they could no longer perceive any
night. This (hip, wandering a'.Out, entered foon af¬
ter into a large bay or gulf. Here they cad anchor,
in fight of land ; and while they were examining the
coaft, they difeovered a fifhing boat. Chancellor
getting into his fioop, went towards it ; but the filher-
men took to flight. He followed,and, overtaking them,
(bowed them fuch civilities as conciliated their affec¬
tions to him ; and they carried him to the place where
now is the famous port of St Michael the Archangel.
Thefe people immediately fpread through all the cqafts
an account of the arrival of tbofe fl rangers; and people
came from feveral parts to fee them, and alk them
queftions. 'They, in their turn, examined the others,
arid found that the country they were in was Ruflia,
governed by the mighty Emperor John Balllowitz.
Chancellor from Archangel travelled on fledges to
the Czar at Mofcow; from whom, overjoyed at the
profpert of opening a maritime commerce with Eu¬
rope, he obtained privileges for the Englifh merchants,
and letters to King Edward VI. who was not, how¬
ever, alive to receive them.
In 1581;, Mr John Davis in two barks difeovered
Cape Defolation, which is fuppofed to be part of
Greenland ; and two years after advanced as far as
Lat. 72°, where he difeovered the (trait which itiil
bears his name To enumerate all the attempts which
have been made to difeover a north-call paffage, would
fwell the article to very little purpofe. The Englifh,
Dutch, and Danes, have all attempted it without fuc-
cefs. The lait voyage from England for this pur¬
pofe was made in 1676, under the patronage of the
duke of York. That unfortunate prince, who v/as
on all occafions earned for the promotion of com¬
merce, and the Lord Berkeley, See. fitted out a (hip,
commanded by Captain Wood, for an att-mpt once
more to find a Rorth-eafl paffage to India, accom¬
panied with a (hip of the king’s. They were en¬
couraged to this attempt, after it had been fo long
dtfpaired of, by feveral new reports and reafonings :
dome of which feem not to have been very well
grounded — As,
“ 1. On the coad of Corea, near Japan, whales had
been found with Englifh and Dutch harpoons (tick¬
ing in them. This is no infallible proof that (hips
could get thither by a north-ead pailage, although
whales might.
“ 2. That, 20 years before, fome Dutchmen had
failed within one degree of the north pole, and found
it temperate weather there : and that therefore Wil¬
liam Barents, the Dutch navigator who wintered at
Nova Zembla in the year 1596, fhould have failed
further to the north before turning eadward ; in which
cafe, faid they, he would not have found fo much ob-
ftrudtion from the ice.
“ 3. That two Dutch (hips had lately failed 300
leagues to the eadward of Nova Zembla; but their
Ead India company had llifled that defign, as againd
their intereil:—and fuch like other airy reports. But
this attempt proved very unfortunate. They doubled
the North Cape, and came among much ice and drift
wood, in 76’ of north latitude, deering to the coad Northamp-
of Nova Zembla, where the king’s (hip Itruck upon ton J
the rocks, and was foon beat to pieces ; and Captain ^
Wood returned home with an opinion, “ that fuch
a paffage was utterly impracticable, and that Nova
Zembla is a part of the continent of Greenland.”
Thefe paffages, however, are not yet deemed im-
pradticable by all. The Count de Buffon holds it for
certain, that there is a paffage from Europe to China
by the north fea. The reafon why it has been fo of¬
ten attempted in vain, he thinks, is, that fear pre¬
vented the undeitakt-rs from keeping at a fuificient
diilance from land, and from approaching the pole,
which they probably imagined to be an immenfe rock.
Hence he affirms, that if any farther attempts be
made to find a paffage to China and Japan by the
north Teas, it will be neceffary to keep at a diffance
from the land and the ice ; to deer directly towards
the pole ; and to explore the mod open feas, where
unqueffionably, fays he, there is little or no ice. This
opinion has been lately revived by the Hon. Daines
Barrington, who fays, that if the padage be attempted
by the pole itfelf, he has very little doubt of its being
accomplifhed. See North- Polf.
NORTHAMPTON, a town in England, capital
of a county of the fame name, (Ituated in W. Long,
o. 55. N. Lat. 52. 15. According to Camden, it
was formerly called North-afandon, from its (ituation
to the north of the river Nen, called anciently Aufona,
by which and another leffer river it is almoll inclofed.
Dr Gibfon fays, that the ancient Saxon annals called
both it and Southampton (imply Hamton ; and after¬
wards, to didinguifh them, called the one, from its fitu-
ation, Southamton, and the other Northamton ; but
never North-afandon. i hough it does not appear to
be a place of very great antiquity, nor to have emerged
from obfeurity till after the conqued, it has.fent mem¬
bers to parliament lince the reign of Edward I. and
being in the heart of the kingdom, feveral parliaments
have been held at it. There was alfo a caille, and a
church dedicated to St Andrew, built by Simon dc
Sanclo Licio, commonly called Senlez, the lird earl
of Northampton of that name. It is faid to have
been burnt down during the Danilh depredations,;
but in the reign of St Edward it appears to have been
a confiderable place. It was befieged by the barons
in their war with King John ; at which time that mi¬
litary work called Hunjhill, is fuppofed to have been
raifed. In the time of Henry HI. it lided with the
barons, when it was btfieged and taken by the king.
Here the bloody battle w*s fought in which Henry VI.
was taken prifonef. It was entirely confumed by a
moll dreadful fire in 1675 ; yet, by the help of liberal
contributions from all parts of the country, it hath
fo recovered itfelf, that it is now one of the neatefl:
and bell-built towns of the kingdom. Among the pub¬
lic buikffngs, which are all lofty, the mod remarkable
are the church called ,dll-hallows (which dands at
the meeting of four fpacious ftreets), the feffions and
aflize houfe, and the George-Inn, which belongs to
the poor of the town. A county hofpital or infir¬
mary has been lately built here, after the manner of
thofe of Bath, London, Bridol, &c. It has a con¬
fiderable manufadlure of (hoes and dockings; and its
fairs are noted for horfes both for draught and faddle;
befides,.
NOR
•NtWthanip
ton,
Wortham-
tonfliite.
t no ]
NOR
befides, it Is a great thoroughfare for the north and
weft roads. It was formerly walled, and had feven
churches within and two without. The horfe-market
is reckoned to exceed all others in the kingdom, it
being deemed the centre of all its horfe-markets and
horfe-fairs, both for faddle and harnefs, and the chief
rendezvous of the jockies both from York and Lon¬
don. Its principal manufacture is fhoes, of which
great numbers are fent beyond fea ; and the next to
that, ftockings and lace, as we have hinted at above.
It is the richer and more populous, by being a tho¬
roughfare both in the north and weft roads ; but, be¬
ing 80 miles from the fea, it can have no commerce
by navigation. The walls of this town were above
two miles in compafs. It is fuppofed to contain
about 1083 houfes, and 5200 inhabitants. It had
formerly a nunnery in the neighbouring meadows,
with feveral other monafteries ; and of its very old
caftle on the weft fide of the town, a fmall part of
the ruins are Hill to be feen. Some difeontented
•fcholars came hither from Oxford and Cambridge,
about the.end of the reign of Henry III. and, with
the king’s leave, profecuted their ftudies here acade¬
mically for three years; during which there was the
face of an univerlity, till it was put a ftop to by ex-
prefs prohibition, becaufe it was a damage to both
univerlities. The public horfe-races are on a neigh¬
bouring down, called Pye-Leys. In and about the
town are abundance ef cherry-gardens. Within half
a mile of the town is one of the croffes ere&ed by
King Edward I. in memory of his Queen Eleanor,
whofe corpfe was refted there in its way to Weftmin-
fter. On the north fide of the river, near that crofs,
■many Roman coins have been ploughed up. At
Guilefborough, north-weft of Northampton, arc to
be feen the veih'ges-of a Roman camp, the fituation
of which is the morfe remarkable, as lying between
the Nen and the Avon, the only pafs from the north
to the fouth parts of England not intercepted by any
river. This camp was fecured orjy by a fingle
intrenchment, which was, however, very broad and
deep.
NoRTHAMPTOvsHiaE, a county of England, is fitua-
ted in the very heart of the kingdom : bounded on
the eaft by the counties of Bedford and Huntingdon;
.-on the fouth by thofc of Buckingham and Oxford ;
en the weft by Warwick (hire ; and on the north by
the counties of Leiceftcr, Rutland, and Lincoln, which
are feparated from it by the Leffer Avon, and the
Welland. Its greateft length is about £0 miles, its
greateft breadth about 20, and its circumference about
130. It contains 33oparifhes. There are in it one
city, 11 market-towns, 25,000 houfes, and 150,000
inhabitants. Nine members are returned to parlia¬
ment for this county, viz. two knights for the (hire,
twd for the city of Peterborough, two for each of
the towns of Northampton and Brockly, and one for
Higham Ferrers. It lies in the Mid-land circuit, and
in the dioeefe of Peterborough. As this county is
-dry, well cultivated, free from mnrfhes, except the fens
about Peterborough, in the centre of the kingdom,
and of courfe at a rli fiance from the fea, it enjoys a
very pure and wholefome air. In confequence of this
it is very populous, and fo full of towns and churches,
*hat 30 fpires or fteeples may be feen in many places
at one view ; and even in the fens, the inhabitants Nonbamp.
feem to enjoy a good ftate of health, and to be little ten
affe&ed by the water which frequently overflows their II
grounds, efpecrally in winter, but is never fuffered to Northern
remain long upon it. Its foil is exceeding fertile both , ,
in corn and pafturagc; but it labours under a '
fcarcity of fuel, as it doth not produce much wood,
and, by lying at a diftance from the fea, can¬
not be eafily fupplied with coal. Its commodities,
befides corn, are (beep, wool, black cattle, and fait-
petre ; and its manufactures are ferges, tammies, (bal¬
loons, boots, and (hoes. Befidcs many lefl'er brooks
and ftreams, it is well watered by the rivers Nen, Wel¬
land, Oufe, and Learn ; the three firft of which are
large, and for the mofi part navigable.
NORTHAMPTON, a county of north America,
in Virginia, forming the fouth part of the peninfula
on the eaftern coatt of Virginia.
NORTH rocks,(otherwife called St Patrick's rods,
from a feat of Hone amongll them called St Patrick's
chair, whence the rocks have taken this fecond name';
fituated in the harbour of Donaghadee, in the countv
of Down, and province of Ulfier, in Ireland. From
north to fouth they are about two thirds of a league,
between which is clean good ground.- But care muft
be taken of the fouth rock, on which many fliips have
perifhed : for it is overflowed by every tide, and no
crew can fave their lives if the wind blows high. This
rock ftands a full mile from the fliore.
NORTH SbA. See North Ska.
NORTHERN lights, the fame with aurora
borealis, under which article we have given a co-
pidus account of this phenomenon, and of the fup¬
pofed caufes of it. Natural fcience, however, does not
arrive at perfection at once, and it is well if it does h
after trials repeated for years with care and accuracy.
How far the caufes that have been affigned for this
appearance will account for it, or whether they will
be able to remove all difficulties, it is not for us to
determine; but it is the part of philofophers to hear
all fides, and to attend with patient affiduity to every
hypothefis, rejecting or receiving as reafon, after tlie
the ftriCleft inveftigation, (hall feem to favour the one
fide or the other. Wifhing to lay before our readers
every thing important either in fcience or in litera¬
ture, we cannot let pafs the opportunity which the
prefent article affords us, of mentioning an hypothe¬
fis which DoCtor Stearns, an American, formed, about
the year 1788, to account for the appearances called
aurora borealis, and aurora aujlralis. For this laft, fee
Aurora Borealis, 003.
DoCtor Stearns fuppofes that thefe phenomena ori¬
ginate from aqueous, nitrous, fulphureous, bituminous,
and other exhalations, from the fumes of various
kinds of earths or other minerals, vegetables, animals,
fires, volcanoes, 3cc. Thefe, he thinks, become rarefied,
and being charged with eleCtrical fluid, become fpe-
cifically lighter than the circumambient ah: hence, of
couife, they afeend; and being elevated to the upper
regions of the air and driven by the winds from warm¬
er to colder climates, the cold makes them combine
and ftiffen. When they are afterwards agitated by
different currents of air, they fparkle and crackle
like the hairs of cats and other animals when ftiffened
with cold. This corufcation in quite cold atmo-
fpberca*
Jortfinm-
berland.
NOR [
fplicres, and in thofe which are more temperate, ap¬
pears in ditFerent pofitions in the horizon, zenith, or
otherwife, according to the fituation of the fpeaator,
and the pofition of the elevated exhalations. 1 he
difference of colours the Dodor fuppofes to anfe from
the different qualities of the articles combined, thofe
of the moll inflammable nature Ihining with the great-
eft hiftre. ^ /. .• i
The Doftor likewife tries to account for Wide lights
not appearing, or but feldom appearing, in ancient
times. The atmofphere, he thinks, was not impreg¬
nated with materials proper to produce_ them. He
imagines that the increafed confumption of fuel,
in America in particular, the burning of volcanoes, and
the approach of Hazing liars, whofe atmofpheres have
been fo expanded by the fun’s heat that part of them
have fallen into the earth’s atmofphere, and commu¬
nicated to it new matter, have fo changed and pre¬
pared our air, that whenever its confidence is proper,
then, if the light of the fun aqd moon is not too
powerful, the aurora borealis will appear.
1 NORTHUMBERLAND, the moll northerly
county of England, and formerly a diftinil kingdom,
is hounded on the north and weft by the river Tweed,
which divides it from Scotland, the Cheviot-hills, and
part of Cumberland; wafhed on the call by the Ger¬
man Ocean ; and feparated from Durham on the fouth
by the rivers Tyne and Derwent. This county,
which gives the title of dule to a nobleman who mar¬
ried the daughter of Algernoon duke ol Somerfet,
whofe mother was heirefs of the Piercy family, ex¬
tends about 66 miles in length from north to foutn, and
about 47 in breadth from eaft to weft. It is remarkably
populous, containing 12 market-towns, 280 Milages,
and 460 parilhes. The face of the country, efpecially
towards the well, is roughened with huge mountains,
the moil remarkable of which are the Cheviot hills,
and the liigh ridge called Ridefdale; but the lands
are level towards the fea-fide and the borders or
Durham. The climate, like that of every other
mountainous country in the neighbourhood of the fca,
is moift and difagreeable: the air, however, is pure and
healthy, as being well ventilated by breezes and ftrong
gales of wind; and in winter mitigated by the warm
vapours from the two fcas, the Irilh and the German
Ocean, between which it is fituated. 1 he foil varies
in different parts of the county. Among the hills it
is barren ; though it affords good pafture for fheep,
which cover thofe mountains. The low country,
when properly cultivated, produces plenty of wneat,
and all forts of grain ; and great part of it is laid out
in meadow-lands and rich enclofures. Northumber¬
land is well watered with many rivers, rivulets, and
fountains : its greateft rivers are the Tweed and the
Tyne. The Tyne is compofed of two ftreams called
i-'bvth and North Tyre : the firfl rifes on the verge of
Cumberland, near Alfton-Moor ; enters Northumber¬
land, running north to Haltwefel; then bends eafterly,
and receiving the two fmall rivers Eaft and Weft Alon,
tmites above Hexham with the other branch, taking
its rife at a mountain called Fme-head in the weftern
part of the county, thence called Tine-dale; is fwelled
in its courfe by the little river Shele ; joins the Read
near Billingham ; and running in a diredt line to the
Jbuth-eaft, is united with the fouthern Tyne, forming
in ] NOR
a large river that waffles NewcafUe, and falls into the NurumKa-
German Ocean near Tin mouth. ,
In all probability the mountains of Northumberland
contain lead-ore and other mineralized metals in their
bowels, as they in all refpedls refemble thofe parts of
Wales and Scotland where lead mines have been found
and profecuted. Perhaps the inhabitants are diverted
from inquiries of this nature, by the certain profits
and con if ant employment they enjoy in working the
coal pits, with which this county abounds, 'i he city
of London, and the greatetl part of England, are
{applied with fuel from thefe ftcres of Northumber¬
land, which are inexhauflible, enrich the proprietors,
and employ an incredible number of hands and flap¬
ping. About 658,858 chaldrons are annually fhipped
for London.
There are no natural w&ods of any confequence in
this county ; but many plantations belonging to the
feats of noblemen and gentlemen, of which here is a.
great number. As for pot-herbs, roots, falading,
and every article of the kitchen-garden and orchard,,
they are here raifed in great plenty by the ufual
means of cultivation ; as are alfo the fruits of more
delicate flavour, fuch as the apricot, peach, and nec¬
tarine. The fpontaneous fruits it produces in com¬
mon with other parts of Great Britain, are the crab-
apple, the floe or bullace, the hazel-nut, the acorn,
hips, and haws, with the berries of the bramble,
the juniper, wood-flrawberries, cranberries, and bil¬
berries.
Northumberland raifes a good number of excellent
horfes and black cattle, and affords pafture for nume¬
rous flocks of fheep ; both the cattle and flieep are of
a large breed, but the wool is coarfer than that which-
the more fouthern counties produce. The hills and
mountains abound with a variety of game, fuch as red
deer, foxes, hares, rabbits, heathcock, groufe, par-
'tridge, quail, plover, teal, and woodcock : indeed, this,
is counted one of the heft fporting counties in Great
Britain. The fea and rivers are well flocked with fifh;
efpecially the Tweed, in which a vafl number of fal-
mon is caught and carried to Tinmouth, where being
pickled, they are conveyed by fea to London, and fold
under the name of Ncnncajlle Salmon.
The Northumbrians were anciently feigmatized as a
favage, barbarous people, addidled to cruelty, and in¬
ured to rapine. The truth is, before the union of the
two crowns of England and Scotland', the borderers on
each fide were ext$emdy licentious and ungovernable.,
trained up to war from their infancy, and habituated'
to plunder by the mutual incurfions made into each
kingdom ; incurfions which neither truce nor treaty
could totally prevent. People of 3 pacific difpefition,
who propofed to earn their livlihood by agriculture,
would not on any terms remain in a country expofed
to the firfl violence of a bold and defperate enemy ;
therefore the lands lay uncultivated, and in a great
meafure deferted by every- body but lawlefs adventu¬
rers, who fubfifted by theft and rapine. There was ft
trail. 50 miles in length and 6 in breadth, between
Berwick and Carlifle, known‘by the name of the Z)e-
batealk Land, to which both nations laid claim, though
it belonged to neither; and this was occupied by a fet
of banditti who plundered on each fide, and what they
ftcle in one kingdom, they fold openly in the other ;
nay.
NOR
*b'rt^Ud'* na^’ they WerC ^exterous ,n t^e'r occupation, that
Northwick ^ of hot bread applied to the horns of the
■ t— cattle which they ftole, they twilled them in fiich a
manner, that, when the right owners faw them in the
market, they did not know their own property.
Wardens were appointed to guard the marches or
borders in each kingdom ; and thefe offices were al¬
ways conferred on noblemen of the firft character for
influence, valour, and integrity. The Englifh border
was divided into three marches, called the ei/?, we/?,
and middle marches ; the gentlemen of the country
were conflituted deputy-wardens, who held march
courts, regulated the watches, difeiplined the militia,
and took meafures for affiembling them in arms at the
firft alarm : but in the time of peace between the two
nations, they were chiefly employed in fuppreffing
the infolence and rapine of the borderers. Since the
union of the crowns, however, Northumberland its to¬
tally changed, both with refpeft to the improvement
of the lands, and the reformation of the inhabitants.
The grounds, being now fecure from incurfion and
infult, are fettled bv creditable farmers, and cultivated
like other parts of the kingdom. As hoftilities have
Jong ceafed, the people have forgot the ufe of arms,
and exercifed themfelves in the more eligible avoca¬
tions of peace; in breeding fheep and cattle, manuring
the grounds, working at the coal-pits, and in different
branches of commerce and manufaflure. In their
perfons they are generally tall, ftrong, bold, hardy,
and freffi-coloured ; and though lefs unpoliffied than
their anceftors, not quite fo civilifed as their fouthern
neighbours. The commonalty are well fed, lodgred,
and cloathed; and all of them remarkably diftinguiffied
by a kind of Jhiblokth or auhurle, being a particular
way of pronouncing the letter R, as if they hawked it
up from the wind-pipe, like the cawing of rooks, in
other refpedls, the language they fpeak is an uncouth
mixture of the Englifh and Scottifh dialeffs. There
is no material diftin&ion between the fafhionable
people of Northumberland and thofe of the fame
rank in other pens of the kingdom : the fame form
of education will produce the fame effetts in oil coun¬
tries. The gentlemen of Northumberland, however,
are remarkable for their courage, hofpitality, and hard
drinking. The number of inhabitants are reckoned
126,400, of houfes 22,740.
A great number of Roman monuments have been
found in this county ; but the nsoft remarkable curio-
frty of that kind confifts in the remains of Hadrian’s
valium and the wall of Severus. See Adrian now (a),
and Sr nerds ’s Wall.
The mod noted towns in Nothumberland, areNew-
caftle, Morpeth, Alnwick, Berwick, Hexham, and
North Shields. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment.
NORTHWICK, a fmall town of Chefnire, long
celebrated for its rock-falt and brine pits. The ftra-
tum of fait lies about 40 yards deep ; and iome of
them are hollowed into the form of a temple. The
defeent is through a dome, the roof fupported by
rows of pillars about two yards thick, and feveral in
height ; and when illuminated with a fuffieient num¬
ber of candles, they make a moll‘magnificent appear¬
ance. Above the fait is a bed of whitilh clay (Argil-
la caru/a-cinerea), ufed in making the Liverpool earth*
N9 243.
NOR
en-ware ; and in the fame place is alfo dug a good Norton,
deal of the gypfum, or plafter-ftonc. The feffil fait is I!
generally yellow, and femipellucid, fometimes debafed ^0:way.
with a dull greenilh earth, and is often found, but in
fmall quantities, quite clear, and colourlefs. The
town is fituated near the river Dane, and is tolerably
handfome : it has a market on Fridays. It is #0
miles nortb-eaft of Chefter, and 173 north-well of
London. W. Long. 2. 36. N. Lat. 5 3. 16
NORTON, in Chelhire, a good modern alms-houfe,
founded by P—y Brook, Efq; on the file of a priory
of canons regular of St Augulline, founded by Wil¬
liam, fon of Nigellus, A. D. 113 >, who did not live
to complete his defign ; for Eullace de Burgavillc
granted to Hugh De Catherine piftures for too Iheep,
in cafe he finilhed the church in all refpefls con¬
formable to the intent of the founders. It was*granted-
afterwards to R. Brooke, Efq.
NORTON’S sound, was difeovered in capt. Cook’s
lall voyage, and was fo named in honour of Sir Fletcher
Norton (Lord Grantley), a near relation of Mr, after¬
wards Dr, King. It extends as far as N. Lat. 64° 5
There is no good Ration for fhips, nor even a tolerable
harbour in all the found. Mr King, on his landing here,
difeerned many fpacious valleys, with rivers flowing
through them, well wooded, and bounded with hills
of a moderate height. One of the rivers towards
the north-well feemed to be confiderable ; and he was
inclined to fuppofe, from its direflion, that it dif-
charged itfelf into the fea from the head of the bay.
Some of his people, penetrating beyond this into the
country, found the trees to be of a larger fixe the
further they proceeded. E. Lon. 197. 13. N. Lat.
64.31.
NORWAY, a country of Europe (for the map
fee Denmark), lying between the 57th and yzd
degrees of north latitude, and between the 5th and
3111 degrees of longitude call from London ; ex¬
tending in length about 1000 miles, in a direft line
from Lindefnaes, in the diocefe-of Chrillianfand, to
the North Cape, at the extremity of Finmark. Its
breadth, from the frontiers of Sweden wellward to
Cape Statt, may amount to about 300 miles ; but
from thence the country becomes gradually narrower
towards the north. On the fouth it is bounded by
the Schagen rock, or Categate, the entrance into the
Baltic ; on the call it is divided from Sweden by a
long ridge of high mountains ; and on the well and
north it is waflied by the northern ocean. In the
fouthern part of Norway, the country is craggy, ab¬
rupt, and mountainous, diverfified fometimes with fer¬
tile and even delightful fpots. In thefe refpefb it re-
fembles Switzerland : the profpe&s and the meteoro¬
logical phenomena feem to be very fimilar. The range
of the thermometer is of great extent; in the fum-
mer having rifen to 88°, and in the winter fallen to
—40°: in general it is between So^and —220.
Refpecling the population of Norway it is difficult
to attain to certainty. An author of fome note (Coxe)
feema to think they amount to 7 50,000; but he appears
to have over-rated them confiderably.
The Norwegian peafants are free, well-clothed, well-
lodged, Ipirited, active, frank, open, and undaunted.
They are faid to have a very confiderable refemblance
to the pe&fants of Switzerland. The foil is too thin
4 for
[ 1
Norway.
oxe s
:U*
Tra.
NOR [ > i
for the plough: corn is therefore obtained from the
neighbouring ftates ; and the chief employment of the
peafants of Norway is grazing. The following e,x-
traft from Mr Coxe, being a defcription of the fcene
near Chriftiana, is not betide our purpofe, and may
not perhaps be difagreeable to our readers.
“ As we approached Chriftiana, the country was
more wild and hilly, but ft ill very fertile and agree¬
able ; and about two miles from the town we came to
the top of a mountain, and burft upon as fine a view
as ever I beheld. From the point on which we flood
in raptures, the grounds laid out in rich enclofures,
gradually floped to the fea ; below us appeared
Chriftiana, fituated at the extremity of an extenfive
and fertile valley, forming a femicircular bend along
the ftiore of a moil beautiful bay, which, being inclo-
fed by hills, uplands, and forefts, had the appearance
of a large lake. Behind, before, and around, the in¬
land mountains of Norway rofe on mountains covered
with dark forefts of pines and fir, the inexhauftible
riches of the north. The moft diftant fummits were
caped with eternal fnow. From the glow of the at-
mofpherc, the warmth of the weather, the variety of
the produdtions, and the mild beauties of the adjacent
fi enery, I could fcarcely believe that I was nearly in the
6oth degree of northern latitude.”
The coaft of Norway, extending above 300 leagues,
js ftudded with a multitude of fmall ifhnds, affording
habitation to fiftiermen and pilots, and pafture to a
few cattle. They form an infinite number of narrow
channels, and a natural barrier of rocks, which ren¬
ders Norway inacc.rffxble to the naval power of its ene¬
mies. Attempts of this kind are the more dangerous,
as the fhore is generally bold, fteep, and impending ;
fo that clofetothe rocks the depth of the fea amounts
to 100, zoo, or 300 fathoms. The perils of the north
fea are moreover increafed by fudden ftorms, funk
rocks, violent currents, and dreadful whirlpools. The
moft remarkable vortex on this coaft is called Mijhoe-
Jlrom, from the fmall ifland Mofkoe, belonging to the
diftridt of Lofoden in the province of Nordland. In
time of flood, the ftream runs up between Lofoden
and Moflcoe with the moft boifterous rapidity; but in
its ebb to the fca, it roars like a thoufand cataradts,
fo as to be heard at the diftance of many leagues. The
furface exhibits different vortices ; and if in one of
thefe any (hip or veffel is abforbed, it is whirled down
to the bottom, and dallied in pieces againft the rocks.
*j hefe violent whirlpools continue without intervals,
except for a quarter of an hour, at high and low wa¬
ter, in calm weather; for tlie boiling gradually returns
as the flood or ebb advances. When its fury is height¬
ened by a ftorm, no veffel ought to venture within a
leasme of it. W hales have been frequently abforbed
within the vortex, and howled and bellowed hideoufly
in their fruitlefs endeavours to difengage themfelvcs.
A bear, in attempting to fwim from Lofoden to Mof¬
koe, was once hutried into this whirlpool, from
whence he ftruggled in vain for deliverance, roaring fo
loud as to be heard on fliore; but, notwithftanding all
his efforts, he was borne down and deftroyed. Large
trees being abforbed by the current, are fucked
down, and rife again all fliattcred into fplinters. I here
are three vortices of the fame kind near the iilands of
Ferroe.
Von. XIII. Part I.
3 1 NOR
Norway is divided into the four governments of Xo-vr±Y.
Aggerhus, Bergen, Drontheim, and Wardhus, be- ~Jr~y "
fides that of Bahus, which is now fubjedt to Sweden,
The province ©f Aggerhus comprehends the fouth-eaft
part of Norway, extending in length about 300 miles.
Its chief towns are Chriftiana, the fee of a bifliop,
fuffragan to the metropolitan fee of Drontheim, where
the fovereign court of juftice is held, in prefence of
the viceroy and the governor of the province ; A g¬
gerhus, about 15 miles to the fouth-weft of Chriftia-
nia; Frederickfhall or Frederickftadt, in the fiege of
which Charles XII. of Sweden loft his life ; Saltz-
berg, Tonfberg, Allcen, Hammar, and Hollen.
The government of Bergen lies in the moft fouther-
ly and wefterly part of Norway, including the city of
the fame name, which is an epifcopal fee, and a place
of confiderable trade; and Staff-hanger, fituated in
the bay of Buckenfior, about 80 miles to the fouth-
ward of Bergen. The third province, called Dron-
thcim or Tronthelm^ extends about $co miles along
the coaft ; and is but thinly peopled. The chief town
Drontheim, feated on a little gulph at the mouth of
the river Nider, Is the only metropolitan fee in Nor¬
way ; and carries on a confiderable trade in mads,
deals, tar, copper, and iron. Leetftrand, Stronden,
Scoerdale, Opdal, Romfdael, and Solendael, are like-
wife places of feme traffic. The northern divifion of
Drontheim, called the , ub-government of Solten, com¬
prehends the towns Melanger and Scheen. The
province of Wardhus, extending to the North Cape,
and including the ifiands, is divided into two parts ;
namely, Finmark and Norwegian Lapland. The chief
town, which is very inconfiderable, ftands upon an
ifland called IVard, from whence the place and the
government derive their name. The province of Ba¬
hus, though now yielded to the Swedes, is reckoned
part of Norway, being a narrow track of land,
about 90 miles in length, lying on the coaft of the
Categate.
The great chain of Norway mountains, running
from north to fouth, called indifferently Rudfield, Sude-
fe/d, Sharsfield, and Scoreberg, is known in different
parts by other appellations; fuch as Dofrefield, Lams-
feld, Sagnefcld, Fdefcld, Halnefield, liar dangerfiddy
Joklfield. Byglfield, Hicklefeld, and Hangfdd. The
height and breadth of this extenfive chain likewife
vary in different parts. To pals the mountain Har-
danger, a man mull travel about 70 Englilh miles,
whereas Filefield may be about 50 over. This laft
rifes about two miles and a half in perpendicular
height ; but Dofrefitkl is counted the higheft moun¬
tain of Norway, if not of Europe. The river Drivane
winds along the fide of it: in a ferpentine courfe, fo as
to be met nine times by thofe who travel the winter-
road to the other fide of the chain. The bridges are
thrown over roaring cataradls, and but indifferently
faftened to the fteep rocks on either fide ; fo that the
whole exhibits a very dreadful appearance, fufficient
to deter the traveller from hazarding fuch a dangerous
paffage ; for which reafon, people generally choofe
the road over Filefield, which is much more tedious.
This, however, is the poft-road ufed by the king’s
carriages. The way is dillinguilhed by polls fixed at
the diftance of 200 paces from each other, that, in
fnowy or dark weather, the traveller may not be be-
I1 wildered.
NOR
Norway, wildered. For the convenience of reding and refrefh*
““’■’■v'""""' ing, there are two mountain-ftoves or houfes maintain¬
ed on Fihifield,as well ns upon other mountains, at the
expence o*f the public, and furnifhed with fire, light,
and kitchen-utenfils. Nothing can be more difinal
and dreary than thefe mountains covered with eternal
fnow, where neither houfe, tree, nor living creature
is to be feen, but here and there a folitary rein-deer,
and perchance a few wandering Laplanders.
In travelling from Sweden to Nordenfields, there is
only one way of avoiding this chain of mountains ;
and that is, where it is interrupted by a long deep val¬
ley, extending Irom Romfdale to Gnldbrandfdale. In
the year 1612, a body of 1000 Scots, commanded by
Sinclair, and fent over as auxiliaries to the Swedes,
were pyt to the fword in this defile, by the peafants of
Guldbrand, who never give quarter.
Befides this chain, there is a great number of de¬
tached mountains over all the country, that form val¬
leys and ridges, inhabited by the peafants. Some of
thefe are of incredible height, and others exhibit very
remarkable appearances. In failing up Joering Creek
on the left hand, the fight is aftonifhed with a groupe
of mountains, refembling the profpeft of a city, with
old Gothic towers and edifices. In the parilh of Oer-
jkong is the high mountain Skopfhorn, the top of
which reprefents the figure of a fortification, with re¬
gular walls and baftions. In the diftrift of Hilgeland
appears a very high range of mountains, with feven
pinnacles or crefts, known by the appellation of the
Seven Sifterdifcernible a great way off at fea. To
the fouthward of this range, though in the fame di-
ftridf, rifes the famous mountain Torghntten, fo called
becaufe the fummit refembles a man’s head with a hat
on, under which appears a fingle eye, formed by an
aperture through the mountain, 1 ;;oells high, and 3000
eils in length. The fun may be feen through this
finprifing cavity, which is paffable by the foot of tfa-
vellers. On the top of the mountain we find a refer-
voir of water, as large as a moderate fifh-pond: in the
lower part is a cavern, through which a line 400 fa¬
thoms in length, being let down, did not reach the
bottom. At Herroe in Sundmoer is another cavern
called Doljleen, fuppofed to reach under the fea to
Scotland ; which, however, is no more than an idle
tradition. In the year 1750, two clergymen entered
this fubterranean cavity, and proceeded a confiderable
way, until they heard the fea dafhing over their heads:
the paffage was as wide and high as an ordinary
church, the Tides perpendicular, and the roof vaulted.
They defeended one flight of natural flairs ; but arri¬
ving at another, they were afraid to penetrate farther:
they had gone fo far, however, that two candles were
confumed in their pvogrefs and return. A cavern of
a very curious nature, ferving as a conduit to a ftream
cf water, penetrates through the fides of the moun¬
tain Limur. In the diflridfof Rake, in the neighbour¬
hood of Frederickfhall, are three cavities in a rock ;
one of which is fo deep, that a fmall ftone dropped
down, does not reach the bottom in lefs than two mi¬
nutes; and then the found it produtes is pleafant and
melodious, not unlike the found of a bell.
The vaft mountains and rugged rocks that deform
tiie face of this country are produiflive of numberlefs
NOR
inconveniences. They admit oflittle arable ground: N
they render the country in fome parts impaffable, and
every where difficult to travellers: they afford fheltcr
to wild beads, which come from their lurking holes,
and make terrible havock among the flocks of cattle:
they expofe the fhcep and goats, as well as the pea-
fant, to daily accidents of falling over precipices : they
occafion Bidden torrents, and falls of-fnovv, which de-
feend with incredible impetuoiity, and often fweep
away the labours of the hufbandman; and they are fub-
jed to dreadful difruptions, by which huge rocks are
rent from their fides, and, hurling down, overwhelm
the plains below with inevitable ruin. The peafants
frequently build their houfes on the edge of a fieep
precipice, to which they mufl climb by ladders, at the
hazard of their lives ; and when a perfon dies, the
corpfe muft be let down with ropes, before it can be
laid in the coffin. In winter the mail is often drawn
up the fides of fleep mountains. Fven in the king’s
road, travellers are expofed to the frequent rifles of
ffilling over thofe dreadful rocks ; for they are obliged
to pais over narrow pathways, without rails or rifing
on the fides, either fhored up with rotten pofts, or
fufpended by iron bolts faftened in the mountains.
In the narrow pafs of Naeroe is a remarkable way of
this kind, which, above 600 years ago, the famous
king Surre caufed to be made for the paffagt of his
cavalry ; and even this would have been found impaf-
fable by any other horfes than thofe of Norway, which
are ufed to climb the rocks like goats. Another very
difficult and dangerous road is that between Shogtfadt
and Vang in Volders, along the fide of a fteep moun¬
tain, in fome places fo narrow, that if two travellers
on horfeback fhould meet in the night, they would
find if impraffiicable either to pafs each other, or turn
back. In fuch a cafe their lives could not be faved,
unlefs one of them Ihould alight, and throw his horfe
headlong into the lake below, and then cling to the
rock, until the other could pafs. When a fheep or
goat makes a falfe ftep to the projedlion of a rock,
from whence it can neither afeend nor defeend, the
owner hazards his own life to preferve that of the ani¬
mal. He diredts himfelf to be lowered down from the
top of the mountain, fitting on a crofs flick, tied to
the end of a long rope; and when he arrives at the
place where the creature ftands, he faftens it to the
fame cord, and it is drawn up with himfelf. Perhaps
the other end of the rope is held by one perfon only ;
and there are fome inflances in which the affiftant has
been dragged down by the weight of his friend, fo
that both have perifhed. When either man or beafl
has had the misfortune to fall over very high precipices,
they have not only been fuffocated by the repercuffionof
the air, but their bodies have been always burft before
they reached the ground. Sometimes entire crefts of
rocks, many fathoms in length and breadth, have
fallen dow-n at once, creating fuch a violent agitation
of the air, as feemed a prelude to the world’s diflblu-
tion. At Steenbroe in Laerdale, a ftupendous mafs^
larger than any caftle in the univerfe, appears to have
been fevered and tumbled from the mountain in large,
Iharp, and ragged fragments, through which the river
roars with hideous bellowing. In the year 1731, a
promontory on Sundmoer, called Rammersjield, that
hung
I 114 1
N O
hung ov*r Nordal Creek,
plunt
red into the water; which fwelled to fuch a de¬
gree," that the church of Strand, tho’ half a league on
the other fide of the bank, was overflowed: the creek,
however, was not filled up; on the contrary, the fifher-
men declare they find no difference in the depth, which
is fatd to exceed 900 fathoms.
The remarkable rivers of Norway are thefe : The
Nied, iffuing from Tydalen, on the borders of Swe¬
den, runs weftward into the lake Selbo'e ; and after¬
wards, turning to the northward, paffes by the city of
Drontheim, to which it anciently gave the name of
Nideros and Nidrqfia : Sule Ely, that defcending from
Sulefield, runs with a rapid courfe thro’ Nordale into
the fea : Gulen, which rifes near Sffarsfield in the
north ; and running 20 leagues weflward, thro’ Aalen,
Hlotaalen, Storen, and Melhuus, difcharges icfelf in¬
to the lea, about a league to the well of Drontheim.
In the year 1344* this river buried itfelf under
ground : from whence it again burft forth with fueh
violence, that the earth and ftones thrown up by the
eruption filled the valley, and formed a dam ; which,
however, was foon broken and waflied away by the
force of the water. Divers churches, 48 farm-houfes,
with 2 5c perfons, were deffroyed on this occafion. Ot-
teroen, a large river, taking its rife from the moun¬
tain Agde, runs about 30 leagues through Seeterdale
and Efie, and difembogues icfelf into the cataract of
Wiland. The river Syre rifes near the mountain
Lang, and winds its courfe thro’ the vale of Syre into
the lake of Lunde in the diocefe of Chriftianfand ;
thence it continues its way to the fea, into which it
difcharges itfelf through a narrow ftrait formed by
two rocks. This contraftion augments its impetuo-
fity, fo that it fhoots like an arrow into the fea, in
which it produces a very great agitation. Nid and
Sheen are two confiderable rivers, ilfuing out of Tille-
mark. Their water-falls have been diverted, with in¬
finite labour, by canals and paffages cut through the
rocks, for the convenience of floating down the tim¬
ber. Tyrefiord, or Dramme, is in the neighbour¬
hood of Honifoffe, joined by two rivers from Oedale
and Hadeland, and difembogues itfelf into the fea near
Bragnefs. Loven rifes in the higheft part of Numme-
dal, and runs through Konfberg to the fea near Laur-
wig. Glaamen is the largefl: river of Norway, didin-
guiflied by the name of Stor Elvin, or the great river.
It derives its origin from the mountain Dofre, from
whence it winds all along the plains of Oefterdale and
Soloe ; then joins the Vorme, another confiderable ri¬
ver riling out of Mioes and Guldbrandfdale. Thefe
being joined, traverfe the lake Oeycren ; and thence
iffuing, run on to Sarp near Frederickftadt.
Norway abounds with frefh-water lakes; the prin¬
cipal of which are, Ryfvand in Nordland, Snaafen,
Selboe, the Greater and Leffer Mioes, Slirevand,
Sperddle, Rand, Velln, Saren, Modi-un, Lund, Nor-
loe, Huidfoe, Farifvand, and Oeyevand : all thefe
are well Rocked with filh, and navigable for large
reflels. Vv ars have been formerly carried on upon
thefe inland leas ; in fome of which are fmall floating
iflands, or parcels of earth, with trees on them, fepa-
rated from the main land, and probably preferved in
compad maffes by the roots of trees, fhrubs, and grafs,
interwoven in the foil. In the year 1702, the family-
R [ 1 r£ ] NOR
fuddenly gave way, and feat of Barge, near Frederickftadt, being a noble Nftrwiy.
edifice, with lofty towers and battlements, fuddenly
funk into an abyfs 100 fathoms deep, which was in-
ftantaneoully filled by a piece of water 300 ells in
length and about half as broad. Fourteen perfons,
wi,th 200 head of cattle, periflied in this cataftrophe,
which was occafioned by the river Glaamen precipita¬
ting itfelf down a water-fall near Sarp, and under*
mining the foundation. Of all the water-falls in
Norway this of Sarp is th<? molt dangerous for its
height and rapidity. The current drives 17 mills ;
and roars with fuch violence, that the water, being
dallied and comminuted among the rocks, rifes in
the form of rain, where a beautiful rainbow may be
always feen when the fun Ihines. in ancient times
this cataradl was made ufe of for the execution of
traitors and other malefaftors: they were thrown
down alive, that they might be dalhed in pieces on
the points of rocks, and die in a dreadful commotion,
analogous to thofe they had endeavoured to excite in
the community.
Great part of Norway is covered with forefts of
wood, which conftitute the principal article of com¬
merce in this country. They chiefly confill of fir and
pine, for which great fums are received from foreigners,
who export an immenfe number of mails, beams, planks,
and boards. Befides, an incredible quantity is con*
fumed at home, in building houfes, (hips, bridges,,
piles, moles, and fences ; over and above the vail
demand for charcoal to the founderies, and fuel for
domeftic ufes. Nay, in fome places, the trees arc
felled for no other purpofe but to clear the ground
and to be burned into afhes for manure. A good
quantity of timber is yearly exported to Scotland and
Spain : but this is inconfiderable when compared to
the vaft exports from Drammen, Fredericklhall or Fre¬
derickftadt, Chriltiania, Skeen, Arendal, Chriftian¬
fand, Chriltian’s-bay, and Drontheim. The mafts and
large beams are floated down the rivers, and the reft
is divided into boards at the faw-mills. Thefe works
fupply a vaft number of families with a comfortable
fubfiftence. A tenth part of all fawed timber be¬
longs to his Danifh majefty, and makes a confiderable
branch of his revenue. The forefts in Norway are fo
vaft; and thick, that the people feem to think there
can never be a fcarcity of wood, cfpecially as the foil
is peculiarly adapted for the production of timber:,
they therefore deftroy it with a wafteful hand ; info-
much that more wood rots in Norway than is burned
in the whole kingdom of Denmark. The bell timber
grows in the provinces of Saltan, Heileland, Romf-
dale, Guldbrandfdale, Oefterdale, Soloe, Valders,
Hallingdale, Sognifiord, Tellemark, and the lordlhip
of Nedene.
The climate of Norway is very different in different
parts of the kingdom. At Bergen the winter is fo
moderate, that the fcas are always open and praCtica-
cable both to mariners and filhermen, except in
creeks and bays, that reach far up into the country
towards Filefield, when the keen north eaft wind
blows from the land. On the tail fide of Norway
from the frontiers of Sweden to Filefield, the cold
generally fets in about the middle of October with
great feverity, and lafts till the middle of April; du¬
ring which interval the waters are frozen to a very
F % confiderabfe
NOR [ii6] NOR
Ntvwar- confiderable thicknefa, and the face of the country is moved to a lefs falubrious climate, whereby they may Norwiy.
 covered with fnovv. In the year i 7.19, 7500 Swedes, have a chance of dying the fooner. In confumptions, " ’
who intended to attack Drontheim, perifted in the however, the moift air on the fea-fide is found to be
fhow on the mountain of Ruden or Tydel, which fe- mod agreeable to the lungs in refpiration. Norway,
parates Jempteland in Sweden from the diocefe of being a mountainous country interfered by creeks,
Drontheim. A company of 200 Norwegian fledge- abounding with lakes, rivers, and fnow, mud be fub-
men under major Emahus, found them all frozen to jeft to frequent rains ; and from fudden thaws the
death on the ridge of the mountain, where they had inhabitants are fometimes expofed to terrible difaders.
been furprifed by a dorm accompanied with fnow, Vad maffes of fnow falling from precipices, over¬
hail, and extreme cold. Some of thefe unhappy vie- whelm men, cattle, boats, houfes, nay even whole
tims appeared fitting, fome lying, and others kneeling villages. About two centuries ago. a whole paridi was
in a podure of praying. They had cut in pieces their covered and dedroyed by an immenfe mafs of fnow ;
mufkets, and burned the little wood they afforded, and feveral domeffic utenfils, as feiffars, knives, and
The generals Labarre and Zoega lod their lives ; and bafons, have been at different times brought to light
of the whole corps, confiding originally of ro,ooo, no by a rivulet that runs under the fnow, which has been
more than 2500 furvived this dreadful catadrophe. gradually hardened and increafed by repeated frods and
The cold is dill more intenfe in that part of Nor- annual acceffions.
way called Finmarh, fituated in the frigid zone near The winds that chiefly prevail on the weflern coad
the polar circle. But if the winter is generally cold, are thofe that blow from the fouth ; whereas, on the
the fummer is often exceflively hot, in Norway. The other fide of Filefield, the winds that produce and
rays of the fun are reverberated from the fides of the continue the hard frods are always northerly. In the
mountains fo as to render the weather clofe and fultry fummer, there is a kind of regular trade-wind on the
in the valleys ; befides, the fun’s abfence below the coad of Bergen. In the forenoon the fea begins to
horizon is fo fliort, that the atmofphere and moun be cooled with a wederly breeze, which continues till
tains have not time to cool. The heat is fo great, that midnight. I hen the land breeze begins from the ead,
vegetation is remarkably quick. Barley is fown, and blows till about ten in the morning. 1 he coaft
grows, ripens, and is reaped, in the fpace of fix weeks is likewife fubjedt to fudden fqualls and dorms. Hur-
or two months.—The longed day at Bergen conlids ricanes fometimes rife at fea ; and in thefe latitudes
of 19 hours ; the fun rifing at half an hour after two, the phenomenon called a ivater-fpout is not uncommon,
and fetting at half an hour after nine. The ihorted- One ©f thefe in the neighbetirhood of Ferro is faid to
day does not exceed fix hours ; for the fun rifes at nine have fucked up with the water fome^ lads of herrings,
in the morning, and fets at three in the afternoon, which were afterwards dropped on Kolter, a mountain
In the beginning of the year the daylight increafes 12CO feet high.
with remarkable celerity ; and, at the approach of The frefli-water of Norway is not very light or
winter, decreafes in the fame proportion. In fum- pure ; but on the contrary is generally turbid, and
mer one may read and write at midnight by the light depofits a fediment of adventitious matter, being fome-
of the Iky. Chridian V. while he refided at Dron- times impregnated with ochre, and particles of iron,
theim, ufed to fup at midnight without candles. In Neverthelefs it is agreeable to the tade, and remark-
the diftria of Tromfen, at the extremity of Norway, ably falubrious; as appears from the good health of the
the fun is continually in view at midfummer. It is common people, who drink little or no other liquor,
fieen to circulate day and night round the north pole, 1 he foil of Norway varies in different places ac-
contrafting its orbit, and then gradually enlarging it, cording to the fituation of rock or valley. The moun-
until at length it leaves the horizon. In the depth of tains here, as in every other country, are bare and
winter, therefore, it is for fome weeks invifible ; and barren ; but the earth wafhed down from them by
all the light perceived at noon is a faint glimmering the rains enriches and fertilizes the valleys. In thefe
for about an hour and an half, proceeding from the the foil generally confids of black mould, fand, loam,
reflexion of the fun’s rays from the highed mountains, chalk, and gravel, lying over one another in unequal
But the inhabitants of thefe provinces are fupplied drata, and fometimes in three or four fucceflions: the
with other lights that enable them to follow their em- mould that lies uppermod is very fine and mellow,
ployments in the open air. The Iky being generally and fit to nourifh all forts of vegetables. There is
ferene, the moonfhine is remarkably bright, and, be- alfo clay found in different parts of this kingdom, of
ing refledded from the mountains, illuminates the which the inhabitants begin to make earthen ware;
valleys. They are alfo abided by the Aurora Bo- but bricks and tiles are not ufed in building. The
realis, which is very frequent in the northern parts of face of the country is in many places deformed by
Europe. large fwamps and marfhes, very dangerous to the
The air of Norway is generally pure and falubrious. traveller. Near Fteffoe in the diocefe of Chridianfand,
On the fea-coads, indeed, it is rendered moift by va- a wooden caufeway is extended near a mile over a
pours and exhalations: but in the midland parts of the morafs; and if a horfe or any other animal fliould make
country, towards the mountains, the climate is fo dry, a falfe ftep, he will fink at once into the abyfs, never
that meal may be kept for many years without being to rife again.
worm-eaten or damaged in the lead;. The inhabitants In a cold country like Norway, roughened with
have no idea of ficknefs, except what is occafioned by rocks and mountains, interfperfed with bogs, and co**
exceffes. It is faid, that in the vale of Guldbrand the vered with foreds, we cannot expeA to find agriculture
inhabitants live to fuch extreme old age, that they in perfection. The ploughed lands, in refpedh to moua-
x become weary of life, and caufe themfelves to be re* tains, woods, meadows, and wades, do not exceed
the
Norway*
NOR [ 1
the proportion of i to 80 ; fo that die whole conn-
try does not produce corn to maintain above half the
number of its inhabitants. The peafants are difcou
raged from the practice of hufoandry by the frequency
of accidents that feem peculiar to the climate. Even
in the fruitful provinces of Cjuldbrandfdale, Oefter-
dale, and Soloer, as well as in other places, wnen the
corn appears in the molt flourilhing condition, the
whole hope of the harveft is fometimes deftroyed in
one night by a hidden frolb that nips the blade and
extinguifhes the vegetation. The kingdom is more*
over vifited !>y fome unfavourable years, in which the
fun feems to have loll his genial power; the vegetables
are llunted ; the trees bud and bloom, yet bear no
fruit ; and the grain, though it rifes, will^yet pro¬
duce nothing but empty ears and llraw. I his cala¬
mity, however, rarely occurs ; and in general the cul¬
tivated parts of Norway yield plentiful crops of ex¬
cellent rye, barley, and oats '1 he moft fruitful pro¬
vinces are Nordland, Inderbarre, and Numedale, in
the diocefe of Drontheim ; Sognifiord and Vaas, in
that of Bergen; Jedderen, Ryefyllk, Raabygdelag,
and the lordlhip ol Nedenes, in the diocefe of Chrilli-
anfand ; Hedemark in the diocefe of Aggerhuis ; Ha-
deland, Toten, Romerige, Kingerige, and Guld-
brandfdale : thefe territories not only produce grain
enough for their own confumption, but likewife
fupport their neighbours, and even fupply part of
Sweden. Peafe are hkewife propagated in this coun¬
try, together with wheat, buck-wheat, hops, hemp
and flax, but not to any confiderable advantage. The
meadows are well llored with pafturage for Iheep and
cattle, and the fields are produftive of thofe vegetables
which are common in other northern countries. Within
thefe 50 years the people of Norway have bellowed
fome attention on the culture of gardens, which in
former times was fo negledled, that the cities and
towns wrere fupplied with leeks, cabbage, and roots,
from England and Holland. At prefent, however,
the Norwegians raife their own culinary and garden
roots and vegetables, which thrive there as well as in
any other country. The feurvy being a difeafe that
prevails along the fea-coaft, Nature has Pattered upon
it a variety of herbs efficacious in the cure of that dif-
temper ; fuch as angelica,, rofe-wort, gentian, creffes,
trefoil, forrel, fcurvy-grals, and a plant called erieb’s
graftt that grows in great plenty on the iflands of
Northland : from whence the people of the continent
fetch away boat loads of it, to be preferved in barrels
as a fuccedaneum for. cabbage. There are alfo a few
noxious vegetables little known in any country but
Norway. In Guldbraadfdale is a fpccies of grafs called
ft If nape;, the root of which is fo poifonous, that any
bcafl which eats of it dies immediately, the belly
buriling ; nay, the carnivorous fowls that prey upon
the carcafe of the bead meet with the fame fate : chil¬
dren have been more than once poifoned by this root,
which nev'erthelefs is fometimes ufed externally as an
amulet lor arthritic diforders. Another vegetable per¬
nicious to tire cattle is the Gramen ojjifragum Nor~
rwegitnfe) which is faid to mollify the bones of the
cattle which feed upon it. Among the noxious plants
of Norway we may alfo reckon the igle-grafs, fatal
to ffieep and goats; the tour-grafs, which affedls
horfes and cows w'ith a fort of lethargy ; and the plant
17 ] NOR
torboe, or hifle-fpring, which produces nearly the Norway,
fame elFedt ou horfes, but is not at all prejudicial to ■ * —v-~—-
cows, Iheep, or any ruminating animals. The herb
turte, not unlike angelica, operates nearly in the fame
manner: yet the bears are faid to feed upon it with
peculiar reliih ; and w hen their hair begms to fail off
by feeding upon this plant, they cure^fnemfelves by
eating the flelh of animals.
The common fruit-trees thrive tolerably well in
Norway, the inhabitants of which have plenty of
cherries, apples, and pears. Some kinds of plums at¬
tain maturity ; which is feldom the cafe with grapes,
apricots, and peaches. But even the apples and pears
that ripen here are fummer-fruit ; that which grows
till the winter feldom coming to perfe£lion. Great
variety of agreeable berries are produced in different
parts of this kingdom ; fuch as the hagebar, a kind
of floes ; an infuiion of which in wine makes a pleafant
cooling liquor; juniper berries, corinths red and white,-
foelbar or fun-berries, rafpberries, goofeberries, black¬
berries, ftravvberries, &c. with many other fpeeies
that feem to be natives of Norway and Swreden.
Among thofe are the tranasbar, the produce of the
myrtillus repens, red and auftere, found in the fpring-
in perfe&ion under the fnow, and much reliflieefc
by the reindeer; crakebeer, rcfembling bilberries,,
deemed a powerful antifcorbutic ; agerbeer, larger and
blacker than bilberries, of a pleafant acid, ripened by
cold, and ufed as cherries for an infufion in wine ;
and finally tylte-beer, a red pleafant berry growing o»
a fhort ftem, with leaves like thofe of box : they are
plucked off by handfuls, and fent to Denmark to be
preferved for the table, wdiere they are eaten by way
of defert.
Of the trees that grow wild in Norway, the prin¬
cipal are the Hr and the pine. The firll yield an an¬
nual revenue of 1,000,coo of rix-dollars, if we include
the advantages refulting from the iaw-mills and the
mails ; one of which latl has been known to fell for 200
rix-dollars. The red fir-tree, which grows on the moun¬
tains, is fo rich in turpentine as tobealmoll incorruptible.
Some of the houfes belonging to the Norway peafants,
built of this timber, are fuppofed to be above 400 years
Handing. In Guldbranfdale the houfe is fiill to Be
feen Handing in which king Olaf lodged five nights,
above 700 years ago, when he travelled round the
kingdom to convert the people to the Chriftian faith.
Even 100 years after the trunk of the fir-tree has
been cut down, the peafants burn the roots for tar,
which is a very profitable commodity. In the fens,
the refin of the fir-tree is by nature transformed into
a fubilance wdiich may be called Norway frankincenfe.
The buds or pine-apples of this tree, boiled in ftale
beer, make an excellent medicine for the leurvy ; lefs
unpleafant to the tafte, though as efficacious, as tar-
water. The pine-tree is more tall and beautiful than
the fir, though inferior to it in ftrength and quality :
for wdiich reafon the planks of it are fold at an infe¬
rior price, and the peafants w-afte it without temorfe.
Norway likewife produces fome forells of oak, which
is found to be excellent for {hip-building. Here alfo
grow plenty of elm-trees ; the bark of which, being
powdered, is boiled up with other food to fatten hogs,
and even mixed by the poor among their meal: alfo -
the afn‘, from which the peafants diltil a baifam ufed in
NOH
Norway, certain duorders, 2nd which is ufed both externally
Y-—' an(l internally. Many other trees flourifh in this
country, an enumeration of which would prove too
tedious. Hazels grow here in fuch abundance, that
T 00 tons of the nuts are annually exported from Bergen
alone.
A great diverfity of Hones is found in Norway,
fome of which are of a furprifing figure Several
mountains confift chiefly of a brown pebble, which
decoys with age ; nay, it fometimes diflblves, and
drops into the fea, and the cement being thus loofen-
td, a terrible diiruption enfues. In fome places the
grey and black pebbles are intermixed with iron, cop-
* per, lead, filver, and gold. The ground in certain di-
iiritts is covered with the fragments of rocks that
have been precipitated from the fummits of mountains,
and broken by their fall into innumerable fhivers. Be¬
tween io and 30 years ago, in the neighbourhood of
Bergen, a man was fuddenly overwhelmed with fuch
a mafs, which farmed a kind of vault around him. In
' this dreadful tomb he remained alive for feveral weeks.
By his loud cries the place of his confinement was
difcovered: but it was found impoffible to remove the
huge ftones by which he was inclofed. All that his
friends could do for him was, to lower down meat and
drink through fome crevices; but at length the Hones
fell in, and crufued him to death.
In Norway are inexhauftible quarries of excellent
marble, black, white, blue, grey, and variegated ; to¬
gether with fome detached pieces of alabafler, feveral
kinds of fpar, chalk-ftone, cement-flone, fand*ftone,
mill-ftone, baking-ftone, (late, talc, magnets; andfwine-
ilotie, a produ&ion natural to Norway and Sweden,
of a brown colour, fetid fmell, in texture refembling
cryftal, and deriving its name from a fuppofed efficacy
in curing a diftemper incident to fwine. Here alio is
found the amianthus or ilone-flaX, of which incom-
buftible cloth may be made. Norway, however, af¬
fords no flints, but plenty of pyrites or quartz, beau¬
tiful cryftals, granites, amethyfts, agate, thunder-
iloncs, and eagle-ftones. Gold has formerly been
found in a fmsil quantity in the diocefe of Chriftian-
fand, and coined into ducats. There is at prefent
a very confiderable filver mine wrought at Kongfberg
on the account and at the rilk of his Danifh majelly: the
ore is furprifingly rich, but interrupted in fuch a man¬
ner, that the vein is often loft. Many mafles of pure
filver have been found ; and, among the reft, one piece
weighing 560 pounds, preferved in the royal mufeum
at Copenhagen. Such is the richnefs of thefe mines,
that the annual produce amounts in value to a ton and
an half in gold. About 5000 people are daily em¬
ployed, and earn their fubfiftence, in thofe ftupendous
work's ’ a). Other River-mines are profecuted at jarlfberg,
but not to the fame advantage ; and here the ore is
mixed with lead and copper. In many parts of this
NOR
country copper-mines have been difcoveved ; but the Norway,
ptincipal, and perhaps the richeft in all Europe, is at 
Roraas, about 100 Engliffi miles from Drontheim.
This work yields annually about I 100 ffiip pounds of
pure copper : the founderies belonging to it confume
yearly about 14,000 lafts of coal, and 500 fathoms «f
wood. The next in importance is the copper work
at Lykken, about 20 miles from Drontheim. A third
mine is carried on at Indfet, or Quickne, at the di-
ftance of 30 miles from the fame place; and here they
precipitate the copper from its menftruum, by means
of iron. There is a fourth copper-work at Silboe,
about 30 miles diftant from Drontheim, though the
leaft confiderable of the four. Other copper-mines
of lefs note are worked in different parts of the king¬
dom. Iron is ftillin greater plenty, and was the firft:
metal wrought in this country. Many hundred thou-
fand quintals are annually exported, chiefly in bars,
and part of it in ftoves, pots, kettles, and cannon ;
the national profit arifing from this metal is eftimated
at 300,000 rix dollars. There is a fpecies called woor-
iron, found in large lumps among the m ora fie s: of
this the peafants make their own domeftic tools and
utenfils, fuch as knives, fcythes, and axes. The lead
found mixed in the filver-ore is an article of fmall im¬
portance in Norway ; yet fome mines of this metal
have been lately opened in the diftrift of Soloer by
the proprietors of the copper-work at Oudal. A vi¬
triol-work has been begun near Kongfberg: the mines
yield great plenty of fulphur ; which, however, the
Norwegians will not take the trouble to melt and de¬
purate, becaufe immenfe quantities are found at a
cheaper rate in the ifland of Iceland. Alum is found
between the flate flakes near Chriftiana in fuch plenty,
that works have been fct up for refining this mineral,
though they have not yet brought it to any degree of
tranfparency. His Danilh majefty has eftablifhed falt-
works in the peninfula of Valoe, about fix Engiifh
miles from Tonfberg, where this mineral is extracted
in large quantities from the fea-water.
Befides the animals common to other countries,
Norway is faid to contain many of the uncommon and
dubious kind ; fuch as the kraken, mermaid, fea-fer-
pent, &c. See thefe articles.
Many Danifh, Englhh, Scotch, Dutch, and Ger¬
man, families have now fettled in Norway; and indeed
form no inconfiderable part of the trading people :
but the original inhabitants are the defcendants of
thofe ferocious Normanni, who haraffed almoft all the
coafls of Europe with piratical armaments in the 8th,
9th, and 10th centuries.
“ Our firft certain knowledge of the inhabitants of
this country (fays Pennantf; was from the defola-
tion they brought on the fouthern nations by their
piratical invafions. Their country had before that
period the name of Nortmannaland^ and the inhabi¬
tants
r ns ]
(a) Mr Coxe tells up, that he vifite-d thofe mines. They formerly, he fays,' produced annually L. 70,000,
but at prefent yield little more than JL. yOjOCO. I he expences generally exceed the profits ; and government
gains only by the number of miners employed. The mines of cobalt, and the preparation of Pruffian blue,
are much more produdlive. I he latter goes through 270 hands, and the number of men employed are
356. xt is fuppofed, that, at this period (t793)* ^ rr*ay produce to government a profit of E. 16,00©
rr-ye?.r. '
NOR [ ! i
Norway. t*nts Nortmans; a title which included other adjacent
  — people Great Britain and Ireland were ravaged by
them in 84.<; ; and they continued their invaiion till
they effe&ed the conquell of England, under their
leader Canute the Great. They went up the Seine
as far as Paris, burnt the town, and forced its weak
monarch to purchafe their abfence at the price of four¬
teen thoufand marks. They plundered Spain, and at
length carried their excurfions through the Mediter¬
ranean to Italy, and even into Sicily. They ufed nar¬
row veffels, like their anceftors the Sitones; and,
beiides oars, added the improvement of two fails;
and victualled them with faked provilions, blfcuit,
cheefe, and beer. Their Ihips were at firit fmall ; but
in after times they were large enongh to hold 100
or 120 men. But the multitude of veflels was ama¬
zing. The fleet of Harold Blaatand confided of
7co. A hundred thoufand of thefe favages have at
once failed from Scandinavia, fo juftly ityled Ojjicina
gentium^ aut certe velut vagina nationum. Probably ne-
ceflity, more than ambition, caufed them to difcharge
their country of its exuberant numbers. Multitudes
were deftroyed ; but multitudes remained, and peopled
more favourable climates.
“ Their king, Olaus, was a convert to Chridianity in
994 ; Bernard an Englifhman had the honour of bap¬
tizing him, when Olaus happened to touch at one of
the Scilly iflands. He plundered with great fpirit du¬
ring feveral years ; and in 1006 received the crown of
martyrdom from his pagan fubjefts. But religious
zeal fird gave the red of Europe a knowledge of their
country and the fweets cf its commerce. The Planfe
towns poured in their miflionaries, and reaped a tem¬
poral harveft. By the year 1204, the merchants ob¬
tained from the wife prince Suer every encouragement to
commerce ; and by that means introduced wealth and
civilization into Idr. barren kingdom. England by
every method cheriflred the advantages refulting from
an intercourfe with Norway, and Bergen was the
emporium. Henry III. in 1 217, entered into a league
with its monarch Haquin; by which both princes fti-
pulated for free accefs for their fubjefts into their re-
fpeftive kingdoms, free trade, and fecurity to their
perfons. In 1269, Henry entered into another treaty
with Magnus; in which it was agreed, that no goods
Ihould be exported from either kingdom except they
had been paid for ; and there is, befides, a humane
provifion on both Tides, for the fecurity of the per¬
fons and effeCfs of the fubjeds who Ihould fuft’er Ihip-
wreck on their feveral coafts.”
The inhabitants now fpeak the fame language that
is ufed in Denmark, though their original tongue
is the dialed now fpoken in Iceland. They profefs
the Lutheian religion, under an archbifliop eftablifh-
ed at Drontheim, with four fuflragans ; namely, cf
Bergen, Staffanger, Hammer, and Chrifliana. By
the union of Calmar, the two kingdoms of Norway
and Denmark were united under one monarch ; and
then the people of both nations enjoyed conliderable
privileges: hut the Danifn government foon became
abfolute; and Norway was ruled defpotically by a vice¬
roy, who refided in the capital, andprefided in the fu-
preme court, to which appeals were made from the fub-
ordinate courts of judicature. A great change Iiae,
6
9 ] NOR
however, taken place fince the prefent amiable and Norway- ^
accompliihed prince of Denmark had part of the go-
vernment, and more may be expected from his virtue
and affiduity when the power lhall come wholly into
his own hands.
The Norwegians are generally well-formed, tall,
fturdy, and robuft, brave, hardy, honeft, hofpitable,
and ingenious ; yet favage, ralli, quarrelfome, and liti*
gious. The fame charadler will nearly fuit the inha¬
bitants of every mountainous country in the northern
climates. Their women are well-fhaped, tall, comely,
remarkably fair, and obliging. The nobility of Nor¬
way have been chiefly removed by the kings of Den¬
mark, in order to prevent faftion and oppoiition to
the court; or are long ago degenerated into the rank
of peafetnts: fome families, however, have been lately
raifed to that dignity. Every freeholder in Norway
enjoys the right of primogeniture and power of re¬
demption ; and it is very ufual to fee a peafant inha¬
biting the fame houfe which has been poflefled 400
years by his anceftors. The odds gads, or freehold,
cannot be alienated by fale or otherwife from the
right heir, called odeh-mand: if he is not able to re¬
deem the eftate, he declares his incapacity every 10th
year at the fefiions ; and if he, or his heirs to the third
generation, Ihould acquire wealth enough for that
purpofe, the poflefibr tempore muR. refign his pof-
leflion.
The mountaineers acquire furprifing ftrength andf
dexterity by hard living, cold, laborious exercife,
climbing rocks,Heating on thefnow,and handling arms,
which they carry from their youth, to defend them-
felves againll the wild beafts of the foreft. Thofe who
dwell in the maritime parts of Norway exercife the
employments of hilling and navigation, and become
very expert mariners.
The peafants of Norway never employ any han-
dicrafcfmen for neceffaiies to themfelves and fami¬
lies : they are their own hatters, fhoemakers, tay-
lors, tanners, weavers, carpenters, fmiths, and join¬
ers: they are even expert at Ihip-building; and fome
of them make excellent violins. But their general
turn is for carving in wood, which they execute in a
furpriling manner with a common knife of their own
forging. They are taught in their youth to wreftle,
ride, fwim, Ikate, climb, Ihoot, and forge iron. Their
amufements confift in making verfes, blowing the
horn, or playing upon a kind of guitar, and the vio¬
lin : this laft kind of mulic they perform even at fu¬
nerals. The Norwegians have evinced their valour
and fidelity in a thoufand dift'erent inlbances. The'
country was always diftrafted by inteftine quarrels,
which raged from generation to generation. Even- the-
farmers Hand upon their punflilio, and challenge one
another to lingle combat with their knives. On fuch
occafions they hook themfdves together by their belts,
and fight until one cf them if. killed or mortally
wounded. At weddings and public feafts they drink
to intoxication, quarrel, fight, and murder generally
enfues. The very common people are like wife paf-
fionate, ambitious of glory and independence, and
vain of their pedigree. The nobility and merchants
of Norway fare fumptuoufly ; but the peafant lives
with the utmolt temperance and frugality, except at.
feiiivah -
NOR l 12
Norway, ft Rivals : Lis common bread is tnaue of oatmeal, roll-
““"v ' ed into broad thin cakes, like thofe uied in Scotland.
Jn time of fcarcity, they boil, dry, and grind the
hark of the fir-tree into a k[nd of flour which they
mix with oat-meal: the bark of the elm-tree is ufed in
the fame manner. In thofe parts where a fifinery is
carried on, they krcead the roes of cod with their oat¬
meal. Of thefe Lift, mixed with barley-meal, they
make hallv-pudding and foup, enriched with a pickled
herring or faked mackarel. Frefh iifh they have in
plenty on the fea-coaft. They hunt and eat grcufe,
partridge, hare, red deer, and rein-deer. They kill
cow's, fheep, and goats, for their winter flock : thefe
they pickle, or fmoke, or dry for ufe. They make
cheefe of their milk, and a liquor called fyre of their
four whey: this they commonly drink mixed w'ith win¬
ter ; but they provide a flore of flrong ale for Chrift-
mas, weddings, chriflenings, and other entertain¬
ments. From their temperance and cxercife, joined to
the purity and elafticity of their air, they enjoy good
health, and often attain to a furprifing degree of lon¬
gevity. Nothing is more common than to fee a hearty
Norwegian turned of i cc. In the year 1733, four
couples danced before his Danifli majefly at Fredericks-
kall: their ages, when joined, exceeded 800 years.
Neverthelefs,. the Nonveigans are fubjeft to various
difeafes; fuch as the fcab, the leprofy, the feurvy,
the catarrh, the rheumatifm, gout, and epilepsy. The
drefs of the Norway peafants confift? of a wide loofe
jacket made of coarfecloath,withwaiftcoat andbreeches
of the fame. Their heads are covered with flapped hats,
or caps ornamented with ribbons. They wear fhoes
without outer foies, and in the winter leathern bufleins.
They have likewife fnow-flroes and long fleates, with
which they travel at a great pace, either on the land
or ice. There is a corps of foldiers thus accoutred,
who can out-march the fw'ifteft horfes. ‘The Norwe¬
gian peafant never wears a neckcloth, except on ex¬
traordinary occafions : he opens his neck and breaft to
the weather, and lets the fnow beat into his bofom.
His body is girt round with a broad leathern belt,
adorned w'ith brafs plates, from which depends a brafs
chain that fuftains a large knife, gimlet, and other
tackle. The women are drefled in clofe-laced jackets,
having leathern girdles decorated with ornaments of
fiber. They likewife wear filver chains round their
necks, to tire ends of which are fixed gilt medals.
Their r ps and handkerchiefs are aimed covered with
fmall plates of filver, brafs, and tin, large rings, and
buttons. A maiden bride appears with her hair plait¬
ed, and, together with her cloaths, hung full of fuch
jingling trinkets.
The churches, public edifices, and many private
houfes in Norway, are built of ftone : but the people
in general live in wooden houfes, made of the trunks
-of fir and pine-tree laid upon each other, and joined
by mortifes at the corners. Thefe are counted more
dry, warm, and healthy, than done or brick build¬
ings. In the whole diocefe of Bergen, one hardly
fees a farm-houfe with a chimney or window : they
.are generally lighted by a fquare hole in the top of
the horde, which lets in the light, and lets out the
broke. In fummer this hole is left quite open : in the
winter, it is covered with what they call a fi.au; that is,
^243. ^ 5
0 ] NOR
the membrane of feme animal, rtretched upon a wooden Norway
frame that fits the hole, and tranfmitsthe rays of light. II
It is fixed or removed with a long pole occafionally. No, with.
Every perfon that enters the houfe, upon bufinefs or
court (hip, takes hold of this pole, according to an¬
cient cuflorn. The ceiling is about eight feet high in
the middle; and, being arched like a cupola, the
fmoke of the fire underneath rolls about, until it finds
a vent at the hole, which is called /iur. Under this
opening ftands a thick table with benches, and an high
feat at "the upper end for the mafter of the family : he
has likewife a fmall cupboard for his own ufe, in which
he locks up his moft valuable effedfs. The boards of
the roof are coated with the bark of birch-trees,
which is counted incorruptible : this again is covered
with turf, which yields a good crop of grafs for goats
and fheep, and is often mowed as hay by the farmer.
The Norwegians cany on a confiderable trade with
foreign nations. The duty on the produce of their
own country exported, amounts annually to 100,000
rix-dollars. Thefe commodities are, copper wrought
and unwrought; iron call into cannon, ftoves, and
pots, or forged into bars ; lead, in fmall quantity ;
mails, timber, deal-boards, planks, marble, mill-
ftones, herring, cod, ling, falmon, lobflers, floun¬
ders, cow-hides, goat ikins, ftal;ikins, the furs of
bears, wolves, foxes, beavers, ermines, martens, &c.
down, feathers, butter, tallow, train-oil, tar, juni¬
per and other forts of berries, and nuts; fait, alum,
glafs, vitriol, and pot-afhes. All other commodities
and articles of luxury the Norwegians import from
different nations. The nature of the ground does not
admit of much improvement in agriculture : neverthe¬
lefs, the farmers are not deficient in induftry and fkill
to drain marihes, and render the ground arable and fit
for pafture. Many are employed in grazing and
breeding cattle : but a much greater number is engaged
in felling wood, floating timber, burning charcoal, and
extrading tar from the roots of the trees which have
been cut down; in the filver, copper, and iron-mines;
in the navigation and fifhery. A confiderable number
of people earn a comfortable livelihood by hunting,
(hooting, and bird-catching. Every individual is at
liberty to purfue the game, efpecialiy in the mountains
and commons: therefore every peafant is expert in the
ufe of fire-arms ; and there are excellent markfmen
among the mountains, who make ufe of the bow to
kill thofe animals, whofe (kins, being valuable, would
be damaged by the (hot of fire-arms.
Norway can produce above 14,000 excellent fea-
men. The aimy of this country amounts to 30,000
effedive men ; and the annual revenue exceeds 800,000
rix-dollars.
NoRirAr-Rat, in zoology. See Mus.
NORWICH, the capital of the county of Nor¬
folk in England, fituated in E. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat.
^2.40. It is fuppofed to have had its name, which
fignlfies “ a cattle to the north,” from its fituation in
refpeft of Caftor, the ancient Venta Icenorum, three
or four miles to the fouth of it, out of whofe ruins it
fetms to have rlfen. In its infancy, in the reign of
Etheklred, it was plundered and burnt by Sueno the
Dane, when he invaded England with a grert army.
Afterwards it recovered ; and in the reign of Edward
v the
NOR
Kerwlch. the Confeffor was a confiderahle place, having 1320
burghers. But it fufFered again much in the reign of
William I. by being the feat of a civih war, which
Ralph earl of the Eaft Angles raifed againft that
king. So much was it impaired by the fiege it then
underwent, that there were fcnrce 560 burghers left
in it, as appears from Doomfday-book. From that
time forward it began by little and little to recover,
efpecially after Bifhop Herbert tranflated the epifco-
pal fee hither from Thetford in the reign of William
Rufus in 1096? and built a beautiful cathedral, of
which he himfelf laid the firft ftone, with this infcrip-
tion, Dominus Herlertus pnfuit primum lapidem, in
nomine Patris, Ft lit ^ iff Spiritus Sanffii, Amen, i- e.
“ Lord (Bifhop) Herbert laid the firfl: flone, in the
name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft ;5’ and by a
licence from Pope Pafchal, declared it the mother-
church of Norfold and Suffolk. After this, as Malmf-
bury has it, it became a town famous for merchan¬
dize and the number of inhabitants. Yet it was mi-
ferably haraffed in the reign of Henry II. by Hugh
Bigod earl of Norfolk, who was an adherent of
Henry’s fon, called the junior king. In the time of
Edward I. it was walled round by the citizens, who
had prefented a petition to parliament for liberty to
do it. Henry IV. allowed them, inftead of bailiffs,
which they had before, to deft a mayor yearly, and
made the city a county of itfelf In the year 1348,
near 58,000 perfons were carried off by the plague; and
in 1505, the city was almoff ccnfumed by fire. For
the flour!filing ftate to which the city is now arrived,
they are much indebted to the Flemings, who fled hi¬
ther from the tyranny of the duke of Alva and the
inquilition, and taught them the manufa&ure of thofe
ftriped and flowered damalks, camblets, druggets,
black and white crape * for which the place is now fo
noted, and which have been computed to yield fome-
times 200,000b a-year. In the year 1583, the citi¬
zens, by the help of an engine, conveyed water through
pipes to the higheft parts of the city, which is plea-
fantly feated along the fide of a hill, extending a mile
and a half in length from north to fouth ; but the
breadth is much lefs, and it contracts itfelf by de¬
grees towards the fouth. It is now one of the mofl
confiderable cities in Britain for wealth, populoufnefs,
neat buildings, beautiful churches (of which it had
once 58, but now only 36), and the induftry and ci¬
vility of the inhabitants. The cathedral is a very ve¬
nerable ftrufture, with a curious roof, adorned with
the hiftory of the Bible in little images, carved to the
life, and a lofty fteeple 105 yards high. The wall of
flint ftone, beautified with 40 towers and 12 gates,
finiftred in 1309, is now much decayed. The city,
though there is. a great deal of watte ground within
the walls, was computed, about 60 years ago, to
contain 8000 houfes and 50,000 inhabitants. Be-
fides the cathedral already mentioned, the moft re¬
markable buildings are, the duke of Norfolk’s houfe,
one of the largeil in England ; the cattle, which is
now the county-gaol, and Hands in the heart of the
city, with a deep moat round it, over which is a
bridge of one very large arch; the Town-hall; the
Guild-hall, formerly the church belonging to the mo-
Tialtery of Bhck-Friars; the houfe of corredtion ; the
ihire-houfe, where the affues are held; a lofty mar-
Vox.. XIII. Parti.
NOR
ket-crofs, built after the manner of a piazza ; tbe bi- Norwich,
{hop’s palace; the king’s fchool,founded by Edward VI. r"*
the boys of which are nominated by the mayor for
the time being, with the confent of the majority of
aldermen. There having been formerly many thatched
houfes, an order w'as made, that all houfes that fhould
hereafter be built ftrould be covered with tiles. The
city is interfperfed with gardens, orchards, and trees,
which make it both pleafanr and healthful. It has
four hofpitals, in which a great number of old men
and women, boys and girls, are maintained ; and a
dozen charity-fchools. Here are two churches for the
Dutch and French Flemings ; who have particular pri¬
vileges, and are very numerous. Some of the churches
are thatched, and all of them crufted with flint ftone
curioufiy cut; which is the more wonderful, as Nor¬
wich Hands in a clay country, and has no flint within
20 miles of it. It is now governed by a mayor, re¬
corder, fteward, two ftreriffs, 24 aldermen, 60 com¬
mon-council, with a town-clerk, fword-bearer, and
other inferior officers. The mayor is chofen on May-
day by the freemen, and fworn in on the Tuefday be¬
fore Midfummer-eve The ffieriffs are alfo chofen an¬
nually, on the firft Tuefday in Auguft, one by the
freemen, the other by-the aldermen, and fworn in on
Michaelmas-day. The freemen of the feveral wards
choofe each their alderman. The common-council is
chofen in Midlent. The mayor is a juftice of the
peace and quorum, during his year (as are alfo the re¬
corder and fteward) within the city and liberties; and
after his mayoralty, he is a juliice during life The
trade and manufactures of the city are very confider¬
able. At Yarmouth they export large quantities of
their maunfaCtures, moft of which are fent to Lon¬
don, and import a great deal of wine, coal, lifh, oil,
&c. All the city and country round are employed in
the worfted manufacture, brought hither, as already
obferved, by the Flemings, in which they not only
confume the wool of their own county, in {pinning,
weaving, &c. but ufe many thoufand packs of yarn,
which they receive from other parts of England, as far
as Yorkfhire and Weftmoreland. There are eight
wardens of the weavers chofen annually, and fworn to
take care that there be no frauds committed in fpin-
ning, weaving, or dying the fluffs. It is computed
that there are not lefs than 120,coo people employed
in and about the city in the lilk and woollen manufac¬
tures. Their markets are thought to be the greateft
in England, and furnifhed with a furprifing plenty and
variety of goods and proviftons At a ffnall village
to the north of the city, called St Faith's, not lefs than
40,000 head of Scotch cattle are faid to be yearly
bought up by the Norfolk graziers, and fattened in
their meadows and marihes. Its markets are on
Wednefday, Friday, and Saturday. It has a great
number of fairs, fends two members to parliament, and
gives the title of earl to the duke of Gxrrdon.
Fewcitiesortownsfeemtohavefuffered more than Nor¬
wich has done at various periods, and few feem to have
felt it lefs; for tho’ quite burnt down by Sueno as above,
it was of confiderable confequenee in Edward the Con-
feffor's time:; nor did it long feel the evils of the in-
furredion and fiege in William the Conqueror’s time,
for it was rebuilt in Stephen’s reign, and made a cor¬
poration ; betides other devaftations already mentioned.
CL Ths
[ 121 i
NOS
Ko^'ich, The city of Norwich has loner been famous for
its manufa£fures; which are not, in the opinion of fome,
* ’ ' v """ at prefent in fo flourifliing a Hate as formerly. In
addition ro the manufacture of camblets, druggets, and
crapes, it is alio remarkable for baize, ferges, dial-
loons, Hackings, and woollen cloths.
The inhabitants of Norwich are generally fo em¬
ployed in their manufactures within doors, that the
city has the appearance of being deferted, except on
Sundays and holidays, when the iireets fwarm with
people.
Caitor, near Norwich, was the Venta Icenorum,
or capital city of the Iceni, the broken wails of which
contain a fquare of about 30 acres. In thofe walls
may ftill be perceived the remains of four gates and a
tower. Several Roman urns, coins, and other relics
of antiquity, have been found at this place.
NOSE, the organ of fmell. See Anatomy, n<> 140.
The ufes of the nofe are, its giving us the fenfe of
fmelling ; its ferving in the great office of refpiration,
and in modelling the voice; in receiving the abundant
humours from the eyes, and in adding to the beauty
of the face.
The nofe was by the Augurs particularly attended
to in forming conjeftures concerning future good or
ill fuccefs. The tingling of the right or left fide of it,
for in fiance, was thought to have different fignifica-
tions as it happened to different fexes, or perfons in
different conditions.
In Tartary, the greateft beauties are thofe who
have the lead nofes. Ruybrock mentions the wife of
the great Jenghiz Khan as a celebrated beauty, be-
caufe fhe had only two holes for a nofe. The Crim-
Tartars break the nofes of their children while young,
as thinking it a great piece of folly to have their
nofes Hand before their eyes. la moil other countries,
China excepted, great nofes are an honour.
In what the beauty of the nofe confifts, different
nations have different opinions: and the following re¬
flexions of Sir Joffiua Reynolds on this fuhjeft, are
perhaps the molt philofophical account of the beauty
Idler, of form that is to be found in any language. “ I
voi. ii. fuppofe (fays Sir Jofhua) it will be eafily granted,
that no man can judge whether any animal be beauti¬
ful in its kind, or deformed, who has feen only one of
that fpecies; that is as conclufive in regard to the hu¬
man figure : fo that if a man born blind was to reco¬
ver his fight, and the moil beautiful woman was brought
before him, he could not determine whether fire was
handfome or not ; nor, if the moll beautiful and moll
deformed were produced, could he any better deter¬
mine to which he Ihould give the preference, having
feen only thofe two. To diflinguiffi beauty, then, im¬
plies the having feen many individuals of that fpecies.
If it is alked, how is more Ikill acquired by the obfer-
vation of greater numbers ? I anfwer, that, in confe-
quence of having feen many, the power is acquired
even without feeking after it, of dillinguilhing between
accidental blemilhes and excrefcences, which are conti¬
nually varying the furface of Nature’s works, and the
invariable general form which Nature moll frequently
produces, and always feems to intend in her produc¬
tions.
“ Thus amongll the blades of grafs or leaves of the
fame tree, though no two can be found exadly alike.
NOS
yet the general form is invariable : a naturalift, before Nafe.
he chofe one as a fample, would examine many, fince,
if he took the firft that occurred, it might have, by
accident or otherwife, fuch a form as that it would
fcarce be known to belong to that fpecies ; he feleXs,
as the painter does, the moll beautiful, that is, the
mod general form of nature.
“ Every fpecies of the animal as well as the vegetable
creation may be faid to have a fixed or determinate
form, towards which nature is continually inclining,
like various lines terminating in the centre ; or it may
be compared to pendulums vibrating in different d*-
reXions over one central point ; and as they all ciois
the centre, though only one paffes through any other
point, fo it will be found that perfeX beauty is of-
tener produced by nature than deformity ; I do not
mean than deformity in general, but than any one
kind of deformity. To inilance in a particular part
of a feature ; the line that forms the ridge of the nofe
is beautiful when it is ftraight; this then is the
central form, which is oftener found than either con¬
cave, convex, or any other irregular form that (hall
be propofid. As we are then more accuftomed
to beauty than deformity, we may conclude that to
be the reafon why we approve and admire it, as we
approve and admire cuftoms and fafhions of drefs for
no other reafon than that we are ufed to them ; fa
that though habit and cullom cannot be faid to be
the caufe of beauty, it is certainly the caufe of our
liking it : and I have no doubt, but that if we were
more uied to deformity than beauty, deformity would
then lofe the idea now annexed to it, and take that
of beauty ; as if the whole world fhould agree that
yes and no ffiould change their meanings, yes would
then deny, and no would affirm.
“ Whoever undertakes to proceed further in this
argument, and endeavours to fix a general criterion
of beauty refpeXing different fpecies, or to fhow why
one fpecies is more beautiful than another, it will be
required from him firll to prove that one fpecies is really
more beautiful than another. That we prefer one to
the other, and with very good reafon, will be readily
granted ; but it does not follow from thence that we
think it a more-beautiful form; for we have no criterion
of form by which to determine our judgment. He
who fays a fwan is more beautiful than a dove, means
little more than that he has more pleafure in feeing a
fwan than a dove, either from the ftatelinefs of its mo¬
tions, or its being a more rare bird ; and he who gives,
the preference to the dove, does it from feme affociation
of ideas of innocence that he always annexes to the
dove: but if he pretends to defend the preference he
gives to one or the other, by endeavouring to prove that
this more beautiful form proceeds from a particular
gradation of magnitude, undulation of a curve, or
direXion of a line, or whatever other conceit of his.
imagination he fhall fix on as a criterion of form, he
will be continually contradiXing himftlf, and find at
laft that the great mother of nature will not be fub-
jeXed to fuch narrow rules. Among the various rea-
fons why we prefer ©ne part of her works to another,
the molt general, I believe, is habit and cuflom : cu-
ilom makes, in a certain fenfe, white black, and
black white; it is cultom alone determines our pre¬
ference of the colour of the Europeans to the -‘Ethio¬
pians jt
r 122 1
— ■
nos r u
pians; anc^ they, for the fame reafon, prefer their own
Nofology. coionr ty our8. I fuppofe nobody will doubt, if one
~^of their painters was to paint the godoeis of beauty,
but that he would reprefent her black, with thick
lips, flat nofe, and woolly hair i and it fcems cO me
be would act very unnaturally if he did not; for by
what criterion will any one difpute the propiiety of
Ids idea : We indeed fay, that the form and colour of
the European is preferable to that of the Etmopian ;
but 1 know of no other reafon we have for it, but
that we are more accuftomed to it. It is abiurd to fay,
that beauty is pofieffed of attrafbive poweis, which
jrrcfiflibly Jeize the correfponding mind with iov-e and
admiration, fince that argument is equally conclufive
in favour of the white and the black philofopher.
“ 'L’he black and white nations mull, in refpect of
beauty, be conhdered as of different kinds, at leaf- a
different fpecies of the fame kind ; from one of which
to the other, as I obferved, no inference can be drawn.
“ Novelty is faid to be one of the caufes of beau¬
ty : that novelty is a very fufHcient reafon vvhy we
fhould admire, is not denied ; but becaufe it <s un-
cammon, is it therefore beautiful ? The beauty that
is produced by colour, as when we prefer one bird to
Another, though of the fame form, on account of its
colour, has nothing to do with this argument, which
Teaches only to form. I have here coniidered the
word beauty as being properly applied to form alone.
There is a necefiity of fixing this confined fenfe ; for
there can be no argument if the fenfe of the word
is extended to every thing that is approved. A. rofe
may as well he faid to be beautiful, becaufe it. has a
fine fmell, as a bird becaufe of its colour. When we
apply the word beauty, we do not mean always by it
h more beautiful form, but fomething valuable on ac¬
count of its rarity, ufefulnefs, colour, or any other
property. A horfe is faid to be a beautiful animal;
but had a horfe as few good qualities as a tortoife, I
do not imagine that he would be then efteemed beau¬
tiful.
“ A fitnefs to the end propofed is faid to be another
caufe of beauty ; but fuppofing we were proper judges
of what form is the molt proper in an animal to
conflitute ftrength or fwiftnefs, we always determine
concerning its beauty before we exert our under-
llanding to judge of its fitnefs.
“ From what has been faid, it may be inferred,
that the works of nature, if we compare one fpecies
with another, are all equally beautiful; and that pre¬
ference is given from cuftom, or fome affociation of
ideas ; and that in creatures of the fame fpecies beauty
is the medium or centre of all various forms.” Seethe
article Beauty, towards the end.
NOSOLOGY, is a Greek word fignifying a dif-
courie or treatife of difeafes; otherwife called patho-
logy.
The importance of a comprehenfive and accurate
nofology has been long and generally allowed. Bag-
livi, Boerhaave, Gorter, Gaubius, and Sydenham,
have expreffed their defire of a work of this kind, the
great ohjeft of which is to fix pathognomonics to
every diieafe ; or in which all difeafes are difpofed in¬
to certain elaffes, orders, and genera, founded on di-
ttinftions taken from the fymptoms only, without re¬
gard to remote or proximate caufes.
3 1 NOS
Under the article Medicine, we have mentioned Noftoch.
fome of the moft accurate nofologtcal arrangements;
and have here only to add, that, in 1776, Dr Sagar,
at Iglaw in Moravia, publiihed a Syjlema Morborum
Sympiomatkum, octavo, which is an ufeful abridgment
of the work of M. Sauvages, with fome alterations
and additions. See Medicine, n° 123.
NOSTOCH, shot stars ; tremella nnjicc, (Lin.
Spec. Plant. Dillenius de Mufcis, tab. 10. fig. 14^
Llor. Danica, tab. 885. fig. I.) ; tremella intejlinalis vel
mejenterica, (Lm. Spec. Plant. Dillen. de Ivlufc. tab.
10. fig. 16. Flor. i)anic. tab. 885. fig. 2.)
A writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine gives this
account of it : “ The fubftance in quettion is not un¬
frequent in England, nor in all other parts of Europe,
after rains, both in fpring and autumn. Very large
fpots of it are feen in gravelly foils, and particularly
on the tops of hills, and on open downs, and often
it is found on gravel-walks.
“ It is met with in fome of the old authors, under the
name of nojloch, as in Paracelfus and others ; and the
alohemifts fancied there was fomething wonderful in
it, and that it would afford a menftruum for gold.
Noltoch is faid to be a word fynonymous to Jaculum
alicujus Jlella, vel potlus ejus repurgatione dejetlum quid
in terram ;Jlos aeris; fragmentum nimbi; as this fubltance
was believed to fall from the fky with the meteors
that we often fee, and call falling Jlars. Hence the
country people in Sweden have called itJly-fall; and
in England it is known by the name of 'witches
butter, in common with fome of the gelatinous
verworts.
“ Paracelfus, Plelmont, and others, ranked it with
the terniabin, or manna, and thought it dropped, as
that did, from heaven. It is deferibed, and the che¬
mical analyfis thereof given, by M. Geoffrey, in the
Paris Memoirs for 1708, and is there faid to yield,
befides an acid phlegm, a portion of concrete vola¬
tile fait and fome fixed fait. The diftilled water from
it was believed by fome to pofiels lingular virtues, in
allaying pains of the joints ; but there is certainly na
room to attribute any extraordinary qualities to it.
“ Since the days of Paracelfus it has been confider-
ed as a vegetable production ; but the botanifts have
had difficulty to affign its place or genus in their fe-
veral fyltems. Our own countryman, Dr Merret,
feems to have been among the firft authors who rank¬
ed it among vegetables, and he calls it Lichen humidi-
tate intumefcens,ficcitate evanefeens (Pin. page 7 I. ) Others
have retained it among the plants of that genus to this
day ; as does the celebrated Dr Haller, in his Hijloria
Stirp. Helvetia, who calls it Lichen gelatinefus, pheatus, un-
dulatus; laciniis criJpatis,granulofis,nJ 2041. as there are fe-
veral of the liverworts that have a gelatinous texture and
appearance; though they differ much from the noftoch,
in not being fo inltantly dried up. It was put into Ray’s
Synopfis, by Dr Dillenius, under the name of Ulva
terrejlris pinguis et fugax, p. 64. but he afterwards
changed that name for tremella,InWn Hijloria Mufcorum,
where he calls it tremella terrejlris Jlnuoja pinguis et fu~
gax, p. $2* tab. 10. f. 14. and reduces the lavers to
the fame genus. Micheli, an Italian botanift, famous
for his attention to the Cryptogamia clafs of plants,
makes it a Jungus, as Magnol and Dr Morifon had
done before him, and deferibes and figures it, in his
2 Nova.
NOS
I H4 1
NOS
Noftoch. Plant arum Gcnera> under the name of Linkia ter-
'■ rejlris gelatinofa^ membranacea, vulgahjfma,^ p. 126. t. 67.
f. t. He defcribes the feeds as lyiijg in the form of
little firings of beads, coiled up within the plant, or
rather in the folds thereof, and only to be difcovered
by the microfcope. Linnaeus mentions it, firft under
the name of ByjJ'us gelatinofa fugax terrtjlru, in his Flo¬
ra Lapponica, n° 530; but he afterwards adopted
Dillenius’s term, though he does not make it a laver.
Linnaeus has called it, in all his fubfequent works, to?-
mella (nofioc) plicata, undulata, under which name it
fiands in his Specks Plantarum, p. U57> an<^ in Hud-
fon’s Flora dnglica, p. 463, as alfo in a numerous
fet of other authors who follow his fyftem.”
Another writer in the fame work gives this account
of it. “ This fubftance is very rarely feen between the
middle of April and the month of O&ober. It is
moft frequently to be found on the high pafture lands,
where the ground is inclined to wet, and on the moors
and commons in the north of England. The time
we always meet with it is after a very wet night,
when the air in the morning fuddenly clears up, and
a fharp frofi enfues. The "frogs that then happen
to be out are immediately feized by the froft, and
turned into this jelly-like fubftance. For as I have
had occalion fometimes to go out very early, I have
found feveral parts of the frog not yet diflblved
among the jelly, fuch as feet, legs, and thighs, yet
in a little time afterwards the change was fully com¬
pleted. The quantity of jelly produced from one fingle
frog is almoft beyond belief, even to five or fix times
its bulk when in its natural ftate.
ii 1 communicated this difcovery to an acquaintance,
who has fince had frequent opportunities of obferving
and examining this produ&ion; and we are fully af-
fured, that, whatever opinion the learned may have
of it, it certainly proceeds from the above-mentioned
caufe wherever found.
“ Moft people that I have converfed with on the
fubjeft, are of opinion that this jelly falls from the
ftars, or out of the higher regions of the air ; which
notion, however abfurd, many are credulous enough
to believe.’*
Naturalifts had for fome years begun to doubt whe¬
ther thefe gelatinous fubftances were of a vegetable or
animal nature, when at length Mr J. Platt of Oxford, in
his letter printed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
1776, page 402, threw fuch light on the fubjedt as
to us, at leaft, is perfectly fatisfadftory.
“ Fiom a child I remember feeing the meteors
/footing in the air, which appearance, by my com¬
rades, was called Jlar-Jhooting, believing the ftars no
larger than their apparent magnitude. This jelly-like
fubftance, mentioned in your magazine, was believed
to be the drofs of thefe meteors, and took the name
jlar-Jhot, which pafled for certain with me till I had
arrived at the age of 24, when I was engaged in bufi-
nefs that required my frequently palling over both
meadows and pafture-grounds, where in fpiing and
autumn I faw many portions of this fuppofed alga or
noftoch, but never more than one or two contiguous,
moftly near the water, when the meadows were or had
been juft before flooded. My conjectures were various
until I faw a crow pecking of fomething in a field,
which I heard to cry ; when turning my horfe to the
place, I found a frog of the common fize, which the
crow (of the'carrion kind) would foon have killed
and gorged, had I not difturbed her, and chafed her
away. - ,
“ About this time I found in a meadow the bowels
of a frog indigefted, and compadt as the chitterlings
of a calf or pig ; but white as the paper I write upon,
though not tranflucid. I took it up, and placed it in
a paper expofed to the air; leaving it in fome grafa
where I found it, till my return that way in three days
time, when I faw it changed to that tremulous jelly-
like fubftance, the alga or ftar-lhot. I was much
pleafed with this difcovery, and took it home in my
pocket wrapped in paper, where I fhowed it to a fo-
ciety of young perfons of which I was a member, who
agreed with my fentiments of its being the indigeftible
part of a frog difgorged by fome bird of prey.
“ To corroborate my fentiments of this alga being
the bowels of a frog, I luckily law fome of it lying
by the fide of a brook, where I lighted and took it
up, and to my great furprife found attached to the
jelly the head, heart, liver, and one leg of the frog,
which had been (I prefume) difgorged by fome car¬
rion crow, who frequented the flooded grounds t®
pick up worms and other vermin. There was alfo
fome of it found in an apple-tree at Wyfton Magna,
near Leicefter, where 1 then lived, which, no doubt,
was difgorged by fome owl.”
Dr Darwin, in his Poem on the Loves of the Plants,
is of the fame opinion with Mr Platt, that thefe gelati¬
nous fubftances are of an animal nature, and that the dif¬
ferent appearances they put on are owing to various
circumftances, viz. the different birds who feed on
frogs, the quantity they devour at a time, and the
ftate of digeftion before they arc voided.
NOSTRADAMUS (Michel), an able phyficiaa
and a celebrated aftrologer, was a Provencial, and de-
feended of a noble family, and born Dec. 14. 1503,
at St Remy, in the diocefe of Avignon. By his
grandfather he was initiated in the ftudy of the ma¬
thematics. He afterwards completed his courfes of
humanity and philofophy at Avignon ; and, going
thence to Montpelier, he there applied himfelf to phy-
fic, till being forced away by the plague in 1525, he
took his route towards Thouloufe, and paffed on till
he came to Bourdeaux. This courfe held him five
years; during which he undertook the cure of all
fuch patients as were willing to put themfelves under
his care. After this he returned to Montpelier, and
was created do&or of his faculty in 1529, and then
revifited the fame places where he had praaifed phyfie
before. At Agen he contra&ed an aquaintance with
Julius Caefar Scaliger, which induced him to make
fome ftay in that town, and there he entered into
matrimony ; but having buried his wife, and two
children which fire brought him, he quitted Agen
after a refidence of about four years. He return*-
Noftoch,
Noftro.
damus.
ed into Provence, and fixed himfelf firft at Mar-
feilles; but his friends having provided an advantageous
match for him at Salon, he tranfported himfelf thi¬
ther in 1544. In 1546, Aix being afthdted with the
plague, he went thither at the felicitation of the inha¬
bitants, and was of great fervice ; particularly by a
powder of his own invention : fo that the town in
gratitude gave him a confiderable penfion for feveral
years after the contagion ceafed. Returning afto
wards to Salon, he became a reclufe, and made ufe of
8 ^ : his
Noftro*
damus.
NOS
his leifure to apply himfelf to his ftudies.
long time followed the trade of a conjurer occafionally;
and now he began to think himfelf infpired, andmira-
culoufly illuminated with a profpeft into futurity. As
fall as thefe illuminations had difcovered to him any
future event, he entered it in writing, in fimple profe,
but by enigmatical fentences, as he declared himfelf;
but reviling them afterwards, he thought the fentences
would appear more refpedtable, and would favour more
of a prophetic fpirit if they were exprefled in verfe.
This opinion determined him to throw them all into
quatrains, and he afterward ranged them into centu¬
ries. When this was done, he hefitated about ma¬
king them public, till refle&ing that the time of many
events which he had foretold wes very near at hand,
he determined to print them. This he did with a de¬
dication addrefled to his fon Caefar, an infant only
fome months old, in the form of a letter or preface,
dated March i. 1555. This firft edition, which is in¬
cluded in feven centuries, was printed by Rigault at
Lyons. He prefixed his name in Latin, but gave to
his fon Caefar the name as it is pronounced, Notra-
dame.
The public were divided in their fentiments of this
work : many looked upon the author as a fimple vi-
fionary or a fool; while he was accufed of the black
art, or black magic, by others, and treated as an im¬
pious perfon, who held a commerce with the devil:
at the fame time there were not wanting fuch, and
thofe in great numbers, who believed him to be real¬
ly and truly endued with the fupernatural gift of pro¬
phecy. Laftly, fome were found who remained in
fufpenfe, and refrained from giving any judgment at
fill upon the point. However, Henry II. and queen
Catharine of Medicis his mother, were refolved to fee
©ur prophet; and, receiving orders to that effeft, he
prefently repaired to Paris. He was very gracioufly
received at court; and, befxdes the extraordinary re-
fpeft that was paid to him, received a prefent of 200
crowns. He was fent afterwards to Blois, to make a
vifit to his majefty’s children there, and report what
he fhould be able to difeover concerning their defti-
nies. No doubt he exerted himfelf to the utmoft on
the occafion ; but what his fentence was is not known:
however, it is certain, he returned to Salon loaded
with honour and prefents. Animated with this fuc-
cefs, he augmented his work from 300 quatrains to
the number of a complete milliade, and publifhed it
with a dedication to the king in 1558. That prince
dying the next year of a wound which he received, as
is well known, at a tournament, the book of our pro¬
phet was immediately confulted; and in the 35th
quatrain of the firft century this unfortunate event
was found predicted in the following verfe:
Le lion jetme le vieux furmontera,
En champ bellique par Jlngulier duely
Dam cage dor les yeux lui crevera.
Deux clqffes une puis mourir, mart cruelle.
So remarkable a prediction added new wings to his
fame; and he was honouredfhortly after withavifit from
Emanuel duke of Savoy and the princels Margaret of
France his conlort. From this time Noftradamus
found himfelf even over-burdened w ith vifitors, and
his fame made every day new acquifitions^ Ch. IX
[ 125 ] NOS
He had a coming to Salon, was eager above all things to
have a fight of him. Noftradamtfs, who then was in
waiting as one of the retinue of the magiftrates, being
inftantly prefented to his majefty, complained of the
little efteem his countrymen had for him ; whereupon
the monarch publicly declared, that he ftrould hold
the enemies of Noftradamus to be his enemies, and de-
fired to fee his children. Nor did that prince’s favour
flop here ; in palling, not long after, through the city
of Arles, he fent for Noftradamus, prefented him with
a purfe of 200 crowns, together with a brevet, confti-
tuting him his phylician in ordinary, with the fame
appointment as the reft. But our prophet enjoyed
thefe honours only for the fpace of fixteen months,
for he died July 2. 1566, at Salon. Befides his
“ Centuries,” we have the following compolitions of
his: si Treatife de far demens & de fenteurs, 1552.—
A Booh of fingular Receipts, pour entreienir la fante
du corps, 1556—A Piece des confitures, 1557*—si
French Franjlation of the Latin of Galen’s Paraphrafe,
exhorting Menedolus to Jludy, efpecia'ly to that of phy-
fic, 1552. Some years before his death, he pub-
liihed a fmall inftruAion for hufbandmen, Ihowing
the beft feafons for their feveral labours, which he
intitled, ‘Ihe Almanac of Ncjiradamus. Laftly, after
his death there came out The eleventh and twelfth
Centuries of his Quatrains, added to the former ten,
which had been printed three times in two feparate
parts. It is only in thefe firft editions that ©ur author’s
Centuries are found without alterations, additions, &c.
It is to this work that the following diftich of Stephen
Jodelle alludes.
Ncflra damus cum falfa damus, nam fallere noflrum ejl,
Et cum falfa damus, nil niji Nojira damus.
NOSTRE (Andrew le), comptroller of the build¬
ings of the French king, and defigner of his gardens, ,
diftinguilhed himfelf by carrying the art of laying out
gardens to great perfedtion. He was born at Paris
in 1631 ; and was near 40 years of age when M.
Fouquet, fuperintendant of the finances, gave him
an opportunity of becoming known by the fine gar¬
dens of Vaux-le-Vicomte. He was afterwards em¬
ployed by Louis XIV. at Verfaillts* Triannon, St
Germains, &c. and difcovered an admirable tafte in
all his works. In 1678 he went to Rome, with the
permiffion of the French king, to improve his Ikill ;
but he found nothing there comparable to what he
himfelf had done. Pope Innocent XI. refolved to fee
Le Noftre, and gave him a pretty long audience ; at
the conclufion of which Le Noftre faid, “ I have feen
the two greateft men in the world, your holinefs, and
the king my matter.” There is a great difference, an-
fwered the pope : “ The king is a great victorious
prince ; and lama poor prieft, the fervant of the fer-
vants of God.” Le Noftre, charmed with this anfwer,
and forgetting who he was with, clapped the pope on
the ftroulder, faying, “ Reverend father, you look ex¬
tremely well, and will live to bury all the facred col¬
lege.” The pope laughed at his prediction. Le
Noftre, charmed more and more at the goodnefs of the
fovereign pontiff and the fingular efteem he ftiowed
for the king, threw his arms about the pope’s neck and
kitted him. It was his cuftom to behave in the fame
manner to all who fpoke in praife of Louis XiV. and
b:2.
NoftraJ
damns,
Noftre.
not [ US J NOT
Nor*, he even embraced the king fiimfelf whenever that
i—-y—^ pr;nce ^turned from the country. I-e Noflrehad alfo
a talent for painting. He preferred hia good fenfe and
vivacity of mind to the end ot kts ufe } and cued at
Paris in 1700, aged 87.
NOTiE, fig ns ufed in writing, which have the
force of many letters. This contrivance for expedi¬
tion is of great antiquity. It was known 10 the Greeks,
and from them derived to the Romans. By whom
the invention was brought into Rome is. not pre-
f cifely ascertained ; but the moft general opinion f is,
0p’rfnr™d(f that in matters of importance Tully hill made ufe of
IVritb"! notes or ihort-hand writing, when Cato made an ora¬
tion in order to oppofe Julius Crefar relative to the
confpiracy of Catiline. Cicero, who was at that
time conful, placed not aril, or expert fhort-hand wri¬
ters, in different parts of the fenate-houfe, to take
down the fpeech ; and this was the hrit public occa-
iion which we find recorded of employing fhort-hand
writers among the Romans. It is nnneceilary to ob-
i'erve, that hence proceeded the name of notary ffill in
■ life.
There were three kinds of notes for fhort-hand
writing ufed by the ancients, either for difpatch. or
fecrecy. The firft and moff ancient was that of hiero¬
glyphics, which are rather images or reprefentations
of things than of words. (See Hieroglyphics.)
The Chinefe chavafters are of this kind, and may
until greater propriety he called nota: than lit ter a, as ap¬
pears from what hath been already advanced.
The fecond fpecies of note? were, called Jingularice,
from their expreffing words by fingle letters. Serto-
rius Urfatus has compiled a very copious colle&ion of
fuch abbreviations, of which work there are feyeral
editions.
The third kind of notes were called ml a Tironianx,
from Tiro the freed man of Cicero, who was excel¬
lently Ikilied in this art; and ic is to him that we are
indebted for the prefervation of Cicero’s letters, ot
which a great part ftill remain, and one entire book
of them written to Tiro himfelf.
From books it appears, that notes were very frequent
among the Romans, and continued in uie to the 10th
and 11th centuries. We have indeed but few books
remaining that are written in fliort-hand ; but this is
not furprifmg, when fuch was the unhappy fituation
of early ages, that either fuperftition condemned them
to the flames as the works of impious magicians or
necromancers, or they were left to be devoured by
vermin, through ignorance and ilupidity, which was
fo very great, that fome people, as Trithemius affirms,
looked upon notes inthofe days as the elements of the
Armenian language. It is probable, however, that
there are writings of this fort dill extant, which might
contribute to enrich the republic of letters.
There are feveral MSS. and inftruments written in
thefe kmd of notae, in the royal library at Paris. In
the year 1747, t^e learned and ingenious Monf. Car-
pentier, engraved and publifhed at Paris a capitulary,
and charters of Louis the Pious, emperor and king
of France, written in thefe notse Tironiance. To this
work the learned editor hath prefixed an Alphabetum
Tironianum, together with a great number and variety
of notes or marks for the different parts of fpeech,
and rules for acquiring the art of writing in thefe kind
*f flotes. Valerius Prohus, in his book De JJteris
antiquis, explains tmny of the chara&era nftd by the Nor?.rit
fhort-hand writers: and there is a didfionaiy of them .. i! ^
fet forth by Janus Gruterus. See Stenography. 1 .
NOTAR il, perfons employed by the Romans to
take, by mtte, trials and pleadings in their courts of
judicature, or to write as amanuenfes from the mouth
of an author. Thele notarii were of fervile condition.
Under the reign of Juftinian, they Were formed into a
college or corporate body. Notarii were alfo ap¬
pointed to attend the prefcSts, to tianfcribe for them.
There were likewife mtqrii dome/tid, who were employ¬
ed in keeping the accounts of the Roman nobility ;
and when the empire became Chriflian, there were
notaries for cede had ical affairs, who attefted the a£ts
of arthbithops, bifhops, and other fpiritual dignitaries.
We find eceleliatlical notaries at Rome, under Pope
Julius IV. and in the church of Antioch, about the
year 37a. From thefe notaries are derived the office
of chancellor to the bifhops; afterwards almoft every
advocate was admitted a notary.
NOTARY (notarius), lignilles a perfon, ufually
fome ferivener, who takes notes, or frames ffiort
draughts, of contracts, obligations, charter-parties,
or other writings. At prefent we call him a notary-
public, who publicly attefls deeds or writings, in or¬
der to make them authentic in another nation : but
he is principally employed in bufmefs concerning mer¬
chants ; as making protefts of bills of exchange, &e.
And noting a bjll, is where he goes to take notice of
a merchant’s refufal to accept or pay the fame.
NOTATION, in arithmetic and algebra, the me¬
thod of expreffing numbers or quantities by ffgns or
chara&ers appropriated for that purpofe. See Arith¬
metic and Algebra.
NOTES, in mufic, chara&ers which mark the
founds, i. e. the elevations and fallings of the voice,
and the fvviftnefs and flownefs of its motions.
Note is likewife ufed fora mark made in a book or
writing, where there occurs fomething remarkable and
worthy of particular notice : as alfo tor an obfervation
or explication of fome paffage in an author added in
the margin, at the bottom ot the page, or ellewhere;
in which fenfe it ilands contradittinguifhed to text.
Note, is alfo a minute, or fliort writing, containing
fome article of bulintfs ; in which fenfe w>e fay, pro-
miffory note, note of hand, bank-note, &c.
NOTH US, fignifies fpurious, or bajlard; whence
it is figuratively applied by phyficians to fuch difeafes
as, though in refpeft of a limilitude of fymptoins,
&c. they have the fame denomination as fome others,
yet are of a different origin, feat, or the like, from the
fame.
NoTHus,a Perfinn prince, and grandfather to Darius
Codomannus. He is worthy of being mentioned only
as he was progenitor to that fovereign vffiofe over¬
throw conferred upon Alexander the title of Great.
NOTION, a word which in common language is
confidered as of the fame import with idea. This,
however, is improper. Notion comprehends the mean¬
ing of idea, but it denotes much more. We have a
notion of fpirit, of power, of folidity ; but of thefe
things we can have no ideas. Ideas are relidls of fen-
fation ; but there are objedfs of knowledge which fall
under the cognizance of no fenfe ; of thefe obje&s,
however, we may have very diftinA notions either di¬
rect or relative. See Metaphysics, n° ir.
NOTITIA,
NOT [ )
NotitU NOTITIA, in literary hiftory, a book that gives
I! an account of a particular country, city, or other
otonetfa. ^ace. puc|i js the Not ilia Imperii Romani, Notitia
Roma /wtiqua, &c.
NO L'O, an ancient, large, and handfome town ot
Sicily, and capital of the Val-di-Noto. It was entirely
ruined by an earthquake in 1693 > ^ut t^e ‘n^a^*
tants built another town at fome diftance from it,
which they call Nolo Nuovo. E. Long. 14. c. N.
Eat. 36. 50.
Noto ( Vcil-di), one of the three valleys or provinces
into which Sicily is divided ; and it lies between the
fea, Val di-Demona, and Val dbMazara. Noto is
the capital town.
NOTONECTA, the boat-fly t a genus of infedls
Plate belonging to the order of hemyptera. Barbut gives
cccxlvi. the following charadler of this genus. “ i he rodrum
is infledfed ; the antennae are flrorter than the thorax ;
the four wings, which are coriaceous from their bafe
to their middle, are folded together crofs-wife ; the
hind feet are hairy, and formed for fwimming. io
which may be added, that the tarfi are compofed of
two articulations, and all the iix feet are equally formed
for fwimming. The abdomen terminated by four little
horns or appendices.” He alfo defcnbes the notonec-
ta glauca, Linn. n“ 1. in thefe words. “ This inledt has
a head fomewhat round, of which the eyes feem to
take up the greateft part. Thofe eyes are brown and
veiy large, the reft of the head being yellow. In the
fore part it has a {harp trunk that projects, and is in-
fkdtcd between the fore feet. On the fides are feen
the antennas, very fmall, yellowdh, and that fpring
from under the head. The thorax, which is broad,
fhort, and fmooth, is yellow on the fore and black
on the back part. The efcutcheon is large, of a rough
black, and as it were nappy. The elytra, rather
large, and crofted over each other, are a mixture of
brown and yellow, not unlike the colour of ruft, which
makes it look cloudy. The under part of the body
is brown ; and at the extremity of the abdomen are to
he feen a few hairs. The feet, fix in number, are of a
light brown, the two hindermoft having on the leg
and tarfus hairs that give them the fliape of fins, nor
are they terminated by nails. The four anterior ones
ate fomewhat flat, and ferve the animal to fwim with ;
but at their extremity they have nails and no hairs.
This infedl is feen in ftagnating waters, where it fwims
on its back, and prefents its abdomen upwards; for
which reafon it has been called by the Greek name of
notoneBa. The hinder feet, longer than the reft, ferve
it as paddles. It is very nimble, and dives down
when you go to take hold of it; after which, it rifts
again to the furface of the water. It mult be cautioufly
handled if one would avoid being pricked by it, for
the point of its roftrum is exceeding fharp and in¬
tolerably painful, but it goes off in a few minutes. The
larva very much refemhks the perfedt infett.” Such
is the account that. Mr Barbut gives of this beautiful
nimble little creature, which we thought it our duty
today before our readers, as this gentleman feerns to
have been particularly attentive to the fubjedt. To this
account, however, we fhali add the following. Its
legs are long ; when taken out of the water it hops :
it is very common in the ponds of water in Hyde-park,
end in feveral other places aboutLondon. It is of a very
27 ] NOT
particular form, being flattifh at the belly, and rifing to Notonedla
a ridge on the middle of the back ; fo that when it !!
fwims, which is almoft always on the back, its body
has much the refemblanceof a boat in figure,and whence . ^ jE—E
its vulgar name. It is eight lines long, three broad,
and two and a half thick. T he belly is jointed, llriated,
and, as Barbut obferves, hairy. Nature has provided
it with an ofFenfive weapon refembling a fling, which
it thrufts out when hurt from a large opening at the
tail. The head is large and hard. The eyes of nearly
a triangular form. The nofe is a long, green, hollow
probofeis, ending in a hard and fharp point, which in
its natural pofture remains under the belly, and reaches
to the middle pair of legs. The outer pair of its wings
are of a pale flefh-colour, with fpots of a dead white ;
thefe are long, narrow, and fomewhat tranfparent *.
they terminate in a roundifti point, and perfedly co¬
ver the whole body. The triangular piece which ftands
between the top of the wings is hard, and perfectly
black ; the inner wings are broader and fliorter than the
ok ter ones ; they are thin and perfeftly tranfparent,
and are of a pale pearl colour. The hinder pair being
greatly longer than all the reft, they ferve as oars ; and
nature has "tufted them with hair at the end for that
purpofe. This creature moftly lives in the water,
where it preys on fmall infe&s, killing them and fuck¬
ing their juices with its probofeis, in the manner of
the water fcorpion and many other aquatic infe&s ;
and it feizes its prey violently, and darts with incre¬
dible fwiftnefs to a confiderable diftance after it.
Though it generally lives in the water, it fome-
times, however, crawls out in good weather ; and dry¬
ing its wings by expanding them in the fun, takes
flight, and becomes an inhabitant of the air, not to be
known for the fame creature, unlefs to thofe who had
accurately obferved it before ; when tired of flying, or
in danger of an enemy, it immediately plunges into the
water. We are told that there are 14 fpecies of it, leven
of which are common in Europe in waters, &c.
NOTTEBUKG, a town of Ruifu, in the pro¬
vince of Ingria, feated on an.ifland in the lake Ladoga, ,
at the place where the river Nieva proceeds from this
lake. It is ftrong, has a good citadel, and was capi¬
tal of the province before Peterfourg was built. E.
Long. 3 1. 40. N- Lat. 60. o.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE, a county of England,
bounded on the call by Lincolnfhire, on the foutheaft
and fouth by Leicefterfhire* on the weft by Derby-
fliire, and on the north and north-weft by Yorkfhire.
It extends in length 48 miles, 25 in breadth, and 110
in compafs ; containing 560,000 acres, 8 hundreds,
9 market-towns, 168 panfhes, 450 villages, about
17460 houfes, and 95000 inhabitants. No county
in England enjoys a pleafanter and healthier air.
As for the foil, it differs widely in different parts
of the county. Towards the weft, where lies the
fore ft of Sherwood, it is fandy ; and therefore that
part of the county is called by the inhabitants the
Sand: but the fouth and eaft parts, watered by the
Trent and the rivulets that fall into it, are clayey ;
and for that reafon are called by the inhabitants
the Clay- The latter is fruitful both in corn and pa-
fture; but the former produces little befides wood,
coal, and fome lead. The county has a variety of
commodities and manufa&ures, as wool, leather, tal-
Itw,
Kottlnsy-
hamfoire,
Notting¬
ham.
NOT [ iJ
low, butter, cheefe, coal, marl, cattle, malt, liquo¬
rice, (lockings, glafs, earthen-wares, and ftrong aie.
The principal rivers are the 1 rent and Idle. ^ he
1 Trent, whole name is fuppofed to be derived from
the French or Latin word (ignifying thirty, either _be-
caufe it receives thirty fmaller rivers, or has thirty
different forts of fifh in it, is inferior to no river in
England, but the Severn, Thames, and Humber. It
enters the county on the fouth-weft, and paffes through
it to the north-eaft, where it enters Lincolnftrire,
and after a long courfe falls at laft into the Humber.
The Idle rifes in Sherwood-foreft ; and after tra¬
veling the northern part of the county, falls into the
Trent upon the borders of Yorkfiiire and Lincolnfliire.
The fpacious foreft of Sherwood lies in the wed
part of the county, and indeed takes up the greateti
part of it. It was formerly fo thick, that it was
hardly payable ; but now it is much thinner. It feeds
an infinite number of deer and dags; and has feme
towns in it, of which Mansfield is the chief. It
abounds in coal, and a road lies through it for thirty
miles together. Since the reign of King Edward I.
the nobility and gentry have had grants of it. ft was
governed by a great number of officers under the late
earl of Chederfield, chief foreder ; whofe ancedor, Sir
John Stanhope, had a grant of it, with liberty to de-
droy and kill at pleafure, referving only an hundred
deer in the whole walk. The duke of Newcadle is
now deward and keeper. The principal town is
Nottingham, which gives name to the county. It
is a handfome town, and a county of itfelf by charter.
The name is derived from the Saxon word Snottengham,
which figniiies caws, from the caves and apartments
anciently dug in the rocks on which the town dands.
Thefe, being foft, eafily yield to the fpade and pick¬
axe ; whence the townfmen have excellent cellars for
the vad quantities of malt liquors made here, and
fent, as well as their malt, to mod parts of England.
The fituation of the town is very pleafant, having
meadows on one hand, and hills of a gentle, eafy
afeent, on the other. It is well fupplied with fuel,
both wood and coal, from the fored ; and with fifh by
the Trent, which runs about a mile to the fouth of it,
and has been made navigable for barges : fo that they
receive by it not only great quantities of cheefe from
Warwickfhire and Staffordfhire ; but all their heavy
goods from the Humber, and even from HulJ Over
the Trent is a dately done-bridge of 19 arches, where
the river is very large and deep, having received the
addition of the Dove, the Derwent, the Irwaih, and
the Soar, three of them great rivers of themfelves,
which fall into it after its palling by Burton in Staf¬
fordfhire.
The town is of great antiquity, and it had formerly
a drong cadle, in which the Danes, in the time of the
heptarchy, held out a fiege againd- Buthred king of
Mercia, Alfred, and Ethelred his brother, king of the
Wed Saxons.
Soon after the conqued, William either repaired
this fortrefs or built a new one on the fame fpot, in
the fecond year of his reign, probably to fecure a re¬
treat on his expedition againd Edwin Earl of Cheder
and Morcar Earl of Northumberland, who had revolt¬
ed. He committed the cuflody of it to William Pe-
*erell, his natural fon, who has by fome been confi-
N° 244.
? 1 NOT
dered as the founder. It dands ©n a deep rock, at Nntting.
the foot of which runs the river Leen ^ham.
Deering, in his hidory of Nottingham, feems very
judly to explode the dory of the place called Morti-
mer’s-hole, having been made as a hiding-place for
him ; and from his defeription of it, fhowst hat it was
meant as a private paflage to the cadle, to relieve it
with men or provifions in a fiege. He fays that it is
one continued dair-cafe, without any room, or even a
place to fit down on. It was by this paffage that Ed¬
ward III. got into the cadle and furprized Mortimer
and the queen; and from hence, and his being carried
away through it, it has its name.
Edward IV. greatly enlarged the cadle, but did not
live to complete the buildings he begun. Richard III.
finilhed them.
It was granted by James I. to Francis Earl of Rut¬
land. who pulled down many of the buildings j but
it was dill of fo much drength, that Charles I in
1642, pitched on it as the place for beginning his
operations of war. He fet up his dandard, lird on
the walls of the cadle, but in two or three days re¬
moved it to a clofe on the north-fide of the cadle,
without the wall, on a round fpot; after which it was
for many years called Standard-clofe, and fince, from
the name of one who rented it, NeviPs clofe. Where
the dandard was fixed, there dood a pod for a confi-
deiable time. It is a common error that it was erect¬
ed on a place called Derry-mount, a little further north
than the clofe jud mentioned ; this is an artificial hill
raifed on purpofd for a wind-mill, which formerly was
there. The cadle was afterwards fequedered by the
parliament, and the trees in the park cut down.
This cadle was fo drong that it was never taken by
dorm. After the civil war, Cromwell ordered it to
be i'emolifhed. On the redoration, the duke of Buck-
ingham, whofe mother was daughter and heir of this
Francis Earl of Rutland, had it redored to him, and
fold it to William Cavendifh, marquis and afterwards
duke of Newcadle In 167 •, he began the prefent
building, but died in 16-76, when the work was not
far advanced. However, he had the building of it fo
much at heart that he left the revenue of a coniider-
able edate to be applied to that purpofe, and it was
finiffied by Henry his fon. The expence was about
14,000!. It is one of the feats of the prefent duke of
Newcadle.
In the park, wed of the cadle, and facing the river
Leen, are fome remains of an ancient building (if it
may be fo called) cut and framed in the rock. Dr
Stukeley gives it, as he does mod things, to the Bri¬
tons. Many other ancient excavations have been
found in other parts of the rocks
The frames for knitting dockings were invented by
one William.Lea of this county, about the beginning
of the lad century ; but he not meeting with the en¬
couragement he expe£ted (a cafe too common with
the fird inventors of the mod ufeful arts), went with
feveral of his workmen to France, on the invitation of
Henry IV. The death of that king, and the troubles
which enfued, prevented attention being given to the
work. Lea died there, and mod of his men returned
to England. Other attempts were made to deal the
trade, without better fuccefa, and it has flourifhed here
ever fince, and is now carried on to a very confiderable
extent-
NOV [
Krtft'ng* exteTit. It is noted for its horfe^races on a fine
^a”1 courfe on the north fide of the town. The corpora-
Novitian. tlon *s governed by a mayor, recorder, fix aldermen,
u-»v—— tv'° coroners, two iheiifFs, two chamberlains, and
twenty-four common-council men, eighteen of the
fcnior-council, and fix of the junior, a bell-bearer,
and twi; pinders, one for the fields and the other for
the meadows/ The town being within the jurifdiftion
of the foreft, the former of thefe pinders is town-
woodward, and attends the foreft courts. It has three
neat churches, the chief of which is St Mary’s ; and
an alms-houfe, endowed with tool, a-year, for twelve
poor people; with a noble town houle, furrounded
with piazzas. A confideral le trade is carried on in
glafs and earthen wares, and frame-ftockings, befides
the malt, and malt-liquors, mentioned above. Mar-
fhal Tailard, when a prifoner in England, was con¬
fined to this town and county. In the duke of New-
caftle’s park there is a ledge of rocks hewn into a
church, houfcs, chambers, dove-houfes, See. The
altar of the church is natural rock; and between that
and the caftle there is an hermitage of the like work-
manfhip. Upon the fide of a hill there is a very ex¬
traordinary fort of a houfe, where you enter at the
garret, and afeend to the cellar, which is at the top
of the houfe. Here is a noted hofpital founded by
John Plumtree, Efq; in the reign of PJchard II. for
thirteen poor old widows. There are four handfome
bridges over the TVent and Lind. To keep thefe in re¬
pair, and for other public purpofes, the corporation fas
good eftates. This town and Winch el fea both give title
of eail to the noble family of Finch. Here David
king of Scots, when a prifoner in England, rtfided ;
and under-ground is a vault, called Mortimer's hole,
becaufe Roger Mortimer earl of March is faid to
have ahfeonded in it, when he was taken and hanged
by orderof Edward III. W. Long. T. 5. N. Lat.53.0.
NOVA-scotia. Nonsa-ScoriA.
Nova Zemblct. See fVo'ua Zembla.
NOVALLE, a fmali, rich, and populous town of
Italy, between Padus and Trpifo. E. Long. 12. c.
N. Eat. 4^.3 i-
NOVARA, an ancient and firong city of Italy,
in the duchy of Milan, and capital of the Novarefe.
Some pretend that this city was built by the Tro¬
jans, and fo called quaji Nova Sira, becaufe they had
eredled there a temple to Venus. Tacitus mentions
its being made a municipal city by the Romans ;
and there are many inferiptions ftill extant, which
fufficiently prove its ancient fplendor. It is now a
fn all hut well-built town, fituated on a little emi¬
nence, in a fine country, betwixt two rivers very well
fortified, and is the lee of a bilhop fuffragan of Mi¬
lan. It is remarkable for the feveral fieges fuftained
in paft times, and for being the biith-p'ace of Peter
Lombard, mailer of the fentences. E. Loner, g 2 r
E.Lat. 4c. 25 0
ROYAL IAN, who made fo much noife and fo
gieatly dilforbed the peace ot the church, was, we are
told, fii ft a I agan philofophtr. He was baptized in bed
when dangeroufiy ill; recovering, however, he was
after/Shis ordamed prieft <.f the church of Rome
his bilhop having obtained this favour for him, which
the clergy and people were far from being difoof-d to
Vol. XIII. Pa it I. 6 ‘
129 ] * - NOV
grant. He does not appear to have had the good ot No vat Ian,
the church much at heart; for with his wit, know- ,N,uvatlin~-
ledge, and eloquence, he might have been peculiarly
ferviceal le to her, had he not with cowardice fhrunk
from his duty when he dreaded perfecution. His
ambition to be made a bifhop likewife milled him ;
and what occafioned the apoftacy of moft of the firit
herefiarchp, alfo occafioned his. On the death of Fa¬
bian biftiop of Rome, after writing a letter to St Cy¬
prian, be remained quiet whilft the fee was vacant;
but the promotion of Cornelius to that dignity ex¬
cited his envy and jealoufy to no common pitch. The
confequtnce was a ft para t ion from the new biftiop,
and from thofe who profefftd to believe, what Nova-
tian ftrenuoufiy denied, that the church could receive
thofe again who had 1 ten guilty of idolatry. He
foon got a number of followers among the laity, and
fome even among the clergy. Novatus, a prieft of
Cartilage, was one of his party, and having been a
party-man himfell againft St O, priati, brought his ad¬
herents with him. lie got Kimftif conftcrated Biftiop
of Rome in a moft infamous arid clandtftine manner,
by three weak men whom he bad moft grofsly impo-
ftd upon, and one of whom did penance for having
been concerned in what was fo contrary to order, de¬
cency, and the rules of the church.
His defigns, however, in this d I {graceful affair did
not fucceed, for he was riot acknowledged as biftiop
of that diocefe ; Cornelius being confirmed in it, whilft
be was condemned and excommunicated. He ftill,
however, taught his doftrine, and at length became
the head of the party which bears his name. Befides
the letter mentioned above, St Jerome fays he wrote
on the Ptjpjver, on the Sc,lb ’th, on Circumcijion, oil
the Hish Friejls, on Prayer, on Jevajh meals, and on
Firmnefs of mind, &c. with a large m-atife on the Tri¬
nity. None of them appear under his own name, and
fome are thought not to be his.
NOVATI ANS, Novatiani, a fe<ft of ancient here¬
tics, that arofe towards the clofe of the third century,
fo called from Novatian, a pneft of Rome, (fee the
preceeding atticle). 1 hey were called alfo Cathari,
from pure, q. d. Puritans.
Novatian firft feparated. from the communion of
pope Cornelius, on pretence of his being too eafy in
admitting to repentance thofe who had fallen off in
times of perfecution.
Novatus coming to Rome, joined himfelf to the
faftion of Novatian ; and both maintained, that there
was no other Sdmiffion into the church but by the re¬
pentance in baptifm ; grounding their opinion on
that of St Paul: “ It is impofiiMe for thofe once
“ enlightened, and who have taftei the heavenly gift,
“ if they fall away, to renew themfelves by reperit-
“ ance.”
Not that they denied but a perfort fallen into any
fin, bow grievous foever, might obtain pardon by re¬
pentance; for they themfelves recommend repentance
in the ftrongeft terms : but their doftrine was, that
the church had it not in its power to receive finners
into its communion, as having no way of remitting «
fins but 1 y baptifm ; which once received could not
be repeated.
In proec-fs of time the Novat'ans feftened and mo-
R derated
NOV
[ >3°
Novation derated the rigour of their mailer’s doctrine, and on.y
H refufed abfolution to very great Tinners.
, Novel. two jea(jer8 were proferibed, and declared he-
“' - ^reties, not for excluding penitents from communion,
but for denying that the church had a power of re¬
mitting fins. SeeNovATUS.
NOVATION, or Innovation, in the civil law,
denotes the change of one kind of obligation for-ano¬
ther ; as when a promife is accepted inftead of a writ¬
ten obligation.
NOVATUS, a pried of Carthage, in the third
century, who, to avoid being punifhed for a crime,
joined with the deacon, named Felicifimus, againft St
Cyprian. He went to Rome in 251 ; and there found
Novatian, who had acquired great reputation by his
eloquence, but who murmured at his not being raifed
to the fee of Rome in preference to Cornelius No-
vatus contracted a fnendfhip with him ; and afterwards
promoted the deteftable confecration of Novatian to
the fee of Rome. This irregular confecration produced
a very great fehifm: Novatus alfo maintained, that the
church had not the power to receive thofe to commu¬
nion who were fallen into idolatry.
NOVEL, a fictitious narrative in profe, which pro-
fefies to exhibit the natural workings of the human
heart, the happinefs and mifery of private life, and,
above all, the nature cf the affection called Love, and
the confequencc of indulging it in certain circum-
Rances.
The novel fprung out of the old romance, and has
been cenfured for infipidity, as its parent was for ex¬
travagance. (See Romance.) I hat the greater
part of thofe abfurd things, which, under this title,
are daily ifluing from the prefs, deferve all the con¬
tempt with which they can be treatea, is a pofition
which we feel not ourfelves inclined to controvert ;
but we cannot admit that any fpecies of writing is in
itfelf infipid, merely becaufe numbers have attempted
it without fuccefs. The heroic poems of Blackmore
are univerfally known to be contemptible peiform-
ances g-and if we had before us all the heroic poetry
that has ever been written, how many thou funds of
volumes fhould we have as mean as either Prince Ar¬
thur, King Arthur, Ehze, or nlfrcd? b et no critic has
hitherto dared to maintain, that heroic poetry is an
infipid fpecies of writing.
But to the novel objections have been urged of
more importance than its infipidity. It has been often
affirmed with learned folemnity, that the perufal of
novels tends to corrupt the youth of both fexes ; to
produce effeminacy in men and extravagant notions
of the happinefs of love in women ; that it diverts the
minds of the former from more ferious and ufeful {In¬
dies, and expofes the latter to the arts of fedjuttion.
That there are too many novels to which this objec¬
tion is applicable in its full force, is a fa£t which we
are afraid cannot be denied : but when it is admitted,
let not thefe performances be again nccufed ef infipi¬
dity ; for were they infipid, they could have no fuch
confequenccs. It is by laying faff hold of the heart
that they lead it affray. That a novel might be writ¬
ten fo as to intereft the heart in behalf of virtue, as
much as any one has ever warped it to the fide of
vice, is a truth which no man will ever venture to call
in queftion \vh© has any knowledge of human na-
] NOV
ture 5 and therefore we are decidedly cf opinion, that Novel,
there may be novels worthy at once of the perufal of v~—'
inexperienced youth and hoary wifdom. A critic *, * Jobnfcn.
by no means too indulgent to works of fancy, and
among whofe failings laxity of morals has never been
numbered, thus expreffes himfelf on the fubjeft of
novel writing :—“ Thefe familiar hiftories may per¬
haps be made of greater tife than the folemnkies of
profeffed morality, and convey the knowledge of vice
and virtue with more efficacy than axioms and defini¬
tions. But if the power of example is fo great, as to
take poffeffion of the memory by a kind of violence,
and produce effeds almoft without the intervention of
the will, care ought to be taken, that, when the choice
is unreitrained, the heft examples only fhould be ex¬
hibited ; and that what is likely to operate fo flrong-
Iv, fhould not be mifehievous or uncertain in its ef-
feds.”
We have faid, that the novel profeffes above all
things to exhibit the nature of love and its confequen-
ces. Whether this be effential to fuch performances
may perhaps be reafonably queftioned ; but it has
been made an important part of the drama in molt
novels, and, we think, with great propriety. It is the
object of the novelift to give a true picture of life, di-
verfified only by accidents that daily happen in the
world, and influenced by paffions and qualities which
are really to be found in converfing with mankind.
To accomplifh this obje£t, he conceives a hero or he¬
roine, whom he places in a certain rank of life, en¬
dues with certain qualities of body and mind, amt
condufts, through many viciffitudes of fortune, cither
to the fummit of happinefs or to the abyfs of mifery,
according to the paffion which he whflies to excite in
his readers. In the modern novel, this hero or he¬
roine is never placed on a throne, or buried in a cot¬
tage ; beeaufe to the monarch and the cottager no dif
ficulties occur which can deeply intereit the majority
of readers. But among the virtuous part of the in¬
termediate orders of fociety, that affection which we
call love feldom fails,at fome period of life, to take pof- -
feffion of the hearts of both fexes ; and wherever it ha?
place, it muff be productive of happinefs or of mifery.
In the proper management of this paffion coufiffs much
of the difficulty of the novel-writer. He muff exhi¬
bit his hero as feeling all the- pangs and pleafures of
love, as fometimes animated with hope, and fome-
times ready to fink into defpair, but slways exerting
himfelf to obtain the gratification of his wifhes. In
doing this, care fhould be taken, either that he never
tranfgrefs the laws of virtue, or at leaf! that he never
tranfgrefs them with impunity.
“ It is juftly confidered as the grenteff excellency
of art to imitate nature ; but it is neceflary to diftin-
guifh thofe parts of nature which are mod proper for
imitation : greater care is ffill required in reprefenting
life, which is fo often difcoloured by paffion or de¬
formed by wickednefs. If the world be promifcuoufly
deferibed, I cannot perceive (fays the great critic al-.
ready quoted) of what ufe it can be to read the ac¬
count ; or why it may not be as fafe to turn the eye
immediately upon mankind, as upon a mirror which
fhows all that prefents itfelf without ditcrimination.
11 is therefore not a fufiicient vindication of a cha-.
ra£lcr, that it ia drawn as it appears ; for many cha-
vafters
N O V
r
rafters ought never to be drawn : nor of a narrative,
that the train of events is agreeable to obfervation ; for
that obferva'tion which is called knowledge of the
world will be found much more frequently to ‘make
men cunning than good. The purpofe of thefe wri¬
tings is furely not only to Ihow mankind, but to pro-
vide that they may be feen hereafter with lefs hazard ;
to teach the means of avoiding the fnares which are
laid by treachery for innocence, without infurmg
any wi(h for that fuperiority with which the betrayer
flatters his vanity ; to give the power of counterafting
fraud, without the temptation to praftife it; toinr.
tiate youth by meek encounters in the art of neceflary
defence ; and to incieafe prudence without impairing
vi rtue. »
' “ Many writers, for the fake of following nature,
fo mingle good and bad qualities in their principal
perfonages, that they are both equally confpicuous ;
and as we accompany them through their adventures
with delight, and are led by degrees to intereft our-
felves in their favour, we lofe the abhorrence of their
faults, becaufe they do not hinder our pleafures, or per-
haps regard them with fome kindnefs for being united
with fcTmuch merit.—There have been men indeed
iplendidly wicked, whofe endowments threw a bright-
nefs on their crimes, and whom fcarce any villany
made perfeftly deteftable, becaufe they never could
be wholly divefted of their excellencies: but fuch have
been in all ages the great corrupters of the world; and
their refemblance ought no more to be preferved than
the art of murdering without pain.
“ In narratives, where hiftorical veracity has no
place, there fhould be exhibited the moft perfeft idea
of virtue; of virtue not angelical, nor above proba¬
bility (for what we cannot credit we fhall never mu¬
tate), but the higheft and pureft that humanity can
reach, which, exercifed in fuch trials as the various
revolutions of things fhail bring upon it, may, by
conquering fome calamities and enduring others, teach
us what we may hope, and what we can perform.
Vice (for vice is neceflary to be fliovvn) fhould always
difguft ; nor fliould the graces of gaiety, or the dig¬
nity of courage, be fo united with it, as to reconcile
it to the mind. Wherever it appears, it fhould raife
hatred by the malignity of its praftices, and contempt
by the meannefs of its itratagems ; for while it is
fupported by cither parts or fpirit, it will feldom be
heartily abhorred.”
If thefe obfervations be juft, and to us they ap¬
pear unanfwerable, Richardfon’s Lovelace is a cha¬
racter which ought never to have been drawn. In the
graces of gaiety and the dignity of courage, in libe¬
rality without profuflon, in perfeverance and addrefs,
he every where appears as the firft of men ; and that
honour with which he protefts the virtue of his Rofe-
lud) if any inllruftion is to be drawn from it, can
only lead the admirers of Richardfon to believe that
another Clarifla might be in perfeft fafety were fhe
to throw herfelf upon the honour of another Love¬
lace. Yet in the cotnpofition of this fplendid charac¬
ter there is not one principle upon which confidence
can fecurely reft ; and Lovelace, whilft he is admired
by the youth of both fexes, and efcapes the contempt
of all mankind, muft excite in the breaft of the cool
raoralift fentiments of abhorrence and deteftation.
Novel,
131 ] N O
A French critic f> freaking of this charafter, fays,
“ By turns I could embrace and fight with Lovelace. The au_
His pride, his gaiety, his drollery, charm and amiue^Qj. Gf
his genius confounds me and makes me fmile ijdieft
me
11JV, •     * J J
his wickednefs aftonifhes and enrages me ; but at the«r
fame time 1 admire as much as I deleft him.” Surely/" “
this is not the charafter which ought to be prefeuted;
to the inexperienced and ardent mind.
The moft perfeft charafters which we at prefent re-
colleft in any novel are Richardfon’s Graridifon and
Fielding’s Allworthy. The virtues of the former are
perhaps tinftured with moral pedantry, if we may ufe
the expreflion; and the latter fuffered himfelf to be
long impofed upon by the arts of the hypocrite and
the philofophical coxcomb ; but without fome defects
they would not be human virtues, and therefore no
objefts of human imitation. Clariifa is an excellent
charafter: fhe has as much perfeftion as can he ex-
pefted in woman, whilft fhe exhibits, at the fame
time, fome obvious defefts.
As it is the objeft 6f the novelift to intereft the
heart, and to communicate inftruftion through the
medium of pleafure, his work, like a tragedy or
comedy, fhould be one, exhibiting a hero or heroine,
whofe fuccefs every incident fhouln contribute to for¬
ward or to retard. In this refpeft no work of fancy
has ever furpafied the Tom Jones of Fielding. It is
conftrufted upon principles of the foundeft criticifm,
and contains not a fingle event which does not in
fome way contribute towards the winding up of the
piece. A living author, deeply read in Grecian lite¬
rature, and far from being prejudiced in behalf of
any modern, has been heard to fay, that had Ariftotle
feen Tom Jones, he would have pronounced it a poem
perfeft in its kind.
Againft this fentence another critic of name has
entered his proteft, and ftrenuoufly maintained that
nothing can be a poem which is not written in verfe.
We fliall judge of the truth of this conclufion by
comparing it with the principles from which it is de¬
duced. Having laid down as a maxim incontro¬
vertible, that “ the end of poetry is pleafure, to which
ufe itfelf muft be fubfervient,” he very juftly infers
from this idea, that “ poetry fnould negleft no ad¬
vantage that fairly offers itfelf, of appearing in fuch
a drefs or mode of language as is moft taking and
agreeable to us. It follows (be fays), irom the fame
idea of the end which poetry would accomphih, that
not only rhythm, but numbers properly fo_called,
is effential to it, and that it cannot obtain its own
purpofe unlefs it be cloatheu in verse. He then
proceeds to afk, “ What, from this conclufion, are
we to think of thofe novels or romances as they are call¬
ed, which have been fo current of late through all Eu¬
rope ? As they propofe pleafure for their end, and
profecute it, befides, in the way of fidion, though
without metrical numbers, and generally indeed in
harfh and rugged profe, one eaiily fees what their
pretenfions are, and under what idea they are ambi¬
tious te be received. Yet as they are wholly defti-
tute of meafured founds (to fay nothing of their other
numberlefs defefts), they can at moft be couudeied
but as hafty, imperfeft, and abortive poems : whether
fpawned from the dramatic or narrative Ipecies, it may
be hard to fay.
R 2 Ua- *
Novel-
NOV [ >32 1 NOV
Unfinlfhed things, one knows not what to call,
Their generation's fo equivocal.
However, fuch as they are. thole novelties have been
generally well received : Some for the real merit of
their execution ; others, for their arnufing fuhjecfs ; ail
of them, for tire gratification they aiiord, or at lead;
promife, to a vitiated, pallid, and fickly imagination,
that laft difeafe of learned minds, and fare progno-
ftic of expiring letters. But whatever may be the
temporary fuccefs of thefe things (for they vanifh as
fail as they are produced), good lenfe will acknow¬
ledge no work of art but fuch as is compofed accord¬
ing to the laws of its kind.”
Of this fevere criticilm the author himfelf has
given us what amounts to a complete confutation.
He tells ns, that the ancients looked for fo much force
and fpirit of expreflion in whatever they dignified
with the name ol poem, as iometimes to make a que-
ilion “ whether comedy were rightly referred to this
clafs, becaufe it differed only in meafure from mere
profe ? Their doubt (he juilly adds) might have
been fpared or at lead vcfolved, if they had coniidered
that comedy adopts as much of this force and fpirit
of words as is confident with the nature and dignity
of that plea fare which it pretends to give : For the
name of poem will belong to every compolition whofe
primary end is to pi cafe, provided it be fo conftnuvt-
cd as to afford all the pleafure which its kind or fort
will permit.”
If this decifion be jud, and we readily admit it,
Z well compofed novel is intitled to the appellation
pf a poem, though it be written in profe and in a flyle
not remarkable for elevation. The hufinefs of the
novelift is to interefl the heart by a difplay of the
incidents of common life. In doing this, he muft. ex¬
hibit fcenes that are probable, and record fpeeches
that are natural. He is not at liberty to invest, but
only to feledl, obje&s, and to call from the mafs of
mankind thofe individuals upon which the attention
ought moll to be employed. The more clofely he
adheres to this rule, the more deeply does he interefl
us in his narrative ; becaufe every reader fees at once
that it is poffible he may at fome time or other be in
circumflances nearly refembling thofe of the hero of
the tale. But the bufinefs of life is not tranfafted
in pompous language, nor the fpeeches of real lovers
made in verfe either rhimed or blank. Were Tom
Jones or Clar'ijfa Harhxve to be tranflated into verfe,
we {hall venture to ’■ffc-rt that they would quickly
lofe their hold of the public mind ; becaufe the hero
and heroine would then appear in a light which every
heart muft feel to be unnatural.
It is well obferved by Johnfon, that the tafk of the
novel writer “ requires, together with that learning
which is to be gained from books, that experience
which can never be attained by folitary diligence, but
muft arife from general convene and accurate obfer-
vation of the living world. Their performances have,
,33 Horace expreffes it, plus oneris quantum varise minus,
little indulgence, and therefore more difficulty. They
are engaged in portraits of which every one knows
the original, and can detedl any deviation from exa6l-
nefs of refemblance.. Other writings are fafe, except
from the malice of learning, but thefe are in danger
from every common reader j as the flipper ill executed
was cenfured by a ftioemaker who happened to flop Novi,
in his way at the Venus of Apelles.” It is in thus 'N'0vtiry»[
faithfully copying nature that the excellence of Field-
ing confifts. No man was ever better acquainted with
the fnades which diverfifies charadters, anil none ever
made his perfonagts alt and fpeak more like real men
and women in the particular circumftances which lie
deferibes.
“ But the fear of not being approved as a juft
copier of human manners, is not the moft important
concern that an author of this clafs ought to have
before kith. Novels are written chiefly to the young,
the ignorant, and the idle, to whom they ferve as
lectures of conduct and introdudlion into life. In
every fuch work, it fhould therefore be carefully in¬
culcated, that virtue is the higheft proof of under-
Handing, and the only folid bafis of greatnefs ; and
that vice is the natural confequence of narrow
thoughts ; that it begins in mi flake, and ends in ig¬
nominy : and fince love muft be introduced, it fhouil
be reprefented as leading to wretchednefs, whenever
it is feparated from duty or from prudence.”
Novel, in the civil law, a term ufed for the
conftitutions of feveral emperors, more particularly
thofe of Julltnian. They were called novels, either
from their producing a great alteration in the face of
the ancient law, or becaufe they were made on new
cafes, and after the revifal of the ancient code.
NOVELTY, or Newness. Of all the circum¬
ftances that raife emotions, not excepting beauty, nor
even greatnefs, fays Lord Karnes*, novelty hath the * FJem^r
moft powerful influence. A new object produces in - »f
ftantaneoufly an emotion termed voonder, which totally
occupies the mind, and for a time excludes all other
objefts. Converfation among the vulgar never is more
interefting than when it turns upon ftrange objedts and
extraordinary events. Men tear themfelves from their
native country in fearch of things rare and new ; and
novelty converts into a pleafure the fatigues and even
perils of travelling. To what eaufe (hall we aferibe
thefe Angular appearances? To curiofity undoubtedly;
a principle implanted in human nature for a purpofc
extremely beneficial, that of acquiring knowledge ;
and the emotion of wonder raifed by new and jtrange
objedts, inflames our cunofity to know more of fuch
ohjedts. This emotion is different from admiration r
novelty, wherever found, whether in a quality or ac¬
tion, is the caufe of wonder ; admiration is diredted to
the perfon who performs any thing wonderful.
During infancy, every new objedt is probably the
occafion of wonder, in fome degree ; becaufe, during
infancy, every objedt at firft fight is ftrange as well as
new : but as objedts are rendered familiar by cuftom,
we ceafe by degrees to wonder at new appearances, if
they have any refemblance to what we are acquainted
with ; for a thing muft he lingular as well as new, to
raife our wonder. To fave multiplying words, we
would be underftood to comprehend both circumftances
when we hereafter talk of novelty.
In an ordinary train of perceptions where one thing
introduces another, not a tingle objedt makes its ap¬
pearance unexpectedly : the mind thus prepared for
the reception cf its objedts, admits them one after an¬
other without p^rturlation. But when a thing breaks
ia uaexpedtediy, and without the preparation of any
1 CO*"
NOV [ i.
connexion, k rakes an errwt'on, known ky the name
—y > of furpnfe. That emotion may be produced by the
mod familiar objea, as when one unexpectedly meets
a friend who was reported to i-e dead ; or a man in
high life, lately a beggar. On the other hand, a new
objeCt, however ftraiigt, will not produce the emotion,
if the fpeCtator be prepared for the fight: an elephant
in India will not furprife a traveller who goes to fee
one ; and yet its novelty will raife his wonder : an In¬
dian in Britain would be much furprifed to Humble up¬
on an elephant feeding at large in the open fields; but
the creature itfclf, to which he was accultomed, would
not laife his wonde
Surprife thus in feveral refpeCts differs from wonder:
tinexpeClednefs is the caufe of the former emotion; no¬
velty is the caufe of the latter. Nor differ they lefs in
their nature and circumftancef, as will be explained by
and by. With relation to one circumftance they per-
feaiy agree; which is, the (hortnefs of their duration:
the inftantaneous produAion of thefe emotions in per-
feCtion, may contribute to that cffeCt, in conformity
, to a general law, I hat things foon decay which foon
come to perfection : the violence of the emotions may
alfo contribute ; for an ardent emotion, which is not
fufceptible of increafe, cannot have a long courfe. But
their (hort duration ts occafioned chiefly by that of
their caufes : we are foon reconciled to an objeCt, how¬
ever unexpected ; and novelty foon degenerates into
familiarity.
Whether thefe emotions be pleafant or painful, is
not a clear point. It may appear ffrange, that om
own feelings and their capital qualities ihonld afford
any matter for a doubt: but when we are engroffed by
any emotion, there is no place for fpeculation ; and
when fufficiently calm for fpeculation, it is not eafy to
recal the emotion with accuracy. New obje&s are
fometimes terrible, fometinus delightful: the tenor
which a tyger infpires is greateft at firff, and wears off
gradually by familial ity : on the other hand, even wo¬
men will acknowledge that it is novelty which pleafes
the molt in a new falhion. It would be ralh however
to conclude, that wonder is in itfelf neither pleafant nor
painful, but that it affumes either quality according to
circumltances. An objeCt, it is true, that hath a
threatening appearance, adds to our terror by its no¬
velty : but from that experiment it doth not follow,
that novelty is in itfelf difagreeal le; lor it ispereCtly
confident, that we be delighted with an object in one
view, and terrified w ith it in another. A river in flood
fwelling over its banks, is a grand and delightful ob-
jeCt ; and yet it may produce no finall degree of fear
when we attempt to crofs it: coinage and magnani¬
mity are agreeable; and yet, when we view thefe qua¬
lities in an enemy, they ferve to increafe our terror.
In the fame manner, novelty may produce two effeCis
clearly diftinguifhable from each other: it may, di-
reCtly and in itfelf, be agieeable ; and it may have an
oppofite effeCt indireftly, which is, to infpire terror ;
for when a new objeCt appears in any degree danger¬
ous, our ignorance of its powers and faculties affords
ample fcope for the imagination to drefs it in the molt
frightful colours The firft fight of a lion, for ex¬
ample, may at the fame inftant produce two oppofite
feelings, the pleaiant emotion of wonder, and the pain¬
ful pafiion of terror: the novelty of the objeCt pro-
; 1 NOV
duces the former direCtly, and contributes to the lat¬
ter indireCtly. Bhus, when the fuojeCt is an^lifcd,
we find that the power which novelty hath indi-
re&ly to inflame terror, is perfcCtly confiftent with
its beinz in every circanltance agreeable. The mat¬
ter may be put in the clearest light, hy ad mg the
following circumftance. If a lion be firft feen from
a place of fafety, the fpeAacle is altogether agreeable
without the leaft mixture of terror. If, again, the
fait fight puts us within reach of that dangerous ani¬
mal, our terror may be fo great as quite to exclude
any fenfe of novelty. But this fad proves not that
wonder is painful: it proves only, that wonder may be
excluded by a more powerful paifion. Eveiy man may
be made certain from his own experience, that won¬
der raifed by a new objeft that is inoffenfive, is al-
ways pleafant; and with refped to offenfive objefts,
it appears, from 1e : foregoing deduction, that the
fame muff hold as long as the fpeftator can attend to
the novelty.
Whether furprife be in itfclf pleafant or painful, is
a queftion not lefs intricate than the former. It is cer¬
tain that furprife inflames our joy when unexpectedly
we meet with an old friend ; and not lefs our terror
when we ffumhle upon any thing noxious. To clear
that queftion, the firft thing to be remarked is, that
in feme inftances an unexpected obje& overpowers the
mind, fo as to produce a momentary ftupefaCtion :
where the objeCt is dangerous, or appears fo, the hid¬
den alarm it gives, without preparation, is apt totally
to unhinge the mind, and for a moment to Impend ail
its faculties, even thought itfelf; in which Rate a man
is quite helplefs ; and if he move at all, js as like to
run upon the danger as from it. Surprife carried to
fuch a height, cannot be either pleafant or painful; be-
eatife the mind, during fuch momentary ftupefaCtion,■
is in a good meafure, if not totally, infeyrfible.
If we then inquire for the character of this emotion,
it muft be where the unexpected object or event pro-
duceth lefs violent effeCts. Amd'while the mind re^
mains fenfibie of pdeafure and pain, is it not nucui al to
fnppofe, that furprife, like wonder, fltould have an in¬
variable character ? It would appear, however, that
furprife has no invariable charaCter, but affumes that
of the object which raifes it. Wonder being an emo¬
tion invariably raifed by novelty, and being diftinguiih-
able from all other emotions, ought naturally to pot-
ftfs one conftant charaCter. The unexpected appear¬
ance of an objeCt, feems not equally intitled to pro¬
duce an emotion diftinguifliable from the emotion, plea¬
fant or painful, that is produced by the objeCt in its
ordinary appearance: the effect it ought naturally to
have, is only to fwell that emotion, by making it mere
pleafant or more painful than it commonly is. And that
conjecture is confirmed by experience, as well as by
language which is built upon experience : when a man
metts a friend unexpectedly, he is faid to be agreeably
furprifed ; and when he meets an enemy unexpectedly,
he is faid to be difagreeably furprifed. It appears,
then, that the foie effeCt of furprife is to fwell the emo¬
tion raifed by the objeCt. And that effeCt can be clear¬
ly explained : a tide of conneCted perceptions glide
gently into the mind, and produce no perturbation
but an objeCt breaking in unexpectedly, founds anr
alarm, roules the miad out of its cahti ftate, and dirsCia
its
N .ve’ty.
V
NOV
C *34 1
NOV
Novelty. ,°ts whole attention to the obje&, which, if agreeable,
' ”v becomes doubly fo. Several circumilances concur to
produce that effedt: on the one hand, the agitation of
the mind and its keen attention prepare it in the moft
effedtual manner for receiving a deep impreffion : on
the other hand, the objeft, by its fudden and unfore-
feen appearance, makes an impreffion, not gradually as
expe&ed objefts do, but as at one ftroke with its whole
force. The circumftances are precifely hmilar where
the objedl is in itfelf difagreeable (a).
The pleafure of novelty is eafily dittinguiffied from
that of variety : to produce the latter, a plurality of
objefts is neceffary ; the former arifes from a circum-
itance found in a fingle objeft. Again, where obje&s,
whether coexiftent or in fucceffion, are Efficiently di-
verfified, the pleafure of variety is complete, though
every angle objedl of the train be familiar ; but the
pleafure of novelty, dire&ly oppoffie to familiarity, re¬
quires no diverfification.
There are different degrees of novelty, and its ef¬
fects are in proportion. The lowefl degree is found in
objedts fnrveyed a fecond time after a long interval;
and that in this cafe an objeit takes on fome appear¬
ance of novelty, is certain from experience: a large
building of many parts varioufly adorned, or an exten¬
sive field etnbelliffied with trees, lakes, temples, ftatues,
and other ornaments, will appear new oftener than
once : the memory of an object fo complex is foon loft,
of its parts at leaft, or of their arrangement. But ex¬
perience teaches, that, even without any decay of re¬
membrance, abfence alone will give an air of novelty
to a once familiar objedb ; which is not furpriling, be-
caufe familiarity wears off gradually by abfence : thus
a perfon with whom we have been intimate, return¬
ing after a long interval, appears like a new acquaint¬
ance. And diftance of place contributes to this ap¬
pearance, not lefs than diftance of time : a friend,
for example, after a fhort abfence in a remote coun¬
try, has the fame air of novelty as if he had return¬
ed after a longer interval from a place nearer home :
the mind forms a connexion between him and the re¬
mote country, and bellows upon him the fingularity '
of the objects he has feen. For the fame reafon, when
two things equally new and fingular are prefented, the
fpeftator balances between them ; but when told that
one of them is the produdl of a diftant quarter of the
world, he no longer hefitates, but clings to it as the
more fingular: hence the preference given to foreign
luxuries, and to foreign curiofities, which appear rare
in proportion to their original diftance.
The next degree of novelty, mounting upward, is
found in objedls of which we have fome information at
fecond hand ; for defeription, though it contribute to
familiarity, cannot altogether remove the appearance
of novelty when the object itfelf is prefented : the firll
fight of a lion occafions fome wonder, after a thorough
acquaintance with the corre6ieft pidlures and flatties
of that animal.
A new objeft that bears fome diftant refemblance
to a known fpecies, is an inftance of a third degree of
novelty : a flrong refemblance among individuals of
the fame fpecies, prevents almoft entirely the effect of
novelty, unlefs diftance of place or fome other circum-
flance concur ; but wdiere the refemblance is faint, fome
degree of wonder is felt, and the emotion rifes in pro¬
portion to the faintnefs of the refemblance.
The highefl degree of wonder arifeth from unknown
obje&sthat have no analogy to any fpecies we are ac¬
quainted with. Shakefpeare in a fimile introduces that
fpecies of novelty :
As glorious to the fight
As is a winged meffenger from heaven
Unto the white up-turned wond’ring eye
Of mortals, that fall back to gaze on him
When he beflrides the lazy-pacing clouds
And fails upon the bofom of the air.
Romeo and Juliet.
One example of that fpecies of novelty deferves pe¬
culiar attention ; and that is, when an object altoge¬
ther new is feen by one perfon only, and but once.
2 Thefe
Novelty.
(a) \^hat the Marefchal Saxe terms le cceur huma'in^ is no other than fear cccafioned by furprife. It is
owing to that caufe that an ambufh is generally fo dcflrudtive : intelligence of it beforehand renders it perfeft-
ly harmlefs. I he Marefchal gives from Casfar’s Commentaries two examples of what he calls le cceur humdin.
At the fiege of Amiens by the Gauls, Caefar came up with his army, wrhich did not exceed 7000 men ; and
began to entrench himfelf in fuch hurry, that the barbarians, judging him to be afraid, attacked his entrench¬
ments with great fpirit. During the time they were filling up the ditch, he iffued out with his cohorts, and
by attacking them unexpectedly ftruck a panic that made them fly with precipitation, not a fingle man of¬
fering to make a iland. At the fiege of Alefia, the Gauls infinitely fuperior in number attacked the Roman
lines of circumvailation, in order to raife the fiege. Crefar ordered a body of his men to march out filently,
and to attack them on the one flank, while he with another body did the fame on the other flank. The fur¬
prife of being attacked when they expeClcd a defence only, put the Gauls into diforder, and gave an eafy vic¬
tory to Caefar,
. third may be added not lefs memorable. In the year 846, an obllinate battle wras fought between Xamire
king of Leon and Abdoulrahman the Moorifh king of Spain. After a very long conflict, the night only pre¬
vented the Arabians from obtaining a complete victory. The king of Leon, taking advantage of the darknefs,
retreated to a neighbouring hill, leaving the Arabians mailers of the field of battle. Next morning, perceiving
that he could not maintain his place for want of provifions, nor be able to draw off his men in the face of a vic¬
torious army, he ranged his men in order of battle, and, without lofiug a moment, inarched to attack the
enemy, rcfolving to conquer or die. TLhe Arabians, aftonilhed to be attacked by thofc who were conquered
the night before, loft all heart: fear xucceeded to aftonilhment, the panic was univerfal, and they all turned
their backs without almoft drawing a fvvord.
Novelty.
NOV
[ '35 i
NOV
Thefe clrcumftances heighten remarkably the emotion :
the fingnlarity of the fpeftator concurs with the iin-
gularity of the object, to inflame wonder to its higheft
pitch.
In explaining the effetts of novelty, the place a be¬
ing occupies in the feale of exigence, is a circumftance
that mult not be omitted. Novelty in the individuals
of a low clnfs is perceived with indifference, or with a
very flight emotion : thus a pebble, however lingular
in its appearance, fcarce moves our wonder. The emo¬
tion rifes with the rank of the objeft ; and, other cir-
cumflances being equal, is ftrongef! in the higheft or¬
der of exiftence ; a flrange infedt affedts Us more than
a ftrange vegetable ; and a flrange quadruped more
than a Hrange infedt.
However natural novelty may be, it is a matter of
experience, that thofe who relifh it the moft are care¬
ful to conceal its influence. Love of novelty, it is true,
prevails in children, in idlers, and in men of fhallow
underftanding : and yet, after all, why fhould one be
afhamed of indulging a natural propenfity ? A diflinc-
tion will afford a fatisfadlory anfwer. No man is afha¬
med of curiofity when it is indulged to acquire know¬
ledge. But to prefer any thing merely becaufe it is
new, fhows a mean tafie which one ought to be afha¬
med of: vanity is commonly at the bottom, which
leads thofe who are deficient in tafie to prefer things
odd, rare, or Angular, in order to ciflinguifh them-
felves from others. And in fadl, that appetite, as
above-mentioned, reigns chiefly among perfons of a
mean tafie, who are ignorant of leflned and elegant
pleafures.
Of this tafie we have feme memorable inflances in
men of the higheft and the befl education. Lucian
tells the following flory of Ptolemy I. which is as dif-
graceful to him, as honourable to his fubjedts. This
prince h: d ranfacked the world for two curiofities :
one was a camel from Badtria all over black ; the other
a man, half black half white. Thefe he prefented to
the people in a public theatre, thinking they would
give them as much fatisfaclion as they did him ; but
the black monfler, inftead of delighting them, affright¬
ed them ; and the party-coloured man raifed the con¬
tempt of feme and the abhorrence of others. Ptolemy,
finding the Egyptians preferred fymmetry and beauty
to the moll allonifhing produdtions of art or nature
wdthout them, wifely removed his two enormous
trifles out of fight; the negledted camel died in a little
time, and the man he gave for a fong to the mufleian
Thcfpis.
One final caufe of wonder, hinted above, is, that
this emotion is intended to flimulate our curiofity.
Another, fomewhat different, is, to prepare the mind
for receiving deep imprefhons of new objedls. An ac¬
quaintance with the various things that may affedl us,
and with their properties, is effential to our w^ell-being:
wor will a flight or fuperficial acquaintance be fuffi-
cient; they ought to be fo deeply engraved on the
mind, as to be ready for ufe upon every occafion.
Now, in order to a deep impreffion, it is wifely con¬
trived, that things fnould be introduced to our ac¬
quaintance with a certain pomp and folemnity produc¬
tive of a vivid emotion. When the impreffion is once
fairly made, the emotion of novelty being no longer
neccflary, vanifheth alrnofl iuftantaneoufly; never to
Noviciate.
return, unlefs where the impreffion happens to be ob- Novellara
literated by length of time or other means ; in which
cafe the fecond introduction hath nearly the fame fo-
lemnity with the firft.
Defigning wifdom is nowhere more eligible than in
this part of the human frame. If new objeCts did not
affeft us in a very peculiar manner, their impreffions
would be fo flight as fcaice to be of any ufe in life:
on the other hand, did objedls continue to affeCl us
as deeply as at firfl, the mind would be totally en-
groflfed with them, and have no room left either for
adtion or reflection.
The final caufe of furprife is ftill more evident than
of novelty. Self-love makes us vigilantly attentive to
felf-prefervation ; but felf love, which operates bv
means of reafon and reflection, and impels not the
mind to any particular objeCt or from it, is a principle
too cool for a fudden emergency; an objeCl breaking
in unexpectedly, affords no time for deliberation ; and
in that cafe, the agitation of furprife Comes in feafon-
ably to roufe felf-love into action : furprife gives the
alarm ; and if there be any appearance of danger, our
whole force is inflantly fumrnoned to fhun or to pre¬
vent it.
NOVELLARA, a handfome towm of Italy, and
capital of a fmall diftrict of the fame name, with a
handfome caflle, where their fovereign refides. E Lon.
10. 37. N. Lat. 45. 50.
NOVEMVIRI, nine magiflrates of Athens,
whofe government lafled but for one year. The firit
of whom was called arcbon, or prince ; the fecond ba-
fiiius, or king ; the third polemarchus, or general of
the army : the other fix were called thcfimtbeta, or
lawgivers. They took an oath to obferve the laws ; -
and in cafe of failure, obliged themfelves to bellow
upon the commonwealth a flatue of gold as big as
themfelves. Thofe who difeharged their office with
honour, were received into the number of the fenators
of Areopagus.
NOVI, a town of Italy, in the territory of Genoa,
on the confines of the Milanefe. It was taken by the
Piedmontefe in 1746. E. Long. 8. 48. N. Lat.
44- Lv
Novi Bazar, a confiderable town of Turkey in
Europe, and in Servia, near the river Orefco. E.Long.
20. 24. N. Lat. 43. 25.
NOVICE, a perfon not yet fkilled or experienced
in an art or proftffion.
In the ancient Roman militia, novicii, or noviili,
were the young raw fiddlers, diflinguifhed by this ap¬
pellation from the veterans. .
In the ancient orders of knighthood, there were
novices, or clerks in arms, who went through a kind
of apprenticefhip ere they were admitted knights.—
tee Knight.
Novice is more particularly ufed in monalleries for
a religious yet in his, or her, year of probation, and
who has not made the vows.
In feme convents, the fab-prior has the diredti-on of
the novices. In nunneries, the novices wear a white
veil; the reft a black one.
NOVICIATE, a year of probation appointed for
the trial of religious, whether or no they have a voca¬
tion, and the neceffary qualities for living up to the
rule,; the cfcfervation whereof they are to bind them-
2.. fekc4
NOV [ 136 ] NOV
Kov:grad felves to by vow. The noviciate bails 3 year at lead ;
li in fome houfea more. It is eileemed the bed of the
rodg°" ^eat^ a novice> who expires to the world by
-- -— 1 profeffion.
NOVIGRAD, a ftnall but ftrong town of Upper
Hungary, capital of a county of the lame name, with
% good caftle, feated on a mountain near the Danube,
E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat. 40. 50.
Novigrad, a fmall but ftrong town of Dalmatia,
with a caftle, and fubjeft to the Turks ; feated on a
lake of the fame name, near the gulph of Venice.
E. Long. 16. 45. N. Lat. 44. 30.
Novjgrad, a very ftrong place of Servin, fubjcCt to
the Turks ; feated near the Danube. E. Long. 26. 5.
N. Lat. 45. 5.
NOVIODUNUM (Caefar), a town of the jEdui,
commodioufly feated on the Liguris: the Nine-mum
of Antonine. Now Nevers in the Orleannois, on the
Loire.—A fecond Nomodunum of the Aulerci Dia-
Llintes, in Gallia Celtica, (Antonine) ; called Novio-
dunum (Ptolemy), and Noningenium Rotrudum by the
moderns : Nogente le Rotrou, capital of the duchy of
Perche.—-A third of the Bituriges, (Ctefar) : Now
Nuene fur Baranion 5 a village J 5 miles to the north
of Bour.ges, towards Orleans.—A fourth, of Moelia
Inferior, (Ptolemy), frtuated on the Ifter: now ATuorz.,
in Beffarabia—A fifth, of Pannonia Superior, (An¬
tonine ; now Gurhfeld in Cmnthia.—A iixth, Nonio-
dunum Sufi on urn, the fame with Augujla Suejfionum.
—A feyenth, JVeavWwMz/m of the Veromandui in Gallia
Belgica, (Caefar) : now Noyau in the Lie of Prance,
on the borders of Picardy.
NOUN, fee Grammar, nw 7. ; and chapter ift in
toto.
NOVOGOROD tVEMCK 1, or Great NavogOrod,
according to Mr Coxe, is one of the moft ancient ci¬
ties in Ruffia. It was formerly called Great Novcgorod,
to diftinguilh it from other Ruffian towns of a fimilar
appellation ; and now prefents to the attentive and in¬
telligent traveller a linking inftance of fallen grandeim.
According to Neftor, the earlieft of the Ruffian hi-
ftorians, it was built at the fame time with Kiof,
namely, in the middle of the 5th century, by a Scla-
vonian horde, who, according to Procopius, iffued
from the banks of the Volga. Its antiquity is clearly
proved by a pafiage in the Gothic hiltorian Jornandes,
in which it is called Civitas Nova, or new town. We
have little infight into its hiilory before the ninth cen¬
tury, when Ruric the firft great-duke of Ruffia redu¬
ced it, and made it the metropolis of his vail domi¬
nion. The year fubfequent to his death, which hap¬
pened in 879, the feat of government was removed,
under his fon Igor, then an infant, to Kiof; and No-
vogorod continued, for above a century, under the
jurifdibtion of governors nominated by %’ie great dukes,
until in 970, when Svatoflaf, the fon of !gor, created
his third fon Vladimir duke of Novogorod : the latter,
fucceeding his father in the throne of Ruffia, ceded
the town to his fon Yarofiaf, who in 10^6 granted to
the inhabitants very confideralle privileges, that laid
the foundation of that extraordinary degree of iibeity
which they afterwards gradually obtained. From this
period Novogorod was for a long time governed by its
own dukes : thefe fovereigns were at firft fubordinate
N" 244.
to the great-dukes, who refided at Kiof and Volodl- Novnwo,
mir ; but afterwards, as the town increafed in popula- ri,<f
tion and wealth, they gradually ufurped an abfolute
independency. Its independency, however, was not
perpetual. ft continued, indeed, in a flourilhing ftate
until the middle of the 1 5th century : but the great-
dukes of Ruffia, whofe anceftors had rsigned over this
town, and who ftill retained the title of dukes of No¬
vogorod, having transferred their rdidence from Kiof
to Volodimir, and afterwards to Mofcow, laid claim to
its feudal fovereignty ; a demand which the inhabitants
fometimes put off by compolition, fometimes by re-
fiftance, but were lometimes compelled to acknow¬
ledge. At length, however, the great-duke became
abfolute fovereign of Novogorod, though the oftenfiblc
forms of government were ftill preferved. It even then,
however, continued to be the largefl and moft com¬
mercial city of Ruffia; a proof of which we have as
late as the year 1554, from the following deferiptiort
of-Richard Chanceler, who paffed through it in 1554
in his way to Mofcow. “ Next unto Mofcow, the
city of Novogorod is reputed the chiefvft of Ruffia ; 1
for although it be in majefty inferior to it, yet in
greatnefs it goeth beyon lit. It is the chiefeft and
greateft mart town of all Mufcovy ; and albeit the
emperor’s feat is not there, but at Mofcow, yet the
commodioufnefs of tire river, falling into that gulph
which is called Sinus Finnicus, whereby it is well
frequented by merchants, makes it more famous than
Mofcow itfelf.” An idea of its population* during
this period, when compared with its prefent declined
flate, is manifeft from the faA, that in J508 above
15,000 perfons died of an epidemical diforder ; more
than double the number of its nrefent inhabitants. In
its moft ftouriflung condition it contained at lead
400,000 fouls, its ruin was brought on by Ivan Va-
iilievitch II. and completed by the foundation of Pe-
terfburgh. The piefent town is furrounded by a ram¬
part of earth, with a range of old towers at regular
diftances, forming a circumference of fcarcely a mile
and an half; and even this inconfiderable circle in¬
cludes much open fpace, and many houfes whicli are
not inhabited. As Novogorod was built after the
manner of the ancient towns of this country in the
Aiiatic ftyle, this rampart, like that of the Stmlaino-
gorod at Mofcow, probably inclofed fevetal interior
circles. Without it was a vaft extenfive fuburb, which
reached to the diftance of fix miles, and included with¬
in its circuit all the convents and churches, the ancient
ducal palace and other ttruttures, that now make a
fplendid but folitary appearance, as they lie fcattered
in the adjacent plain.
Novogorod ftretches on both fides of the Volkof, a
beautiful river of confiderable depth and rapidity, and
fomewhat broader than the Thames at Windfor. This
river feparates the town into two divifions, the
trading part, and the quarter of St Sophia, which are
united by means of a bridge, partly wooden and part¬
ly brick.
Novogokod Welicki, a province of Mofcovv, bounded
on the north by Ingria; on the eaft by part of the
duchy of Belozero, and that of Tuera, which alio
bounds it on the fouth, with the province of Rzeva ;
and on the well by Plefcuw. It is full of lakes and
foreftsj
N O Y
‘Jovogorod fort ft s j however, there are fome place? winch pro-
It dace corn, flax, hemp, honey, and wax.
Noycn. ]\roroGOROD Serpjhn, a ftrong town of the Ruffian
* empire, and capital of a province of Siberia of the
fame name, feated on the riverJDubica, in E. Long.
33. 20. N. Lat- 52. 30.
NOVOGORODECK, a town of Lithuania, and
capital of a palatinate of the fame name. It is a large
place, and fituated in a vail plain, in E. Long. 25. 30.
N. Lat. 53. 4?.
NOURISHMENT. See Nutrition.
Nourishment of Vegetables. See Agriculture,
Part I. Sefb 1. and 2. and Plants; alfo the article
Composts.
NOWED, in heraldry, fignifies “ knotted,” from
the Latin nodatus ; being applied to the tails of fuch
creatures as are very long, and fometimes reprefented
In coat armour as tied up in a knot.
NOX (fab. hifl.), one of the mod ancient deities
among the heathens, daughter of Chaos. From her
Union with her brother Erebus, flie gave birth to the
Day and the Light. She was alfo the mother of
the Pares:, Htfperides, Dreams, of Difcord, Death,
Momus, Fraud, &c. She is called by fome of the
poets the mother of all things, of gods as well as of
men; and die was worihipped with great folemnity by
the ancients She had a famous flatue in Diana’s
temple at Ephefus. It was ufual to offer her a black
(beep, as die was the mother of the Furies. The cock
was alfo offered to her, as that bird proclaims the ap¬
proach of day during the darknefs of the night. She
is reprefented as mounted on a chariot, and covered
with a veil befpangled with ftars. The confteiiations
generally went before her as her conffant meffengers.
Sometimes {he is feen holding two children under her
arms; one of which is black reprefentingDeath, and the
other white reprefenting Sleep. Some of the moderns
have deferibed her as a woman veiled in mourning, and
crowned with poppies, and carried on a chariot drawn
by owls and bats.
NOYON is a town in France, fituated on the de¬
clivity of a hill of an eafy defeent, on the rivulet Vorfe,
which at a quarter of a league’s diftance falls into the
Oyfe, in the ifle of France, in E. Long. 30, N. Lat.
490 38', about 66 miles north eaft of Paris. It is an
ancient place, being the Noviodunum Belgarum of the
Latins. It is a pretty large city, and is well fituated
for inland trade, which confifts here in wheat and eats,
which they fend to Paris. They have alfo manufafto-
ries of linen-cloths, lawns, and tanned leather. There
are eight parifhes in it, two abbeys, and feveral mo-
nafteries of both fexrt. It is the fee of a bifhop
fuffragan to the metropolitan of Rheims ; he has the
title of count and peer of France, and his income is
faid to amount to about 15,000 livres per annum. The
principal buildings are the epifcopal palace, a cloifter
where the canons of the cathedral dwell, and the town-
houfe. The latter is regularly built in a large fquare,
in the middle of which there is a fountain, where the
'WAter conveyed to it from a neighbouring mountain,
runs continually through three conduits, and is recei¬
ved in a large bafon built of very, hard ftone. They
have alfo many other fountains, feveral market-places,
£nd two public gardens. Noyon is particularly remark-
Vol.XIII. Part I.
NUB
able for the birth of the famous John Calvin, who was Nuaylm,
born here tile 10th of July 1502, and died at Geneva, Nl‘lia :
the 27th of May 1564.
NUAYHAS, the Ague-tree ; a name given by
the Indians to a fort of Bamboo cane, the leaves of
which falling into the water, are faid to impregnate
it with fuch virtue, that the bathing in it afterwards
will cure the ague. They ufe alfo a deco£tion of the
leaves to diffolve coagulated blood, giving it inter¬
nally, and at the fame time rubbing the bruifed part
externally with it. It is faid that this plant bears .its
flowers only once in its life ; that it lives 60 years be¬
fore thofe make their appearance ; but that when they
begin to fhow themfelves, it withers away in about a
month afterwards ; that is, as foon as it has ripened
the feed. 1 here feems to be fometbing of flflion in
the account of many other particulars relating to this
tree in the Hortus Malabaricus; but it feems certain,
that the length of the ftalks, or trunk, muff be very
great : for, in the gallery of Leyden, there is pre-
ferved a cane of it 28 feet long ; and another not
much fhorter in the Afhmolean mufeum at Oxford,
anJ which is more than eight inches in diameter: yet
both thefe appear to be only parts of the whole trunk,
they being nearly as large at one end as at the other.
NUBA, a race of black Pagans, in the neighbour¬
hood of Sennaar, of whom we know nothing but what
we have learned from Mr Bruce. That celebrated tra¬
veller paffed a day or two among them, in his way
from Abyfiinia ; and he tells us, that they are all fol-
diers of the Mek or king of Sennaar, cantoned in vil¬
lages, which to the diftance of four or five miles fur-
round the capital. They are not the aborigines of that
part of Africa ; but “ are either purchafed or taken
by force from Fazulco, and the provinces to the fouth
upon the mountains Dyre and Teglfe.” Though the
flaves of a cruel and treacherous mafter, Mr JBruce re-
prefents them as a gentle, honeft, and hofpitable peo¬
ple ; and he fays exprefsly, that on a journey he had
feldom paffed a more comfortable night, than one in
which he took refuge from a florin in a village of thofe
Nuba. He had a good fupper, and a clean neat
hut to fleep in, while fome of the Nuba watched for him
all night, and took care of his beafts and his baggage.
** Having fettlemcnts and provifions given them by
the government of Sennaar, as alfo arms put into their
hands, they never wifh to defert, but live a very do-
mcffic and fober life, and are a much gentler fort of
negro than their mailers.” (See Sennaar.) Tho’the
efiablifhed religion of Sennaar is that of Mahomet, the
government has never attempted to convert the Nuba.
On the contrary, a certain number of Pagan priefts
is maintained for them irt-every village, who have fol-
drers in paytoaffift: them in the affairs of their religion.
This is a very fingular inftance of toleration among
Mahometans, and what we Ihould little have expefted
from fuch barbarous and fanguinary wretches as thofe
who have the fupreme power in Sennaar, had not our
obferving traveller informed us, that thefe men them¬
felves know almoft nothing of the religion which they
profefs, and are in their hearts rather Pagans than
Mahometans.
The idolatry of the Nuba is deferibed as a mixture
of Sabiifm and ftaiue worfhip : but what is very un-
S common.
[ 137 3
Nuba,
I!
Nub a.
NUB [ i38 ] . . .
common, their worftup is chiefly pniel to the moon, the other rivc.s, it i
while 'they pay bo attention to the fun either nfin^ or
, fetting, advancing to the meridian or receding fiom it.
It is an old obfervation, that the worfhip of every peo¬
ple is tinftured by their natural difpofitions ; and this
is verified in the Nuba. “ That their worlhip is per¬
formed with pleafure and fatisfa&ion, is obvious (fays
our author) every night that the moon fhines. Coming
out from the darknefs of their huts, they fay a few
words upon feeing her brightnefs, and teftify grea^
joy, by motions of their feet and hands, at the firft
appearance of the new moon.” I his is juft what we
fhould have expefted from their gentlenefs and hofpi-
tality. They worlhip likewife a tree and a ftone : but
our author could never difeover what ttee ©r ftone ;
only he learned that neither of them exifts in Sennaar,
but in the country where the Nuba are born, buch of
them as are natives of the villages where he faw tnem,
become, like their mafters, nominal Mahometans.—
The reft ptadlife the idolatrous worlhip of their ancef-
tors, and are much under the influence of their priefts,
from fear rather than from affedfion. They are im¬
moderately fond of fwine’s flefh, and maintain great
herds of fmallhogs, marked with black and white fpots.
Few of the Nuba advance higher than to be foldiers
and officers in their own corps ; and the Mek main¬
tains about 12,000 of them near Sennaar to keep the
.Arabs in fubjeftion. In a climate fo violent as that
which they inhabit, there is very little need of fuel ;
and it is happy for them that fuch is the cafe, for in
the whole country there is not a Angle tree, nor turf,
nor any thing refembling it. ft hey do not, however,
“ eat their meat raw like the Abyffinians ; but with
the ftalk of the dora or millet, and the dung of ca¬
mels, they make ovens under ground, in which they
roaft their hogs whole, in a very cleanly manner, keep¬
ing the fkins on till they are pcrfe&ly baked. They
have neither flint nor fteel with which to light their
fire at firft ; but do it in a manner ftill more expediti¬
ous, by means of two flicks, brought, we are led. to
NUB
pretty fruitful, but in other Nubia,
places barren, fandy, and in want of water. To the J
weft of the Nile is the defert of Bahouda, which is
five days journey over, being the ufual road from
Egypt to Abyffinia. Money is of no ufe in this coun¬
try in the way of trade, it being all carried on by way
of exchange. Jftieir bread and drink is mace of a
fmall round feed, called cloca or fej, which is very ill
tailed, ftftieir houfes have mud walls, being very low,
and covered with reeds. The habit of the better fort
is a veft without fleeves ; and they have no coverings
for their heads, legs, and feet. The common people
wrap a piece of linen cloth about them, and the chil¬
dren go quite naked. 1 hey are a ftupid debauched
fort of people, having neither modefty, civility, nor
religion, though they profefs to be Mahometans. •
ft’he pvodu&ions of this country are gold, elephants
teeth, civet, and fandal wood ; and they lend a great
many Haves into Egypt. The principal towns known
to the Europeans are Dangola and Sennaar.
It is famous for a race of horfes the moft powerful
and docile in the world. Thefe animals are generally
about 16 hands high; and by Mr Bruce, who has
given the moft fcientific account of them, they are
faid to be the breed which was introduced into Nubia
at the Saracen conqueft, and has been prelerved un¬
mixed to this day. Our author reprefents this as a
much nobler animal than the Arabian horie. “ What ^ efraveh,
figure (fays he*) the Nubian horfe would make in voll-v. B.g,
point of fleetnefs is very doubtful, his make being foch, j©.
entirely different from that of the Arabian ; but if
beautiful fyrametry of parts, great fize and llrength,
the moft agile, nervous, and elaftic movements, great
endurance of fatigue, docility of temper, and feeming
attachment to men beyond that of any other domef-
tic animal, can promife any thing for a ftallion, the
Nubian is above all comparifon the moft eligible in the
world.”' He thinks, and juftly thinks, that an at¬
tempt fhould at leaft be made to import them into this
kingdom. “ The expence (he fays) would not be
gA though there mlght be fonre trouble and appli-
, /i _ i. j -TH 1 r_k.ii cation neceflarv ; but if adroitly managed, there would
when flooded, ftftiey make a fmall hole in one of thefe
flicks, and point the other : then laying the former in
a horizontal pofition, they apply the point of the
latter to the hole ; and, turning the perpendicular flick
between their hands, as we do a chocolate-mill, both
flicks take fire and flame in a moment ; fo perfedlly
dry and prepared to take fire is every thing there on
the furface of the earth.”
NUBECULA, little cloud, in medicine, a term
fometimes ufed for a difeafe in the eye, wherein obje&s
appear as through a cloud or mift.
The nubecula feems to arife from certain grofs par¬
ticles detained in the pores of the cornea, or fwim-
ming in the aqueous humour, and thus intercepting
the rays of light.
Nubecula, or Wwier, is alfo ufed for what we other-
wife call albugo. See Albugo.
Nubecula is ufed likewife for a matter in form of
a cloud, fufpended in the middle of the urine.
NUBIA, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by Egypt, on the eaft by the Red Sea and part
of Abyffinia, on the weft by the kingdoms of Tagua,
Gaoga, and the defert of Gerham. ftftre river Nile
xvifls through it j on the banks of which, and thofe of
cation neceflary ; but if adroitly managed, there would
not be much even of that. The Nubians are very jea¬
lous in keeping up the pedigree of their horfes, which
are black or white, but a vail proportion of the former
to the latter.” Our author never faw the colour which
we call grey, i. e. dappled ; but he has feen fome
bright bays, and fome inclining to forrel. All noble
horfes in Nubia are faid to be defeended of one of the
five upon which Mahomet and his four immediate fuc-
cefibrs, Abu Beer, Omar, Atmen, and Ali, fled
from Mecca to Medina the night of the Hegira. No
one will pay much regard to this legendary tale, or
believe that the ftrength and beauty of this breed of
horfes is owing to any virtue communicated to the firft
of them by the prophet and his apoilles. Mr Bruce
accounts for their excellence upon rational principles.
“ The beft horfes of the Arabian breed are found (he
fays) in the tribe of Mowelli and Annecy, which
is about 36° north latitude. Dongala, which is in
2 0c' latitude, feemed to him to be the centre of ex¬
cellence for this noble animal/’ Hence he infers,
that the bounds in which the horfe is in greateft per-
fedlion, are between the 20th and degrees of lar
titude, and between 30 degrees of longitude eaft from
Greenwich
NUB [ *39 3 N U C
JuWanDe-Greenwlcli and tlie banks of the Euphrates. If to
fan. t}ie effects of climate we add the manner of feeding
the Nubian horfes, we fhall perhaps have the true caufe
of their fuperiority over all others. “ They are kept
fat upon dora, and fuffered to eat nothing green but
the Ihort roots of grafs that are to be found by the
fide of the Nile, after the fun has withered it. 1 his
is dug out where it is covered with earth, and appears
blanched, and laid in fmall heaps once a-day on the
ground before them.”
NUBIAN desart, a vail traft of barren rocks and
burning fands, extending from Syene in Upper Egypt
to Geon the capital of Berber in Nubia. As Syene
is in latitude 240 o' 45" north, and Geon in latitude
1 70 57' 22", the length of this defart from north to
fouth is 6° 3' 23' , or upwards of 420 Englifh miles.
Its breadth from eaft to weft has not, as far as we
know, been precifely afeertained. Through this hor¬
rid region, where nothing is to be feen which has the
breath of life, mult all travellers pafs from Sennaar to
Egypt ; in danger every moment of perifhing by thirft,
being overwhelmed by moving columns of fand , fuffo-
cated by a hot and poifonous wind, or cut in pieces
by troops of wandering Arabs. The laft European
of whom we have heard that made the journey and
lived to give an account of it, is Mr Bruce ; and the
perfon muft have neither tafte nor fenfibility who can
read unmoved his manly narrative.
No fingle traveller, nor even a caravan, can enter with
fafety into this defart, but under the protetftion of aHy-
bcar; whofe title and office are thus explained by Mr
Bruce: “ A Hybear is a guide, from the Arabic word
Hubbar^ which fignifies to inform, inftru<ft,or dire<ft,be-
caufethey are ufed to do this office to the caravans tra¬
velling through the defart in all diredlions. They are
men of great confideration, knowing perfectly the fitu-
ation and properties of all kinds of water to be met with
on the route, the diftance of wells, whether occupied
by enemies or not; and if fo, the way to avoid them
with the leaft inconvenience. It is alfo neceffary that they
ffiould know the places occupied by the Simoom, and
the feafons of its blowing (fee Simoom), as well as thofe
occupied by moving fands.”—Under the conduct of
one of thefe men, Mr Bruce, with infinite fortitude and
addrefs, paffed through the defart in the year 1772,
furmounting dangers at which one fhudders in his clo-
fet. Of thefe, the following, which we fhall give in
the nervous language of the author, may ferve as an
in fiance.
“ We were here (at a place called Weadi al Halboul)
at once furprifed and terrified by a fight furely one of
the moil magnificent in the world, in that vaft ex-
panfe of defart, from W. and to N. W. of us, we faw a
number of prodigious pillars of fand at different di-
ftances, at times moving with great celerity, at others
ftalking on with a majeftic flownefs. At intervals we
thought they were coming in a very few minutes to
overwhelm us ; and fmall quantities of fand did aclually
more than once reach us. Again, they would retreat fo
as to be almoft out of fight; their tops reaching to the
very clouds. There the tops often feparated from the
bodies; and thefe once disjoined, difperfed in the air,
and did not appear more. Sometimes they were broken
in the middle as if ftruck with a large cannon fhot.
About noon they began to advance with confiderable
fwiftnefs upon us, the wind being very ftrong at north. Nucleus,
Eleven of them ranged alongfide of us about the di- Nufia.
fiance of three miles. The greateft diameter of the
largefl appeared to me at that diftance as if it would
meafure 10 feet. They retired from us with a wdnd
at S. E. leaving an impreffion upon my mind to which
I can give »o name ; though furely one ingredient in
it was fear, with a confiderable degree of wonder and
aftonifhment.”
If it be true, as the author of A Ph'ilofoph'nal In¬
quiry inlo the Origin cf our Ideas of the Sublime and Beau¬
tiful affirms, that “ the paffion raifed by the fublime is
aftonilhaaent, and that aftonifhment is that Hate of the
foul in which all its motions are fufpended with fome
degree of horror,” furely a more fublime fpedlacle was
never prefented to mortal eyes, than that which was on
this oocafion prefented toMr Bruce. It muil have been
awfully majellic ; but few, we believe, would choofe
the pleafure of contemplating fuch a feene of magnifi¬
cence at the hazard of that dreadful death with which
at every moment it threatened our traveller and his at¬
tendants. He, indeed, had firmnefs of mind to (land
ftill and admire it; but his companions fhrieked out;
while fome of them exclaimed that it wras the day of
judgment, and others that it was hell or the world
fet on fire. But for a more particular account of this
phenomenon, as well as of the nature of the defart and
the proper way of paffing it, we muft refer to the work
from which this flrort fketch is taken*. * Brute's
NUCLEUS,in general, denotes the kernel of a nut, Travels^
or even any feed inclofed within a hulk. The termvol.lv.
nucleus is alfo ufed for the body of a comet, otherwife.
called its head.
NUCTA, a dew, which falling in Egypt about
St John’s day, is by the fuperftitious natives of the
country conlidcred as miraculous, and the peculiar
gift of that faint. Its effects are indeed fo beneficial,
that this belief is little furprifing among a people fo
totally ignorant of natural caufesas the modern Egyp¬
tians ; for it is acknowledged, by the moft enlighten¬
ed travellers, to ftop the plague, and announce a
fpcedy and plei-itiful inundation of the country. Thtfe
effects are thus rationally accounted for by Mr Bruce.
“ In February and March, the fun is on its ap¬
proach to the zenith of one extremity of Egypt, and
of courfe has a very confiderable influence upon the
other. The Nile having now fallen low, the water in
certain old citterns, which, though they ftill exift, are
fuffered to accumulate all the filth of the river, be¬
comes putrid, and the river itfelf has loft all its finer
and volatile parts by the continued adtion of a vertical
fun ; fo that intlead of being fubjedt to evaporation, it
grows daily more and more inclined to putrefadtion.
About St John’s day it receives a plentiful mixture
of the frefh and fallen rain from Ethiopia, which di¬
lutes and refrefhes the almoft corrupted river, and the
fun near at hand exerts its influence upon the water,
which is now become light efiough to be exhaled, tho’
it has ftill with it a mixture of the corrupted fluid. It
is in February, March, or April only, that the plague
begins in Egypt.” Our philofophical traveller does not
believe it an endemical difeafe ; but affigns very fuffi-
cient reafons for thinking that it comes from Conftan-
tinople with merchandife or with paffengers at the very
time of the year when the air, by the long abfence of
S 2 dews,
N U M
[ 14° ]
N U M
!l
Nunia.
Nudities dews, has attained a degree of putridity proper to re¬
ceive it. In this date of the atmofphere, the infec¬
tion continues to rage till the period of St John’s day,
when it is fuddenly Hopped by the dews occafioned by
a reftefhing mixture of rain water, which is poured
into the Nile at the beginning of the inundation.
The fir ft and moft remarkable fign of the change effeft-
ed in the air, is the fudden flopping of the plague.
Every perfon, though flint up from fociety for months
before, buys, fells, and communicates with his neigh¬
bour without any fort of appreherfion ; and as far as
our author could learn upon fair inquiry, it was ne¬
ver known that one fell lick of the plague after the
anniverfary of St John. He admits that fome have
died of it after that period ; but of them the difeafe
had got fuch hold, under the moft putrid influence of
the air, that they could not recover. To corroborate
this theory, which attributes fo much to the benign
influence of the falling dew, he obferves, that imme¬
diately after St John’s day, the clothes of the many
thoufands who have died during the late continuance
of the plague are publicly expofed in the market place ;
and that all thefe, though confiding of furs, cotton,
iilk, and woollen cloths, which are the fluffs moft re-
tentive of infe&ion, imbibing the moift air of the even¬
ing and the morning, are handled, bought, put on
and worn, without any apprehenfion of danger, and
without a Angle accident being known to have happen¬
ed to any one poflefled of this happy confldence.
NUDI TIES, in painting and fculpture, thofe parts
of an human ftguve which are not covered with any
drapery ; or thofe parts where the carnation appears.
NULLITY, in law, fignifles any thing that is null
or void : thus there is a nullity of marriage, where per-
fons marry within the degrees, or where infants marry
without confent of their parents or guardians.
NUMA (Pompilius), the fourth fon of Pompilius
Pompo, an illuftrious Sabine. He had married Tatia,
the daughter of king Tatius, and together with her
remained in his native country, preferring the tran¬
quillity of a private life to the fplendor of a court.
Upon the death of his wife, with whom he had lived
thirteen years, he gave himfelf up entirely totheftudy
of wifdom ; and, leaving the city of Cures, confined
himfelf to the country, wandering from folitude to
folitude, in fearch only of thofe woods and fountains
which religion had made facred. His rtclufe life gave
rife to the fable, which was very early received among
the Sabines, that Numa lived in familiarity with the
nymph Egeria. Upon the death of Romulus both the
fenate and people ftrongly folicited him to be their king.
They difpatchtd Julius Proculus and Valerius Volefus,
two fenators of diftin£tion, to acquaint Numa with
their refolution, and make him an offer of the king¬
dom. The Sabine philofopher rejefted at Arif their
propofal ; but being at laft prevailed upon by the ar¬
guments and intreaties of the deputies, joined with
thofe of his father and of Martins his near relation,
he yielded ; and having offered facriAces to the gods,
fet out for Rome, where he was received by all ranks
of people with loud ftiouts of joy. Spurius Vettius,
the interrex for the day, having afiembled the curise,
he was eledted in due form, and the eledlion was
unanimoufly conArmed by the fenate.
The beginning of his reign was popular^ and he
difmifled the 300 body-guards which his predecefTor Nsma,
had kept around his perfon, and obferved, that he did urnantl;>»
not diftruft a people who had compelled him to reign
over them. He was not, like Romulus, fond of war
and military expeditions, but he applied himfelf to
tame the ferocity of his fubjedfs, to inculcate in their
minds a reverence for the Deity, and to quell their dif-
fenAons by dividing all the citizens into different claf-
fes. He eftablifhed different orders of priefts, and
taught the Romans not to worfhip the Deity by images;
and from his example no graven or painted flatues ap¬
peared in the temples or fandtuaries of Rome for the
fpace of 160 years. He encouraged the report that was
fpread of his paying regular vilits to the nymph Egeria,
and made ufe of her name to give fandfion to the laws
and inftitutions which he had introduced. He eftablifh-
ed the college of the vellais, and told the Romans that
the fafety of the empire depended, upon the prefervation
of the facred ancyle or fliitld, which, as was generally be¬
lieved, had dropped from heaven. He dedicated a temple
to Janus, which, during his whole reign, remained (hut
as a mark of peace and tranquillity at Rome. After
a reign of 42 years, in which he had given every pof-
Able encouragement to the ufeful arts, and in which
he had cultivated peace, Numa died in the year of
Rome 82. Not only the Romans, but alfo the neigh-
bouring nations, were eager to pay their laft offices to
a monarch whom they revered for his abilities, mode¬
ration, and humanity. He forbad his body to be burnt
according to the cuftom of the Romans ; but he ordered
it to be buried near mount Janiculum, with many of
the books which he had written. Thefe books were
accidentally found by one of the Romans, about 40a
years after his death ; and as they contained nothing
new or interefting, but merely the reafons why he had
made innovations in the form of worfhip and in the re¬
ligion of the Romans, they were burnt by order of the
fenate. He left behind him one daughter called Pompilia,
who married Numa Marcius, and became the mother
of Ancus Marcius the fourth king of Rome. Some
fay that he had alfo four fons ; but this opinion is ill-
founded. The principal laws of king Numa, mentioned
by different authors, are, t. That the gods fhould
be worfhipped with corn and a faked cake. 2. That
whoever knowingly killed a free man, fhould be held
as a parricide. 3. That no harlot fhould touch the
altar of Juno; and if fhe did, that fhe fhould facriAce
an ewe-lamb to that goddefs, with dilhevelled hair.
4. That whoever removed a land-mark fhould be put
to death. 5. That wine fhould not be poured on a
funeral pile, &c.
NUMANTIA, a very noble city, the ornament of
the Hither Spain, (Florus) ; celebrated for the long'
war of 20 years which it maintained againft the Ro¬
mans. The bafenefs and injuflice of the Romans during
this war was truly difgraceful to them, and altogether
unworthy of a great and powerful people. The inha¬
bitants obtained fome advantages over the Roman
forces, till Scipio Africanus was empowered to Aniflt
the war and to fee the deftru&ion of Numantia. He
began the Aege with an army of 60,000 men, and was
bravely oppofed by the beAeged, who were no more
than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both armies be¬
haved with uncommon valour, and the courage of the
Nuraantines was foon changed into defpair and fury.
3 Their
<J utnber.
N U M
[ 14I ?
N U M
Their provifions began to fail, and they fed upon the
flelh of their horfes, and afterwards on that of their
dead companions, and at hit they were obliged to draw
lots to kill and devour one another. The melancholy
fitnation of their affairs obliged them to fnrrender to
the Roman general. Scipio demanded them to de-
liver themfdves up on the morrow ; they refuted, and
when a longer time had been granted to their Potions,
they retired and fet fire to their houfes and dettroyed
themfelves, fo that not even one remained to adorn
the triumph of the conqueror. Some hiitomns how¬
ever, deny that ; and affert, that a number of Nu-
mantines delivered themfelves into Supio’s hands, and
that co of them were drawn in triumph at Rome, and
the reft fold a< (laves. The fall of Numantia was more
glorious than that of Carthage or Corinth, 1
the place was much inferior to them. It was taken by
the Romans, A. U. C. 629 ; and the conqueror ob¬
tained the furname of Nu mar tic us.
NUMBER, an afl'emblage of feveral units, or things
of the fame kind. See Arithmetic, and Metaphy¬
sics, n° 205—208. _
Number, fays Malcolm, is either abftiact or appli¬
cate: Abftraa, when referred to things in general,
without attending to their particular properties ; and
applicate, when confidered as the number of a parti¬
cular fort of things, as yards, trees, or the like
When particular things are,mentioned, there is al¬
ways fomerhing more confidered than barely their
numbers ; fo that what is true of numbers in the ab¬
ftraa, or when nothing but the number of things is
confidered, will not be true when the queftion is li¬
mited to particular things: for inftance, the number
two is lefs than three ; yet two yards is a greater
quantity than three inches : and the reafon is, becaufe
regard muft be had to their different natures as well as
number, whenever things of a different fpecies are
confidered ; for though we can compare the number of
fuch things abftra.aedly, yet we cannot compare them
in any applicate fenfe. And this difference is necef.
fary to be confidered, becaufe upon it the true fenfe, and
the poflibility or impoffibility, of fome queftions de^
pend.
Number is unlimited in refpea of increafe ; becaufe
we can never conceive a number fo great but (till there
is a greater. However, in refpea of decreafe, it is
limited ; unity being the (irft and leaft number, below
which therefore it cannot defetnd.
Kinds and dijlinctions of Numbers. Mathemati¬
cians, confidering number under a great many rela¬
tions, have eftabhfhed the following difthaions.
Broken numbers arc the fame with fraaions.
Cardinal numbers are thofe which exprefs the quan¬
tity of units, as I, 2. 3, 4, itfe. whereas ordinal
numbers are thofe wl«ch exprefs order, as ift, 2d, 3d,
£sY.
Compound number, one divifibleby fome other num¬
ber befidts unity ; as 12, which is diviiible by 2, 3,
4, and 6. Numbers, as 12 and 15, which have fome
common meafure befides unity, are faid to be com¬
pound numbers among themfelves.
Cubic number is the produa of a fquare number by
its root: fuch is 27, as being the produa of the
fquare number 9 by its root 3. All cubic numbers,
whofe root is kfs than 6, being divided by 6, the re¬
mainder is the root itfelf; thus 274-6 leaves the re¬
mainder 3, its root; 215, the cube of 6, being di¬
vided by 6, leaves no remainder ; 343, the cube of
7, leaves a remainder t, which added to 6, is the
cube root; and 5 1 2, the cube of 8, divided by 6, leaves
a remainder 2, which added to 6, is the cube root.
Hence the remainders of the diviiions of the cubes
above 216, divided by 6, being added to 6, always
gives the root of the cube fo divided till that remain¬
der be 5, and confequently 11, the cube-root of the
number divided. But the cubic numbers above this
being divided by 6, there remains nothing, the cube
root being 1 2. Thus the remainders of the higher
cubes are to be added to 12 and not to 6, till you
come to 18, when the remainder of the divifion muft
be added to 18 ; and fo on ad infinitum.
Determinate number is that referred to fome given
unit, as a ternary or three 1 whereas an indeterminate
one is that referred to unity in general, and is called
quantity.
Homogeneal numbers are thofe referred to the fame
unit ; as thofe referred to different units are termed
heterogeneal.
Whole numbers are otherwife called integers.^
Rational number is one ccmmenfurable with uni¬
ty; as a number, incommenfurable with unity, is term¬
ed irrationalt or a furd.
In the fame manner, a rational whole number is that
whereof unity is an aliquot part; a rational broken
number, that equal to fome aliquot part of unity ; and
a rational mixed number, that confiding of a whole
number and a broken one.
Even number, that which may be divided into two
equal parts without any fradlion, as 6,.12, c5V. (he
fum, difference, and product, of any number of even
numbers, is always an even number.
An evenly even number, is that which may be mea-
fared, or divided, without any remainder, by another
even number, as 4 by 2,
An unevenly even number, when a number may
be equally divided by an uneven number, as 20 by 5.
Uneven number, that which exceeds an even num¬
ber, at leaft by unity, or which cannot be divided into
two equal parts, as 3, 5, £3V.
The fum or diffeience of two uneven numbers makes
an even number ; but the fa&um of two uneven ones
makes an uneven number.
If an even number be added to an uneven one, or if
the one be fubtraCted from the other, in the former
cafe the fum, in the latter the difference, is an uneven
number ; but the faftum of an even and uneven num¬
ber is even.
The fum of any even number of uneven numbers is.
an even number ; and the fum of any uneven number
of uneven numbers is an uneven number.
Primitive or prime numbers are thofe divifible only
by unity, as 5, 7, &c. And prime numbers among
themfelves, are thofe which have no common meafure
befides unity, as 12 and 19*
Per fed number, that v/hofe aliquot parts added to¬
gether make the whole number, as 6, 28 ; the ali¬
quot parts of 6 being 3, 2, and i~6; and thofe of
28, being 14, 7, 4, 2, i) = 28.
Impenedt numbers, thofe whofe aliquot parts add¬
ed together make either more or lefs tlun the whole.
And
Number.
N U M
Number, A,1(l thefe are diftinguiflied into abundant and defec-
v. —v "•i ' t;ve . an inftance in the former cafe is i 2, whofe ali¬
quot patts 6, 4, 3, 2, i, make l6 ; and in the latter
cafe 16, whofe aliquot parts 8, 4, 2, and x, make
but 15.
Plain number, that arifing from the multiplication
of two numbers, as 6, which is the produft of 3 by 2;
and thefe numbers are called the ftdes of the plane.
Square number is the product of any number multi¬
plied by itfelf; thus 4, which is the tadtum of 2 by 2,
is a fquare number.
Even fquare number added to its root makes an even
jn umber.
^ Polygonal or polygonous numbers, the fums of
arithmetical progrefiioos beginning with unity : thefe,
where the. common difference is x, are called triangu¬
lar numbers; where 2, fquare numbers; where 3, pen-
iagonal numbers ; where 4, hexagonal numbers ; where
5, heptagonal numbers, &c.
Pyramidal numbers, the fums of polygonous num-
beis, collefted after the fame manner as the polygons
themfelves, and not gathered out of arithmetical
progreffions, are. called Jirfl pyramidal numbers; the
fums of the lirft pyramidals are called fecund pyrami-
dahy &c.
If they arife out of triangular numbers, they are call¬
ed triangular pyramidal numbers ; if out of pentagons,
frjl pentagonal pyramidals.
From the manner of fumming up polygonal num¬
bers, it is eafy to conceive how the prime pyramidal
numbers are found,wz. 2)w;+3«3 a 5 )n ex-
6
preffes all the prime pyramidals.
The number nine has a very curious property, its
produ&s always compofxng either 9 or fome lefler pro-
duft of it. We have already given an account of this,
with the examples from Hume, under the article Nine ;
and we need not repeat them. Did our limits permit
us, we could in dance in a variety of other properties
numbers both curious and furprifing. Such fpecula-
tions are indeed by fome men confidered as trifling
and ufelefs : but perhaps they judge too haftily; for
few employments are more innocent, none more inge¬
nious, nor, to thofe who have a tafle for them, more
amufing.
Numbers were by the Jews, as well as the ancient
Greeks and Romans, exprefled by letters of the alpha¬
bet : hence we may conceive how imperfeft and li-
jnited their arithmetic was, becaufe the letters could
not.be arranged in a feries, or in different lines con¬
veniently enough for the purpofes of ready calcula¬
tion. The. invention of the cypher, or arithmetical
figuies, which we now make ufe of, has given us a
very great advantage over the ancients in this refpedt.
Mankind, we may reafonably fuppofe, firft reckon¬
ed by their fingers, which they might indeed do in a
variety of ways.. From this digital arithmetic, very
probably, is owing the number 10, which conftitutes
the whole fet of arithmetical figures.
1 lie letters chiefly employed by the Romans to ex-
prefs numbers were, M, for 1000; D, for coo; C,
for 100 ; L, for 50 ; V, for 5 ; X, for xo ; and I,
.0f.Ij ^ ’ Pr°bably fignified xooc, becaufe it is the
xmtizl of mi/le; D fiands for 500, becaufe it is dimi-
dmm Chgnifies zoo, as being the firft letter
[ I42 ]
N U M
of the word centum; L ftands for 50, becaufe it Is the
half of C, having formerly been wrote thus C; V fi *.
nifies 5, becaufe V is the fifth vowel; X ftands for
10,
V
becaufe it contains twice ^ or Vin a double form;
I ftands for one, becaufe it is the firft letter of initium.
Fhefe however are fanciful derivations. See Numeral
Letters.
The Jewifh cabbalifts, the Grecian conjurors, and
the Roman augurs, had a great veneration for par¬
ticular numbers, and the refult of particular combina-
Uons of them. Thus three, four, fix, feven, nine, ten,
are full of divine myfteries, and of great efficacy.
Golden Number. See Chronology, n3 27,
Numbers, in poetry, oratory, &c. are certain mea-
fures, proportions, or cadences, which render a verfe,
period, or fong, agreeable to the ear.
Poetical numbers confift in a certain harmony in the
order, quantities, &c. of the feet and fyllables, which
make the piece mufical to the ear, and fit for finging,
for which all the verfes of the ancients were intended
See Poetry—It is of thefe numbers Virgil fpsaks in
his ninth Eclogue, when he makes Lycidas fay, Nu-
meros memini, Ji verba tencrem; meaning, that al¬
though he had forgot the words of the verfes, yet he
remembered the feet and meafure of which they were
compofed. J
Rhetorical or profaic numbers are a fort of fimple
unaffeaed harmony, lefs glaring than that of verfe, but
fuch as is perceived and afFeds the mind with pleafure.
The numbers are that by which the ftyie is faid to
be. eafy, free, round, flowing, &c. Numbers are
things abfolutely neceflary in all writing, and even in
all fpeech. Hence Ariftotle, Tully, Quintilian, &c.
lay down abundance of rules as to the bdl manner of
intermixing dadyles, fpondees, anapefts, &c. in or¬
der to have the numbers perfed. The fubftance of
what they have faid, is reducible to what follows.
1. The ftyie becomes numerous by the alternate dif-
pofition and temperature of long and fhort fyllables,
fo as that the multitude of ftiort ones neither render it
too hafty, nor that of long ones too flow and languid:
fometimes, indeed, long and fhort fyllables are thrown
together defignedly without any fuch mixture, to paint
the flownefs or celerity of any thing by that of the
numbers ; as in thefe verfes of Virgil:
and
I Hi inter fefe magna vi brachia tollunt;
Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet alas.
2. The ftyie becomes numerous, by the intermixing
word.-, of one, two, or more fyllables ; whereas the
too frequent repetition of monofyllables renders the
ftyie pitiful and grating. 3. It contributes greatly to
the numeroufnefs of a period, to have it clofed by mag¬
nificent and well-founding words. 4. The numbers
depend not only on the noblenefs of the words in the
clofe, but of thofe in the whole tenor of the period.
5* To have the period flow eafily and equally, the
harfh concurrence of letters and words is to be ftu-
dioufly avoided, particularly the frequent meeting of
rough confonants; the beginning the firft fyllabie of
a word with the laft of the preceding ; the frequent
repetition of the fame letter or fyllable; and the fre¬
quent ufe of the like ending words. Laftly, the ut«
in oft
Natnber.
4 ;meral
s tteif.
N U M [ i
mod care is to be taken left, in aiming at oratorial
numbers, you fhouldfall into poetical ones; and initead
of profe, write verfe. r . „ *
Book of Numbers, the fourth book of the Penta¬
teuch, taking its denomination from its numbering the
families of Ifrael. .
A great part of this book is hiftoncal, relat.ng to
feveral remarkable palfages in the Ifraelites march
through the wildernefs. It contains a diftmft rela|ion
of their feveral movements from one place to another,
or their 42 ftages through the wildernefs, and many
other things, whereby we are inftruaed and confirm,
ed in fome of the weightieft truths that have imme¬
diate reference to God and his providence in the world.
But the greateil part of this book is fpent m enume-
rating thofe laws and ordinances, whether civil or ce¬
remonial, which were given by God, but not mention¬
ed before in the preceding books.
NUMERAL letters, thofe letters of the alpha¬
bet which are generally ufed for figures ; as I, one ;
V, five; X, ten; L, fifty; C, a hundred; D, five
hundred ; M, a thoufand, &c. , .
It is not agreed how the Roman numerals origi¬
nally received their value. It has been fuppofed,
as we have obferved in the end of the article Number,
that the Romans ufed M to denote 1000, becaute
it is the firlt letter of mUle, which is Latin for
icoo; and^Cto denote ico, becaufe it is the fiift
letter of centum, which is Latin for 00. It has
alfo been fuppofed, that D, being formed by divi¬
ding the old M in the middle, was therefore ap¬
pointed to (land for 500, that is, half as much as the
M ftood for when it was whole ; and that L being
half a C, was, for the fame reafon, ufed to denomi¬
nate 50. But what reafon is there to fuppofe, that
1000 and 100 were the numbers which letters were
fir ft ufed to exprefs ? And what reafon can be afligned
why D, the firft letter in the Latin word decern, ten,
fhould not rather have been chofen to Hand for that
number, than for 500, becaufe it had a rude refem-
hlance to half an M? But if thefe queftions could be
fatisfa&orily anfwered, there are ocher numeral letters
which have never yet been accounted for at alb T. hefe
confiderations render it probable that the Romans did
not, in their original intention, ufe letters to exprefs
numbers at all; the mod natuial account of the mat¬
ter feems to be this:
The Romans probably put down a fingle ftroke, I,
for one, as is Hill the praftice of thofe who fcore on
a flute or with chalk : this ftroke, I, they doubled,
trebled, and quadrupled, to exprefs 2, 3, and 4: thus,
II. III. IIII. So far they could eafily number the
ftrokes with a glance of the eye. But they pre-
fently found, that if more were added, it would
foon be neceffary to tell the ftrokes one by one: for
this reafon, when they came to 5, they exprefled it
by joining two ftrokes together in an acute angle thus,
V; which will appear the more probable, if it be con-
fidered that the progreffion of the Roman numbers is
from 5 to 5, i. e. from the fingers on one hand to the
fingers on the other.—Ovid has touched upon the ori¬
ginal of this in his Fnjiorum, lib. iii. and Vitruv. lib.
c. x. has made the fame remark.
After they had made this acute angle V. for five,
they added the fingle ftrokes to it to the number of
thus, VI, VII. VIIX. Villi, and then as the
43 ] N U M
ftrokes could not be further multiplied without confu- Numeral
lion, they doubled their acute angle, by prolonging Chan*cicrg;
the two lines bt'yond their interfe£tion thus, X. to
note two fives, or ten. After this they doubled, trebled,
and quadrupled, this double acute angle thus, XX.
XXX. XXXX. they then, for the fame reafon which
induced them firft to make a fingle and then to double
it, joined two fingle ftrokes in another form, and inftead
of an acute angle, made a right angle L, to denote
fifty. When this 50 was doubled, they then doubled
the right angle thus E, to denote 100, and having
numbered this double right angle four times, thus EC
EEC EEEE; when they came to the fifth number,as
before, they reverted it, and put a fingle ftroke before
it thus, 13, to denote 500 ; and when this yco was
doubled, then they alfo doubled their double right
ano-le, fetting two double right angles oppofite to
each other, with a fingle ftroke between them, thus EI3
to denote toco: when this note for 1000 had been
fouT times repeated, then they put down 133 for s,oco,
rXLKl for io,coo, and jn(n3 for 50,000 CCELUia
for 100,000 IXJU3for500,000,and CCCElrJ'J33
for one million.
That the Romans did not originally write M for
loco, and C for 100, but fquare char afters, as they
are writen above, we are exprefsly informed by Pan¬
ins Manutius ; but the corners of the angles being cut
off by the tranferibers for difpatch, thefe figures were
gradually brought into what are now numeral letters.
When the corners of i n were made round, it ftood
thus CID> which is fo near the Gothic that it foon
deviated into that letter ; fo u having the corner made
round, it ftood thus I0> and then eafily deviated into
D. C alfo became a plain C by the fame means ; the
fingle reftangle which denoted 50, \vas, without alte¬
ration, a capital L ; the double acute angle was an
X ; the fingle acute angle a V confonant ; and a plain
fingle ftroke, the letter I. ; and thus thefe feveu let¬
ters, M, D, C, L, X, V, I, became numerals.
Numeral Chat otters of the Arabs, are thofe figures
which are now ufed in all the operations of arithmetic
in every nation of Europe We have elfewhere drown
that the Arabs derived the ufe of them mod probably
from India, (See Arith metic, N° 5 ) t his opi¬
nion, however, though very generally received, has
been controverted with fome ingenuity A writer in
the Gentleman s Magazine, at a period when that mil.
cellany was in its higheft reputation, thus endeavours
to prove that the Arabs derived their notations from
the Greeks “I maintain (fays he) that the Indians
received their numeral charafters from the Arabians,
and the Arabians from the Greeks, as from them they
derived all their learning, which in fome things they
improved, but for the moft part have altered. The nu¬
merical figures which they received from the Greeks
are proofs of this alteration ; which, is fo great, that
without particular attention one can fcarce difeover in
them the veftiges of their origin. But when we com¬
pare them carefully, and without prejudice, we find in
them manifeft traces of the Greek figures. The Greek
numerical figures were no other chan the letters of their
alphabet. A fmall ftroke was the mark of unity. Ths
B,being abridged of its two extremities, produced the 2.
If you incline the 7 a little on its left fide, and cut off
its foot, and make the left horn round towards the left
fide, you will produce a 3 ; the 4 makes the 4, by
4 jailing;
N U M [ 144 ]
'Hamenl rafing tlie tight leg perpendicularly, and lengthening very well with us.
-CharaiSers a belew the bafe, and lengthening the bafeon
'Numicia t^ie £ f°rrn8 t^ie 5’ turning the low-
■ eft ferrwcircle towards the right, which before was
turned towards the left fide. The number 5 forms the
6 by having its head taken off, and its body rounded.
Z, by taking away the bafe, makes the 7. If we
make the top and bottom of H round, we fhall form
r.n 8. The e is the 9 with very little alteration. The
cypher o was only a point, to which one of the figures
was added to make it ftand for ten times as much. It
was neceffary to mark this point very ftrongly; and in
order to form it better, a circle was made, which was
. filled up in the middle ; but that circumftance was
afterwards negledfed. Theophanes, an hiftovian of
Conf^mtinople, who lived in the ninth century, fays
exprefsly, that the Arabians retained the Greek tigures,
having no chara&ers in their language to reprefent r.ll
the numbers. The Greeks obferved In their numbers
the decuple progreffion, which the Arabians have
retained. Certain chara&ers are found in the Greek
alphabet, which are not ufed in reading, but only in
calculation, and for this reafon they are ftyled
x Jt’mes, that is to fay, notes, marks, in order to diftinguifh
them from letters. The number 6 derives its form
from one of thefe- epifemes, which was called isnvnfjuai
This epifeme forms the letter F among the iEo-
lians and among the Latins. This was called the
Digamma, fo ftyled from its figure, which feems to
have been one r placed upon another.
That this reafoning is plaufible will hardly be que-
ftioned ; but whether it be conclufive our readers muft
determine. Tt has not convinced ourfelves ; but
through the whole of this work we wifh to ftate can¬
didly the different opinions held on every fubjeft @f
curiofrty and ufefulnefs.
NUMERATION, orNoTArroN,in arithmetic, the
art of exprefilng in characters any number propofed in
words, or of txpreffing in words, any number propofed
in chambers. See Arithmetic, n* 7.
NUMERICAL, Numerous, or Numeral, fome-
thing belonging to numbers ; as numerical algebra is
that which makes ufe of numbers, inftead of letters of
the alphabet.—Alfo numerical difference is that by
which one man is dirtinguifhed from another. Hence
a thing is faid to be numerically the fame, when it is fo
in the ftrhfteft fenfe of the word.
NUMIDA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of gallime. On each fide of the head there
is a kind of coloured flefhy horn ; and the beak is
furnifhed with cere near the noftrils. The fpeciescail
ed mcleagris, err Guinea hen, is a native of Africa. It
is larger than a common hen Its body is floped like
that of a partridge, and its colour is all over a dark
grey, very beautifully fpotted with fmall white fpecks ;
there is a black ring round the neck ; its head is red-
difti, and it is blue under the eyes. They naturally
herd together in large numbers, and breed up their
young in common ; the females taking care of the
broods of others, as well as of their own. Barbuf in¬
forms us, that in Guinea they go in flocks of 200
or 300, perch on trees, and teed on warms and
graftoppers ; that they are run down and taken by
dogs; and that their fleft is tender and tweet, gene
rally white, though fometimes black. They breed
N0 244.
Numidj,
Nj nndia.
N U M
Mr Latham -obferves, “ that the
native place of this bird is, without doubt, Africa,and
that it is the meleagris of old authors. It is fuppofed
originally to have come from Nubia, and was efteem-
ed in the Roman banquets. It ha's been met with
wild in flocks of two or three hundred by various tra¬
vellers. Dampier'found them in numbers in the ifiand
cf Mayo ; and Forfter fpeaks of them as numerous at
jag0? but they have been tranfported into the Weft
Indies and America, and are now in a wild ftate in
thofe places, as well as domefticated.”
The white-breafted one is a mere variety, of which
thep; are many : it is mo fly found in Jamaica. The
mitred, or numida mitrata, is a different and not a
common fpecies : it inhabits Madagafear and Gui¬
nea. . Pallas feems to think that it "may be the bird
mentioned by Columella, as differing from the com¬
mon one; and will account for Pliny’s havinT
thought the numida and meleagris to be different
birds. The third fpecies which Mr Latham mentions
is the crefted, or numida criftata. This fpecies like-
wife inhabits Africa. Perhaps it may have fome re-
htion to the crefted fort which Marcgrave mentions
to have feen, and which came from Sierra Leon. This
had a kind of membranous collar about the neck, was of
a bluift aft-colour, and had a large roundift black ere ft.
Buffon, who deferibes it at great length, calls it lapein-
fade. Linnaeus and Gmel. call it Numida meleagris, &c.
Ray and Will, call it gallus and gallina Guineenjts, &c.
Mr Pennant contends, and feems to prove, that the
pintados had been early introduced into Britain, at
leaft prior to the year 1277. ^ut they feem to have
been much negle&ed on account of the difficulty of
rearing them ; for they occur not in our ancient bills
of fare. They have a double caruncle at the chaps*
and no fold at the throat.
NUMLD1A, an ancient kingdom of Africa, bound¬
ed on the north by the Mediterranean Sea ; on the
fouth by Gaetulia, or part of Libya Interior; on the
weft by the Mulucha, a river which feparated it from
Mauritania ; and on the eaft by the Tufca, another
river which bounded it in common with Africa Pro¬
pria. Dr Shaw has rendered it probable, that the ri¬
ver which formerly went under the denominations of
Malva, Malvana, Mulucha, and Molochath, is the
fame with that now called Mullooiah by the Al¬
gerines ; in which c.fe, the kingdom of Numidiamuft
have extended upwards of 500 miles in length ; its
breadth, however, canrot be fo well afeertained ; but
fuppofing it to have been the fame with that of the
prefent kingdom of Algiers, in the narrowed: part it
muft have been at leaft 40 miles broad, and in the wi-
deft upwards of 100. r
This country included two diftridls; one inhabited Ancient dr
by the Majfyh, and the other by the Mafcefyli; the lat- vifion.
ter being alfo called in after times Mauritania Cafarien-
fis, and the former Numidia Propria. The country
of the Maffyli, or, as fome call it, Terra Metagonitis,
was feparated from the proper territory of Carthage
by its eaftern boundary the river Tufca, and from the
kingdom of the Mafaefyli, or Mauritania Caefarienfis,
by the river Ampfaga. It feems to correfpond with
that part of the province of Conftantina lying between
the Zaine and the Wed al Kibeer, which is above 130
miles long, and more than xco broad. The fea-coalt
MUM
[ H5 1
N U M
of this province is f *r the mod psrt mountainous and
rocky, anfvvering to the appellation given to it by A*
bulfeda, viz. El Eclwaa^ the high or lofty. It is far
from being equal in extent to the ancient country of
the Mafaefyli, which, Strabo informs us, was yet in¬
ferior to the country of the Mailyli. Its capital was
Cirta, a place of very conllderable note among the an¬
cients.
ts of
,’hut.
3
Great part
ot the ni-
ft Ty un-
known.
eop'.edhy The mod celebrated antiquarians agree, that the
hed;fcend-£ra(c^ txtending from the ifthmus of Suez to the lake
Tritonis, was chiefly peopled by the defeendants of
Mizraim, and that the pofterity of his brother Put,
or Phut, fpread themfelves all over the country be¬
tween that lake and the Atlantic ocean. To this no¬
tion Plerodotus gives great countenance : for he tells
us, that the Libyan Nomades, whofe territories to
the weft were bounded by the Triton, agreed in their
cuftoms and manners with the Egyptians; but that
the African, from that river to the Atlantic ocean,
differed in almoft all points from them. Ptolemy men¬
tions a city called Putea near Adrametum ; and Pliny,
a river of Mauritania Tingitana, known by the name
of Fut> or Phut ; and the diftrift adjacent to this ri¬
ver was called Regio Phutevjis, which plainly alludes
to the name of Phut. That word figniftes falter¬
ed, or dipper fed, which very well agrees with what
Mela and Strabo relate of the ancient Numidians; fo
that we may, without any feruple, admit the abori¬
gines of this country to have been the defeendants of
Phut.
The hiftory of Numidia, during many of the early
ages, is buried in oblivion. It is probable, however,
that as the Phoenicians were mafters of a great part of
the country, thefe tranfaftions had been recorded, and
generally known to the Carthaginians. King Jarbas
probably reigned here as well as in Africa Propria, if
not in Mauritania, and other parts of Lybia, when Di¬
do began to build Byrfa. It appears from Juftin, that
about the age of Hero lotus, the people of this coun¬
try were called both JlfricarfS or Libyans and Numi¬
dians. Juftin likewife intimates, that about this time
the Carthaginians vanquiftred both the Moors or Mau¬
ritanians and Numidians; in confequence of which
they were excufed from paying the tribute which had
hitherto been demanded of them.
After the conclufron of the firft Punic war, the A-
frican troops carried on a bloody conteft: againft their
mafters the Carthaginians ; and the moft: arrive in this
rebellion, according to Diodorus Siculus, were a part
of the Numidian nation named Micatanians. This fo
incenfed the Carthaginians, that after Hamilcar had
cither killed or taken prikmers all the mercenaries, he
font a large detachment to ravage the country of thofe
Numidians. The commandant of that detachment ex¬
ecuted his orders with the utmoft cruelty, plundering
the diftridt in a terrible manner, and crucifying all the
prifoners without diftindlion that fell into his hands.
This filled the reft with fuch indignation and refent-
ment, that both they and their pofterity ever after¬
wards bore an implacable hatred to the Carthagi¬
nians.
Hlft\)' of t^,e t^me t^e feCond Pun,c war, Syphax king
»Syt hax aniicf the Mafx'fyli entered into an alliance with the Ro-
M«lni.U’a. mans, and gave the Carthaginians a confi ’erable de¬
feat. This induced Gala, king of th? Maffyli, to
Vol. XIII. Parti.
conclude a treaty with the Carthaginians, in eonfe*
quence of which his fon MafinilTa marched at the head
of a powerful army to give Syphax battle. The con¬
teft ended in favour of Maftniffa ; 30,000 of the Maf-
fofyli were put to the fword, and Syphax driven into
Mauritania ; and the like bad fuccefs attended Syphax
in another engagement, where his troops were entirely
defeated and difpei'ed.
Gala dying whilft his fon Mafmifta was acting at
the head of the Numidian troops fent to the afllftance
of the Carthaginians in Spain, his brother Defalces,
according to the eftablilhed rules of fucceffion in'Nu¬
midia, took pofteffion of the Maflylian throne. Thai
prince dying foon after his acceffion, Capufa his eldeft
fon fucceeded him. But he did not long enjoy his
high dignity ; for one Mezetulus, a perfon of the
royal blood, but an enemy to the family of Gala,
found means to excite a great part of his fubjefts to
revolt. A battle foon took place between him and
Capufa; in which the latter was flain with many of
the nobility, and his army entirely defeated. But though
Mezetulus thus became pofteffed of the fovereignty,
he did not think proper to affume the title of king,
but ftyled himfelf guardian to Lacumaces, the furvi-
ving fon of Defalces, wPom he graced with the royal
title. To fupport himfelf in his ufurpation, he mar¬
ried the dowager of Defalces, who was Hannibal’s
niece, and confequently of the moft powerful family in
Carthage. In order to attain the fame end, he lent
ambaffadors to Syphax, to conclude a treaty of al¬
liance with him. In the mean time Mafiniflh, recei¬
ving advice of his uncle’s death, of his coufin’s ftaugh-
ter, and of Mezetulus’s ufurpation, immediately paf-
fed over to Africa, and went to the court of Bocchar
king of Mauritania, to folicit fliccours. Bocchar,
fenfible of the great injuftice done Mafmiffa, gave
him a body of 400c Moors to efcort him to his do¬
minions. His fubje&s, having been apprifed of his
approach, joined him upon the frontiers with a party
of 500 men. The Moors, in purfuance of their orders,
returned home, as foon as Mafinifta reached the con¬
fines of his kingdom. Notwithftanding which, and
the fmall body that declared for him having acciden¬
tally met Lacumaces at Thapfus with an efcort going
to implore Syphax’s affiftance, he drove him iiuo the
town, which he carried by aftault, after a faint reft it*.
However, Lacumaces, with many of his men,
Nunufti*.
found means to efcape to Syphax. The fame of this
exploit gained Maiinifla great credit, infomuch that
the Numidians flocked to him from all parts, and,
amongft the reft, many of his father Gala’s veterans,
who prefied him to make a fpeedy and vigorous pufti
for his hereditary dominions. Lacumaces having join¬
ed Mezctulus with a reinforcement of Maflhefylians,
which he had prevailed upon Syphax to fend to the af~
fiftance of his ally, the ufurper advanced at the head
of a numerous army to offer Mafiniffa battle; which
that prince, though much inferior in numbers, did not
decline. Hereupon an engagement enfued ; which,
notwithftanding the inequality of numbers, ended in
the defeat of La’cumaces. The immediate confequence
of this viftory of Mafiniffa was a quiet and peaceable
poffeffion of his kingdom ; Mezetulus and Lacumaces,
with a few that attended them, flying into the territo¬
ries ©f Carthage. However, being apprehenfive that
T he
N U M [
Nutnidia. he (hould be obliged to fuftam a war agalnft Syphax,
—v " J^e offered to treat Lacumaces with as many marks of
diftinftion as his father Gala had Defalces, provided
that prince would put himfelf under his protection.
He alfo promifed Mezetulus pardon, and a reftitution
of all the effefts forfeited by his treafonahle conduct,
if he would make his fubmiffion to him. L>otli of them
readily complied with the propofal, and immediately
returned home; fo that the tranquillity and repofe of
Numidia would have been fettled upon a folid and lalt-
ing foundation, had not this been prevented by _Af-
drubai, who was then at Syphax’s court. He infi-
nuated to that prince, who was difpofed to live ami¬
cably with his neighbours, “That he was greatly
miftaken, if he imagined Mafiniffa would be fatisfied
with his hereditary dominions. I hat he was a prince
of much greater capacity and ambition, than either
his father Gala, his uncle Defalces, or any of his fa¬
mily. That he had difcovered in Spain marks of a
moft rare and uncommon merit. And that, in fine,
tinlefs his rifing flame was extinguiflied before it came
to too great a head, both the Maffcefylian and Cartha¬
ginian Hates would be infallibily confirmed by it.^ Sy¬
phax, alarmed by thefe fuggeftions, advanced with a
numerous body of forces into a diftrift, which had
long been in difpute between him and Gala, but was
then in poffeffion of Mafiniffa. This brought on a
general adlion between thefe two princes; wherein the
latter was totally defeated, his army difperfed, and he
himfelf obliged to fly to the top of mount Balbns, at¬
tended only by a few of his horfe. Such a decifive
battle at the prefent jun&ure, before Mafiniffa was
fixed in his throne, could not but put Syphax in¬
to poffeffion of the kingdom of the Maffyli. Mafi¬
niffa in the mean time made nodturnal incurfions from
his poll; upon mount Balbus, and plundered all the
adjacent country, particularly that part of the Car¬
thaginian territory contiguous to Numidia. This di-
iiridt he not only thoroughly pillaged, but likewife
kid wafte with fire and fword, carrying off from
thence an immenfe booty, which was brought by fome
merchants, who had put into one of the Carthaginian
ports for that purpofe. In fine, he did the Carthagi¬
nians more damage, not only by committing fuch
dreadful devaftations, but by maffacring and carrying
into captivity vail numbers of their fubjedts on this
occafion, than they could have fuftained in a pitched
battle, or one campaign of a regular war. Syphax,
at the preffing and reiterated inftances of the Cartha¬
ginians, fent Bocchar, one of his moft active com¬
manders, with a detachment of 4000 foot, and 2000
horfe, to reduce this peftilent gang of robbers, pro-
mifing him a great reward if he could bring Mafinifla
either alive or dead. Bocchar, watching an oppor¬
tunity, furprifed the Maffylians, as they were ftrag-
gling about the country without any order or difci-
pline ; fo that he took many prifoners, difperfed the
reft, and purfued Mafiniffa himfelf, with a few of his
men, to the top of the mountain where he had before
taken poll. Confidering the expedition as ended, he
not only fent many head of cattle, and the other booty
that had fallen into his hands, to Syphax, but like¬
wife all the force, except 500 foot and 200 horfe.
With this detachment he drove Mafiniffa from the
furamit of the hill, and purfued him through feveral
146 ] N U M
narrow paffes and defiles, as far as the plains of Clu. Numidia.
pea. Here he fo furrounded him, that all the Maf-  r—
fylians, except four, were put to the fword, and Ma¬
finiffa himfelf, after having received a dangerous
wound, efcaped with the utmoft difficulty. As this
was effected by oroffing a rapid river, in which attempt
two-of his four attendants perilhed in the fight of the
detachment that purfued him, it was rumoured all
over Africa, that Mafiniffa alfo was drowned ; which
gave inexpreffible pleafure to Syphax and the Cartha-
ginians. For fome time he lived undifcovered in a
cave, where he was fupported by the robberies of the
two horfemen that had made their efcape with him.
But having cured his wound by the application of
fome medicinal herbs, he boldly began to advance to¬
wards bis own frontiers, giving out publicly that he
intended once more to take poffeffion of his kingdom.
In his march he was joined by about 40 horfe, and,
foon after his arrival amgngft the Maflyli, fo many
people flocked to him from all parts, that out of them
he formed an army of 6000 foot and 4coohorfe. With
thefe forces, he not only reinftated himfelf in the pof¬
feffion of his dominions, but likewife laid waffe the
borders of the Maffaefyli. This fo irritated Syphax,
that he immediately affembled a body of troops, and
encamped very commodioufly upon a ridge of moun¬
tains between Cirta and Hippo. His army he com¬
manded in perfon ; and detached his fon Vermina, with
a confiderable force, to take a compafs, and attack the
enemy in the rear. In purfuance of his orders, Ver¬
mina fet out in the beginning of the night, and took
poll in the place appointed him, without being difco¬
vered by the enemy. In the mean time Syphax de¬
camped, and advanced towards the Maflyli, in order
to give them battle. When he had poflefled himfelf
of a rifing ground that led to their camp, and con¬
cluded that his fon Vermina mufthave formed the am-
bufcade behind them, he began the fight. Mafiniffa
being advantageouffy polled, and his foldiers djftin-
guifhing themfelves in i,*'. extraordinary manner, the
difpute was long and bloody. But Vermina unex-
peftedly falling upon their rear, and by this means
obliging them to divide their forces, which were
fcarce able before to oppofe the main body under Sy¬
phax, they were foon thrown inta confufion, and for¬
ced to betake themfelves to a precipitate flight. All
the avenues being blocked up, partly by S^phax and
partly by his fon, fuch a dreadful flaughter was made
of the unhappy Maffyli, that only Mafiniffa himfelf,.
with 60 horfe, efcaped to the Leffer Syrtis. Here he
remained, betwixt the confines of the Carthaginians
and Garamantes, till the arrival of Laelius and the Ro¬
man fleet on the coaft of Africa. What happened
immediately after this jun&km with the Romans, be¬
longs to the article Rome. '
It will be fufficient therefore in this place to ob-
ferve, that, by the affiftance of Laelius, Mafiniffa at laft
reduced Syphax’s kingdom. According to Zonaras,
Mafiniffa and Scipio, before the memorable battle of
Zama, by a ftratagem deprived Hannibal of fome ad¬
vantageous pofts ; which, with a folar eclipfe happening
during the heat of thea&ion, and not a little intimida¬
ting the Carthaginian troops, greatly contributed to
the vi&ory the Romans obtained. At the conclufion
therefore of the fecond Punic war, he was amply re¬
warded
/
N U M [ 147 ] ' N U M
wattled by the Romans for the important fervices he MafinilTa their defign. This not a little chagiined himj Num.tha
had done them. As for Syphax, after the lofs of his as it was contrary to the former praihee or the o- ^
dominions, he was kept in confinement for fome time mans ; who in the preceding war had communicate Mafinifia
at Alba; from whence being removed in order to their intentions to him, and confulted him ,on all oc-dfpleafed
grace Scipio’s triumph, he died at Tibur in his way calions. When, therefore, the confuls app ic to 11m
to Rome. Zonaras adds, that his corpfe was decent- a body of his troops to aft in conceit wit 1 t eir orces,
ly interred ; that all the Numidian prifoners were re- he made anfwer, “ That they fhould have a reinforce
Leafed ; and that Vermina, by the affiftance of the Ro- ment from him when they Rood in need o it. t
mans, took peaceable poffefiion of his father’s throne, could not but be provoking to him to con 1 ei , t ia_
However, part of the Mafisefylian kingdom had been after he had extremely weakened the Cart aginians,
before annexed to Mafiniffa’s dominions, in order to and even brought them to the brink of rum, is pre-
reward that prince for his fingular fidelity and clofe tended imperious friends fhould come to reap t le ruitj
attachment to the Romans. of his vidory, without giving him the leail intelligence
This feems to be countenanced by the epitomizer of of it. _ . .
L,ivy, who gives us fufficiently to underftand, that Sy- However, his mind foon returned to Us nature ias,
phax’s family, for a confiderable time after the con- which was in favour of the Romans. Finding ioen
clufion of the fecond Punic war, reigned in one part approaching, he fent to Aimilianus, then a tri une in
of Numidia. For he intimates, that Archobarzanes, the Roman army, to defire a vifit from him. , at,-
Syphax’s grandfon, and probably Vermina’s fon, ho- propofed by this vifit, was to invelt him wit u
vered with a powerful army of Numidians upon the powers to dilpofe of his kingdom and eftate as e ou
Carthaginian frontiers a few years before the begin- think proper, for the benefit of his children. ^ e
ning of the third Punic war. This he feems to have high idea lie had entertained of that young hero s a 1-
done, either in order to cover them, or to enable the lities and integrity, together with his gratituue an ai-
Carthaginiaris to make an irruption into Mafinifla’s fedion for the family into which he was aoopte , in-
territories. Cato, howrever, pretended that thefe for- duced him to take this ftep. But, believing that eat gut jeavefl
ces, in conjundion with thofe of Carthage, had a de- would not permit him to have a perfonal conferenceevery
fign to invade the Roman dominions, which he urged with ./Emilianus upon this fubjed, he informed his wi Ctothechl-
as a reafon to induce the confcript fathers to defiroy and children in his lait moments, that he had impower F0^1 ”
the African republic. him to difpofe in an abfolute manner of all lus poi
Nothing is further requifite, in order to complete fefiions, and to divide his kingdom ainongft nis fons.
the hiflory of this famous prince, than to exhibit to To which he fubjoined, “ 1 require, tuat whatever
our readers view fome points of his condud towards ^Emilianus may decree, fhall be executed as pundua
the decline, and at the clofe, of life ; the wife difpo- ly as if I myfelf had appointed it by my will. Pla-
fitions made after his death by iEmelianus, in order ving uttered thefe words, he expired, at about 90 yeais
to the regulation of his domeftic affairs ; and fome of age. _
particulars relating to his charader, genius, and habit rlhis prince, during his youth, had met with urange
of body, drawn from the moll celebrated Greek and reverfes of fortune. However, fays Appian, being
Roman authors. fupported by the Divine protedion, he enjoyed an un-
By drawing a line of circumvallation around the Car- interrupted courfe of profperity for a long feries of
thaginian army under Afdrubal, polled upon an emi- years. His kingdom extend d from Mauritania to
nence, MafinilTa cut off all manner of fupplies from the weftern confines of Cyrenaica ; from whence it an¬
them ; which introduced both the plague and famine pears, that he was one of the moil powerful princes of
into their camp. As the body of Numidian troops Africa. Many of the inhabitants ©f this vail trad he
employed in this blockade was not near fo numerous as civilized in a wonderful manner, teaching them to cul-
the Carthaginian forces, it is evident, that the line tivate their foil, and to reap thofe natural advantages
here mentiened mull have been extremely ftrong, and which the fertility of fome parts of their country of-
consequently the effed of great labour and art. The fered them. He was of a more robuft habit of body
Carthaginian*, finding themfelves reduced to the laft than any of his cotemporaries, being blefled vyitu the
extremity, concluded a piece upon the following greatefl health and vigour ; which was doubtlefs owing
terms, which Mafiniffa didated to them : 1. That to his extreme temperance, and the toils he incei-
they fliould deliver up all deferters. 2. That they fantly fuftained. We are informed by Polybius, that
fhould recal their exiles, who had taken refuge in his fometimes he flood upon the fame Ipot of ground from
dominions. 3. That they fhould pay him 5000 talents morning till evening, without the leaf! motion, and at
of filver within the fpace of 50 years. 4. That their others continued as long in a fitting pofture. . He
foldiers fhould pals under the jugum, each of them would remain on horfeback for feveral days and nights
carrying off only a fingle garment. As Mafiniffa him- together, without being feniible of the lealt fatigue,
felf, though between 80 and 90 years of age, con- Nothing can better evince the ilrength of iiis conflitu-
duded the whole enterprife, he mull have been ex- tion, than his youngefl fon, named St embalm Sihcmbciy
tiemely well verfed in fortification, and other branches or Stembanusy who was but four years old at his de-
of the military art. His underflanding likewife he ceafe. Though 90 years of age, he performed all the
muff have retained to the lafl. This happened a fhort exercifes ufed by young men, and always rode without
time before the beginning of the third Punic war. See a faddle. Pliny tells us, that he reigned above 60
Carthage. years. He was an able commander, and much facili-
Soon after, the confuls landed an army in Africa, in tated the redudion of Carthage. Plutarch from Po*
order to lay liege to Carthag-e, without imparting to lybius obferves, that the day after a great vidory won
T 2 over
N U M [ 148 ]
Numidia. over the Carthaginians, MufinifTa was feon fitting at ury and pleafure.
l| "”'v " the door of his tent, eating a piece of brown bread.
Suidas relates, that to the laft he could mount his
horfe without any afliilance. According to Appian,
he left a numerous well dilciphned army, and an inv
menfe quantity of wealth, behind him.
Mafiniffa, before his death, gave his ring to his el-
deft fon Micipfa ; but left the diftribution of all his
other effefis and pofieftions amongft his children en¬
tirely to JEmilianus. Of 54 fons that furvived him,
only three were legitimate, to wit, Micipfa, Gulufla*
and Maftanabai. jiEmilianus, arriving at Cirta after
he had expired, divided his kingdom, or rather the
government of it, amongft thefe three, though to the
others he gave confiderable polTefiions. To Micipfa,
who was a prince of a pacific difpofition, and the eldeft
fon, he afiigned Cirta, the metropolis, for the place
of his refidence, in exclufion of the others. Gulufia,
the next to him, being a prince of a military genius,
had the command of the army, and the Iran failing of
all affairs relating to peace or war committed to his
care. And Manaftabal, the youngeft, had the admi-
piftration of juttice, an employment fuitable to his
education, allotted him. They enjoyed in common the
immenfe treafures Mafiniffa had amaffed, and were all
of them dignified by iEmilianus with the royal title.
After he had made thefe wife difpolitions, that young
nobleman departed from Cirta, taking with him a
body of Numidian troops, under the conduct of Gu-
luffa, to reinforce the Roman army that was then ac-
ting againft the Carthaginians.
Maftanabai and Guluffa died foon after their father,
as appears from the exprefs teftimony of Salluft. We
find nothing more remarkable of thefe princes, befides
what has been already related, than that the latter con¬
tinued to affift the Romans in the thhd Punic war, and
that the former was pretty well verfed in the Greek
language. Micipfa therefore became foie poffeffor of the
kingdom of Nmnidia. In his reign, and under the con-
fuiate of M. Plautius Hypfasus and M. Fulvius Flaccus,
according to Orofius, a great part of Africa was co¬
vered with locutts, which deftroyed all the produce of
the earth, and even devoured dry wood. But at laft
they were all carried by the wind into the African fea,
out of which being thrown in vail neaps upon the
ftiore, a plague enfued, which Fvept away an infinite
number of animals of all kinds. In Numidia only
800,000 men perifhed, and in Africa Propria 200,000;
amongft the red, 30,000 Roman foldiers quartered in
and about Utica for the defence of the laft province.
At Utica, in particular, the mortality raged to fuch
a degree, that 1500 dead bodies were carried out of
one gate in a day. Micipfa had two fons, Adherbal
and Hiempfal, whom he educated in his palace, to¬
gether with his nephew Jugurtha. That young prince
was the fon of Maftanabai; but his mother having
been only a concubine, Mafiniffa had taken no great
notice of him. However, Micipfa confidering him as a
prince of the blood, took as much care of him as he
did of his own children.
^ Jugurtha poffeffed feveral eminent qualities, which
Hiftory ef gained him univerfal efteem. He was very handfome,
Jugunha. endued with great ftrength of body, and adorned with
the fineft intelledlual endowments. He did not devote
himfelf, as young men commonly do, to a life of lux •
N U M
He ufed to exercife himfelf, with Numidia.
perions of his age, in running, riding, hurling the ~—v—
javelin, and other manly exercifes, fuited to the mar¬
tial genius of the Numidians ; and though he furpaffed
all his fellow fportfmen, there was not one of them
but loved him. The chace was his only delight ; but
it was that of lions and other lavage beads. Salluft,
to linilh his charadler, tells us, that he excelled in all
things, and fpoke very little of himfelf.
So confpicuous an affemblage of fine talents and per-
fe&ions, at firft charmed Micipfa, who thought them
an ornament to his kingdom. However, he foon be¬
gan to reflect, that he was confiderably advanced in
years, and his children in their infancy ; that mankind
naturally thirfted after power, and that nothing was
capable of making men run greater lengths than a vi¬
cious and unlimited ambition. Thefe reflections foon
excited his jealoufy, and determined him to expofe Ju¬
gurtha to a variety of dangers, fome of which, he en¬
tertained hopes, might prove fatal to him. In order to
this, he gave him the command of a body of forces
which he fent to affift the Romans, who were at that
time befieging Numantia in Spain. But Jugurtha, by
his admirable conduCt, not only efcaped all thofe dan¬
gers, but likewife won the efteem of the whole army,
and the friendfhip of Scipio, who fent a high charac¬
ter of him to his uncle Micipfa. However, that ge¬
neral gave him fome prudent advice in relation to his
future conduCt ; obferving, no doubt, in him certain
fparks of ambition, which, if lighted into a flame, he
apprehended might one day be productive of the moll
fatal confequences. g
Before this Inft expedition, Micipfa had endeavour- dreaded
ed to find out fome method of taking him oft' private-hy
ly ; but his popularity amongft the Numidians obliged Mafiaiffa.
that prince to lay abide all thoughts of this nature.
After his return from Spain the whole nation almoft
adored him. The heroic bravery he had (hown there,
his undaunted courage, joined to the utmoft calmnefs
of mind, which enabled him to preferve a juft medium
between a timorous forefight and an impetuous ra!h-
nefs, a circumftance rarely to be met with in perfons
of his age, and above all the advantageous teftimo-
nials of his conduct given by Scipio, attracted an uni¬
verfal efteem. Nay, Micipfa himfelf, charmed with
the high idea the Roman general had entertained of
his merit, changed his behaviour towards him ; refol-
ving, if poffible, to win his affeCtion by kindnefs. Fie
therefore adopted him, and declared him joint heir
with his two fons to the crown. Finding, fome few
years afterwards, that his end approached,'he fent for
all three to his bed-fide ; where, in the prefence of the
whole court, he defired Jugurtha to recoiled with what
extieme tendernefs he had treated him, and confequent*
ly to confider how well he had deferved at his hands.
He then intreated him to proteCf his children on all 9
occafibns ; who, being before related to him by the^^n^
ties of blood, were now by their father’s bounty be- encrufUhim
come his brethren. In order to fix him the more firmly with thj
in their intereft, he likewife complimented him upon Cire of his
his bravery, acldrefs, and confummate prudence. Heclu^ieI1‘
further inlinuated, that neither arms nor treafures con.
ftitute the ftrength of a kingdom ; but friends, who
are neither won by arms nor gold, but by real fervices,
and an inviolable fidelity. “ Now where (continued
5
N U M
[ >49 1
N U M
10
Ohe of
whom he
murders,
and drives
out the
other.
Momidia. he) can we find better friends than in brothers ? And
—■ v how can that man who becomes an enemy to his rela¬
tions, repofe any confidence in, or depend upon ilran-
n-ers ?” Then addreffmg himfelf to Adherbal and tii-
empfal, “ And you (laid he) 1 enjoin always to pay
the higheft reverence to Jugurtha. Endeavour to imi¬
tate, and if poffible furpafs, his exalted merit, that the
world may not hereafter obferve Micipfa’s adopted fon
to have refie&ed greater glory upon his memory than
his own children.” Soon after, Micipfa, who, accord¬
ing to Diodorus, was a prince of an amiable chai after,
expired. Though Jugurtha did not believe the king
to fpeak his real fentiments with regard to him, yet
he feemed extremely pkafed with fo gracious a fpeech,
and made him an anfwer fuitable to the occafion.
However, rhat prince at the fame time was determined
within himfelf to put in execution the fcheme he had
formed at the liege of Numantia, which was fuggeded
to him by fome faftious and abandoned Roman offi¬
cers, with whom he there contrafted an acquaintance.
The purport of this fcheme was, that he fnould extort
the crown by force irom his two coufins, as foon as
their father’s eyes were clofed ; which they infinuated
might eaiily be effefted by his own valour, and the
venality of the Romans. Accordingly, a fhort time
after the old king’s death, he found means to afiaffi-
nate Hitmpfal in the city of Thirmida where his trea-
iures were depolited, and drive Adherbal out of his
dominions. That unhappy prince found himfelf obli¬
ged to fly to Rome, where he endeavoured to engage
the confcript fathers to efpoufe his quarrel; but, not-
withfianding the juftice of his caufe, they had not vir¬
tue enough effectually to fupport him. Jugurtha’s am-
baffadors, by diflributing vail fums of money amongft
the fenators, brought them fo far over, that a majority
palliated his inhuman proceedings. This encouraged
thole m’unlters to declare, that Hiempfal. had been
killed by the Numidians on account of his exceffive
cruelty ; that Adherbal was the aggi-eifdr in the late
troubles ; and that he was only chagrined becaufe he
could not make that havoc among his countrymen he
would willingly have done. 1 hey therefore intreated
the fenate to form a judgment of jugurtha’s behaviour
in Africa from his conduft at Numantia, rather than
from the iuggeflions of his enemies. Upon which, by
far the greateft part of the fenate difeovered themfelves
.prejudiced in his favour. A few, however, that were
not loll to honour, nor abandoned to corruption, in¬
filled upon bringing him to condign punifhment. But
as they could not prevail, he had the bell part of Nu-
ir.idia allotted him, and Adherbal. was forced to reft
fatisfied with the other.
ii Jugurtha finding now by experience that every thing
Vtnality of was venai at Rome, as his friends at_ Numantia had
thc Ro* before informed him, thought he might purfue his
towering piojefts without any obftruftion fiom that
quarter. He therefore, immediately after tne laft di-
vilioti of Micipfa’s dominions, threw off the mafic, and
attacked his coufin by open force. As Adherbal was
a prince of a pacific difpofition, and almofl in all re-
fpefts the leverfe of Jugurtha, he was by no means a
match for him. The latter therefore pillaged the for¬
mer’s territories, ftormed feveral of his tortieffes, and
over-ran a good part of his kingdom without oppofi-
tioa. Adherbal, depending, on the friendfnip. of the
aiaus
Romans, which his father in his laft moments allured N^nh3-,
hini would be a llronger fupport to him tnan ad th..
troops and treafures in the univerfe, difpatched depu¬
ties to Rome to complain of thefe hoflilities. But
whilft he loft his time in fending thither fruitlefs depu¬
tations, Jugurtha overthievv him in a picched battle,
<md foon after fhut him up in Citta. During the fiege'
of this city, a Roman commiffion arrived there, in or¬
der to perfuade both parties to an accommodation ;
but finding Jugurtha untraftable, the commiffioners
returned home without fo much as conferring with Ad--
herbal. A fecond deputation, compofed of fenators
of the higheit diftinftion, with Admilius Scnurus, pre-
fident of the fenate, at their head, landed fome time
after at Utica, and fummoned Jugurtha to appear be¬
fore them. That prince at firft feemed to be under
dreadful apprehenlions, efpecially as.Scaurus reproach¬
ed him with his enormous crimes, and threatened him
with the refentment of the Romans if he did not im¬
mediately raife the fiege of Cirta. However, the Nu-
midian, by his addrefs, and the irrefiftible power of
gold, as was afterwards iufpefted at Rome, fo molh-r
fieft Scaurus, that he left Adhei'bal at his mercy. In
fine, Jugurtha had at lafl Cirta furrendered to him,
upon condition only that he fhould fpare the life of
Adherbal. But the mercilefs tyrant, in violation of
the laws of nature and humanity as well as the capi¬
tulation, when he had got poffeffion of the town, or¬
dered him to be put to a mofl cruel death.. The mer¬
chants likevvife, and all the Numidians in the place •
capable of bearing arms, he caufed without diftinftion
to be put to the fword.
Every perfon at Rome infpired with any fentiments
of humanity, was itruck with horror at the news of
this tragical event. However, all the venal fenators
ftill concurred with Jugurtha’s minifters in palliating
his enormous crimes. Notwithflanding which, the
people, excited thereto by Cams ivlemmius their tri¬
bune, who bitterly inveighed againft the venality of
the fenate, refolded not to let fo flagrant an inftance of
villainy go unpunithed. This difpofition in them in¬
duced the confcript fathers likewife to declare, their
intention to chafliie Jugurtha. In order to this, an
army was levied to invade Numidia, and the command
of it given to the conful Calpurnius Beltia, a perfon of
good abilities, but rendered unfit for the expedition he
was to go upon by his infatiable avarice. Jujurtha
being informed of the great preparations making at
Rome to attack his dominions, fent his fon thither to
avert the impending florin. The young prince was
plentifully fupplied with money, which he had orders
to diflribute liberally amonglt the leading men. But
Beftia, propofing to himfelf great advantages from <an
invafion of Numidia, defeated all his intrigues, and
got a decree palled, ordering him and his attendants
to depart Italy in ten days, unkfs they were come to
deliver up the king himfelf, and all his territories, to
the republic by way of deditfon. Which decree being
notified to them, they returned without fo much as
having entered the gates of Rome ; and the conful
foon after landed with a powerful army in Africa. I*or
fome time he earned on the war there very briikly,
reduced feveral flrong-holds, and took many Numi¬
dians prifoners. But upon the arrival of bcaurus, a
peace was granted Jugmtha upon advantageous terms;
That
N U M [ ijo ] N U M
Numidia. ^ That prince coming from Vaccs, the place of his refi-
u“'"“v ' dence, to the Roman camp, in order to confer with
Beftia and Scaurus, and the preliminaries of the trea¬
ty being immediately after fettled between them in
private conferences, every body at Rome was convin¬
ced that the prince of the fenate and the confal had
to their avarice facrificed the republic. The indigna¬
tion therefore of the people in general difplayed itfelf
in the ilrongeft manner. Memmius alfo fired them
with his fpeeches. It was therefore refolved todifpatch
the prsetor Cafiius, a perfon they could confide in, to
Numidia, to prevail upon Jugurtha to come to Rome,
that they might learn from the king himfelf which of
their generals and fenators had been feduced by the
peftileut influence of corruption. Upon his arrival
there, he found means to bribe one Brebius Salca, a
man of great authority amongft the plebeians, but of
infatiable avarice, by whofe afliflance he efcaped with
impunity. Nay, by the efficacy of gold, he not only
eluded all the endeavours of the people of Rome to
bring him to juftice, but likewife enabled Bomilcar,
one of his attendants, to get Mafiiva, an illegitimate
ion of Micipfa, affaflinated in the flreets of Rome.
That young prince was advifed by many Romans of
probity, well-wifhers to the family of Mafiniffa, to ap¬
ply for the kingdom of Numidia ; which coming to
jugurtha’s ears, he prevented the application by this
execrable ftep. However, he was obliged to leave
Italy immediately.
JuFfu,tha had fcarce fet foot in Africa, when he re¬
ceived advice that the fenate had annulled the fhame-
ful peace concluded with him by Beffia and Scaurus.
Soon after, the conful Albinus tranfported a Roman
army into Numidia, flattering himfelf with the hopes
of reducing Jugurtha to reafon before the expiration of
his confulate. In this, however, he found himfelf de¬
ceived ; for that crafty prince, by various artiffces fo
amufed and impofed upon Albinus, that nothing of
moment happened that campaign. This rendered him
itrongly fufpefted of having betrayed his country, af¬
ter the example of his predeceflbrs. His brother A ulus,
who fucceeded him in tbe command of the army, was
ilill more unfuccefsful ; for after riling from before Su-
thul, where the king’s treafures were depofited, he
marched his forces into a defile out of which he found
it impcflible to extricate himfelf. He therefore was
obliged to fubmit to the ignominious ceremony of paf-
fmg under the jugum, with all his men, and to quit
Numidia entirely in ten days time, in order to deliver
his troops from immediate deftrudtion. The avaricious
difpofitioaof the Roman commander had prompted him
to befiege Suthul, the pofleflion of which place he ima¬
gined would make him mafter of all the wealth of Ju¬
gurtha, and confequently paved the way to fuch a
fcandalous treaty. However, this was declared void
as foon as known at Rome, as being concluded with¬
out the authority of the people. The Roman troops
retired into Africa Propria, which they had now redu¬
ced into the form of a Roman province, and there took
up their winter quarters.
In the mean time Cains Mamilius Limetanus, tri¬
bune of the people, excited the plebeians to inquire
into the condudt of thofe perfons by whofe afliftance
Jugurtha had found means to elude all the decrees of
«.he icnate. I his put th# body of the people into a
great ferment ,* which occafioned a profecution of the Numicfla,
guilty fenators, that was carried on, for fome time, v—J
with the utmoft heat and violence. Lucius Metellus
the conful, during thefe tranfa&ions, had Numidiafent agaLft
affigned him for his province, and confequently wasjugurtha.
appointed general of the army deftined to adt againil
Jugurtha. As he perfedbly difregarded wealth, the Nu -
midian found him fuperior to all his temptations;
which was a great mortification to him. To this he
joined all the other virtues which conftitute the great
captain ; fo that Jugurtha found him in all refpedtsin*
acceffible. That prince therefore was now forced to
regulate his eondudt according to the motions of Me-
tellus, with the greateft caution; and to exert his utmoft
bravery, in order to compenfate for that hitherto fo
favourable expedient which now began to fail him.
Marius, Metellus’s lieutenant, being likewife a perfon
of uncommon merit, the Romans reduced Vacca, a
Jarge opulent city, and the moft celebrated mart in
Numidia. They alfo defeated Jugurtha in a pitched
battle; overthrew Bomilcar, one of his generals, up¬
on the banks of the Muthullus ; and, in fine, forced
the Numidian monarch to take fhelter in a place ren¬
dered almoft inacceffible by the rocks and woods with
which it was covered. However, Jugurtha fignalifed
himfelf in a furprifing manner, exhibiting all that could
be expe&ed from the courage, abilities, and attention
of a confummate general, to whom defpair adminifters
frcfh ftrength, and fuggefts new lights. But his troops
could not make head againft the Romans ; they were
again worfted by Marius, though they obliged Metel-
lus to raiie the fiege of Zama. Jugurtha therefore,
finding his country every where ravaged, his moft opu¬
lent cities plundered, his fortreffes reduced, his towns
burnt, vaft numbers of his fubjects put to the fword
and taken prifoners, began to think ferioufly of coming
to an accommodation with the Romans. His favourite vv, T?
Bomilcar, in whom he repofed the higheft confidence, traye^ by
but who had been gained over to the enemy by Me-Bomikar.
tellus, obferving this difpofition, found it no difficult
matter to perfuade him to deliver up his elephants,
money, arms, horfes, and deferters, in whom the main
ftrength of his army confifted, into the hands of the
Romans. Some of thefe laft, in order to avoid the pu-
nilhment due to their crime, retired to Bocchus king
of Mauritania, and lifted in his fervice. But Metellus
ordering him to repair to Tifidium, a city of Numidia,
there to receive farther direftions, and he refufing a
compliance with that order, hoftilities were renewed
with greater fury than ever. Fortune now feemed to
declare in favour of Jugurtha; he retook Vacca, and
maflacred all the Roman garrifon, except Turpilius
the commandant. However, foon after, a Roman le¬
gion ieized again upon it, and treated the inhabitants
with the utmoft feverity. About this time, one of Ma-
ftanabal’s fons, named Gauda, whom Micipfa in hia
will had appointed to fucceed to the crown in cafe
his two legitimate fons and Jugurtha died without
iflfue, wrote to the fenate in favour of Marius, who
was then endeavouring to lupplant Metellus. That
prince having his underftanding impaired by a de¬
clining ftate of health, fell a more eafy prey to the
bafe and infamous adulation of Marius. The Roman,
foothing his vanity, aflured him, that as he was the
next heir to the crown, he might depend upon being
fixed
’umuTa-
14
^.confpira
tlagainll
ik
I 15
Jtl: is de¬
bited by
1’ttellus.
N U M F 15
fixed upon tbe Numidian throne, as foon as Jugurtha
was either killed or taken; and that this muft in a fhort
time happen, when once he appeared at the head of
the Roman army with an unlimited commiffion. Soon
after, Bomilcar and Nabdalfa formed a defign to aifaf-
finate Jugurtha, at the inftigation of Metellus ; but
this being detected, Bomilcar and mod of his accom¬
plices fuffered death. The plot however had fuch an
efTeft upon Jugurtha, that he enjoyed afterwards no
tranquillity or re-pofe. He fufpedled perfons of all de¬
nominations, Numidians as well as foreigners, of fome
black defigns againll him. Perpetual terrors fat brood¬
ing over his mind ; infomuch that he never got a wink
of fleep but by ftealth, and often changed !,is bed in a
low plebeian manner. Starting from his fleep, he
would frequently fnatch his fword, and break out into
the mod doleful cries : So drongly was he haunted by
a fpirit of fear, jealoufy, and diftradtion !
Jugurtha having dedroyed great numbers of his
friends on fufpicion of their having been concerned in
the late confpiracy, and many more of them deferting
to the Romans and Bocchus king of Mauritania, he
found himfelf, in a manner, deditute of counfellors,
generals, and all perfons capable of affiding him in
carrying on the war. This threw him into a deep me¬
lancholy, which rendered him diffatisfied with every
thing, and made him fatigue his troops with a variety
of contradidlory motions. Sometimes he would ad¬
vance with great celerity againd the enemy, and at
others retreat with no finall fwiftnefs from them. Then
be refumed his former courage ; but foon after de-
fpaired either of the valour or fidelity of the forces un¬
der his command. All Ins movements therefore pro¬
ved unfuccefsful, and at lad he was forced by Metel¬
lus to a battle. That part of the Numidian army
which Jugurtha commanded, behaved with fome re-
folution ; but the other fled at the fird onfet. The
Romans therefore entirely defeated them, took all
their dandards, and made a few of them prifoners. But
few of them were flain in the adfion ; fince, as Sallud
obferves, the Numidians truded more to their heels
than to their arms for fafety in this engagement.
Metellus purfued Jugurtha and his fugitives to Tha-
la. His march to this place being through vad de-
ferts, was extremely tedious and difficult. But be¬
ing fupplied with leathern bottles and wooden veflels
of all fixes taken from the huts of the Numidians,
which were filled with water brought by the natives,
who had fubmitted to him, he advanced towards that
city. He had no fooner begun his march, than a mod
copious fhower of rain, a thing very uncommon in
thofe defarts, proved a great and feafonable refrefli-
ment to his troops. This fo animated them, that upon
their arrival before Thala, they attacked the town with
fuch vigour, that Jugurtha, with his family, and
treafures depofited theiein, thought proper to aban¬
don it. After a brave defence, it was reduced ; the
garrifon, confining of Roman deferters, fetting fire to
the king’s palace, and confuming themfelves, together
with every thing valuable to them, in the flames. Ju¬
gurtha, being now reduced to great extremities, re¬
tired into Gaetulia, where he formed a confiderable
corps. From thence he advanced to the confines of
Mauritania; and engaged Bocchus king of that
country, who had rnatried his daughter, to enter
]
N U M
into an alliance with him. In confequence of which, Nnmidia..
having reinforced his Gcetuhan troops with a power- ^
ful body of Mauritanians, he turned the tables upon
Metellus, and obliged him to keep clofe within his
entrenchments. Salluft informs us, that Jugurtha
bribed Bocchus’s mlniilers to influence that prince in
his favour ; and that having obtained an audience, he
infinuated, that, fliould Numidia be fubdued, Mauri¬
tania mult be involved in its ruin, efpecially as the Ro¬
mans feemed to have vowed the deltruftion of all the
thrones in the univerfe. In fupport of what he ad¬
vanced, he produced feveral inftances very appofite to
the point in view. However, the fame author feems
to intimate, that Bocchus was determined to affifl Ju¬
gurtha againfl; his enemies by the flight the Romano
had formerly fhown him. That prince, at the firlt
breaking out of the war, had fent ambalfadors to Rome,,
to propofe an offenfive and defenfive alliance to the re¬
public; which, though of the utmoft confequence to it
at that junfture, a few of the moft venal and infamous
fenators, who were abandoned to corruption, prevent¬
ed from taking effedl. This undoubtedly wrought
more powerfully upon Bocchus in favour of Jugurtha,
than the relation he flood in to him : For both the
Moors and Numidians adapted the number of their
wives to their circumflances, fo that fome had 10, 20,.
&c. to their fliare ; their kings therefore were unli¬
mited in this particular, and oi courfe all degrees of
affinity refulting to them from marriage had little*
force. It is obfervable, that the pofterity of thofe an¬
cient nations have the fame cuftom prevailing amongfl:
them at this day. _ 16
Such was the fituation of affairs in Numidia, when Marius fuc-
Metellus received advice of the promotion of Mariusceeds M®"
to the confulate. But, notwithftanding this iniu-tcUs'
rious treatment, he generoufly endeavoured to draw
off Bocchus from Jugurtha, though this would faci¬
litate the reduftion of Numidia for his rival. To
this end ambaffadors were difpatched to the Mauri¬
tanian court, who intimated to Bocchus, “ That
it would be highly imprudent to come to a rupture
with the Romans without any caufe at all; and that he
had now a fine opportunity of concluding a moft ad¬
vantageous treaty with them, which was much prefe¬
rable to a war. To which they added, that whatever
dependence he might place upon his riches, he ought
not to run the hazard of lofing his dominions by em>
broiling himfelf with other ftates, when he could eafi-.
ly avoid this ; that it was .much eafier to begin a war
than to end it, which it was in the power of the vidfor
alone to do; that, in fine, he would by no means con-
fult the intereft of his fubjefls if he followed the defpe-
rate fortunes of Jugurtha.” To which Bocchus re¬
plied, “ That for his part there was nothing he wifil¬
ed for more than peace ; but that he could not help pi¬
tying the deplorable condition of Jugurtha; thqt if
the Romans, therefore, would grant that unfortunate
prince the fame terms they had offered him, he would
bring about an accommodation.” Metellus let the
Mauritanian monarch know, that it was not in his
power to comply with what he defired. However, he
took care to keep up a private negociation with him
till the new conful Marius’s arrival. By this conduct
he ferved two wife ends. Firft, he prevented thereby
Bocchus from coming, to a general a&ion with hiu
6 troops;
N U M [ ijj 1 N U M
'KuniMia. troops* which was the very thins? {ugurtha defired, on this occafion fcems here to be afitgned 5 though we Numkli^
i   as hoping that this, whatever tlie‘event might be, are told by Salluft, in conformity to the Roman ge- *
would render a reconciliation betwixt him and the nius, that neither avarice nor refentment prompted
Romans impracticable. Secondly, this inaaion en- *him to fo barbarous an adion, but only a defire to
abled him to difcover fomething of the genius and ftrike a terror mto the Numidians.
difpofition of the Moors; a nation of whom the Ro- The Numidians, ever after this exploit, dreaded the
mans* till then, had fcarce formed any idea ; which, very name of Marius ; who now, in his own opinion,
he imagined, might be of no fmall fervice, either to had eclipfed the glory of all his predeceffor’s great at-
himfelfor his fuccefibrs, in the future profecution of chievements, particularly the reduaion of J hala, a
the war. c‘ty> 'n ftrength and fituation, nearly refembling Cap*
Jugiirtha, being informed that Marius, with A fa. Following his blow, he gradually prefented him-
numerous army, was landed at Utica, advifed Bocchus felf before moft of the places of ilrength in trie enemy 3
to retire, with part of the troops, to fome place of country ; many of which either opened their gates, or
difficult accefs, whilft he himfelf took poll upon ano- were abandoned, at his approach, being terrified with
ther iaacceffible fpot with the remaining corps. By what had happened to the unfortunate citizens of Cap- ^
this meafure, he hoped the Romans would be obliged fa. Others taken by force, he lajd in afhes ; and in
• to divide their forces, and confequentiy be more ex- ffiort, filled the greateft part of Numidia with blood,
pofed to his efforts and attacks. He likewife ima- horror, and confufion. I nen, after an obifinate de-
gined, that feeing no formidable body appear, they fence, he reduced a cable that feemed impregnable,
would believe the enemy in no condition to make head feated not far from Mulucha, where Jugurtha kept part
again ft them ; which might occafion a relaxation of of his treafures. In the mean time, Jugurtha not be-
difcipline, the ufual attendant of a too great fecurity, irtg able to prevail upon Bocchus, by his repeated
and confequentiy produce fome good effedf. How- lolicitations, to advance into Numidia, where he found
ever, he was difappointed in both thefe views. For himfelf greatly preffefi, was obliged to have re-
Marius, far from fuffering a relaxation of rlifcipline to courfe to his ufiial method of bribing the Mauritanian
take place, trained up his troops, which confifted minifters, in order to put that prince in motion. He
chiefly of new levies, in fo perfeft a manner, that alfo promifed him a third part of his kingdom, pro-
they were foon equal in goodnefs to any confular army vided they could either drive the Romans out of Afri*
that ever appeared in the field. He alfo cut off great ca, or get all the Numidian dominions confirmed to
numbers of the Gfletulian marauders, defeated many of him by treaty.
Jugurtha’s parties, and had like to have taken that So confiderable a ceffion could not fail of engaging
‘He gains prince himfelf near the city of Cirta. Thefe advart- Bocchus to fupport Juguftha with his whole power,
a great ad- tages, though not of any gieat importance, intimidated The two African monarchs therefore, having joined
vantage Bocchus, who now made overtures for an accommoda- their forces, furprifed Marius near Cirta as he wasgo-
over Jugur-tjon , tjie Rofrian3> not being fufficiently fatisfied ing into winter-quarters. The Roman general was lo
of his fincerity, paid no great attention to them. In puflred on this occafion, that the barbarians thought
.the mean time Marius pufhed on his conquefts, redn- themfelves certain of victory, and doubted not but they
cing feveral places of lefs note, and at lail refolved to fhould be able to extinguifh the Roman name in Nu- jg
befiege Capfa. That this enterprife might be con- midia. But their incaution and too great fecurity Ju«urth3
dufled with the greater fecrecv, he fuffered not the enabled Marius to give them a total defeat; which entirely de*
lead hint of his defign to tranfpire, even amongft any was followed four days after by fo complete an over*teal:c
of his officers. On the contrary, in order to blind them, throw, that their numerous army, conlifting of 90,000
he detached A. Manlius, one of his lieutenants, with men, by the acceffion of a powerful corps of Moors,
fome light-armed cohorts, to the city of Lares, where commanded by Bacchus’s fon Volux, was entirely ruin-
he had fixed his principal magazine, and depofited the ed. SyUa,Marius,slieiitenant,mo{teminently diftinguilh-
miiitary chelt. Before Manlius left the camp, that ed himfelf in the laft action, which laid the foundation
he might the more effeffeially amufe him, he inti- of his future greatnefs. Bocchus, now looking upon
mated, that himfelf with the army fliould take the Jugurtha’s condition as defperate, and not being will-
fame route in a few days: but inftead of that, he ing to run the riffi of lofing his dominions, fhovved a
bent his march towards the Tanais, and in fix days difpofition to clap up a peace with Rome. However,
time arrived upon the banks of that river. Here the republic gave him to underhand, that he muft not
lie pitched his tents for a (hort time, in order to re- expedl to he ranked amongft its friends, till he had
frelh his troops; which having done, he advanced delivered up into the conful’s hands Jugurtha, ^the in¬
to Capfa, and made himfelf inafter of it. As the veterate enemy of the Roman name. i he Maurita-
fituation of this city rendered it extremely commo- nian monarch, having entertained an high idea of an
clious to Jugurtha, whofe plan of operations, ever alliance with that ftate, refolved to fatisfy it in this
fince the commencement of the war, it had exceed- particular; and was confirmed in his refolution by one
jngiy favoured, he levelled it with the ground after Dabar, a Numidian prince, the fon of Maffugrada,
it had been delivered up to the foldieis to be plunder- and defeended by his mother’s fide from Mafinifta. Fe¬
ed. The citizens likewife, being more ftrongly at- ing clolely attached to the Romans, and extremely
tached to that prince than any of the other Numidians, agreeable to Bocchus on account of his noble diipofi-
on account of the extraordinary privileges he indulged tion, he defeated all the intrigues of Afpar, Jugurtha’s
them with, and of courfe bearing a more implacable minifter. Upon Sylla’s arrival at the Mauritanian
hatred to the Romans, he put to the fword or fold court, the affair there feemed to he entirely fettled,
for (laves. The true motive of the conful’s conduit However, Bocchus, who was for ever projecting new
NJ 244. defign s,
N U M f i,'3 1 N U M
fugurtha.
Kuttidia. defigns, and, like the reft of his countrymen, in the
—-v  higheft degree perfidious, debated within himfelf, whe¬
ther he fhould facrifice Sylla or Jugurtha, who were
both then in his power. He was a long tisnc fluftua-
ting with uncertainty, and combated by a contrariety
of fentiments. The bidden changes which difplay-
ed themfelves in his countenance, his air, and his
whole perfon, evidently (bowed how ftrongly his mind
was agitated. But at laft he returned to his firft de-
fign, to which the bias of his mind feemed naturally
to lead him. He therefore delivered up Jugurtha in¬
to the hands of Sylla, to be conduced to Marius ;
who, by that fuccefsful event, happily terminated this
dangerous war. The kingdom of Numidia was now
reduced to a new form : Bocchus. for his important
fervices, had the country of the Malftcfyli, contiguous
to Mauritania, afligned him ; which, from this time,
took the name of New Mauritania. Numidia Pro¬
pria, or the country of the Maffyli, was divided into
• three parts; one of which was given to Hiempfal, an¬
other to Mandreftal, both defcendants of Mafiniffa ;
and the third the Romans annexed to Africa Propria,
or the Roman province adjacent to it. What became
of Jugurtha after he had graced Marius’s triumph,
at which ceremony he was led in chains, together
with his two fons, through the ftreets of Rome,
v/e have already laid before our readers. See Jugur.-
*o THA'
Trf.nfac Jugurtha’s two fons fbrvived him, but fpent their
ions after lives in captivity at Venufia. However, one of them,
he death of namej Qxyntas. was, for a (hort time, releafed from
his confinement by Aponius, who befieged Acerrne in
the war between the Romans and the Italian allies.
That general brought this prince to his army, where
he treated him as king, in order to draw the NumicKan
forces off from the Roman fervice. Accordingly thofe
Numidians no fooner heard that the ion of their old
king was fighting for the allies, than they began to
defert by companies ; which obliged Julius Csefar the
conful to part with all his Numidian cavalry, and fend
them back into Africa. Some few years after this
event, Pompey defeated Cneius Domitius Ahenobar-
bus, and Hiarbas one of the kings of Numidia, kill¬
ing 17,000 of their men upon the fpot. Not fatisfied
with this vi&ory, that general purfued the fugitives
to their camp, which he foon forced, put Domitius
to the fword, and took Hiarbas prifoner. He then
reduced that part of Numidia which belonged to Hiar¬
bas, who feems to have fucceeded Mandreftal above-
mentioned ; and gave it to Hiempfal, a neighbouring
Numidian prince, defeended from Mafiniffa, who had
always oppofed the Marian fa&ion.
Suetonius informs us, that a difpute happened be¬
tween Hiempfal and one Mafintha, a noble Numidian,
whom, it is probable, he had in fome refpedt injured
when Julius Caefar firft began to make a figure in the
world. The fame author ^adds, that Caefar warmly
efpoufed the caufe of Mafintha, and even grofsly in-
fulted Juba, Hiempfal’s fon, when he attempted to
vindicate his father’s conduct on this occafion. He
pulled him by the beard, than which a more unpar¬
donable alliont could not be offered to an African. In
firort, he fereened Mafintha from the infults and vio
lence of his enemies; from whence a reafon may be af-
Voe.XIH. Parti.
C*far in¬
fults Juba.
fiarned for Julia’s adhering fo clofely afterwards to the Numidia.
Pompeian faftion.
In confequence of the indignity Caefar had offered
Juba and the difpofition it had occafioned, that prince feats one of
did Ctefar great damacre in the civil wars betwixt him ' »fir’s
and Pompey. By a ft rat agent he drew Curio, one Gf •ieuteu“Ilts*
his lieutenants, into a general adtion, wh:eh it was his
intered at that time to have avoided. He caufed it to
be given out all over Africa Propria and Numidia, that
he was retired into fome remote country at a great di-
ftance from the Roman territories. This coming to
Curio’s ears, who was then befieging Utica, it hin¬
dered him from taking the neceffary precautions *
againft a furprife. Soon after, the Roman gene’-al re¬
ceiving intelligence that a fmall body of Numidians
was approaching his camp, he put himfelf at the head
of his forces in order to attack them, and, for fear
they fhould efcape, began his march in the night,
looking upon himfelf as lure of victory. Some of their
advanced polls he furprifed afieep, and cut them to
pieces ; which ftill farther animated him In fhort,
about day-break he came up with the Numidians,
whom he attacked with great bravery, though his men
were then falling, and vaftly fatigued by their forced
and precipitate march. In the mean time, Juba, who,
immediately after the propagation of the rumour
above-mentioned, bad taken care to march privately,
with the main body of the Numidian army, to fupport
the detachment fent before to decoy Curio, advanced
to the relief of his men. The Romans had met with a
great refillance before he appeared ; fo that he eafily
broke them, killed Curio, with a great part of his
troops, upon the fpot, purfued the reft to their camp,
which he plundered, and took many of them prifoners.
Moll of the fugitives, who endeavoured to make their
efcape on board the fliips in the port of Utica, were
either flain by the purfuers, or drowned. The re¬
mainder fell into the hands of Varus, who would have
faved them ; but Juba, who arrogated to himfel? the
honour of this vidlory, ordered moll of them to be put
to the fword.
This visftory infufed new life and vigour into the Juba over-
Pompeian fa&ion, who thereupon conferred great ho- '•brown by
nours upon Juba, and gave him the title of king of <*//’'a' ar‘
Numidia. But Caefar and his adherents declared him
an enemy to the Hate of Rome, adjudging to Bocchus
and Bogud, two African princes entirely in their in-
tereft, the fovereignty of his dominions. Juba after¬
wards, unitin his for es with thofe of Scipio, reduced
Caefar to great extremities, and would in all probabi¬
lity have totally ruined him, had he not been relieved
by Publius Sittius. That general, having formed a
confiderable corps, confifting of Roman exiles, and
Mauritanian troops fent him by Bocchus, according
to Dio, or, as Caefar will have it Bognd, made an
irruption into Gaetulia and Numidia whillt Juba was
employed in frica Propria. As he ravaged thefe
countries in a dreadful manner, Juba immediately re¬
turned with the bell part of his army, to prefetve them
from utter deftrudlion. However, Cajfar knowing his
horfe to be afraid of the enemy’s elephants, did not
think proper to attack Scipio in the abfence of the
Numidian, till his own elephants, and a frelh rein¬
forcement of troops, hourly expe&ed, arrived from
U Italy. *
N U M [ >5
Numidra Italy. With this accellion of ftrengtll, he inugitu..
* hltnfelf able to give a good account, both 01 the Ro¬
man forces with which he was to cope, and the bar¬
barians. In the mean time Scipio difpatched reitera¬
ted expreffes to Juba to haften to his affiftance ; but
could not prevail upon him to move out of Numidia,
till he had promifed him the poffeffion of all the Ro¬
man dominions in Africa, if they could from thence
expel Caefar. This immediately put him in motion ;
fo that, having fent a large detachment to make head
againft Sittius, he marched with the reft of his troops
to affift Scipio. However, Caftar at laft overthrew
Scipio, Juba, and Labienus, near the town of Tbap-
fus,r and forced all their camps. As Scipio was the
fir ft furprifed and defeated, Juba fled into Numid.a,
without waiting for Cafar’s approach ; but the bo<.,y
of the Numidians detached againft Sittius, having
laen broken and diiperfed by that general, none of his
fubjedls there would receive him. Abandoned there¬
fore to defpair, he fought death in a Angle combat
with Petreius, and, having killed him, caufed himfelt
to he difpatched by one of his Haves.
Nurmdia After this decifive aftion, and the reduftion of A-
reducedto frica Propria, Caefar made himfclf mafter of Numidia,
the form ofvvhich he reduced to a Roman province, appointing
province. Cr;fp,,s Salluftius to govern it in quality of proconful,
with private inftruaions to pillage and plunder the in¬
habitants, and, by that means, put it out of their
power ever to (hake off the Roman yoke. However,
Bocchus and Bogud ftill preferved a fort of fovereign-
ty in the country of the Maffsefyli and Mauritania,
hnce the former of thofe princes, having deferted Cae¬
far, fent an army into Spam to affift the Pompeians ;
and the latter, with his forces, determined vi&ory to
declare for Caffar at the ever memorable battle of
Munda. Bogud, afterwards Tiding with Antony
againft OaavTus, fent a body of forces to affift him m
Spain ; at which time the Tingitanians revolting from
him, Bocchus, with an army compofed of Romans in
the intereft of Oftavius, who pafled over from Spain
into Africa,- and his own fubje&s, poffeffed himfelf of
Mauritania Tingitana. Bogud fled to Antony ; and
O&avius, after the conclufion of the war, honoured
the inhabitants of Tingi with all the privileges of Ro¬
man citizens. Pie likewife confirmed Bocchus king
of Mauritania Csefarienlis, or the country of the Maf-
faffyli, in the poffeffion of Tingitania, which he had
conquered, as a reward for his important fervices. In
this he imitated the example of his great predeceffor
Julius Caffar, who divided feme of the fruitful plains
of Numidia among the foldiers of P. Sittius, who had
conquered great part of that country, and appointed
Sittius himfelf fovereign of that diftrief. Sittius, as
has been intimated above, having taken Cirta, kihed
Sabura, Juba’s gCneial, entirely difperfed his forces,
and either cut off or taken prifoners moft of the Pom¬
peian fugitives that efcaped from the battle of hap-
fus, highly deferved to be diftinguifhed in fo eminent
a manner. After Bocchus’s death, Mauritania and
the Maffaefylian Numidia were in all refpedts confider-
cd as Roman provinces.
NUM1SMATOGRAPH1A, a term ufed for the
defeription and knowledge of ancient coins and medals,
whether of gold, filver, or brafs. See Coins and Me¬
dals*
4 ] NUN
NUMITOR, the fon of Procas king of Alba, and Numitor
the brother of Amulius. Procas before his death made
him and Amulius joint heirs to the crown, on condition
of their reigning annually by turns : but Amulius, on
getting poffeffion of the throne, excluded Numitor,
whofe fon Laufus he ordered to be put to death, and
obliged Rhea Sylvia, Nurnitor’s only daughter, to be¬
come a veftal. This princefs becoming pregnant, de¬
clared that fhe was with child by the goi Mars; and
afterwards brought forth Ivhemus and Romulus, who
at length killed Amulius, and reftored Numitor to the
throne, 754 B. C. See Rhemus and Romulus.
NUMMUS, a piece of money otherwife called
fejlertlus.
NUN, the fon of Elifhamah, and father of Jolhua,
of the tribe of Ephraim. The Greeks gave him the
name of None inftead of Nun. This man is known
in facred hiftmy only by being the father of Jofhua.
Nun, a woman, in feveral Chriftian countries, who
devotes herfelf, in a cloifter or nunnery, to a religious
life. See the article Monk.
There were women, in the ancient Chriftian church,
who made public profefiion of virginity, before thv,
monaftic life was known in the world, as appears
from the writings of Cyprian and Tertullian. I hefe,
for diftin&ion’s fake, are fometimes called eulejtajhcal
virgins and were commonly enrolled in the canon or
matncula of the church. I hey differed from tne
monaftic virgin chiefly in this, that they lived private¬
ly in their fathers houfes, whereas the others lived in
communities : hut their profeffion of virginity was not
fo ftria as to make it criminal in them to marry after¬
wards, if they thought fit. As to the confecration of
virgins, it had fome things peculiar in it: it was
ufually performed publicly in the church by the bifliop.
The virgin made a public profeffion of her refohition*
and then the bifnop put upon her the accuftomed ha¬
bit of facred virgins. One part of this habit was a
veil, called the facrum velamen ; another was a kind of
mitre or coronet worn upon the head. At prefent,
when a woman is to be made a nun, the hanit, veil, and
ring of the candidate are carried to the altar; and fhe
herfelf, accompanied by her neareft relations, is con-
dudlei to the bilhop, who, after mafs and an anthem,
(the fubje£t of which is, “that fhe ought to have her
lamp lighted, becaufe the bridegroom is coming to
meet her),” pronounces the benedi&ion : then fhe riles
up, and the bifhop confecrates the new habit, fprinkr
ling it with holy water. When the candidatehas put
on her religious habit, fhe prefents herfelf before the
bifhop, and fings, on her knees, Ancilla Chrifti fum,
See.; then fhe receives the veil, and afterwards the ring,
by which fhe is married to Chrift ; and laflly, the
crown of virginity. When fhe is crowned, an ana¬
thema is denounced againft all who fhall attempt to
make her break her vows. In fome few inftances, per¬
haps, it may have happened that nunneries, monafte-
ries, See. may have been ufeful as well to morality
and religion as to literature : in the grofs, however,
they have been highly prejudicial; and however well
they might be fuppofed to do when viewed in theory,
in fadl they are unnatural and impious. It wasfureiy
far from the intention of Providence to feelude youth
and beauty in a cloiftered ruin, or to deny them the
innocent enjoyment of their years and fex.
^ J ^ NUNCIO,
Nwnci')
NUN [ 15
NUNCIO, or Nuntio, an ambafiador from the
pope to fome Catholic prince or Hate, or a perfon who
attends on the pope’s behalf at a congrefa, or an ai-
fembly of feveral ambaffadors.
NUNCUPATIVE, in the fchools, fomething tliat
is only nominal, or has no exiftence but in name.
Nuncupati t'E Wi!l or "Teft ament, a will made ver¬
bally, and not put in writing. See the articles Will
and Testament.
NUNDIN’A, a goddefs among the ancient hea¬
thens, fuppofed to have the care of the purification of
infants. And hecaufe male infants were purified nine
days after their birth, her name is derived from nonus,
or the ninth, though female-infants were purified the
eighth day ; which purification was called lujiratio^hy
the Romans.
NUNDINAL, Nunclinalh, a name which the Ro¬
mans gave to the eight firlt letters of the alphabet uled
in their kalendar.
This feries of letters, A, B, C, 1), E, F, G, H,
is placed and repeated fucceflivcly from the firft to the
la ft day of the year : one of thefe always expreffed
the market days, or the afiemblies called nundina, quaji
novendirue, becaufe they returned every nine days.
The country people, after working eight days fuc-
ceffively, came to town the ninth, to fell their feveral
commodities, and to inform themfelves of what related
to religion and government. 'Thus the nundinal day
being under A on the firft, ninth, feventeeth, and
twenty-fifth days of January, &c. the letter D will
be the nundinal letter of the year following. Thefe
nundinals bear a very great relemblance to the domi¬
nical letters, which return every eight days, as the
nun finals did every nine.
NUNDOCOMAR, a R-ajah in Bengal, and head
of the Bramins, who, in 1775, was condemned to an
Ignominious death by Englifh laws newly introduced,
in an Englilh court of juft ice newly eftablifhed, for a
forgery charged to have been committed by him many
years before. That he was guilty of the deed can¬
not be queftioned ; but there was furely fomething
hard in condemning a man by an c.v pojl facto law. He
bore his fate with the utmoft fortitude, in the full
confidence that his foul would foon be reunited to the
univerfal fpirit whence it had fprung. See Metaphy¬
sics, Part III. Ch. iv. Of the Immortality of the Soul.
Monte Nuovo, in the environs of Naples, blocks
up the valley of Averno. “ This mountain (Mr Swin¬
burne tells us) arofe in the year 1538, for after re¬
peated quakings the earth burft afunder, and made
way for a deluge of hot afhes and flames, which rifing
extremely high, and darkening the atmofphere, fell
down again anil formed a circular mound four miles
in circumference, and 1000 feet high, with a large
cup in the middle. The wind rifing afterwards, waft¬
ed the lighter particles over the country, blailed ve¬
getation, and killed the animals who grazed ; the con-
; I N U R
fequence was, tliat the place was deferted, till Don
Pedio de Toledo, viceroy of Naples, encouraged the
inhabitants by example and otherwife to return.
“ Part of Monte Nuovo is cultivated, but the
larger portion of its declivity is wddly overgrown with
prickly-broom, and rank weeds that emit a very fe¬
tid fulphureous fmell. The water is (hallow, its in*
fide clad with flirubs, and the little area«t tne bot¬
tom planted with fig and mulberry trees ; a moft
ilriking fpecimen of the amazing vicilfitudes that take
place in this extraordinary country. I faw no traces
of lava or melted matter, and few ftones within.
“ Near the foot of this mountain the fubterraneous
fires ad with fuch immediate power, that even the
fand at the bottom ot the fea is heated to an intole¬
rable degree.”
NUPTIAL rites, the ceremonies attending the
folemnization of marriage, which arc different m dif¬
ferent ages and countries. We cannot omit here a
cuftom which was pradifed by the Romans on thefe
oecaiions; which was this : Immediately after the chief
ceremonies were over, the new-married man threw
nuts about the room for the boys to ferambie for. Va¬
rious re .Tons have been afligned for it; but that which
moft generally prevails, and leems to be the moft juft,
is, that by this ad the bridegroom fignified his reiblu-
tion to abandon trifles, and commence a ferious courfe
of life ; whence nucibus relitlis in this fenfe became a
proverb. They might alfo be an emblem of fertility.
The ancient Greeks had a peifon to condud the
bride from her own to the bridegroom’s houfe ; and
hence he was called by the Greeks Nymphagofi, which
term was afterwards ufed both by the Romans and
the Jews.
NUREMBERG, an imperial city of Germany,
capital of a tetritory of the fame name, (ituated in E.
Long. 11°, N. Lat. 47.30. It (lands on the Reg-
nitz, over which it has feveral bridges, both of wood
and Hone, at the bottom of a hill, 60 miles from
Augfburg, 87 from Munich, 46 from Wurtzburg,
and^ 150 from Ratifbon ; and is thought by fome to be
the Segodunum, and by others the Caftrum Noricum,
of the ancients.
The city has derived its name from the hill, upon
which (lands this caftle, called, in Latin, Caftrum No¬
ricum, round which the city was begun to be built,
and where the emperors formerly lodged ; and here
they lodge dill, when they pafs by that city. They
there preferve, as precious relics, the crown, feeptre,
cloaths, bufkins, and other ornaments of Charlemagne
(a), which ferved alfo the emperor Leopold, when
he went thither after his eledlion, to receive the ho¬
mage of the city. The fmall river Regnitz, whicli
runs through it, and thofe of Rednitz and Schwar-
zack, which pafs by its walls, furnifh the inhabitants,
befides other advantages, with the means of making
all forts of (luffs, dyes, and other manufactures (n),
U 2 and
Nuptial,
Nurent-
Itr .
(a) Thefe ornaments are, a mitred crown, enriched with rubies, emeralds, and pearls ; the dalmatic of
Charlemagne, richly embroidered ; the imperial mantle powdered, with embroidered eagles, and its border
thick fet with large emeralds, fapphnes, and topazes ; the huikins covered with plates of gold ; the gloves em¬
broidered ; the apple, the golden fceptie, and (word. The ancient cuftom of the empire is, that the emperof
is bound to affemlle in this city the firft diet that he holds after his eleftion and coronation.
(n) There is in Nuremberg, and in the neighbouring villages depending upon it, an infinite number of
workmeR
Nurem¬
berg
N U R r 156 1 N U R
and toys, which are carried and fold even in the In¬
dies.
It is a large and well-built town, but not very po¬
pulous. Its fortifications are a double wall, flank¬
ed with towers mounting cannon, and a deep ditch.
The magiitrates, and moft of the inhabitants, are
Lutherans. There are a great many churches and
chnpels in it. Invthat of St Sebald is a brafs mo¬
nument of the faint ; and a pi&ure, reprefenting
the creation of the world, by the celebrated Albert
Durer, who was a native of the town ; but the fined
church in the town is that of St Giles. In that of
the Holy Ghoft are kept moft of the jewels of the
empire, together with the pretended fpear with which
our Saviour’s fide was pierced, a thorn of his crown,
and a piece of the manger wherein he was laid.
Here are alfo a great many hofpitals, one in particu¬
lar for foundlings, and another for pilgrims ; with a
gymnafium, an anatomical theatre, a granary, a fine
public library, the old imperial fortrefs or caftle,
fome remains of the old citadel of the burgraves of
Nuremberg, feveral Latin fchools, an academy of
painting, a well furnifhed arfenal, a Teutonic houfe
in which the Roman-catholic fcrvice is tolerated, and
a mint. Mr Keyfler fays there are upwards of 500
ftreets in it, about 140 fountains, 16 churches, 44
religious houfes, 12 bridges, .10 market-places, and
25,000 inhabitants ; and that its territories, befides
the capital and four other towns, contains above 500
villages, and about 160 mills on the Regnitz. The
trade of this city, though upon the decline, is ftill very
great, many of its manufa&ures being ftill exported
to all parts of the world ; among which may be reckon¬
ed a great variety of curious toys in ivory, wood, and
metal, already mentioned. The city has alfo diftinguifti-
ed itfelf in the arts of painting and engraving. When
the emperor Henry VI. aflifted at a tournament
in Nuremberg, he raifed 38 burghers to the degree
of nobility, the defendants of whom are called pa-
triciam, and have the government of the city entire¬
ly in their hands; the whole council, except eight
mafters of companies, who are fummoned only on
extraordinary occafions, confifting of them. Among
the fine brafs cannon in the arfenal, is one that is
charged at the breech, and may be fired eight times in
a minute ; and two that carry balls of eighty pounds.
The city keeps, in conftant pay, feven companies,
confifting each, in time of peace, of 100 men, but,
in time of war, of 185; two troops of cuiraffiers,
each confifting of 85 men ; and two companies of in-
vaiids. There are alfo 24 companies of burghers,
well-armed and difeiplined. On the new bridge,
which is faid to have coft 100,000 guilders, are two
pyramids, on the top of one of which is a dove with
an olive branch in her bill, and on the other an impe- Nurcn-
rial black eagle. Mufic alfe flourifhes greatly in Mu- ,
remberg ; and thofe who delight in mechanic arts and Nuriing,
manufaftures cannot any where better gratify their ——y—j
curiofity. As an imperial city, it has a feat and
voice at the diets of the empire and circle, paying to
the chamber of Wetzlar 812 rix-dollars each term.
The territory belonging to the city is pretty large,
containing, befides two confiderable forefts of pine,
called the Sibald and Laurence fcrejts, feveral towns
and villages.
We have mentioned already that certain families
called patricians, to the excluiion of the reft, poflefs
the offices of the fenate They are compofed of 42
perCons (c), over which two caftellans, or perpetual fe-
nefchals, prefide, the firft of whom has his refidence
in the caftle. fhefe cafteilans affemble fometimes in
the caftle, with five or fix of the chief members, to
hold a fecret council (0). And, as this city glories
in being one of the firft which embraced Lutheraniftn,
it preferves the privileg-e of that in civ l matters, not
admitting any catholics to the magiftracy or freedom
of the town ; the catholics there having the liberty
only of remaining under the prote&ion of the reft, and
performing their religious worfhip in a commandery
of Malta, and this but at certain hours, not to difturb
the Lutherans, who likewife aflemble there, although
in pofteflion of all the other churches.
This city is particulary noted for its antiquity,
grandeur, fortifications, its triple walls of hewn ftone,
its large and deep moat, its fine houfes, large churches,
its wide ftreets, always clean, and for its curious and
large library, and its magazine ftored with every thing
proper for its defence.
NURSERY, in gardening, is a piece of land fet
apart for raifing and propagating all f»rts of trees and
plants to fupply the garden and other plantations.
NURSING of children. See Lactatio.
The following obfervations are faid to be the refult
of long experience f. A child, when it comes into the
world, is almoft a round ball ; it is the nurfe’s part to ^o.™'
affift nature, in bringing it to a proper fliape. The
child fhould be laid (the firft month) upon a thin ma-
trafs, rather longer than itfelf, which the nurfe
will keep upon her lap, that the child may always lie
ftraight, and only fit up as the nurfe flants the matrafs.
To fet a child quite upright before the end of the firft
month, hurts the eyes, by making the white part o£
the eye appear below the upper eye-lid. Afterwards
the nurfe will begin to fet it up and dance it by de¬
grees. The child muft be kept as dry as poffible.
The cloathing fhould be very light, and not much
longer than the child, that the legs may be got at
with eafe, in order to have them often rubbed in the
day
workmen, very ingenious in making feveral kinds of toys of wood, which are carried through all the fairs of
Germany, and from thence through all Europe. Thefe toys are called Nurembergs; and they have fo great a
fale, that it even exceeds defeription. This employment affords a livelihood to the greateft part of the inha¬
bitants of the city ; and they make a very confiderable profit from this,traffic.
r (c) O" thefe 42 members, there are only 34 chofen from the.patrician families ; the other eight are taken
from among the burghers, and make in a manner a fmall feparate body.
(d) Ibis fecret council is compofed of feven principal chiefs of the republic, and for that reafon is called
Jeptemvirate. It determines the moft important affairs ; and it is the depofitory of the precious ftones of the ■
empire, of the imperial crown, the enfigns, feals, and keys of the city.
Nurfmg-
N U R [ • i
day with a warm hand or flannel, and in particular the
inflde of them.
Rubbing a child all over tekes off feuvf, and makes
the blood circulate. The erne breaft fhould be rubbed
with the hands one way, and the other the other way,
night and morning at leaft.
The ankle-bones and infide of the knees (hould be
rubbed twice a day ; this will ftrengthen thofe parts,
and make the child ftretch its knees and keep them
flat, which is the foundation of an ereft and graceful
perfon. . • i
A nurfe ought to keep a child as little m her aims
as poflible, left the legs fhoul.i be cramped, and the
toes turned inwards. Let her always keep the child s
legs loofe. The oftener the pofture is changed, the
better.
Toffing a child about, ’and exerciflng it in the open
air in fine weather, is of the greateft fervice. In ci¬
ties, children are not to be kept in hot rooms, but to
have as much air as poflible.
Want of exercife is the caufe of large heads, weak
and knotted joints, a contrafted breaft, which occa-
lions coughs and ftufted lungs, an ill-fhaped perfon,
and waddling g^h, befides a numerous train of other
ills.
The child’s flefh is to be kept perfeaiy clean, by
conftantly wafhing its limbs, and likewile its neck
and ears ; beginning with warm water, till by de¬
grees it will not only bear, but like to be wafhed with
cold.
Riling early in the morning- is good for all chudien,
provided they awake of themfelves, which they gene¬
rally d© ; but they are never to be waked out of their
fleep, and as foon as poflible to be brought to regular
fleeps in the day.
When laid in bed or cradle, their legs are always to
be laid ftraight.
Children, till they are two or three years dd, muft
never be fufftred to walk long enough at a time to be
weary~
Gills might be trained to the proper management
of children, if a premium were given in free-fchools,
workhoufes, &c. to thofe that brought up the fineft
child to one year old.
If the mother cannot fuckle the child, get a whole-
fome cheerful woman, with young milk, who has
been ufed to tend young children. After the firft fix
months, fmall broths, and innocent foods of any kind,
may do as well as living wholly upon milk
A principal thing to be always attended to is, to
give young children conftant exercife, and to keep them
in a proper pofture. . .
With regard to the child’s drefs in the day, let it
be a fhirt ; a petticoat of fine flannel, two or three
inches longer than tha child’s feet, with a dimity top
(commonly called a bodice-coat), to tie behind ; over
that a furcingle. made of fine buckram, two inches
broad, covered over with fattin 01 fine ticken, with a
ribbon fattened to it to tie it on, which anfwers every
purpofe of ft ays, and has none of their inconveniences.
Gver this put a robe, or a flip and frock, or whatever
you like beft ; provided it is fattened behind, and not
much longer than the child’s feet, that their motions
may he ftridly obferved.
8
Nu/Unce
57 ] N U T
Two caps are to be put on the head, till the child
has got moft of its teeth.
The child’s drefs for the night may be a flurt, a
blanket to tie on, and a thin gown to tie over the
blanket
NUSANCE, or Nuisance, in law, a thing dene
to the annoyance of another. # 1
Nuifances are either public or private.—A public
nuifance is an offence againft the public in general,
either by doing what tends to the annoyance of all
the king’s fubjeds, or by negleding to do what the
common good requires : in which cafe, all annoyances
and injuries to ftreets, highways, bridges, and large
rivers, as alfo dilorderly alehoufes, bavvdy-houfes,
gaming-houfes, ftages for rope-dancers, &c. are held
to be common nuifances.—A private nuifance is, when
only one perfon or family is annoyed by the doing of
any thing ; as where a perfon flops up the light of
another’s houfe, or builds in fuch a manner that the
rain falls from his houfe upon his neighbour’s.
NUT, among botanifts, denotes a pericarpium
of an extraordinary hardnefs, inclofing a kernel or
^NUTATION, in aftronomy, a kind of tremulous
motion of the axis of the earth, whereby, in each an¬
nual revolution, it is twice inclined to the ecliptic, and
as often returns to its former pofition.
NUTCRACKER. See Corvus, n° 8.
“ This bird (fays Buffon) is diftinguifhed from the PIatc ^
jays and magpies by the fhape of its bill, which is CCCxuvs*
ftraighter, blunter, and compofed of two unequal
pieces. Its inftind is alfq different; for k prefers the
refidence of high mountains, and its difpofition is not
fo much tindured with cunning and fufpicion ”
They live upon hazel-nuts, acorns, wild berries,
the kernels of pine-tops, and even on infeds.
“ Befides the brilliancy of the plumage, the nut¬
cracker is remarkable for the triangular white fpots
which are fpread over its whole body, except the head.
Thefe fpots are fmaller on the upper part, and broad¬
er on the breaft ; their effed is the greater, as they
are contrafted with the brown ground.
“ Thefe birds are moft attached, as I have obferved
above, to mountainous fftuations. They are common
A.uvergne, Savoy, Lorraine, ranche-Compte,
1R A X W J — ~ J >  ' , , . -
Switzerland, the Bergamafque, in Auftna, in the moun¬
tains which are covered with forefts of pines. They
alfo occur in Sweden, though only.in the fouthern
parts of that country. The people in Germany call
them Turkey birds, Italian birds, African birds 5
■which language means no more than that they are
foreign. -
4. Though the nutcrackers are not birds or pal-
fage, they fly fometimes from the mountains to the
plains. Frifch fays, that flocks of them are often ob¬
ferved to accompany other birds into different parts
of Germany efpecially where there are pine forefts.
Butin 175+. great flights of them entered France,
particularly Burgundy, where there are few pines;
they were To fatigued on their arrival, that they fuf-
fered themfelves to be caught by the hand.
“ We cannot find in writers of natural hiftory any
details with regard to their laying, their incubation,
the training of their young, the duration of their life,
NUT [ t
'N- rhr.tch, Sic. for they haunt inaccefilhle fpots, where they en-
■^sutni'.-f. j0y undifturbed fafety and felicity,”
NUTHATCH, in ornithology. See Sitta, its
generic name. In th‘s place we (hall only extra
irom Buffon an account of two fpecies of foreign birds
related to the nuthatch,
i. Th? great hook-billed nuthatch.—“ It is the lar¬
ged of the known nuthatches: its bill, though pret¬
ty ftraight, is inflated at the middle, and a little hook¬
ed at the end ; the noftrlls are round ; the quills of
the tail and of the wings edged with orange on a
brown ground ; the throat white ; the head and back
gray ; the under fide of the body whitifh. Such are
the principal properties of the bird. It was obferved
by Sloane in Jamaica.
“ Its total length is about feven inches and a half;
the bill, is eight lines and one third; the upper mandible
a little protuberant near the middle; the mid toe, eight
lines and one third ; the adar extent, eleven inches and
a quarter ; the tail about twenty-three lines.”
Plate 2. Ihe'fpotted or Surinam nuthatch.—“ This is ano-
C£cxlv11 ther American nuthatch, with a hooked bill ; but dif¬
fers from the preceding in iize, plumage, and climate :
it inhabits Dutch Guiana.
“ The upper fide of the head and of the body is of
a dull afh colour ; the fuperior coverts of the wings of
the fame colour, but terminated with white; the
throat white; the bread and ail the under fide of the
body cinereous, and more dilute than the upper fide,
with white ftreaks fcattered on the bread and fides,
which forms a fort of fpeckling ; the bill and legs
brown.
“ Total length, about fix inches; the bill, an inch ;
the tar Jus, feven lines and a half; the mid toe, eight
or nine lines, and longer than the hind toe, whofe nail is
the dronged ; the tail, about eighteen lines, confiding
of twelve nearly equal quills, and exceeds the wings
thirteen or fourteen lines.”
ccwx'xiuv hiU I MEG. See Myristica, its generic name.
a; d ^ he tree which produces this fruit was formerly
cccxxxv. thought to grow only in the Banda Ifiands. It is
now pad a doubt, however, that it grows in the Ele
of Fiance and in all or mod of the ifles of the fouth
feas. It feemsa little remarkable that this trade, which
js certainlya lucrative one, fhould have been fo long mo
nopolized by the Dutch. 1 heir cunning and defire to
retain it in their own hands feems to account for the
idea that fo generally prevailed formerly that it grew
only in their fettlements. It was reported as early as
the year 1751, upon what appeared at that time to be
good grounds, that it was likely to be produced in the
Wed Indies.^ An Englidi failor faid he had feen fome
tieesin Jamaica, and the governor on inquiry found
it fo, and that they ayrreed exaftly with the deferip-
uon given of thofein the Spice Iflands in the Ead In-
dits.^ 1 his account, which was given in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine for January 1751, we have never feen
contumed ; and therefore we ftippofe that the expecta¬
tions formed were either frullrated or premature:
owever, it is certain, as we have obferved under the
generic name, that a wild fpecies of it grows at To-
>ago. I o avoid repetition, or the appearance of pro-
x.ty, we mud re;er thole who wifh for farther infor¬
mation refpeCling the trade in this article to M. P.
joonnerat’s account of a voyage to the Spice Ifiands
58 1 NUT
and New-Guines, which was printed at Paris in 1777, Nutmeg,
and tranfiated into Englifh and printed at Bury St —-v-—^
Edmund’s in 1781, &c. and to Bougainville’s voyage,
and Dr Hawkefworth’s compilation of Englifh voy¬
ages.
It will not, however, we trud, he deemed improper
nor befide our purpofe, if we lay before our readers
the following account of the dangerous confeqnenceji
of ufing this article to excels. It was given by Dr
Jacob Schmidius, pubhfhed in the Gentleman’s Maga¬
zine for 1 767.
“ A gentleman of Lower Silefia, about thirty-fix
years old, of a good conilitution, and wdio enjoyed a ,♦
good Hate of health, having felt, during fome day;:,
fome cholic pains, took it in his head, lay way of ic-
medy, to eat four nutmegs, wdrich weighed all toge¬
ther two ounces, and he drank, in eating them, fome
glaflesof beer; which he had ndfooner done, but lie »v a
fei/.ed with a great heat, a violent pain in the head, a
vertigo and delirium, and was inftantly deprived of the
ufe of light, fpeech, and of all his fenfes. He was put
to bed, where he remained two days and two nights ;
his body was opprefied with laflitude, always drowly,
yet without being able to fleep. The third day he
was in that lethargic flate, which is called a coma vigi/,
with a weak and intermitting pulfe. Cephalic reme¬
dies, cordials, and among others the fpirit of cephalic
vitriol, and the efience of cafloreum, wrere adminiiter-
ed in good fpirit of fal ammoniac. The fourth day
he recovered a little, but had abfolutely loft his me¬
mory, fo as not to remember the lead thing he had
done in his life. A continued fever then came on,
accompanied by an obftinate watchfulnefs ; a palpi¬
tation of the heart feemed to be the fore-runner of
other fymptoms, and he was finally itruck with a pal-
fy in all his limbs.
“At the expiration of eight days, he recovered the
ufe of reafon, and faid, that during the firft four days
of his illnefs, he feemed to himfelf to have confiantly
a thick veil before his eyes, and that a great number
of fparks and fiafhes continually ifl'ued from it. All
the bad fymptoms of this malady yielded at lall fuc-
cefiively to the continued ufe of remedies fuiced to his
condition ; and in three months time he was perfedf-
ly recovered, but he was particularly indebted for his
cure to mercurial and ammoniacal remedies.
“ According to chemical principles, it might
perhaps be faid, that the aromatic and oily fait con¬
tained in nutmeg, of which this patient had taken too
large a dole, had immediately excited fo great an agi¬
tation in the humours, and fo rapid a motion in the
animal fpirits, as in fome meafure to partake of the
natu^ of fire, snd that a vifeid and narcotic fulphur,
which refides likewife in the nutmeg, though in a lefs
fenfible manner, being carried' at the fame time into
the mafs of blood, by iuddenly fixing the animal fpi¬
rits, and intercepting their courfe in the nerves, had
afterwards caufed the fttipor in the limbs, the aphony,
and the palfy. But I leave others to explain theie
phenomena; my only view, by communicating this ob-
fervation, being to ihow that the immoderate ufe of
nutmeg may be attended with very great danger.”
NU I RIFION, in the animal-occonomy, is the re¬
pairing the continual lofs which the different parts of
the body undergo. The motion of the parts of the
body}
NUT
Js’utntg, hody, t!ie friclion of thefe parts with each other, and
, elpecially the action of the air, would deftroy the body
entirely, if the lofs was not repaired by a proper diet,
containing nutritive juices ; which being digefted in
the llomach, and afterwards converted into chyle, mix
with the blood, and are distributed through the whole
body for its nutrition.
In young perfons, the nutritive juices not only ferve
to repair the parts that are damaged, but alfo to in-
creafe them, which is called growth.
In grown perfons, the cuticle is every-where con-
ilantly defquamating, and again renewing ; and in the
fame manner the parts rubbed off, or otherwife ft pa-
rated from the flefhy parts of the body, are foon fup-
plied with new fleih ; a wound heals, and an emaciated
perfon grows plump and fat.
Buffon, in order to account for nutrition, fuppofes
the body of an animal or vegetable to be a kind of
mould, in which the matter neceifary to its nutrition
is modelled and aflimilated to the whole. But (con¬
tinues he) of what nature is this matter which an
animal or vegetable affimilates to its own fubfiancei
What power is it that communicates to this matter
the adlivity and motion ncceflary to penetrate this
mould ? and, if fuch a force exift, would it not be by
a fimilar force that the internal mould itfelf might be
reproduced ?
As to the firft queflion, he fuppofes that there ex-
ills in nature an infinite number of living organical
parts, and that all organized bodies confift of fuch or¬
ganical parts; that their produdlion cofts nature no¬
thing, fince their exiftence is conltant and invariable ;
fo that the matter which the animal or vegetable af-
fimilates to its fubftance, is an organical matter of the
fame nature with that of the animal or vegetable,
which confequently may augment its volume without
changing its form or altering the quality of the fuh-
Ilance in the mould.
As to the fecond queflion : There exid (fays he) in
nature certain powers, as that of gravity, that have no
affinity with the external qualities of the body, but
add upon the molt intimate parts, and penetrate them
throughout, and which can never fall under the obfer-
vation of our fenfts.
And as to the third quellicn, he anfwers, that the
internal mould itfelf is reproduced, not only by a fi¬
milar power, but it is plain that it is the very fame
power that caufes the unfolding and reprodu&ion there¬
of: for it is fufficient (proceeds he), that in an orga¬
nized body that unfolds itfelf, there be fome part fimi¬
lar to the whole, in order that this part may one day
become itfelf an organized body, altogether like that
of which it is actually a part.
NUX moschata. See Myristica and Nutmeg.
Nvx Piftadna. See Pistachia.
Nux Vomica, a flat, comprefled, round fruit, about
the breadth of a ffiilling, brought from the Eaft Indies
It is found to be a certain poifon for dogs, cats, &c.
and it is not to be doubted that it \ « aid alfo prove
fatal to mankind. Its furface is not much corrugat¬
ed ; and its texture is firm like horn, and of a pale
greyifh-brown colour. It is fajd to be ufed as a fpe-
cific againft the bite of a fpecies of water-fnake. It
is confiderably bitter and deleterious ; but has been
ufed in dofes from five to ten grains twice a-day or fo,
N U Y
in intenriittents, particularly obi'linate quartans, and Nuy
in contagious dyfentery. The Jlrychnus Ignatii is a ''“"‘-v
tree of the fame kind producing goutd-like fruit, the
feeds of which are improperly called St Ignatius’s beans.
Thefe, as alio the woods or roots of fome fuch trees,
called lignum colubnttum or fnaheivood, are very narco¬
tic bitters like the nux vomica.
NUY TS (Peter), a native of Holland, and a lead¬
ing character in that extraordinary iranfadtion which
happened between the Japanefe and the Dutch about
the year i6/8. In 1627 Nuyts arrived in Batavia
from Holland, and was in the fame year appointed
ambaffador to the Emperor of Japan by the governor
and council of Batavia.
He repaired to that empire in 1628 ; and being a
man of a haughty difpofition, and extremely vain, he
believed it practicable to pafs upon the natives for an
ambaffador from the king of Holland, Upon his
affuming this title he was much more honourably
received, careffed, and refpeCled, than former mini-
ffers had been. But he was foon dete&ed, repri¬
manded, and reproached in the fevereft manner, fent
back to the port, and ordered to return to Batavia
with all the circumfiances of difgraee imaginable;
notwithftanding which, his in ter eft was fo gieat, that,
in lie ad of being punifhed as he deferved, he was im¬
mediately afterwards promoted to the government of
the ifland of Formofa, of which he took poffeffion the
year following.
He entered upon the adminiftration of affairs in
that ifland with the fame difpofition that he had fhown
while ambaffador, and with the moft implacable re-
fentment againft the Japanefe ; neither was it long
before an opportunity offered, as he thought, of re¬
venging himfelf to the full. Two large Japanefe firips,
with upwards of five hundred men on board, came in¬
to the port; upon which he took it into his head to
difarm and unrig them, in the fame manner as the
Dutch vefiels are treated at Japan. The Japanefe did'
all they could to defend themfelves from this ill ufage;
but at laft, for want of water, they were forced to fub-
mit. Governor Nuyts went fti’l farther. When they
had finiffied their affairs at Formofa, and were defirous
of proceeding, according'to their inftruaions, t® Chi¬
na, he put them off with fair words and fine pro-
mifes till the monfoon was over. They began then
to be very impatient, and defired to have their can¬
non and fails reftored, that they might return home ;
but the governor had recourfe to new artifices, and,
by a feries of falfe promifes, endeavoured to hinder
them from making ufe of the feafon proper for that
voyage.
The Japanefe, however, foon perceived his defign ;
and at length, by a bold attempt, accomplifhed what
by fair means and humble entreaty they could not
obtain ; for, by a daring and well concerted ef¬
fort, they took him prifoner, and made him and one
of the council fign a treaty for fecuring their li¬
berty, free departure, and indemnity which was af¬
terwards ratified by the whole., council. Nuyts was
firft confined in Batavia, and afterwards delivered up to
the Japanefe, notwithftanding the moft earned intreaties
on his part t© be tried, and even to fuffer any kind
of death where he was, rather than to be fent to
Japan. He was fent there, however, in 1654. He was
fubmitted
[ 159 1
!
NYC
[ 160 1
N Y E
N'izzer
. t* -
Nydan-
thee.
fubmltted to the mercy or difcretion of the emperor ;
and the confequencewas,that,though imprifoned,hewas
well ufed, and could go any where, provided his guards
Avere with him, which was more than he could pof-
fibly have expected. He now looked for nothing but
the continuance of his confinement for life. On a
particular occafion, however, i. e. at the funeral of the
emperor’s father, at the requeft of the Dutch he was
fet free, and returned again to Batavia, to the furprife
of that people, who, however, adopted ever after a
very different condudt with refpedt to the Japanefe.
NUZZER, or nuzzeranah ; a prefrnt or offer¬
ing from an inferior to a fuperior In Hindoftan
no man ever approaches his fuperior for the firft time
on bufinefs without an offering of at leaft a gold or
filver rupee in his right hand ; which if not taken, it
is a mark of disfavour. Nuzzeranah is alfo ufed for
the fum paid to the government as an acknowledge¬
ment for a grant of lands or any public office.
NYCHTHEMERON, among the ancients, fig-
nified the whole natural day, or day and night, eon-
fifting of 24 hours, or 24 equal parts. This way of
confidering the day was particularly adopted by the
Jews, and feems to owe its origin to that cxpreffion
of Mofes, in the firft chapter of Genefis, “ the even¬
ing and the morning were the firft day.”—Before the
Jews had introduced the Greek language into their
difcourfe, they ufed to fignify this fpace of time by
the fimple expreffion of a night and a day.
It is proper here to obferve, that all the eaftern
countries reckoned any part of a day of 24 hours for
a whole day ; and fay a thing that was done on the
third or feventh day, &c. from that laft mentioned,
was one after three or feven days. And the He¬
brews, having no word which exaftly anfwers to the
Greek fignifying “ a natural day of 24
hours,” ufe nig/it and day-, or day and night, for it. So
that to fay a thing happened after three days and
three nights, was, with them, the fame as to fay it
happened after three days, or on the third day. This,
being remembered, will explain what is meant by
“ the Son of Man’s being three days and three nights
in the heart of the earth.”
NYCTALOPIA. See Medicine, n° 361.
NYCTANTHES, Arabian Jasmine : A genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking with
the 44th order, Sapiaria. I he corolla and calyx are
oftofid ; the perianthium dicoccous. There are fi e
fpecies; the moft remarkable of which are, 1. The
arbor triflis, or forrovvful tree. This me, or ftlrub,
thepariatacu of the Bramins, grows natuially in fandy
places in India, particularly in the ifiands of Ceylon
and Java, where it is produced in great abundance,
and attains the height of iS or 20 feet. It rifes with
a four-cornered Item, bearing leaves that are ov^il, and
taper to a point They {land oppofite, on fhort foot-
ftalks ; are of a fiiining brownifh-green on the upper
fide, a more vivid green on the under, and of a tafte
that is aftringent and fomewhat bitter. From the
middle-rib, on the under furface of the leaves, proceed
•on both fides a number of coftulse, or fmaller ribs,
which run nearly to the margin, and mark the furface
with the impreflion of their arched furrows. 11 he
powers, which are white and highly odoriferous, ha*
-N° 244.
ving a fweet delectable fmell emulating the heft honey,
confift of one petal deeply divided into eight parts,
which are narrower towards the (talk, and dilated to¬
wards the fummit. They ft nd upon foot ftalks, „
which emerge from the origin of the leaves; are ri¬
gid, obliquely raifed towards the top, grow oppofite
in pairs, and are divided into three fhort leffer branches,
which each fupports five flowers placed clofe together,
without partial foot ftaiks. The fruit is dry, capfu-
lar, membranaceous, and compreffed.
It is generally aflerted of this plant, that the flowers
open in the evening, and fall off the fucceeding day.
Fabricivis and Paludanus. however, reftrift the affer-
tion, by affirming, from a&ual obfervation, that this
effe£l is found to take place only in fuch flowers as are
immediately under the influence of the folarrays. Grim-
mius remarks in his Lahotatorium Ceylonicum, that the
flowers of this ’tree afford a fragrant water, which is
cordi :1 refrefhing, and frequently employed with fuc-
cefs in inflammations of the eyes. The tube of the
flower, when dried, has the fmell of faffron ; and, being
pounded and mixed with fanders-wood, is ufed by the
natives of the Malabar coaft for imparting a grateful
fragrancy to their bodies, which they rub or anoint
with the mixture
2. The fambac, noted, like the other fpecies, for
the fragrancy of its flowers, is a native likewife of
India ; and is cultivated in our ftoves, where it gene¬
rally rifes with a twining item to the height of 18 or
20 feet. The leaves are oppofite, fimple, and entire }
but in different parts of the plant affume different
forms : the lower leaves being heart-fhaped and blunt;
the upper, oval and fharp. The flowers are white,
inexpreffibly fragrant, and generally appear with us its
the warm fummer-months. Strong loam is its proper
foil. ( here is a variety of this fpecies with a double
flower, which is much larger and more fragrant than
the former
NYCTASTRATEGI, among the ancients, were
officers appointed to prevent fires in the night, or to give
alarm and call afiiftance when a fire broke out. At
Rome they bad the command of the watch, and were
called noSurn'i triumviri, from their office and number.
NYCTICORAX in ornithology the night-raven;
a fpecies of Ardea.
NYE (Philip), an Englifh nonconformift, a native
of Suffex, defeended of a genteel family there, was
born about ' 5’96. After a proper foundation at the
grammar fchool, he was fent to Oxford and entered
a commoner of Brazen Nofe college in 1615, whence
he removed in a little time to Magdalen-hall, under a
puritanical tutor. He took the degrees in arts in 1619
and 1622, about which time he entered into holy or¬
ders, and was, fome time in 1620, curate of St Mi¬
chael s church in vornhill, London. Refolving, how¬
ever. to rejeft the conftitution of the church of Eng¬
land, he became o ttox ous to all the cenfures of the
epifcopal court; to avoO which he vent, with others
of his perfuafuto Holland, in 1633. He co,.tinned
for the moft part at Arnheim. in Gutlderland, till
1640 ; when, the power of the parliament beginning
to prevail over the king, he returned home, and was
foon after made miniiter of Kimholton in Hunting-
donfhire, by Edward Lord Kimbolton then earl of
Manchdber, In 1643, was appointed one l^c
affembly
Ny<ftan-
thes
II
Nye.
N YE Ft
Ny*. afTembty of divines, and became a gawt champion of the
m^ r" J Prefbyterians, and a zealous afiertor of the folemn
league and covenant ; and, having married the daugh¬
ter of Stephen Marfhall, was fent with his father-in-
law into Scotland the fame year, to expedite the ta¬
king of their covenant. Accordingly, he harangued
that people, in feme fpeeches on the occafion ; in
which he told them, among other things, that they
were entered into fuch a covenant and league as would
never he forgotten by them and their pofterity, and
both would have occafion to remember it with joy ;
that it was fuch an oath, for matter, perfens, and
other circumftances, that the like had not been in any
age, fufficiently warranted both by human and divine
ftory : for, as God did fwear for the falvation of men
and kingdoms, fo kingdoms mult now fwear for the
prefervation and falvation of kingdoms, to eftahl.ih a
Saviour Jefus Chrift in Kngland, &c. After his return,
both houfes of parliament took the covenant the fame
year ; at which time he preached a fermon in defence
of it, (bowing its warrant from fcripture, and was re¬
warded for his good fervict with the reftory of Afton
neat London, in the room of Dr Daniel Featley, who
was ejecled from it. Not long after, however, Nye
began to difiike the proceedings of the faid affembly
of divines, and difiented from them, oppofing the dif-
cipline intended to be fettled by them ; and, clofing
■with the Independents when they became the reigning
faction, he paid his court to the grandees of the army,
who often made ufe of his counfel. In December 1647
he was fent by them, with Stephen Marfhall, to the
king at Carifbrook-catfje, in the ifle of Wight, in at-
tendance up^in the commiffioners then appointed to
carry the (our dethroning votes, as they are now
called, viz. t. To acknowledge the war raifed againft
him to 1 e juft ; 2. To abolifh epifeopary ; 3. To fettle
the power of the militia in perfons nominated by the
two houfes ; 4. To faerffiee all thofe that had adhered
to him ; for which fervice they were rewarded with no
lefs than 500 1. a piece. Nye was alfo employed about
that time by the fame mailers to get fubferiptions from
the apprentices in London, &c. ag'ainft a perfonal
tieaty with the king, while the citizens of that metro¬
polis were petitioning for one. April the next year,
he was employed, as well as Marfhall and Jofeph Ca¬
ryl, ! y the Independents, to invite the fecured and fe-
cluded members to fit in the houfe again, but without
kiccefs. In 1653 he was appointed one of the triers
for the approbation of public preachers ; in which of-
f ce he not only procured his fon to be clerk, but, with
tne afiiftance of his father-in law, obtained for himfelf
a living of gcol a-year In 1 6C4, he was joined with
Dr Lazarus Seaman Samutl Clark, Richard Vines,
Obadiah Sedgwick, Jofeph Caryl, &e. as an aflillant
to the commiffioners appointed by parliament to eject
inch as were then called fcandalous and ignorant ini-
nifters and fchoolmallers in the city of London. Af¬
ter Charles II s reftoration in 1660, it was debated
by the healing parliament, for feveral hours together,
whether he and John Goodwin fhould be exc epted for
liJe ; but the refult was, that if Philip Nye, clerk,
(hould after the Hi of September, in the fame year
1660, accept or exercife any office, ecclefiaftical, ci¬
vil, or military, be fhouid, to all intents and purpofes
in law, ft and as if he had b.en totally excepted for
Vol XIII. Parti.
(31 ] N Y L
life. November 1662 lie was vehemently fufpeSed to
be engaged in Tongue’s plot ; but the fufpicion was
never proved. He died in the parifh of St Michael’s,
Cornhill, London, in Sept. 27. 1672, and was buried
in the upper vault of the faid church. Wood fays he
was a dangerous and feditious perfon, a politic pulpit-
driver of independency, an infatfable efurient after
riches, and what not, to raife a family, and to heap
up wealth.
NYLAND, a province of Finland in Sweden, ly¬
ing on the gulf of Finland, to the weft, of the province
of Carelia.
NYL-GHAU,in zoology, of the genusj5<w, a native
of the interior parts of India. “It feems(favs Bewick in
his Hift. of Quadr.} to be of a middle nature between the
cow ana the deer, and carries the appearance of both in
its form. In fize, it is as much fmaller than the one, as
it is larger than the other: its body, horns, and tail,
are not unlike thofe of a bull ; and the head, neck,
and legs, are limilar to thofe of a deer. The colour
in general is afh or grey, from a mixture of black hairs
and white: all along the ridge or edge of the neck,
the hair is blacker, longer, and more ereff, making a
(hort, thin, and upright mane, reaching down to the
hump. Its horns are feven inches long, fix inches
round at the root, tapering by degrees, and^ terminating
in a blunt point : the ears are large and beautiful,
feven inches in length, and fpread to a confiderable
breadth ; they are white on the edge and on the in-
fide, except where two black bands mark the hollow
of the ear with a zebra-like variety. The height of
this animal at the fhoulder is four feet one inch; be¬
hind the loins, it only meafures four feet.
“ ri he female differs confiderably from the male both
in height and thicknefs, being much fmaller ; in ffiape
and colour, very much refembling a deer ; and has no
horns. She has four nipples, and is fuppofed to go nine
months with young : She commonly has pne at a birch;
but fometimes two.
“ Several of this fpecies were brought to this coun¬
try in the year 1767, which continued to breed annu¬
ally for fome years after. Dr Hunter, who had one
of them in his curtody for fome time, d feribes it as a
harmlefs and gentle animal ; that it feemed pleafed with
every kind of familiarity, always licked the hind that ci¬
ther ftroaked or fed it, and never once attempted to ufe
its horns offenfively. It feemed to have much depen¬
dence on its organs of fmell, and fnuffed keenly whenever
any perfon came in fight: It did fo Hkewife when food
or drink was brought to it ; arid would not tafte the
bread which was offered, if the hand that prefented it
happened to fmell of turpentine.
“ Ls manner of fghting is remarkable, and is de-
feribed thus. Two of the males at Lord Clive’s, being
put into an inclofu e, were obferved, while they were
at fome distance from each other, to prepare for the
attack, by falling down upon their knees; they then
fiiufiled towar ’s each other, keeping Pill upon their
knees; and at the diPance of a few yards they made 3
fpring, and darted againft each other with great force.
“ The following anecdote will ferve to (how, that du¬
ring the rutting feafon thtfe animals are fierce and vi¬
cious, and not to be depended upon. A labouring man,
without knowing that the animal was near him’ went
up to the outfide of the inelofure ; the nyl ghau, with
X the
Nyl-ghatt,
Plate
cccxtva.
N Y M
Nymph, the quicknefs of lightning, darted u .
work .with fuch, violence, that he broke it to pieces,
and broke off one of his horns clofe to the root. 1 he
death of the animal, which happened foon after, was
fuppofed to be owing to the injury he fuftained by the
' ^“Bernier fays, that it is the favourite amufement
of the Mosul emperor to hunt the Nyl-ghau ; and tnat
he kills them in great numbers, and diftributes quar
ters of them to his omrahs ; which fhows that they
are efteemed good and delicious food.
“ rJ'he Nyl-ghau is frequently brought from the in¬
terior parts of Afia, as a rare and valuable prefent to
the nabobs and other great men at our fettkments in
India. , , , ■
** It remains to be coniidered, whether tnis rare ani¬
mal might not he propagated with fuccefs in this coun¬
try. That it will breed here is evident from experi¬
ence ; and if it (hould prove docile enough to be eaiily
trained to labour, its great fwiftnefs and confiderable
[ ,62 1 N Y M
ao-ainfl the wood- which he had beenforced to abandon, by this ftratagem;
the people worfhipping, and believing her to be the
deity whom fhe reprefented. The nymphs, it was the
popular perfuafion, occafionally appeared ; and nym-
pholepfy is characterized as a frenzy, which arofe
from having beheld them. Superftition difpofed the
mind to adopt delufion for reality, and gave to a
fancied vifion the efficacy of full convi&ion. The foun-
Nymph.
dation was perhaps no more than an indire.it, partial,
or obfcure view of fome harmlefs girl, which had ap¬
proached the fountain on a like errand with Hylasr
or was retiring after ihe had filled her earthen pitcher.
« Among the facred caves on record, one on mount
Ida in Crete was the property of Jupiter, and one by
Lebadea in Bceotia of Trophonius. Both thefe were
oracular, and the latter bore forne refemblance to that
we have deferibed. It was formed by art, and the mouth
furrounded with a wall. The defeent to the landing-
place was by a light and narrow ladder, occafionally
applied and removed. It was fituated on a mountain
trained to labour, ns great iwnuicis nuu.  - . , f f
Lngth might be applied to the moll valuable pur- above a grove , and they related, that a Wm of
r ,, 6 1 bees condu&ed the perfon by whom it was fir ft dif-
pofes. „ „ . .
NYMPH, in mythology, an appellation given, to
certain inferior goddeffes, inhabiting the mountains,
woods, waters, &c. faid to be the daughters of Oce-
anus and Tethys. All the univerfe was reprefented as
full of thefe nymphs, who are diftinguifhed into fe-
veral ranks or claffes. The general divifion of them
is into celeftial and-terreflrial; the former of which
were called uran/rfy and were fuppofed to be intelli¬
gences that governed the heavenly bodies or fpheres.
The terrelfrial nymphs, called epigeia^ pieliued over
the feveral parts of the inferior world ; and were divi¬
ded into thofe of the water and thofe of the earth.
The nymphs of the water were the eceanitides, or
nymphs of the ocean ; the tier elds, the nymphs of the
fea ; the naiads and epLydnades, the nymphs of the
fountains ; and the limfdades, the nymphs of the lakes.
The nymphs of the earth were the oreades, or nymphs
of the mountains ; the napeeat, nymphs of the meadows ;
and the dryads and hamadryads, who were nymphs ot
the forefts and groves. Befides thefe, we meet with
nymphs who took their names from particular coun¬
tries, rivers, &c. as tire citheroniades, fo called from
~ ' the dodonldes, from Do
bees conduCled the perfon by whom it was fir(l dif-
covered. But the common owners of caves were the
nymphs, and thefe were fometimes local. On Cithoe-
ron in Boeotia, many of the inhabitants were poffeffed
by nymphs called Sphragitides, whofe cave, once alfo
oracular, was on a fummit of the mountain. Their
dwellings had generally a well or fpring of water ; the
former often a collection of moifture condenfed or ex-
udino- from the roof and fides ; and this, in many in-
ftances, being pregnant with ftony particles, concreted,
and marked its paflage by incruftation, the ground¬
work in all ages and countries of idle tales framed or
adopted by fuperftitious and credulous people.
A cave in Paphlagonia was facred to the nymphs
who inhabited the mountains about Heraclea. It was
long and wide, and pervaded by cold water, clear as
cryflal. There alfo were feen bowls of ftone, and
nymphs and their webs and diftaffs, and curious work,
exciting admiration. The poet who hasdeferibed this
grotto, deferves not to be regarded, as ferviiely copy¬
ing Homer ; he may juftly claim to rank as an ori¬
ginal topographer.
“ The piety of Archidamus furnifhed a retreat forthe
nymphs, where they might find fhelter and provifion,
mount Cithaeron in Bceotia : tne aoaomaes, irom uo- nympua,   — r—  
dona - tiberiadcs, from the Tiber, &c.-Goats were if difireffed ; whether the fun parched up therr trees,
fomedmes facrificed to the nymphs ; but their con- or Jupiter enthroned in clouds upon the mountain-top
Jtant offerings were milk, oil, honey, and wine. feared them with his red lightning and terrible thun-
We have the following account of nymphs in Chand- der, pouring down a deluge of rain, or brightening
ier’s Greece. “ They were fuppofed to enjoy longevity, the fummits with his fnow.’^
but not to be immorlal. They were believed to delight Nymph, among naturalifts, that flate of winged-
hi fprings and fountains. They are deferibed as fleeplefs, infeds between their living in the form of a worm and
and as dreaded by the country people. . They were
fufceptible of paffion. The Argonauts, it is related,
landing on the fhore of the Propontis to dine in their
way to Colchos, feat Hylas, a boy, for water, who
difeovered a lonely fountain, in which the nymphs Eu-
nica, Mali’s, and Nychtia were preparing to dance ;
and thefe feeing him were enamoured, and, feizinghim
by the hand as as he was filling his vale, pulled him
in. The deities, their copartners in the cave, are fuch
as prefided with them over rural and paftoral affairs.
“ The old Athenians were ever ready to cry out, A
god ! or a go Idefs! The tyrant Pififlratus entered the
city in a chariot with a tall woman dreffed in armour
r© referable Minerva, and regained the Acropolis,
their appearing in the winged or mofc perfeft ftate.
The eggs of infedfs are firft hatched into a kind of
worms or maggots; which afterwards pafs into the
nymph-ftate, furrounded with fhells or cafes of their
own fkins : fo that, in reality, thefe nymphs are only
the embryo infefts, wrapped up in this covering ; from
whence they at laft get iooie, though not without great
difficulty.
During this nymph-ftate the creature lofes its mo¬
tion. Swammerdam calls it nympha aurelia, or fimpiv
aurelia; and others give it the name of chryfdis, a
term of the like import. See the article Chrysalis.
NrMFH-Bank, fituated about io leagues oft the coaifc
of the county of Waterford, and province of Munfter
N Y M [ 163 ] N Y M
Ktymphse ,‘n Ireland, is a great fifhing place, and 11 leagues
Nymphaea. g# jr< from head of Dungarvan. It
*1—» abounds with cod, ling, fleate, bream, whiting, and
other fifh ; which was difcovered by Mr Doyle, who
on July 15. 173d failed to it, in company with feven
men, on board the Nymph, a fmall vellel of about 12
guns. This place is well adapted for a lilhing com¬
pany, the great public advantages of which mull be
very evident.
NYMPHJE, in anatomy, two membranaceous parts,
fituated on each fide the rima. They are of a red co¬
lour, and cavernous ftrudlure, fomewhat refembling the
wattles under a cock’s throat. They are fometimes
fmaller, fometimes larger ; and are contiguous to the
praeputium of the clitoris, and joined to the interior
iide of the labia.
NYMPHiEA, the water-lily ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
54th order, Mifcellanea. The corolla is polypetalous;
the calyx tetraphyllous or pentaphyllous ; the berry
multilocular and truncated. There are four fpecies ;
of which the moft remarkable are, i, 2. The lutea
and alba, or yellow and white water-lilies ; both of
which- are natives of Britain, growing in lakes and
ditches: Linnseus tells us, that fvvine are fond of the
leaves and roots of the former; and that the fmoke
of it will drive away crickets and blattaSj or cock¬
roaches, out of houfes.—The root of the fecond has
an aftringent and bitter talle, like thofe of moft aqua¬
tic plants that run deep into the mud. The High¬
landers make a dye with it of a dark chefnut colour.
3. The lot us, with heart-lhaped toothed leaves, a plant
thought to be peculiar to Egypt, is thus mentioned
Euterpe, by Herodotus f : “When the river Nile is become
c,9'1, full, and all the grounds round it are a perfedl-fea,
there grows a vaft quantity of lilies, which the Egyp¬
tians call lotus, in the water. After they have cut
them, they dry them in the fun ; then, having parch¬
ed the feed within the lotus, which is moft like the
poppy, they make bread of it, baking it with fire.
The root alfo of the lotus is eatable, eafily becoming
fweet, being round, and of the lize of an apple.” M.
t Le'ters Savary J mentions it as growing in the rivulets and
-n ESyp^ on the fides of the lakes ; and that there are two forts
or varieties of the plant, the one with a white, the
other with a bluifti flower. “ The calyx (he fays)
blows like a large tulip, and diffufes a fweet fmell,
refembling that of the lily. The firft fpecies produces
a round root like that of a potato ; and the inhabi¬
tants of the banks of the lake Menzall feed upon it.
The rivulets in the environs of Damietta are covered
with this majeftic flower, which rifes upwards of two
feet above the water. 4. In .the Eaft and Weft In¬
dies grows a fpecies of this plant, named nelumbo by
the inhabitants of Ceylon. The leaves which reft
upon the furface of the water are fmooth, undivided,
perfectly round, thick, target-fhaped, and about one
foot and a half in diameter. The footftalk of the
leaves is prickly ; and inferted, not into their bafe, or
margin, as in moft plants, but in the centre of the
lower difk or furface. From this centre, upon the
upper furface, ifiue, like rays, a great number of large
ribs, or nerves, which towards the circumference are
divided and fubdivided into a fmall number of very
minute parts. The flowers are large, flefh-colouredjNymphaa.
and confiit of numerous petals, difpofed, as in thel——v—'-"!l
other fpecies of water-lily, in two or more rows. The
feed-veflel is fhaped like a top, Being broad and cir¬
cular above, nan-ow and almoft pointed below. It is
divided into feveral diftinft cells, which form fo many-
large round holes upon the furface of the fruit; each
containing a Angle feed. —With the flower of this
plant, which is facred among the heathens, they adorn
the altars of their temples : they paint their gods fit¬
ting upon it; and make ufe of fuch pi&ures to ani¬
mate the minds of the pious on their death-bed, and
to raife their afFe&ions to heaven. The ftalks, which
are ufed as a pot herb, are of a wonderful length!-
The root is very long, extends itfelf tranfverfely, is
of the thicknefs of a man’s arm, jointed and fibrous,
with long intervals betwixt the joints. The fibres
furround the joints in verticilii or whirls. 5. A fpe¬
cies of nymphsea, called by the Chinefe lien-hoa and
tienufar, is highly extolled in that country for its ex¬
cellent virtues, and ranked by their phyficians among
thefe plants which are employed in the compofition of
the liquor of immortality. The feeds are there eaten as
we eat filberds in Europe : they are more delicate
when they are green, hut harder of digeftion ; they
are preferved in many dilferent ways with fugar. The
root of this plant is alfo admitted by the Chinefe to
their tables : in whatever manner it be prepared, it.
its equally whokfome. Great quantities of it are
pickled with fait and vinegar, which they referve to
eat with their riee. When reduced to powder, it makes
excellent foup with water and milk. The leaves of
the nenufar are much ufed for wrapping .up fruitif
filh, fait provifions, &c. When dry, the Chinefe
mix them with their fmoking tobacco, to render it
fofter and milder.
The high veneration in which the nympho'.a lotos was
held by the Egyptians, is fully known; and at this hour
it is equally venerated by the Hindoos. Sir William
Jones, in fpeaking of Brimha, Yiihnou, and Shiva, as
emblematical reprefentations of the Deity, fays,
“ The firft operations of thefe three powers are
evidently deferibed in the different Pouranas by a
number of alhgories ; and from them we may deduce
the Ionian philofophy of primaeval water, the dodlrine
of the mundane egg, and the veneration paid to the
nymphasa or lotos, which was anciently revered in
Egypt, as it is at prefent in Hindoftan, Tibet, ani
Nepal. The Tibetians are faid to embelliftt their
temples and altars with it; and a native of Nepal
made proftrations before it on entering my ftudy
where the fine plant and beautiful flowers lay for ex¬
amination.”
Nymph/ea (amongft the ancients), doubtful what
ftru&ures they were ; fome take them to have been
grottos, deriving their name from the ftatues of the
nymphs with which they were adoragd ; but that they
were confiderable works appears from their being ex^
ecuted by the emperors Ammian, Victor, Capitolinas;
or by the city prefe&s. In an infeription, the term
is written nymfium. None of all thefe nymph as a has
lafted down to our time. Some years fince, indeed, a
fquare building of marble was difcovered between
Naples and Vefuvius, with only one entrance, and
fome fteps that went down to it. On the right hand as
N Y M [ 164 1 N Y S
NympKse you enter, towards the head, there is a fountaifl of the
i*m, pyrefl water ; along which, by way of guard as it
^'dlus^* were, is laid a naked Aretiuifa ot the whitell marble;
^ ■ the bottom or ground is of variegated marble, and
encompafied w;th a canal fed by the water from the
fountain: the walls are fet round with (hells and
pebbles of various colours ; by the fetting of which,
as by fo many (frokes in a piilure, are expreffed the
12 months of the year, and the ronr political virtues;
alfo the rape of Proferpine ; Pan playing on his reed,
and foothing his flock ; belides the rep reft nt at ions of
nymphs fwimmiug, lading, and wantoning on tifhes,
&c.
It feems pretty evident that the nymph sea were
*. pubhe baths; for at the fame time that they were fur-
nifhed with pleating grottoes, they were alfo fupplied
with coding dreams, by which they were rendered
exceedingly°dclig!ittul, and drev/ great numbers of
people to frequent them. Sdence feems to have been
a particular requiiite there, as appears by this inferip-
tion, Nymphis iou, bilty lavciy tace. 1 hat building be¬
tween Naples and Vefuvius mentioned above, was cer¬
tainly one of thefe uymphaea.
NYMPHjEUM, (Plutarch); the name of a fa*
cred place near Apollonia m lllyricum. fending forth
continually fire in detached dreams from a green
valley and verdant meadows. 13io Caffius adds, that
the fire neither burns up nor parches the earth, but
that herbs and trees grow and thrive near it, and
therefore the place is called nympha-um : near which
■was an. oracle of fuch a nature, that the fire, to fhow
that the wifh was granted, confumed the frankincenfe
thrown into it ; but repelled it, in cafe the defire was
teje&ed. It was there that a deeping fatyr was once
caught and bi ought to Sylla as he returned fiom
the Mithridatic war. This monder had the fame
features as the poets aferibe to the fatyr. He was in¬
terrogated by Syria and by his interpreters; but his ar¬
ticulations were unintelligible, and the Roman fpurn-
ed from him a creature which Teemed to partake of
the nature of a bead more than that of a man.
Nympheum, in antiquity, a public hall magnifi¬
cently decorated, for entertainment, Sec. and where
thofe who wanted convenience at home held their mar-
riage-feafls ; whence the name.
NYMPHIDIUS (Sabim-is), a perfon of mean
defeent; but appointed by Nero colleague of 1 >gel'
linus in the command of the praetorian guards. About
the time, however, that the German legions revolted
from this defpicable prince, he was alfo betrayed by
Nymphidius and abandoned by his guards.
Nymphidius began now to entertain thoughts of
feizing the fovereignty himfelf. However, he did
not immediately declare his ambitious views ; but pre¬
tending to efpoufe the caufe of Galba, aflured the
guards that Kero w^as fled, and promifed them fuch
Aims as neither Gaiba nor any other was able to dii-
eharge. This promife fecured for the prefent the em¬
pire to Galba, occalioned afterwards the lofs of it,
and, finally, produced the deftruftion of Nymphidius
and the guards thtmfelves. After Nero’s death, how¬
ever, and on the acknowledgment of Galba as em¬
peror. he renewed his ambition ; and having, by his
immenfe largefles, gained the affeftions of the prx-
tonan guards, and perfuading himfelf that Galba, by
reafon of his infirmities and old age, would never reach Nyon
the capital, ufurped ail the authority at Rome. Pre* ^ ^
fuming upon his interefl, he obliged Tigellinus, who • \
commanded, jointly with him, the praetorian guards,
to refign his commiffion. He made feveral magnin-
cent and expenfive entertainments, inviting fuch a*
had been eonfuta or had commanded armies, diftri-
buted large fums amon r the people, and with fhowa
and other diverfions, which he daily exhibited, gained
fo great an interell with all ranks, that he already
looked upon himfelf as fovereign. The fenate, dread¬
ing his power, conferred extraordinary honours upon
him, ftyled him their ProtcBor, attended him when he
appeared in public, and had recourfe to him for the .
confirmation of their decrees* as if he had been already
•inverted with the fovereign power. This Uife com¬
pliance elated him to fuch a degree, that he ufiupedr
not leifurely and by degrees, but all at once, an ab-
folute authority. He adfed as- fovereign indeed, but
he had not as yet openly declared his defign of fuzing
the empire : his power, however, was great, and he
ufed it in undermining Galba’s power ; he was, how¬
ever, imfuocefsful. and the difrlofure of his deiigna
was much again if: him. Galba was again acknow¬
ledged and proclaimed, and he, notwithllanding hia
artifices, dete&ed and flain by the foldiers who were
procl liming Galba. See Nero.
NYON, a confiderable town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, and capital of a bailiwick of the fame
name, with a caftle. It Hands delightfully upon the
edge of the lake of Geneva, in the very point where
it begins to widen- and in a moll charming country
commonly called Pays de Vand. It was formeiiy call¬
ed Colania Eq'iejlns Noiodunum ; and, as a proof of its
antiquity, feveral Roman inferiptions. and other an¬
cient remains, have been frequently difeoveredin the out-
flcirts of the town. E I.ong. 5. 10. N Eat. 46. 24.
NYSA, or Nyssa (anc. geog.), a,town of Ethiopia,
at the fouth of Egypt. Some place it in Arabia.
This city, with another of tfie famt^ name in India,
was facred to die god Bacchus, who was educated
there by the nymphs of the plaqe, and who re¬
ceived the name of Dionyftus, which fccros to be
compounded of and Nu<r«, the name of his father,
and that of the place of his education. The god
made this place the feat of his empire, and the capi¬
tal of the conquered nations of the call. According
to fome geographers, there were no lefs than ten
places of this name. One of thele was famous
on the coall of Euboea for its vines, which grew
in fuch an uncommon manner, that if a twig was
planted in the ground in the morning, it immediately
produced grapes which were full ripe in the evening.
A city of Thrace : another feated on the top of
Mount Parnaflus, and facred to Bacchus.
NYSEOT, a ilrong town of Ruflia, in Livonia,
with a caltle^ feated on the river Narva, among large
marfhes. E.Eong. 26. 55. N. Eat. 58. 46.
NYSSA, in botany : A genus of the order of
dicscia, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 12th
order, Holoracea. The hermaphrodite calyx is quin-
quepartite ; there is no corolla ; the ftamina are live ;
there is one piftil; the fruit a plum inferior. The
male calyx is quinquepartiU, no corolla, and ten fta-
miiu-
N Y S [ 1 NYU
Nyfo. mina. There is only one fperies, the nyjfa aquatic a
or tupelo tree. It is a deciduous tree or ihruh, a na¬
tive of moift or watery places in America, and con-
fi'ls of two varieties; r. The entire leaved ; and, 2.
The ferrated leaved tupelo.
Planting The entire-leaved tupelo tree, in its native foil and
nd Gar. climate, c*rows to nevr 20 feet high ; in this country
tmng. its fiz.e varies according to the nature of the foil or
fituation. In a moili rich eaith, well flultered, it
comes near to 20 feet ; in others, that are lefs fo, it
makes flower progrefs, and in the end is propor¬
tionally lower. The branches are not very numerous;
and it rifes with a regular trunk, at the top of which
they generally grow. The leaves are of a laneeoiated
figure, and of a fine light green colour. They end in
acute points and are very ornamental, of a thickifh
confiftence, foft, grow alternately »n pretty long foot-
flalks, and often retain their verdure late in the au¬
tumn. The flowers, which are not very ornamental,
tre produced from the iides of the branches, growing
fomttimes fingly, fometimes many together, on a
footllalk. They are of a greenifh colour ; and, in the
countries where they naturally grow, are fucceeded
by oval drupes, incloiing oval, acute, furrowed nuts.
In England they feldom produce fruit.
The ferrated-Jeaved tupelo tree grows ufually nearly
feet in height; and divides into branches near the
fop like the other. The leaves arc oblong, pointed,
of a light-green colour, and come out without order
on long footftalks. The flowers come out from the
wings of the leaves on long footfislks. They are
fmall, of a greenifh-colour; and are fucceeded by oval
drupes, containing fliarp-pointed nuts, about the fize
ef a French olive.
The propagation of thefe trees is from feeds, which
come from America. As foon as they arrive, they
fhould be fown in large pots of light fandy earth an
inch deep. The gardener (no plants come up the firfl Nyffa,
fpring), after this work is done, fhould plunge his, ^vu~f^e'
pots up to their rims in the natural ground ; and if ^ v "
it be a moifi: place, it will be the better. Weeding
muft be obferved during thefummer; and afewfurze-
buflies fhould be pricked round the pots in November,
which will prevent the ground from freezing, and for¬
ward the coming up of the feeds. In the next fpring,
the pots fhould be plunged into an hot-bed, and after
that the feeds will foon appear. As much air as pof-
fible, and watering, fhould be afforded them ; and
they mull be hardened foon, to be fet out. The pot s
fhould then be plunged to their rims again in the
natural mould ; where they are to remain till Odlober.
Watering muft be given them ; and they fhould alfo
be fitaded in the heat of the day. In October, they
mufl: be houfed, with other greenhoufe plants, or elfe
fet under a hot-bed-frame, or fome other cover, du¬
ring winter. The third fpring they fhould be taken
out of the larger pots, and each planted in a fmaller,
in which their growth may be afiilted by a gentle heat
in a bed ; but if they are planted up ta the rims in a
moift place, and fhaded in dry weather, they will grow
very well. Though by this time they fhould have be¬
come hardy, yet it will be proper to flicker them the
winter following in bad weather. They will require
little more care during their ftay in the pots, which
may be either two, three, or more years, if they are
large enough; when in fpring they may be turned out,
with the mould, into the places where thev are to re¬
main, which ought always to be moift and properly
fheltered.
NYU-CHE, or Kin, an empire which arofe in
eaftern Tartary in the beginning of the 13th century.
From the founder of this empire the late Chinefe em¬
peror Kang-ht faid that his family was deitended. See
China and Tartary.
-3
o.
OThe Tgth letter and fourth vowel of our al-
* phabet; pronounced as in the words no/e, r&/e,
See. _
The found of this letter is often fo foft as to require
it double, and that chiefly in the middle of words; as
gooff, reproof, &c. And in forne words this 00 is pro¬
nounced like u ftrort, as in food, blood, &c\
As a numeral, O was fomet.mes ufed for 11 mnong
the ancients; and with a dafh over it thus, O, for
11,000.
In the notes of the ancients, O. CON. is read opus
condutlum; O. C. Q^ofera covfihoque; O. D. M. opera,
donum mvnur; and O.LO. opus locatum.
The Greeks had two O's; viz. omicron, », and
omega, “I the firft pronounced on the tip of the lips
with a {harper found ; the fecond in the middle of the
mouth, with a fuller found, equal to 00 in ©ur lan¬
guage. The long and fhort pronunciation of our O
are equivalent to the two Greek ones ; the firft, aa
in fuppofe ; the fecond, as in chty.
O is ufualiy denoted long by a fervile a fubjoined,.
as moan ; or by e at the end of the fyllable, as bone ;
when thefe vowels are not ufed, it is generally fhort.
Among the Irilh, the letter O, at the beginning
of the name of a family, is a character of dignity an¬
nexed to great houfes. Thus, in the hiftory of Ire¬
land, we frequently meet with the 0 Neals, 0 Carrols,
&c. confid'erable houfes in that ifland.
Cambden obferves, that it is the cuftom of the
lords of Ireland to prefix an O to their names to di-
ftinguifh them from the commonalty.
The ancients ufed O as a mark of triple time; from-
a notion that the ternary, or number 3, was the moft
perfect of numbers, and therefore properly exprdfed
by a circle, the moft perfect of figures
It iff not, ftri&ly fpeaking, the letter 0, but the
figure
OAK [ 166 ] OAK
O, figure of a circle Q? or double C3, by which the
Oak. ’ modern ancients in mufic ufed to exprefs what they
v called tempo perfeSlo, or triple time. Hence the Ita¬
lians call it circolo.
The feven antiphones, or alternate hymns of feven
verfes, &c. fung by the choir in the time of Advent,
were formerly called 0, from their beginning with fuch
an exclamation.
O is an adverb of calling, or interje&ion of forrow
or wifhing.
OAK, in botany. See Quercus.
The oak has been long known by the title of
monarch of the woods, and very juftly. It was well
known, and often very elegantly deferibed, by the an¬
cient poets. The following defeription from Virgil is
exquifite :
Veluti annojo validam cum robore quercum
j41pini Borea, nunc h'mc, nunc f atibus Mine
Eruere inter fe certant: it Jlrtdor, et alte
Conferment terram concufoJlipite frondes :
Ipfa haret fcopulis ; et quantum vertice ad auras
JEtherias, tantum radice in Tartar a tendit.
^En. iv. 441.
As o’er th’ aerial Alps fublimely fpread,
Some aged oak uprears his reverend head ;
This way and that the furious tempefts blow,
To lay the monarch of the mountains low ;
Th’ imperial plant, though nodding at the found,
Though all his fcatter’d honours ftrow the ground;
Safe in his ftrength, and feated on the rock,
In naked majefty defies the (hock :
High as the head (hoots tow’ring to the (Ides,
So deep the root in hell's foundation lies.
Pitt.
The ancient druids had a mod profound veneration
^ for oak trees. Pliny * fays, that “ the druids (as the
xvi^c’44. Gauls call their magicians or wife men) held nothing
V1‘ C‘ ’ fo facred as the mifletoe, and the tree on which it
grows, provided it be an oak. They make choice of
oak groves in preference to all others, and perform no
rites without oak-leaves ; fo that they feem to have
the name of druids from thence, if we derive their
name from the Greek,” &c. (See Druids—defini-
ti6n, and n° 11.) Maximus Tyrius fays the Celtae
or Gauls worlhipped Jupiter under the figure of a
lofty ©ak (a).
This ufeful tree grows to fuch a furprifing magni¬
tude, that were there not many well authenticated in-
ftances of them in our Own country, they would cer¬
tainly appear difficult of belief. In the i8th volume
of the Gentleman’s Magazine we have the dimenfions
of a leaf twelve inches in length and feven in breadth,
and all the leaves of the fame tree were equally large.
On the eftate of Woodhall, purchafed in 1775 by Sir
Thomas Rumbold, bart. late governor of Madras, an
oak was felled which fold for 43I. and meafured 24
feet round. We are alfo told of one in Millwood fo-
reft, near Chaddefley, which was in full verdure in Oak,
winter, getting its leaves again after the autumn ones '—"■V""
fell oft'. In Hunter’s Evelyn’s Sylva, we have an ac¬
count of a very remarkable oak atGreendale; which
Gough, in his edition of Cambden, thus minutely de-
feribes: “ The Greendale oak, with a road cut thro’ it,
ftill bears one green branch. Such branches as have been
cut or broken off are guarded from wet by lead. The
diameter of this tree at the top, whence the branches
iffue, is 14 feet 2 inches; at the furface of the ground
1 ij- feet ; circumference there 35 feet ; height of the
trunk 5 3 ; height of the arch 10, width 6. Mr Evelyn
mentions feveral more oaks of extraordinary fize in
Workfop park.”
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1773 we have an
account of one differing very effentially from the com¬
mon one; it is frequent about St Thomas inDevonftiire,
and is in that county called Lucombc oak, from one
William Lucombe who fuccefsfully cultivated it near
Exeter. It grows as ftraight and handfome as a fir;
its leaves are evergreen, and its wood as hard as that
of the common oak. Its growth is fo quick, as to
exceed in 20 or 30 years the altitude and girth of the
common one at ioo. It is cultivated in various places;
Cornwall, Somerfetfhire, &c.
M. du Hamel du Monceau, of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Paris (who wrote a treatife on hufband-
ry), gave an account in the year 1749 of an oak which
he had kept in water eight years, and which yielded
fine leaves every fpring. The tree had, he fays, four
or five branches; the larged 19 or 20 lines round,
and more than 18 inches long. It throve more in the
two fird years than it would have done in the bed
earth ; it afterwards loft its vigour, and rather decayed;
which he attributed to a defetft in the roots rather than
to want of aliment.
M. de Buffon made fome experiments on oak-trees;
the refult of which is recorded in the Gentleman’s
Magazine, 1754. He had compared barked with un¬
barked trees ; and proves, we think with fuccefs, from
a variety of trials, that timber barked and dryed
(landing, is always heavier and confiderably ftronger
than timber kept in its bark.
The bark of oak-trees was formerly thought to be
extremely ufeful in vegetation. One load (Mr Mills in
his treatife on hufbandry informs us) of oak-bark,
laid in a heap and rotted, after the tanners have ufed
it for drefiing of leather, will do more fervice to (tiff
cold land, and its effedls will laft longer, than two
loads of the richeft dung ; but this has been ftrenu-
oufiy controverted. (See Oak-Leaves.)
The bark, in medicine, is alfo a ftrong aftringent ;
and hence (lands recommended in hasmorrhagies, al-
vine fluxes, and other preternatural or immoderate
fecretions ; and in thefe it is fometimes attended with
good eft efts. Some have alledged, that by the ufe of
this bark every purpofe can be anfwered which may be
obtained from Peruvian bark. But after feveral very
fair
(a) Cambden informs us of a tradition (which, like moft other traditions of this nature, feems to be
founded in ignorance and foftered by credulity ) refpedfting an oak near Malwood caftle, where Rufus was killed,
viz. that it budded on Chriftmas-day, and withered before night. This tree, the fame tradition reports to have
been that againft which Tyrril’s arrow glanced.
OAK r 167 1 . OAK
fair trials, we have by no means found this to be the
cafe. Belides the bark, the buds, the acorns, and
their cups are ufed ; as alfo the galls, which are ex-
crefcences caufed by infedls on the oaks of the eaftern
countries, of which there are divers forts ; fome
perfe&ly round and fmooth, fome rougher with fmall
protuberances, but all generally having a round hole in
them. All the parts of the oak are ftyptic, binding,
and ufeful in all kinds of fluxes and bleedings, either
inward or outward. The bark is frequently ufed in
gargarifms, for the relaxation of the uvula, and for
fore mouths and throats : it is alfo ufed in reftringent
clyllers and injections, againft the prolapfus uteri or
ani. The acorns, beaten to powder, are frequently
taken by the vulgar for pains in the fide. The only
officinal preparation is the aqua germinum quercus.
OAK-I.eaves. The ufes of oak-bark in tanning, and
in hot-beds, is generally known. For the latter of
thefe purpofes, however, oak leaves are now found to
*nfwer equally well, or rather better. In the notes to
Dr Hunter’s edition of Evelyn’s Treatife on Foreft-
trees, we find the following dire&ions for their ufe by
W. Speechly : The leaves are to be raked up as foon
as polfible after they fall from the trees. When raked
into heaps, they fliould immediately be carried into
fome place near the hot-houfes, where they may lie to
couch. Mr Speechly fays, it was his cuftom to fence
them round with charcoal hurdles, or any thing elfe,
to keep them from being blown about the garden in
windy weather. In this place they tr ead them well, and
water them in cafe they happen to have been brought
in dry. The heap is made fix or fevcn feet thickj
and covered over with old mats, or any thing elfe, to
prevent the upper leaves from being blown away. In
a few days the heap will come to a ftrong heat. For
the firft year^ or two in which he ufed thefe leavr s,
our author did not continue them in the heap longer
than ten days or a fortnight : but by this method of
management they fettled fo much when brought to
the hot-houfe, that a fupply was very foon required ;
and he afterwards found, that it was proper to let
them remain five or fix weeks in the heaps before they
are brought to the hot houfe. In getting them into
the pine-pots, if they appear dry, they are to be wa¬
tered, anti again trodden down exceedingly well, in
layers, till the pits are quite full. The whole is then
covered with tan-bark, to the thicknefs of two inches,
and well trodden down, till the furface becomes fmooth
and even. On this the pine-pots are to be placed in
the manner they are to Hand, beginning with the
middle row firft, and filling up the fpaces between the
pots with tan. In this manner we are to proceed to
the next row, till the whole be finifned ; and this ope¬
ration is performed in the fame manner as when tan
only is ufed. The leaves require no farther trouble
through the whole feafon ; as they will retain a con-
ftant and regular heat for 1 2 months without ftirring
or turning ; and our author informs us, that if he may
judge from their appearance when taken out (being
always entire and perfect), it is probable they would
continue their heat through a fecond year; hut, as an
annual fupply of leaves is eafiiy obtained, the experi¬
ment is hardly worth making. After this, the pines
will have no occafion to be moved, but at ftated times
of their management, viz. at the fliifting them in their
pots, &c. when at each time a little frefh tan fhould
be added to make up the deficiency arifing from the
fettling of the beds; but this will be inconfiderable,
as the leaves do not fettle much after their long couch¬
ing. During the firft two years of our author’s prac¬
tice he did not ufe any tan, but plunged the pine-pots
into tire leaves, and juft, covered the furface of the •
beds, when finifhed, with a little faw-duft, to give it
a neatnefs. This method, however, was attended
with one inconvenience ; for by the caking of the
leaves they ffirunk from the fides of the pots, where¬
by they became expofed to the air, and at the fame
time the heat of the beds was permitted to elcape.
“ Many powerful reafons (fays Mr Speechly) mayr
be given why oak-leaves are preferable to tanner’s
bark.
“ 1. They always heat regularly ; for during the
whole time that I have ufed them, which is near feven
years, 1 never once knew of their heating with vio¬
lence ; and this is fo frequently the cafe with tan, that
1 affirm, and indeed it is well known to every perfen
converfant in the management of the hot-houfe, that
pines fuffer more from this one circumftance, than all
the other accidents put together, infects excepted.
When this accident happens near the time of their
fruiting, the efteft is foon feen in the fruit, which is
exceedingly fmail and ill-fliaped. Sometirnes there
will be little or no fruit at all ; therefore gardeners
who make ufe of tan only for their pines, fbould he
molt particularly careful to avoid an over-heat at that
critical jundure,—the time of fliowing the fruit.
“ 2. The heat of oak-leaves is conftant; whereas
tanner’s bark generally turns cold in a very fliort time
after its furious heat is gone off. This obliges the
gardener to give it frequent turnings in order to pro¬
mote its heating. Thefe frequent turnings, not to
mention the expence, are attended with the worft:
confequences ; for by the continual moving of the
pots backwards and forwards, the pines are expofed
to the extremes of heat and cold, whereby their growth
is confiderably retarded ; whereas, when leaves are
ufed, the pines will have no occafion to be moved but
at the times of potting, See. The pines have one pe¬
culiar advantage in this undifturbed fituation ; their
roots grow through the bottoms of the pots, and mat
among the leaves in a furprifing manner. From the
vigour of the plants when in this fituation, it is highly
probable that the leaves, even in this ftate, afford them
an uncommon and agreeable nourilhment.
“ 3. There is a faving in point of expence f which
is no inconfiderable objed in places where tan cannot,
be had but from a great diftance.
“ 4. The laft ground of preference is, that decayed
leaves make good manure ; whereas rotten tan is ex¬
perimentally found to be of no value. I have often
tried it both on fand and clay, and on wet and dry
land ; and never could difeover, in any of my experi¬
ments, that it deferved the name of a manure ; whereas
decayed leaves are the richeft, and of all others the
molb proper manure for a garden. Leaves mixed with
dung make excellent hot-beds ; and 1 find that beds
compounded in this manner, preferve their heat much
longer than when made entirely with dung, j and in
2 , both-
OAK r 163 ] OAT
both csfes, the application of leaves will be a confide-
rable favlng of dung, which is a circumilance on many
accounts agreeable.”
OAK-Leaf-Ga/h. Thefe are of feveral kinds; the
remarkable fpecies called the mujhroom gall is never
found on any other vegetable fubilance but thefe
leaves; and befxde this there are a great number of
other kinds.
The double gall of thefe leaves is very fingular, be-
caufe the generality of productions of this kind affe£t
only one fide of a leaf or branch, and grow all one
way; whereas this kind of gall extends itfelf both
ways, and is feen on each fide of the leaf, in form of
two protuberances, oppofite the one to the otiier.
Thefe are of differently irregular fhapes, but their na¬
tural fi gure fetms that of two cones, with broad bafes,
and very obtufe points, though fometimes they are
round, or very nearly fo.
Thefe make their firft appearance on the leaf in
Ap ril, and remain on it till June or longer. They
are at firft green, but afterwards yellowiih, and are
fofter to the touch than many other of the produCfions
of this kind: they are ufually about the fize of a large
pea, but fometimes they grow to the bignefs of a nut.
When opened, they are found to be of that kind
which are inhabited each by one infed only, and each
contain one cavity. The cavity in this is, however,
larger than in any other gall of the fize, or even in
many others of three times the fize ; the fides of it
being very little thicker than the fubflance of the
leaf.
It is not eafy to afcertain the origin of the feveral
fpecies of flies which are at times feen in this manner
to come out of the fame fpecies of galls. It feems
the common courfe of nature, that only one fpecies of
in fed forms one kind of gall; yet it may be, that
two or three kinds may give origin to the fame kind.
There is, however, another occafion of our feeing dif¬
ferent fpecies come out of diffeient galls of the fame
kind ; and this is the effeft of the enemies of the pro¬
per inhabitants.
It might appear that the parent fly, when fhe had
formed a gall fer the habitation of her worm offspring,
had placed it in an impregnable fortrefs : but this is
not the cafe ; for it frequently happens, that a fly, as
fmall perhaps as that which gave origin to the gall,
produces a worm which is of the carnivorous kind, as
the other feeds on vegetable juices. This little fly,
well knowing that where there is one of thefe protu¬
berances on a leaf, there is a tender and defencelefs in-
fedt within, pierces the fides of the gall, and depofits
her egg within it. This, when it hatches into a worm,
feeds upon the proper inhabitant ; and finally, after
devouring it, pafies into thechryfalis ftate, and thence
appears in the form of its parent fly, and is feen ma¬
king its way out of the g ill, in the place of the proper
inhabitant.
On opening thefe leaf-galls, which are properly the
habitation only of one animal, it is common to find
two, the fhonger preying upon the body of the other,
and fucking its juices as it does thofe of the leaf;
often it is found wholly employed in devouring its un¬
offending neighbour at once: this is probably the cafe
when its time of eating is nearly over ; and, in fine,
when we find the gall inhabited by only one infedt, or
N" Hi-
containing only one chryfalis, as it ought in its natu¬
ral ftate to do, we are never certain that this is the
proper inhabitant, as it may be one of thefe deftroy-
ers who has eaten up the other, and fupplied its place.
See Aphis and Oak Puckron.
Oak Saw-dujl is now found to anfwer the purpofes
of tanning as well, at leaft, as the bark. See Tan¬
king.
Oak of Jerufalem. See Chenopodium.
OAKHAM, Ockham, or Oakum, in fea-Janguage,
denotes the matter of old ropes untwifted and pulled
out into loofe hemp, in order to be ufed in caulking
the feams, tree-nails, and bends of a fhip, for flopping
or preventing leaks.
OAKHAMPTON, a town of Devonfhire, which
fends two members to parliament; fituated in W.Long.
4. 5. N. Lat. 50.48.
CANNES, a being in Chaldean mythology, repre¬
sented as half a man and half a fifh. According to
Berofus and other fabulous writers, this monfter was
the civilizer of the Chaldeans ; to whom he taught a
fyftem of jurifprudence fo perftdl as to be incapable
of improvement. In difeharging the duties of his of¬
fice, he fpent the day on dry land, but retired every
night into the ocean or the river. See Mythology,
nQ 25.
OAR, along piece of timber, flat at one end and
round or fquare at the other ; and which being ap¬
plied to the fide of a floating veffel, ferves to make it
advance upon the water.
1 hat part of the oar which is out of the veffel, and
which enters into the water, is called the blade, or
<wajh plat; and that which is within-board is termed
the loom, wdiofe extremity being fmall enough to be
grafped by the rowers, or perfons managing the oars,
is called the handle.
To pufh the boat or veffel forwards by means of
this inftrument, the rowers turn their backs forward,
and, dipping the blade of the oar in the water, pull
the handle forward fo that tire blade at the fame time
may move aft in the water: but fince the blade cannot
be fo moved, without linking the water, this impul-
fion is the fame as if the water were to ftrike the blade
from the Hern towards the head: the velfel is therefore
neceffarily moved according to this direction. Hence
it follows, that fhe will advance with the greater ra¬
pidity, by as much as the oar ftrikes the water more
forcibly. Thus it is evident, that an oar a£!s upon the
fide of a boat or veffel like a lever of the fecond clafs,
who-fe fulcrum is the ftation upon which the oar refta
on the boat’s gunnel. In large veffels, this ftation is
ufually called'the row-port; but in lights and boats it
is always termed the row-lock.
OARISTUS, or Oaristys, a term in the Greek
poetry, fignifying a dialogue between a hufband and
his wife ; fuch as that in the fixth book of the Iliad
between Hedlor and Andromache.
Scaliger obferves, that the oariftus is not properly
any particular little poem, or entire piece of poetry ;
but always a part of a great one. He adds, that the
paffage now cited in Homer is the only proper oa¬
riftus extant in the ancient poets.
OA F, in botany. See Avena.
Under the word Avena it was obferved, that the
native place of the common oat, cultivated in our fields,
1 19
Oat,
Oath.
DAT [ 169 ] OAT
is unknown ; that the only account of it, in its natu¬
ral ftate, which we then had, is in Anfon’s Voyage;
and that the report of fuch an author refpefting fafts
in natural hiftory is not intitled to implicit credit.
We had not then feed the Travels of Mr Bruce, whofe
botanical knowledge is very fuperior to that ©f moil
voyagers, or we ihould have mentioned his account of
the oats which he found growing wild in Aroofii, a
fmall territory in Abyffinia, not far from the fource of
the Nile: (See Nile). “ Wild oats (fays he) grow
up here fpontancoufly to a prodigious height and fize,
capable often of concealing both the horfe and his
rider, and fome of the ftalks being little lefs than an
inch in circumference. They have, when ripe, the
appearance of fmall canes. The inhabitants make no
fort of ufe of this grain in any period of its growth :
the uppermoit thin hufk of it is beautifully variegated
With a changeable purple colour; thetafte is perfe&ly
good. I often made the meal into cakes in remem¬
brance of Scotland.'"’ Our author informs us, that
the Abyffinians could never be brought to relifh thefe
cakes, which they faid were bitter, burnt their fto-
tnachs, and made them thirfty. He is, however, de¬
cidedly of opinion, that the wild oat of Arooffi is the
oat in its original ftate ; and that it has degenerated
everywhere in Europe. From the fafts which he
ftates, this opinion feems to be well founded.
OATH, an affirmation or promife, accompanied
with an invocation of God to witnefs what we fay ;
and with an imprecation of his vengeance, or a re¬
nunciation of his favour, if what we affirm be falfe, or
what we promife be not performed (a).
The laws of all civilized ftates have required the
fecurity of an oath for evidence given in a court of
juftice, and on other occafions of high importance (b);
and the Chriftian religion utterly prohibits fwearing,
except when oaths are required by legal authority. In¬
deed no ferious and refledling theift, whether he ad¬
mit the truth of revelation or not, can look upon
fwearing on trivial occafions as any thing elfe than a
fin of a very heinous nature. To call upon that in-
Vol.XIII. Parti.
finite and omnlprefent Being, who created and fu
ftains the univerfe, to witnefs all the impertinence of
idle converfation, of which great part is commonly ut¬
tered at random, betrays a fpirit fo profane, that no¬
thing ffiort of experience could make us believe it
poffible for a creature endowed with reafon and reflec¬
tion to be habitually guilty of a pradtfee fo impious.
No man can plead in extenuation of this crime, that
he is tempted to fwear by the importunity of any ap¬
petite or paffion implanted in the human breaft : for
the utterance of a profane oath communicates no plea-
lure, and removes no uneafinefs; it neither elevates the
fpeaker, nor deprefles the hearer.
Quakers and Moravians, fwayed by thefe confidera-
tions, and by the fenfe which they put upon certain
texts of Scripture, refufe to fwear upon any occafion,
even at the requiiition of a magiftrate, and in a court
of juftice. Thefe fcruples are groundlefs ; and feem
to proceed from an incapacity to diftinguifh between
the proper ufe and abufe of fwearing. It is unque-
ftionably impious to call upon God to witeefs imper¬
tinences, or to ufe his tremendous name as a mere ex-
pietive in converfation ; but it by no means follows,
that we may not pioufly call upon him to witnefs
truths of importance, or invoke his name w ith reve¬
rence and Solemnity. No individual could, without
grofs profanenefs, pray for a thoufand times more
wealth than he may ever have occafion to ufe ; but it
was never thought profane to pray “ day by day for
our daily bread, for rain from heaven, and fruitful iea-
fons.” If it be lawful to aik of God thefe earthly
bleffings, becaufe he alone can bellow them; it cannot
furely be unlawful, where the lives or properties of
our neighbours, or the fecurity of government is con¬
cerned, to invoke him with reverence to witnefs the
truth of our afl'ertions, or the fincerity of our inten¬
tions; becaufe of our truth in many cafes, and of our
fincerity in all, none but he can be the witnefs.
The text of Scripture upon which the Quakers
chiefly reft their argument for the unlawfulnefs of all
fwearing under the Golpel, is our Saviour’s prohibi-
Y tion
Oath
(a) The word oath is a corruption of the Saxon eoth. It is often in England called a corporal oath, becaufe,
in the days of popery, the perfon fworn over the hoft or corpus Chrijli.
(b) The various oaths required by different nations at different times, and the various forms, &c. of im»
pofing them, is a fubjedt of very confiderable extent and curiofity : An account of them does not fall within
the plan of the prefent article ; it would indeed extend it to an undue length : we cannot, however, omit ob*
ferving, what is doubtlefs very remarkable, that the grand impoftor "Mohammed taught the Moflcms, that
their oaths nkght be diffolved. This wonderful doctrine is contained in the 66th chapter of the Koran ;
which, to free himfelf from his promife and oath to Hafsa his fpoufe, he pretended was revealed. What the
ufe of oaths is in fuch circumftances, or what fecurity they afford for performance, it is difficult to
afeertain.
It is alfo very remarkable, that an oath refpedling marriages was the caufe of the firft divorce at Rome.
The circumftance happened about the year of the city 525, Pofthumius Albinus and Spurius Carvilius
being confuls. The cenfors of this year obferving the population declining, and imagining it proceeded from
interefted marriages and promifeuous cohabitation, obliged all the citizens to fwear, that they would not
marry with any other view than that of peopling the republic. It raifed, however, many fcruples, and oc-
cafioned many domeftic ruptures Among the reft, one Carvilius Ruga, a man of diflin&ion, imagined that
he was bound by his oath to divorce his wife, whom he paffionately loved, becaufe Are was barren ; which was the
firft inilance of a divorce at Rome from its foundation, though the marriage-laws of the kings allowed it; it
afterward;, however, became ftiamefully frequent This is alfo a ftriking inftance of the great attention paid
to oaths among the Romans: it is remarked indeed by all writers, that they paid a mod profound refpeft to
them ; and on that wc know they founded their hopes of fuccefs in war.
OAT
[ i?0 3
OAT
Oath, tion (Mat. v. 34.): “ I fay unto you, fwear not at all.”
fc"' ^—-1 But whoever (hall take the trouble of turning over his
Bible, and looking at the context, will perceive, that
it is only in ordinary converfation, and by no means in
courts of juftice, that our I.ord prohibits his follow¬
ers from fwearing at all. 1 here is no evidence what¬
ever, that fwearing by heaven, by the earth, by Jerufa-
lem, or by their own heads, was the form of a judicial
oath in ufe among the Jews. On the contrary, we are
* See tm-told by Mamonides*, that “ if any man fwear by hea-
h on the ven or' by earth, yet this is not an oath;” which fure-
. ly he could not have faid, had fuch been the forms of
judicial {wearing. Indeed they could not have ad¬
mitted fuch forms into their courts without exprefsly
violating the law of Mofes, who commands them to
“ Fear the Lord (Jehovah) their God, to ferve him,
and to fwear by his name.” But the Jews, as every
one knows, had fuch a reverence for the name Jeho¬
vah, that they would not pronounce it on flight ocel¬
li ons, and therefore could not fwear by that name in
common converfation. Hence, to gratify their pro-
penfity to common fwearing, they invented fuch oaths
as, by heaven, by earth, by Jerujaltm, by the life of thy
head, See. and by this contrivance they thought to
avoid the guilt of profaning the name Jehovah.
Thefe, however, being appeals to inienfible objects,
either had no meaning, or were in faft, as our Sa¬
viour juilly argues, oaths by that God whofe crea¬
tures they were; fo that the Jew who fwore them
was Hill guilty of profanenefs towards the very Jeho¬
vah whofe name his fuperftition would not permit him
to pronounce. But what puts it beyond all doubt
that the ufe of judicial oaths is not wholly prohibited
in the gofpel, is the conduft of our Saviour himfelf as
well as of his apoftle St Paul. When Jefus was
limply q/hed by the high prieft, what it was which
certain falfe witneffes teftified againft him? we are
told by the evangelifts, that “ he held his peace
but being adjured by the living God to declare whe¬
ther he was the Chrift, the Son of God, or not, he
immediately anfwered the high prieft, without ob-
k&ing to the oath (for fuch it was) upon which he
was examined. “ St Paul, in his Epitlle to the Ro-
f Paley's mansf, fays, ‘ God is my avitnefs, that, without cealing,
Moral Phi-l make mention of you in my prayers;’ and to the
iftyby. Corinthians, ftill more ftrongly, ‘ 1 call God for a re¬
cord upon my foul, that, to fpare you, I came not as
yet to Corinth.’ Both thefe expreftions are of the
nature of oaths ; and the author of the Epiftle to the
Hebrews fpeaks of the cuftom of fwearing judicially
without any mark of cenfure or difapprobation ; ‘Men
verily fwear by the greater; and an oath, for confir-
Hiation, is tso them an end of all ftrife.”
But though a nation has an undoubted right to
require the fecurity of an oath upon occafions of real
importance, we do not hefitate to fay, that, in our
opinion, it is fomething worfe than bad policy to
Oath.
multiply oaths, and to hold out to the people tempta¬
tions to perjure themfelves. The fecurity which an ^
oath affords, depends entirely upon the reverence
which attaches to it in the mind of him by whom it is
given ; but that reverence is much weakened by the
frequency of oaths, and by the carelefs manner in.
which they arc too often adminifttred. An excellent
moraliit J obferves, with truth, that “ the levity MrPalep
frequency with which oaths are adminiftered, has
brought about a general inadvertency to the obliga¬
tion of them, which both in a religious and political
view is much to be lamented : and it merits (continues
he) public confideratkm, whether the requiring of
oaths on fo many frivolous occaftons, efpecially in the
cuftoms, and in the qualification for petty offices, has
any other effeA than to make them cheap in the minds
of the people. A pound of tea cannot travel regu¬
larly from the (hip to the eonfumer without coiling
half a dozen oaths at leall ; and the fame fecurity for
the due difeharge of his oftice, namely that of an oath,
is required from a church-warden and an arcbbijhop,
from a petty conjlabk and the chief jhjhce of England.
Let the law continue its own (anAions, if they be
thought requifite ; but let it fpare the iolenmity of
an oath : and where it is neceffary, from the want of
fomething better to depend upon, to accept a man’s
own word or owm account, let it annex to prevarica¬
tion penalties proportioned to the public confequence
of the offence.”
That thefe pernicious confequences of frequent oaths
are not felt only in England, we have the evidence of
another refpeAable writer, whofe acutenefs w'dl qua¬
lified him to obferve, vdiilft his ftation in fociety iur-
nilhed him with the beft opportunities of obicrvmg,
the effeAs of repeated fwearing upon the morals of
Scotchmen. “Cuftomhoufe-oaths (fays Lord Karnes*) * Sietdestf
have become fo familiar among us, as to be fwallowed the H if try »f
without a wry face ; and is it certain that bribery and an‘
perjury in eleAing parliament-members are not ap¬
proaching to the fame cool date ? Men creep on to
vice by degrees. Perjury, in order to fupport a friend,
has become cuftomary of late years; witcefs ficfitious
qualifications in the eleAors of pailiament-men, which
are made effeAual by perjury : yet fuch is the dege¬
neracy of the prefent times(c), that no man is the
worfe thought of upon that account. We muft not
flatter ©urfelves, that the poifon will reach no farther;
a man who boggles not at perjury to ferve a friend,
will in time become (uch an adept, as to commit per¬
jury in order to ruin a friend when he becomes au
enemy.”
Befides the frequency of oaths, we have mentioned
the irreverent manner in which they are to© often ad¬
miniftered as one of the caufes which make them cheap
in the eftimation of the people. In this view, the
form of the oath, and the ceremonies with which it is
required to be taken, ?.re of confiderable importance.
“ The
(c) Such was the cafe when his Lordlhip wrote. Some deciftons of the houfe of peers, however, have
fince that period changed mens opinions refpeAing the legality of thefe votes and the innocence of the
means by which they were made effeAual. It is to lie hoped that fuch a reformation will foon be made of
the laws by which eleAions are regulated in Scotland; as will render the temptations to perjury lefs numerous
than they have hitherto been.
OAT It
Oath. « The forms of oaths in ChrifHan countries (fays
v—^ Mr Paley) are very different; but in none I believe
worfe contrived either to convey the meaning or to
imp refs the obligation of an oath, than in England.
In that country the juror, after repeating the promife
or affirmation which the oath is intended to confirm,
adds, ‘ fo help me Godor more frequently the fub-
ftance of the oath is repeated to the juror by the of¬
ficer or magiftrate who admmiifers it $ adding in the
conclufion, ‘ fo help you Godd The energy of the
fentence refides in the particle Jo; Jbt i. e. hac tfgey
* upon condition of my fpeaking the truth, or per¬
forming this promiie, may God help me, and not
otherwife.’ The juror, whilft he hears or repeats the
words of the oath, holds his right hand upon a Bible,
or other book containing the four gofpels. The con-
clufion of the oath fometimes runs, ‘ ita me Deus ad-
juvety et hiec Jantla evangelidy or ‘ fo help me God, and
the contents of this book;’ which laft claufe forms a
connexion between the words and adtion of the jmor,
which before was wanting. The juror then kiffes the
book.”
This obfenre and elliptical form, the excellent au¬
thor juftly obferves, is ill calculated to imprefs the
juror with reverence: and he feehas to think great
preference due to the form of judicial oaths in Scot¬
land. In that country the juror holds up his right
hand towards heaven, and fwears by Almighty God,
and as he (hall anfwer to God at the great day ®f
judgment, “that he will tell the truth, the whole truth,
and nothing but the truth, fo far as he knows, or. it
(hall be aflted onum.” This, if adminiflered with dig¬
nity and reverence, is bn oath fufficiently folemn and
well calculated to have the proper effedl upon the
mind of the juror, as it brings immediately into his
view the Author of his being and the awful day of final
retribution when every man {hall receive the things
done in his body according to that he hath done, whe¬
ther it be good or evil. But when the magiftrate, as
is too often the cafe, repeats this folemn invocation
without rifing from his feat at the name of the fu-
preme Being, and in a torte of carelefnefs which may
convey to the ignorant juror an opinion that he has
himfelf no ferious belief that there ever will be a great
day of judgment, the form, however excellent, makes
•not its full impreffion. < ,
But let us fuppofe the oath to be adminiftered with
the greateft dignity and reverence, the words of the
promife itfelf appear to us by no means unexcep¬
tionable. In a trial on life and death, we fhould be
glad to know what this oath binds the witnefs to de¬
clare. Is he to tell all that he knows touching the mat¬
ter in queftion l or only all that ihall be afked of him?
If he be obliged, in virtue of his oath, to tell all that
he knows, the claufe—“or it {hall be a&ed of you’'
is fu peril nous, and calculated to miflead. If he be
bound to tell nothing more of the truth than what
ffiall be afked of him, the word or ihould be changed
into and; he firould fwear “ to tell the truth, &c. fo
for as he knows, and ft {hall be alked of him.” The
court we believe, confiders the witnefs as bound
to declare every thing which he knows touching the
matter in quettion. The greater part of witneffes,
on the other hand, confider thcmfelves as bound no
farther by their oath than to give true anfwers to fuch
71 1 OAT
queftions as (hall be alked of them. They would do ,
well, however, to remember, that as oaths are defigned
for the fecurity of the publicy they muft be interpreted
in the fenfe in which the public intends them, other-
wife they afford no fecurity. But the fenfe of the
public is the law ; and as it belongs to the court to
declare what the mind of the law is, the witnefs*
who has any doubt concerning the extent of the ob»
ligation impofed on him by the words of this oath,
fhould apply to the court for a folution of that doubt,
which will be a fafe guide to him refpe&ing the evi*
dence which he is to give. Should the court, in re-
folving the doubts of a witnefs, give an opinion con¬
cerning the fenfe of any other part of the oath contrary
to what he apprehends to be the defign of the law iu
impofing it, he is bound to difregard fuch opinion }
becaufe it is only where he himfelf is doubtful that tha
court has a right to interfere, and becaufe in all moral
queftions men muft be finally determined by their own
judgment and confcience.
There is one cafe, and but one, in which, what¬
ever fenfe be put upon the words of the oath, no wit¬
nefs is obliged to declare the whole truth. It is when
fuch declaration would tend to accufe himfelf of fomC
legal crime ; for as the laws of Scotland and England
conftrain no man to become his own accufer, they
muft be confidered as impofing the oath of teftimony
with this tacit refervation. “ The exception, how¬
ever *, muft be confined to legal crimes. A point * Patey’r
of honour, of delicacy, or of reputation, may make a Moral Phi*
witnefs backward to difclofe fome circumftance with lofaPb'
which he is acquainted ; but is no excufe for conceal¬
ment, unlefs it could be ffiown, that the law which im-
pofes the oath, intended to allow this indulgence to
fuch motives. The exception is aifo withdrawn by
compadt between the magiftrate and the witnefs,
when an accomplice is admitted to give evidence
again ft the partners of his crime.” But thefe are a fort
of witneffes to whom a fenftble jury will always liften
with a very cautious ear.
Oaths are either ajfertory or promijfory. Affertory
oaths are required both to confirm our veracity in
evidence, and to give fecurity to the public that we
believe certain propofitions conceived to be of public
importance. An oath in evidence binds the juror to
declare what he knows to be true, and nothing but
what he knows to be true. An oath required to af-
fure the public of our belief in the truth of any propo¬
rtion, cannot, without the guilt of perjury, be taken
by any man, who, at the time of fwearing, has the
{lighteft doubt whether the propofition be really true.
Such an oath, however, tho’ it unqueftionably requires
the fincerity of the juror’s belief at the time when it
ie given, cannot oblige him to continue in that belief
as long as he may live ; for belief is not in any man’s
power t it is the neceffary confequence of evidence,
which compels the affent of the mind according as it
appears to preponderate on the one fide or on the
other. No man, therefore, can be juftly accufed of
perjury for holding ©pinions contrary to thofe which,
he may formerly have fworn to believe; becaufe hi*
belief at the time of emitting his oath may have been
the neceffary refult of the evidence which then ap¬
peared before him; and his change of opinion may
have refulted with the fame neceffity from fuperior
Y 2 evidence
O B A f 172
evidence wliich had been fince thrown into the op-
pofite fcale, and made it preponderate. On this ac¬
count, we cannot help thinking, that all afTertory
oaths, except fuch as are neceff iry to confirm tefli-
mony refpeftingyi^r, ought either to be abolifhed or
exprefied with great caution. Of truths intuitively
certain or capable of rigid demonftration, no tnan of
common fenfe can entertain a doubt; and therefore
the public never requires from individuals the folem-
nity of an oath as an aflurance of their believing fuch
truths. But with refpeA to the truth of propoiitions
which admit of nothing fuperior to moral evidence
on either fide, a man of the moft fteady virtue may
think differently at different periods of his life ; and
in fnch cafes, the effeft of an oath, if it have any
efTeft, can only be either t© Unit the man s eyes
againft the light, or to make his integrity be caufe-
Icfsly queflioned by thofe who fhall obferve his change
of belief.
Promiffory oaths cannot, without the guilt of per¬
jury, be given by him, who, at the time of fwearing,
knows that it will not be in his power to fulfil the
piomife, or who does not ferioufly intend to fulfil it.
A promiffory oath cannot, without great guilt, be
given by any man, who at the time of fwearing be¬
lieves the objedt of the promife to be in itfelf unlaw¬
ful ; for if he ferioufly mean to fulfil his oath, he
calls upon Amighty God to witnefs his intention to
commit a crime. Promiffory oaths give to the pub¬
lic greater fecurity than a fimple promife ; becaufe
the juror having the thoughts of God and of religion
more upon his mind at the one time than at the other,
offends with a higher hand, and in more open contempt
of the divine power, knowledge, and juftice, when
he violates an oath, than when he breaks a promife.
Yet it is certain that promiffory oaths, though more
folemn and facred, cannot be binding, when the pro-
rnife without an oath would not be fo in an inferior
degree ; for the feveral cafes of which, See Promise
and Allegiance.
Coronation Oath. See King.
OATH LAW, the name of a parifh in Angus,
about two miles from Forfar, chiefly remarkable for
the remains of a Roman camp called Battle-dykes (vul¬
garly Black-dykes), which is about a mile weft of the
church.
OBADIAH, or the Prophecy of Obadiah, a cano¬
nical book of the Old Teflament, which is contained
in one Angle chapter; and is partly an invedfive againft
the cruelty of the Edomites, who mocked and derided
the children of ifrael as they paffed into captivity ;
and with other enemies, their confederates, invaded and
eppreffed thofe ft rangers, and divided the fpoil amongft
themfelves ; and partly a predidlion of the deliverance
of Ifrael, and of the vidfory and triumph of the whole
church over her enemies.
Obadiah, the prophet, is believed to have been the
fame with the governor of Ahab’s houfe, mentioned
in the ftrft book of Kings, (xviii. 3, &c.) who hid and
fed the hundred prophets whom jezebel would have
deftroyed ; and fome fay, that he was that Obadiah
whom Jofiah made overfeer of the works of the tem¬
ple, (2 Chron. xxxiv. 12.) The truth is, that when
he lived or prophefied is wholly uncertain : though
1 O B E
moft writers make him cotemporary with Hofea, Amos,
and Joel.
Obadiah, a valiant man ofDavid’s army, whocame
to join him in the wildernefs, with feveral others of
the tribe of Gad, (1 Chron. xii. 9.)
This was alfo the name of one of thofe whom king
Jeholhaphat fent into the cities of Judah to inftrudt
the people in their religion, (2 Chron. xvii. 7.) It
was alfo the name of one of the principal men of Ju¬
dah, who figned the covenant that Nehemiah renewed
with the Lord, (Nehem. x. 5.)
OBED-EDOM, fon of Jeduthun, a Levite, (1 Chr.
xvi, 38.) and father of Shemaiah, Jehozabad, Joah,
Sacar, Nathaneel, Ammiel, Iffachar, and Peulthai,
He had a numerous family, fays the feripfure, (1 Chr.
xxvi. 4.) becaufe the Lord bleffed him and this is
the oecafion of this blefling. When David transferred
the ark of the covenant to the city of Jerufalem, Uz-
zah having raflily laid hands on the ark, which he
thought to be in danger of falling, was fmitten of
God, and died upon the fpot. David, terrified at this
accident, durft not remove the ark into the place h«
had provided for it in his own houfe, hut fet it up in
the houfe of Obed-edom, which was near the place
where Uzzah had been ftruck dead But the prefence
of theaik not only created no temporal misfortune to
the family of this Levite, but on the contrary the
Lord heaped upon him all forts of bleffings ; which
encouraged David forpe months after to remove it to
the place he had appointed for it. Afterwards Obed-
edom and his fons were affigned to be keepers of the
doors of the temple, (1 Chron. xv. 18, 21.) In the
fecond book of Samuel, (vi. 10.) Obed-edom is call¬
ed the Gittite, probably becaufe he was of Gathrim-
mon, a city of the Levites beyond Jordan, (Joflr. xxi.
24’ 25.)
OBELISK, in architetfure, a truncated, quadran¬
gular, and fiender pyramid, raifed as an ornament, and
frequently charged either with inferiptions or hierogly¬
phics.
Obelilks appear to be of very great antiquity, and
to be firft raifed to tranfmit to pofterity precepts of
philofophy, which were cut in hieroglyphical charac¬
ters : afterwards they were ufed to immortalize the
great actions of heroes, and the memory of perfons ber
loved. The firft obelilk mentioned in hiftory war that
of Ramafes king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan
war, which was 40 cubits high. Phius, another king
of Egypt, raifed one of 55 cubits; and Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus, another of 88 cubits, in memory of Arlinoe.
Auguilus eredfed one at Rome in the Campus Marti us,
which ferved to mark the hours on an horizontal dial,
drawn on the pavement. They were called by the
Egyptian priefts the fingers of the fun, becaufe they
were made in Egypt alio to ierve as ftyles or gnomons
to mark the hours on the ground. The Arabs ftill
call them Pharaoh''s needles ; whence the Italians call
them agug/ia, and the French aiguilles.
The famous obelilks called the devil's arrows, now
reduced to three, the fourth having been taken down
in the laft century, ftand about half a mile from the
town of Borough-Bridge to the fouth-weft, in three
fields, feparated by a lane, 200 feet afunder, nearly on
high ground Hoping every way. Mr Drake urges
many
ObadlaJ;
!!
Obeliflc.
«
O B I
many arguments for their Roman antiquity, and plain¬
ly proves them to be natural and brought from Plump-
ton quarries about five miles off, or from Ickly 16
miles olf. The crofs in the town, 12 feet high, is of
the fame kind of {lone. The eaffernmoft or higbcft
is 22 feet and an'lialf high by 4 broad and 4-’- in girth;
the fecond zi^- by 55^; the third i6~ by 84. Stuke-
ley’s meafures differ. The flutings are cut in the Hone
but not through : the tailed ftands alone, and leans to
the fouth. Plot and Stukeley affirm them to be Bri-
tiffi monuments, originally hewn fquare. Dr Gale
fuppoftfd that they were Mercuries, which have loft
their heads and infcriptions ; but in a MS. note in his
Antoninus, he acknowledges that he was miffuformed,
and that there was no cavity to receive a buft.
On the north fide of Penrith in the church-yard are
two fquare obelifks, of a fingle done each, 11 or 12
feet high, about 12 inches diameter, and 12 by 8 at
the fides, the higheft about 18 inches diameter, with
fomething like a tranfverfe piece to each, and mortifed
into a round bafe. They are 14 feet afunder, and be¬
tween them is a grave inclofed between four femicir-
cular {tones of the unequal lengths of five, fix, and
four and an half, and two feet high, having on the
outfides rude carving, and the tops notched. This is
called the Giant's grave, and aferibed to Sir Ewan Cse-
farius, who is faid to have been as tall as one of the
columns, and capable of ftretching his arms from one
to the other, to have deftroyed robbers and wild boars
in Englewood foreft, and to have had an hermitage
hereabouts called Sir Hugh's parlour ; but the conjec¬
tures refpeiding them are fo various and contradictory,
that our readers will readily excufe our enlarging on
them.
A little to the weft of thefe is a ftone called the
Giant's Thumb, fix feet high, 14 inches at the bafe
conti'aCled to 1 o, which is no more than a rude crofs,
fuch as is at Langtown in Cumberland and elfewhere :
the circle of the ciofs 18 inches diameter.
M. Pouehard, in the memoirs of the Academy of
•Infcriptions, gives a very curious account of fome ce¬
lebrated Egyptian obelifks. We cannot afford room to
follow him; hut thofe who wifh for further informa¬
tion on the fubjeft, and who are not poffeffed of the
original, will find a very good account of them in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for June 1748.
OBJECT, in philofophy, fomething apprehended
or prefented to the mind by fenfation or imagination.
See Metaphysics, Part I. Chap. 1. Se£t. II.
Object-G/o/j of a Texfcope, 01 Mkrofcope, the glafs
placed at the end of the tube which is next the ob¬
ject. See Optics and Microscope.
OBJECTION, fomething urged to overthrow a
pofition, or a difficulty raifed againft an allegation or
propofition of a perfon we are difputing with.
OBJECTIVE, is ufed in the fchools, in fpeaking
of a thing which exifts no otherwife than as an obje<ft
known. The exiftence of fuch a thing is faid to be
objedlive.
OBIT, (Lat.) fignifies a funeral folemnity, or of¬
fice for the dead, moft commonly performed when the
corpfe lies in the church uninterred: Alfo the anni-
verfary office, {2 Cro. 51 Dyer 313). The anniver-
far) of any perlou’s death was called the obit; and to
obfeive fuch day with pra yers and alms, or other com.
O B O
memoratton, was the keeping of the obit. In religious G!
houfes they had a regifter, wherein they entered the
obits or obitual days of their founders and benefactors;
which was thence termed the obuuary. i’he tenure of
obit or chantry lands is taken, away and extindt by
1 Edw. VI. c. 14. and ij Car. II. c. 9.
OBLATI, in church hiftory, were fecular perfons,
who devoted themfelves and their eftates to fome rno-
naftery, into which they were admitted as a kind of
lay-brothers. The form of their admiffion was put¬
ting the bell-ropes of the church round their necks, as
a mark of fervitude. They wore a religious habit, but
different from that of the monks.
OBLIGATION, in general, denotes any adl
whereby a perfon becomes bound to another to do
fomething ; as to pay a fum of money, be furety, or
the like.
Obligations are of three kinds, viz. natural, civil,
and mixed. Natural, obligations are entirely founded
on natural equity ; civil obligation on civil authority
alone, without any foundation in natural equity ; and
mixed obligations are thofe which, being founded on
natural equity, are farther enforced by a civil autho¬
rity.
In a legal fenfe, obligation fignifies a bond, wherein
is contained a penalty, with a condition annexed for
the payment of money, &c. The difference between
it and a bill is, that the latter is generally without a
penalty or condition, though it may be made obliga¬
tory : and obligations are fometimes by matter of re¬
cord, as ftatutes and recognizances. See the article
Bond.
MorarOBLiGAiioN. See Moral Philosophy,
n° 58, &c.
OBLIQUE, in geometry, fomething aflant, or
that deviates from the perpendicular. Thus an ob¬
lique angle is either an acute or obtufe one, /. e. any
angle except a right one.
Oblique Cafes, in grammar, are all the cafes except
the nominative. See Grammar.
Oblique Line, that which, falling on another line,
makes oblique angles with it, viz. one acute, and the
other obtufe.
Oblique Planes, in dialling, are thofe which decline
from the zenith, or incline towards the horizon. See
Dial.
Oblique Sailing, in navigation, is when a {hip fails
upon fome rhumb between the four cardinal points,
making an oblique angle with the meridian ; in which
cafe fhe continually changes both latitude and longi¬
tude. See Navigation, chap. 8.
OBLIQUUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles, paiticularly in the head, eyes, and abdomen.
See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
OBLONG, in general, denotes a figure that is
longer than broad : fueh is a parallelogram.
OBOLARIA, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the dilynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Perfonat<e. The calyx is bifid; the corolla
campanuiated and quadrifid ; the caplule unilocular,
bivalved, and polyfpermous; the ftamina riling from
the divifions of the corolla.
OBOLUS, an ancient filver money of Athens, the
fixth part of a drachma ; worth fomewhat more than %
4 penny*
l >73 1
Obferv-i-
tory.
O B S [ i
Obolus penny-farthing Sterling.—-The word comes from the
Greek ofo*®*, or “ fpit, or broach j” either be-
caufe it bore fucli an imprefiion ; or becaufe, accord¬
ing to Euftathius, it was in form thereof. But thofe
new in the cabinets of the antiquaries are round.
Obolus, in medicine, is ufed for a weight of ten
^grains, or half a fcruple.
OBOTH, an encampment of the Hebrews in the
wildernefs. From Punon they went to Oboth, and
from Oboth to Je-abarim, (Numb. xxi. jo. xxxiii.
43.) Ptolemy fpeaks of a city called Oboda, or Ebo-
da, in Arabia Petrsea, which is the fame as Oboth.
Pliny and the geographer -Stephanus mention it alfo.
Stephanus makes it belong to the Nabathseans, and
Plitry to the Helmodeans, a people of Arabia, ft was
at Obeth that they wwfhipped the god Obodos, which
Tertullian joins with Dufares, another god or king of
this country.
OBRECHT (Ulric), a learned German, born of a
noble family at Stralburg in 1646, where he filled the
chairs of civil law and hiftory with great diftinftion.
He was of the Proteftant religion ; but when Louis
XIV. made himfelf mafter of Strafburg, and went
there with his court, he was prevailed on to change;
and accordingly abjured in 1684, and put his inftru-
ment into the hands of Bofluet bifhop of Meaux. The
next year the king nominated him to prefide in his
name in the fenate of Strafburg, with the title of prae¬
tor royal, in imitation of the ancient Romans; from
which time Mr Obrecht applied himfelf entirely to
public affairs. He was the editor, tranflator, and wri¬
ter, of feveral learned works ; and died in 1701.
OBREPTITfOUS, an appellation given to letters
patent, or other inlliuments, obtained of a fuperior by
furprife, or by concealing from him the truth.
OBSCURE, fomething that is dark and refle&s
little light in material objedts, or that is not clear and
intelligible in the obje&s of the intelledl.
OBSECRATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby
the orator implores the alfiftance of God or man.
OBSEQU ENS (Julius), a Latin writer, conjec¬
tured to have lived before the emperor Plonorius’s
reign. He made a collection of the prodigies which
Livy related in his hiilory. There are feveral editions
of thofe remains. Lycofthenes endeavoured to fupply
what was wanting in the original.
OBSEQUIES, the fame with funeral folemnities.
See Funeral.
OBSERVATION, among navigators, fignifies the
taking the fun’s or the ftars meridian altitude, in or¬
der thereby to find the latitude.
OBSERVATORY, a place deflined for obferving
the heavenly bodies; being generally a building erefted
on fome eminence, coveted with a terrace for making
aflronomical obfervations.
The more celebrated obfervatorics are, 1. The
Greenwich obfervatory, built in 1676, by order of
Charles II. at the felicitation of Sir Jonas Moore and
Sir Chriftopher Wren ; and furniihed with the moft
accurate iaftruments ; particularly a noble fextant of
feven feet radius, with telefcopic fights.
2. The Paris obfervatory, built by the ordet of
Louis XIV. in the Fauxbourg St Jacques.
It is a very Angular, but withal a very magnificent
3
74 1 O B S
building, the defign of Monfieur Perault: it is 80 feet Ohfervj,
high ; and at top is a terrace. t0t7*
The difference in longitude between this and the
Greenwich obfervatory is 20 20'.
In it is a cave or cellar, of 170 feet defeent, for ex*
periments that are to be made far from the fun, &c.
particularly fuch as relate to congelations, refrigera¬
tions, indurations, confervations, See.
3. Tycho Brahe’s obfervatory, which was in the
little illand Ween, or Scarlet Ifiand, between the
coafts of Schonen and Zealand in the Baltic. It was
ere&ed and fumifhed with inftruments at his own ex¬
pence, and called by him Uraniburg. Here he fpent
twenty years in obferving the ftars; the refult is hi£
catalogue.
4. Pekin obfervatory. Father Le Compte deferihee
a very magnificent obfervatory, erected and furnifhed
by the late emperor of China, in his capital, at the
interceflion of fome Jefuit mifiionaries, principally
Father Verbeift, whom he made his chief obferver.—
The inftruments are exceedingly large ; but the divi-
fion lefs accurate, and the contrivance in fome refpe&s
lefs commodious, than that of the Europeans. The
chief are. An armillary zodiacal fphere of fix feet dia¬
meter ; an equinoctial fphere of fix feet diameter ; an.
azimuthal horizon of fix feet diameter; a large qua¬
drant fix feet radius ; a fextant eight feet radius ; and
a celeftial globe fix feet diameter.
Obfervatories, as they are very ufeful, aild indeed
abfolutely neceffary for ailronoraers, fo they have be¬
come far more common than they were. There is a
very excellent one now at Oxford, built by the truftees
of Dr Radcliffe, at the expence of nearly 30,000 L
At Cambridge there is as yet no public obfervatory.
Over the great gate of Trinity college, indeed, there
is one which is called Sir Ifaac Newton’s, becaufe this
great philofopher had ufed it; but it is gone to decay.
It were well if the univerfity would repair and preferve
it in memory of that truly great man. In St John’s,
too, there is a fmall one. The late ingenious Mr
Cotes had ufed to give lectures in Sir Ifaac Newton's
on experimental philofophy. There are feveral very
good ones in the Scotch univerfities; and there is an
excellent one lately ere&ed at Dublin.
5. Bramins obfervatory at Benares. Of this Sir
Robert Barker gives the following account, (Phil.
Tranf. Vol LXVII. p. 598.) “ Benares in the Eaft
Indies, one of the principal feminaries of the Bramins
or priefts of the original Gentoos of Hindoftan, con¬
tinues (till to be the place of refort of that fe<ft of
people ; and there are many public charities, hof-
picals, and pagodas, where fome thoufands of them
now refide. Having frequently heard that the an¬
cient Bramins had a knowlege of aftronomy, and be¬
ing confirmed in this by their information of an ap¬
proaching eclipfe both of the fun and moon, I made
inquiry, when at that place in the year 1772, among
the principal Bramins, to endeavour to get fome in¬
formation relative to the manner in which they were
acquainted of an approaching eclipfe. The moft in¬
telligent that I could meet with, however, gave me
but little fatisfaclion. I was told, that thefe matter*
were confined to a few, who were in poiTeffion of
certain books and records j fome containing the myf-
terie$
Plate
CCGXLVIttc
O B S
ttbfet'v** teries of their religion ; and others the tables of aflro-
tor5’• no dical obfervations, written in the Shanfcrit lan-
gu2ge» which few underftood but therafelvea : that
they would take me to a place which had been con-
ftru&ed for the purpofe of making fuch obfervations
as I was inquiring after, and from whence they fup-
pofed the learned Bramins made theirs. I was then
condu&ed to an ancient building cf Hone, the lower
part of which, in its prefect fituation, was converted
into a ft able for horfes, and a receptacie for lumber ,
but, by the number of court yards and apartments,
it. appeared that it mufl. once have been an ediiice for
the ufe of feme public body of people. We entered
this building, and went up a tlaircafe to the top of a
part of it, near to the river Ganges, that led to a
hro-e terrace, where, to my furprife and iatisfa&ion,
I faw a number o?, inilruments yet remaining, in the
greateft prefervation, ftupendoufly large, immoveable
from the fpot, and built of Hone, fome oi them be¬
ing upwards of 20 feet in height ; and although
they are fuid to have been ere&ed 200 years ago, the
graduations and divilions on the feveral arcs appeared
as well cut, and as accurately divided, as if ^hey had
been the pc norm an cc of a modern arciil. Ihe exe¬
cution in the conftru&ion of thefe inilruments exhi¬
bited a mathematical exadnefs in the fixing, bearing,
fitting of the fevtval parts, in the neceffary and fuf-
ficient fupports te the veiy large Hones that compofed
them, and in the joining and faflenmg each into the
other by means of lead and iron.
“ The fituation of the two large quadrants of the
in {brume nt marked a in the plate, whofe radius is nine
feet two inches, by their being at right angles with a
gnomon at twenty five degrees elevation, are thrown
into fuch an oblique fituation as to render them the
moll difficult, not only to conftrud of fuch a magni¬
tude, but to fecure in their pofition for fo long a pe¬
riod, and affords a ftriking iiiltance of the ability of
the archited in their conftrudion : for, by the fha-
dow of the gnomon thrown on the quadrants, they dp
not appear to have altered in the leaff from their ori¬
ginal pofition ; aad fo true is the line of the gnomon,
that, by applying the eye to a fmall iron ring of an
inch diameter at one end, the fight is carried through
three others of the fame dimenfion,. to the extremity
at the other end, ditlant 38 feet 8 inches, without ob-
ftrudiou ; fuch is the firmnefs and art with which this
Mittnunent has been executed. This performance is
the more wonderful and extraordinary <hen compared
with the works of the artificers of fdmdoffan at this
day, who are not under the immediate diredion of an
European mechanic ; but arts appear to have declined
equally with feience in the eaft.
« Lieutenant colonel Archibald Campbell, at that
time chief engineer in the Eaft India Company’s
fervice at Bengal, made a perfpedive drawing of'the
whole of the apparatus that could be brought within
his eye at one view; but I lament he could not re-
prefent fome very large quadrants, whofe radii were
about twenty feet, they being on the fide from whence
he took his drawing. Their ddcription however
is, that they are exad quarters of circles of dif¬
ferent radii, the largefi of which I judged to be 20
feet, conftruded very exadly oh the fides of ftone-
wall’s, built perpendicular, and fituated, I fuppofe, in
the meridian of the place t- a brafs pttt ts fixed at the.
O B S
centre or angle of the quadrant, from whence, the Obferva*
Bramin informed me, they ftretched a wire to the tor^*
circumference when an obfervation was to be made ; T
from which it occurred to me, the obferver mufl have
moved his eye up or down the circumference, by means
of a ladder or fome fuch contrivance, to raife and
lower himfelf, until he had difeovered the altitude of
any of the heavenly bodies in their paffage over the
meridian, fo expreffed on the arcs of thefe quadrants :
thefe arcs were very exadfly divided into nine large
ft&ions ; each of which again into ten, making ninety
leffer divifions or degrees ; and thofe alfo into twenty,
expieffing three minutes each, of about two-tenths
of an inch afunder; fo that it is probable they had
fome method of dividing even thefe into more minute"
diviiions at the time of obfervation.
“ My time would only permit me to take down the
particular dimenfions of the moft capital inftrument,
or the greater equinodfial fun-dial, reprefented by-
figure A, which appears to be an inftrument to exprefs
folar time by the ftxadow of a gnomon upon two qua¬
drants, ©ne fituated to the eaft, and the other to the
weft of it; am* indeed the chief part of their inftru-
ments at this place appear to be conftrudted for the
fame purpofe, except the quadrants, and a brafs ia-
flrument that will be deferibed hereafter.
“ Figure b is another inftrument for the purpofe
of determining the ex a ft hour of the day by the fiia-
dow of a gnomon, which ftands perpendicular to, and
in the centre of, a flat circular (tone, fupported in an
oblique fituation by means of four upright ftones and
a croispiece ; fo that the fhadovv of the gnomon, which,
is a perpendicular iron-rod, is thrown upon the divi-
fion of the circle deferibed on the face of the flat cir~-
cular ftone.
“ Figure c is a brafs circle, about two feet diame¬
ter, moving vertically upon two* pivots between two
ftone pillars, having an index or hand turning round
horizontally on the centre of this circle, which is
divided into 360 parts; but there are- no counter
divifions on the index to fubdivide thofe on the circle.
This inftiument appears to be made for taking the
angle of a ftar at fetting or riling, or for taking
the azimuth or amplitude of the fun at riling or fet*
ting.
i‘The ufe of the inftrument, figure o, I was at a lofs
to account for. It con lifts of two circular walls; the
outer of which is about forty feet diameter, and eight'
feet high ; the wall within about half that height,
and appears intended for a place to Hand on to ob-
ferve the divifions on the upper circle of the outer
wall, rather than for any other purpofe; and yet bothi
circles are divided into 360 degrees, each degree be¬
ing fubdivided into twenty Idler divifions, the fame
as the quadrants. There is a door-way to pafs into
the inner circle, and a pillar in the centre, of the fame
height with the lower circle, having a hole in it, being
the centre of both circles, and feems to be a focket
for an iron-rod to be placed perpendicular into it.
The divifioos on thefe, as well as all the other inftru*
ments, will bear a nice examination with a pair of
compaffes.
44 Figure r. is a fmaller equinoftial fun-dial, con*
ftrufted upon the fame principle as the large one A.
“ I cannot quit this fubjeft without obferving,
that the Bramias* without the afliftance of optical
g.lalfesj.
t >75 3
O B Y [ 1/6 ] O C G
Obferva* glaffes, had neverthelefs an advantage unexperienced
tD.‘T by the obfervers of the more northern climates. The
Ot>y. ferenity and clearncfs of the atmofphere in the night-
ts—Y-—' time in the Eaft Indies, except at the feafons of
changing the monfoons or periodical winds, is dif¬
ficult to exprefs to thofe who have not feen it, be-
caufe we have nothing in comparifon to form our
ideas upon : it is clear to perfection, a total quietude
fubfifts, fcarcely a cloud to be feen, and the light of
the heavens, by Jthe numerous appearance of the
liars, affords a profpett both of wonder and contem¬
plation.
“ This obfervatory at Benares is faid to have been
built by the order of the emperor Ackbar : for as this
wife prince endeavoured to improve the arts, fo he
wifhed alfo to recover the fciences of Hindoflan, and
therefore directed that three fuch places fhould be
erected; one at Delhi, another at Agra, and the third
at Benares.”
Edinburgh Osservatort. See Edinburgh.
OBSID1ANUS lapis, in the natural hiflory of
the ancients, the name of a ftone which they have al¬
fo defcribed under the name of the Churn marble. It
is a very fmooth and hard marble, extremely difficult
to" cut, but capable of a fine polifh ; and was ufed
among the ancient Greeks for the purpofe of making
reflecting mirrors. The later writers have fuppofed
the name objidianus to be derived from fomebody called
Cljtdius, who was the inventor of this ule of it; but
it feems only a falfe fpelling of the word opfanus,
ktto ruf oyi&y from feeing the images of things in it.
See Gallinacevs Lapis.
OBS1DIONAL1S, an epithet applied by the Ro¬
mans to a fort of crown. See the article Crown.
OBSTETRICS, or the Obstetric Art, the fame
with Midwifery.
OBSTRUCTION, in medicine, fueh an obtura¬
tion of the veffels as prevents the circulation of the
fluids, whether of the found and vital, or of the mor¬
bid and peccant kind, through them.
OBTURATOR, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
OBTUSE, fignifies blunt, dull, &c. in oppofition
to acute or fliarp. Thus we fay, obtufe angle, oh*
tufe-angled triangle, &c.
OBY, or Ob, a large and famous river of Afiatic
Ruffia, which iflues from the Altin lake (called by
the Ruffians Tehjhoi-Ofcro), in latitude 52 degrees,
and longitude 103 degrees 30 minutes. Its name fig¬
nifies Great; and accordingly in Ruffia it is often
ftyled the Great River. The Calmucks and Tartars
call it Umar. Its ftream is very large and fmooth,
its current being ufually flow ; and it is in general be¬
tween two and three hundred fathoms broad; though in
Jome places it is much wider. It affords plenty of
fifh, and is navigable almoft to the lake from which
it fprings. After a long winding courfe through a
vaft trad of land, in which it forms feveral iflands, it
empties itfelf in latitude 67 degrees, and longitude
86 degrees, into a bay, which, extending near 400
miles farther, joins the Ice Sea in latitude 73. 30.
and longitude 90. The fprings from which this ri-
ver rifes, are not very copious ; but it receives in its
■courfe the waters of a great number of confiderable
itreams. Of thefe, the Tom and the Irtis are the
N°245.
moft confiderable: the Tom falls into it in Lat. 58. Occident
and the Irtis in Lat. 61. and Long. 86. The exsd 11
courfe of this river was unknown, till the country 0ccuPan(7<
was furveyed by the Ruffians; who have given us *
tolerable maps ©f it and of all Siberia. The Oby forms
the boundary between Europe and Alia, and its courfe
is upwards of 2000 miles in length.
OCCIDENT, in geography, the weftward quar¬
ter of the horizon ; or that part of the horizon where
the ecliptic, or the fun therein, defeends into the
lower hemifphere; in contradiftinftion to orient. Hence
we ufe the word occidental for any thing belonging
to the weft ; as occidental bezoar, occidental pearl,
&c.
OCCIPITAL, in anatomy, a term applied to the
parts of the occiput, or back part of the fliull.
OCCULT, fomething hidden, fecret, or invifible.
The occult fciences are magic, necromancy, cabbala,
&c. Occult qualities, in philofophy, were thofe qua¬
lities of body or fpirit which baffled the inveftigation
of philofophers, and for which they were unable to
give any reafon : unwilling however to acknowledge
their ignorance, they deceived themfelves and the vul¬
gar by an empty title, calling what they did not know
occult.
Occult, in geometry, is ufed for a line that is
fcarce perceivable, drawn with the point of the com-
paffes or adeaden pencil. Thefe lii.»s are ufed ia fe¬
veral operations, as the raifing of plans, defigns of
building, pieces of perfpe&ive, &c. They are to be
effaced when the work is finifhed.
OCCULTATION, in aftronomy, the time a ftar
or planet is hid from our fight, by the interpofition of
the body of the moon or fome other planet.
OCCUPANCY, in law, is the taking poffefiion of Bladfl.
thofe things which before belonged to nobody. This CmmenU
is the true ground and foundation of all Property, or
of holding thofe things in feverahy, which by the law
of nature, unqualified by that of fociety, were com¬
mon to all mankind. But, when once it was agreed
that every thing capable of ownerfhip ftiould have an
owner, natural reafon fuggefted, that he who could
firft declare his intention of appropriating any thing to
his own ufe, and, in confequence of fuch his inten¬
tion, aftually took it into poffeffion, fhould thereby
gain the abfolute property of it; according to that rule
of the law of nations, recognifed by the laws of
Rome, Quod nullius ejl> id raiione naturali occupanti con"
ceditur. *
This right of occupancy, fo far as it concerns real
property, hath been confined by the laws of England
within a very narrow compafs; and was extended only
to a fingle inftance ; namely, where a man was tenant
pour autre vie, or had an eftate granted to himfelf only
(without mentioning his heirs) for the life of another
man, and died during the life of cefluy que vie, or
him by whofe life it was holden : in this cafe, he that
could firft enter on the land, might lawfully retain
the poffeffion fo long as cefuj que vie lived, by right
of occupancy.
This feems to have been recurring to firft principles,
and calling in the law of nature to afeertain the pro¬
perty of the land, when left without a legal owner.
For it did not revert to the granter, who had parted
with all his intereft, fo long as cefuy que vie lived ; it
did
Hate C CCXLVin
.
t
/
{
y
O C C [ T
Ocrtir'a',ev. Ji(3 not cfcheat to the lord of the fee; for all efeheats
v—tnnfl be of the abfolate entire fee, and not of any par¬
ticular eftate carved out of it, much lefs of fo minute
a remnant as this : it ('id not belong to the grantee ;
for he was dead : it did not defeend to his heirs ; for
there were no words of inheritance in the grant : nor
could it veil in his executors; for no executors could
fucceed to a freehold. Belonging therefore to no¬
body, like the huereditas jacens of the Romans, the
law left it open to be feized and appropriated by the
fir It perfon that could enter upon it, during the life of
cejiuy que "vie, under the name of an occupant. But
there was no right of occupancy allowed, where the
king had the reverfion of the lands : for the reverfioner
hath an equal right with any other tnan to enter upon
the vacant poffeffion; and where the king’s title and a
fu! jedt’s interfere, the king’s (hall always be prefer¬
red. Againll the king therefore there could be no
prior occupant, becaufe nullum tempus occurrit regi.
And, even in the cafe of a fubjeft, had the eftate
pour autre vie granted to a man and his heirs during
the life of cefhiy qui vie, there the heir might, and ftill
may, enter and hold poflefiion, and is called in law a
/pedal occupant i a« having a fpecial exclufive right, by
the terms of the priginal grant, to enter upon and
occupy this hceredflas jacens, during the refn'ue of the
eftate granted : though fome have thought him fo
called with no very great propr ety ; and that fuch
eftate is rather a delcendible freehold. But the title of
common occupancy is now reduced almoft to nothing by
two ftatutes ; the one, 29 Car. II. c. 3. which en-
adls, that where there is no fpecial occupant, in whom
the eftate may veil, the tenant tour autre vie may de
vife it by will, or it (hall go to the executors, and be
aftets in their hands for payment of debts: the other
that of 14 Geo. I L. c. 40. which en its, that it ftiall
vcft not only in the executors, but, in cafe the tenant
dies inteftate, in the admin ill rators alfo ; and go in
courfe of a iitribution like a chattel intereft.
By thefe two ftatutes the title of common occupancy is
utterly extinft and abolifhed : though that of fpecial
occupancy, by the heir at law, continues to this day ;
fuch heir being held to fucceed to the anceftor’s eftate,
not by defeent, for then he mult take'an eftate of in¬
heritance, but as an occupant, fpecially marked out
and appointed by the original-grant. The dottrine
of common occupancy may, however, be ufetully re¬
membered on the following account, amongll others :
That, as by the common law no occupancy could be
of incorporeal hereditaments, as of rents, tithes, ad-
vowfons, commons, or the like, (becaufe, with refpeft
to them, there coul 1 be no aftual entry made, or corpo¬
ral feifrn had ; and therefore by the death of the gran
tee pour autre •vie a grant of fuch hereditaments was
entirely determined) : fo now, it is apprehended, not-
vithftanding thofe ftatutes, fuch grant would be de¬
termined likewife ; and the hereditaments could not
be devifeafcle, nor veil in the executors, nor go in a
courfe of diftribution. For the ftatutes mull not i e con
ftrued fo as to create any new ellate, or to keep that
alive which by the common law was determined, and
thereby to defeat the granter’s reverfion ; but merely
to difpofe of an intereft in being, to which by law
there was no owner, and which therefore was left
open to the firtt occupant. When there is a re fid ur
Vot. XIII. Fart I.
77 ] . 0 c c
left, the ftatutes give it to the executors, A:c. inftead Occupancy,
of the firft occupant *, but they will not create a re-
fidue on purpofe to give it to the executors. They
only mean to provide an appointed inftead of a cafual,
a certain inftead of an uncertain, owner, of lands
which before were nobody’s ; and thereby to fupply
this cafus omiffus, and render the difpofition of the law
in all refpe&s entirely uniform : this being the only
inftance wherein a title to a real eftate could ever be
acquired by occupancy.
For there can be no other tale devifed, wherein
there is not fome owner of the land appointed by the
law. In the cafe of a foie corporation, as a pirfon of
a church, when he dies or refigns, though there be no
adual owner of the land till a fucceftbr be appointed,
yet there is a legal, potential, ownerlhip. fublifting in
contemplation of law ; and when the fucceffor is ap¬
pointed, his appointment fhall have a retrofpetl and
relation backwards, fo as to entitle him to all the pro¬
fits from the inftant that the vacancy commenced.
And, in all other inftances, when the tenant dies in-
teftate, and no other owner of the lands is to be found
in the common courfe of defeents, there the law veils
an ownerfhip in the king, or in the fubordinate lord of
the fee, by efeheat.
So alfo, in fome cafes, where the laws of other na¬
tions give a right by occupancy, as in lands newly
created, by the riling of an illand in a river, or by
the alluvion or dereluftion of the fea ; in thefe inftan¬
ces, the law of England affigns them an immediate
owner. For Bradlon tells us, that if an ifland arife
in the middle of a river, it" belongs in common to
thofe who have lands on each fide thereof; but if it
be nearer to one bank than the other, it belongs only
to him who is proprietor of the neareft ftrore : which
is agreeable to, and probably copied from, the civil
law. Yet this feems only to be reafonable, where the
fo l of the river is equally divided between the owners
of the oppofite fhores: for if the whole foil is the free¬
hold of any one man, as it mull be whenever a feveral
filhery is claimed, there it feems juft (and fo is the ufual
pradliee) that the illets, or I ttle iflands, arifing in
any part of the river, (hall be the property of him who
owneth the pifeary and the foil. However, in cafe a
new illand rife in the fea, though the civil law gives it
to the firft occnpant, yet our’s gives it to the king.*
A.nd as to lands gained from the fea ; either by allu¬
vion, by the wafhing up of fand and earth, fo as in
time to make terra/nna ; or by dereliction, as when
the fea ihrinks back below the ufual water-mark ; in
thefe cafes the law is held to be, that if this gain be
by little and little, by fttudl and imperceptible de¬
grees, it ft all go to the owner of the land adjoining.
For de minimis non cu at lex : and, betides, thefe own¬
ers being often lofers by the breaking in of the fea, or
at charges to keep it out, this poffi de train is there¬
fore a reciprocal confideration for fuch pbffible charge
or lofs. But it the alluvion or derelidlion be hidden
and confiderable, in this cafe it belongs to the king:
for, as the king is lord of the fea, and fo owner of the
foil while it is covered with water, it is but reafonable
he fhould have the foil when the water has left it dry.
80 that the quantity of ground gained, and the time
during which it is gained, are what make it either the
king’s or the fubjedt’s property. In the fame manner,
Z if
O C E
[ 178 ]
0 C H
Oceanides.
Occupant Jf a river, running between two lord Hi Ip s, by degrees
gains upon the one, and thereby leaves the other dry;
the owner who lofes his ground thus imperceptibly has
no remedy : but if the courfe of the river be changed
bv a fudden and violent flood, or other hafty means,
and thereby a man lofes his ground, he fhsll have what
the river has left in any other place as a recompenfe
for this fudden lofs. And this law of alluvions and de-
reliftions, with regard to rivers, is nearly the fame in
the imperial law; from whence indeed thofe our deter¬
minations feem to have been drawn and adopted : but
we ourfelves, as iflanders, have applied them to ?na~
rine increafes ; and have given our fovereign the pre¬
rogative he enjoys, as well upon the particular rea-
fons before-mentioned, as upon this other general
ground of prerogative, which was formerly remarked,
that whatever hath no other owner is veiled by law in
the king. See Prerogative.
OCCUPANT, in law, the perfou that firil fcizes
or gets pofleffion of a thing.
OCCUPATION, in a legal fenfe, is taken for ufe
or tenure : as in deeds it is frequently faid, that fuch
lands are, or were lately, in the tenure or occupation
of fuch a perfon.—It is likewife ufed for a trade or
myllcry.
OCCUPIERS ©/"Walling, a term ufed in the falt-
works for the perfons who are the fworn officers that
allot in particular places what quantity of fait is to be
made, that the markets may not be overftocked, and
fee that all is carried fairly and equally between the
lord and the tenant.
OCEAN, that huge mafs of fait waters which
encompaffies all parts of the globe, and by means of
which, in the prefent improved Hate of navigation, an
eafy intercourse fubfifts between places the moll diftant.
The ocean is diltinguilhed into three grand divi-
fions. 1. The Atlantic ocean, which divides Europe
and Africa from America, which is generally about
3000 miles wide. 2. The Pacific ocean, or South-
fea, which divides America from Afia, and is gene¬
rally about 10,000 miles over. And, 3. The Indian
ocean, which feparates the Eaft Indies from Africa ;
which is 3000 miles over. The other feas, which are
called oceans, are only parts or branches of thefe, and
ufually receive their names from the countries they
border upon.
For the faltnefs, tides, &c. of the ocean, fee the
articles Sea, Tides, &c.
OCE ANIDES(fab.hift.), fea-nymphs,daughters of
Oceanus, from whom they received their name, and of
the goddefsTethys orThetis. They were 3000 accord¬
ing to Apollodorus, who mentions the names of feven
of them; Afia, Styx, Eleftra, Donis, Eurynome, Am-
phitrite, and Metis. Hefiod fpeaks of the eldeft of
them, which he reckons 41, Pitho, Admete, Prynno,
lanthe, Rhodia, Hippo, Callirhoe, Urania, Clymene,
Idyia, Pafithoe, Clythia, Zeuxo, Galuxaure, Plexaure,
Perfeis, Pluto, Time, Polydora, Melobofis, Dione,
Cerceis, Xanthe, Acafla, lanira, Teleftho, Europa,
Meneflho, Petrea, Eudora, Calypfo, Tyche, Ocyroe,
Crifia, Amphiro, with thofe mentioned by Apollodo¬
rus, except Amphitrite. Hyginus mentions 16 whofe
names are almoil all different from thofe of Apollodo¬
rus and Hefiod ; which difference proceeds from the
mutilation of the original text. The Oceanides, like
Ochinin.
the reft of the inferior deities, were honoured with li- Oceanus
bations and facrifices. Prayers were offered to them,
and they were entreated to p^oteft failors from ftotms
and dangerous tempefts. The Argonauts, before they
proceeded to their expedition, made an offering of
flour, honey, and oil, on the fea-fliore, to all the dei¬
ties of the fea, and facrificed bulls to them, and in-
treated their proteftion. When the facrifice was made
on the fea-fhore, the blood of the vidlim was received
in a veflel; but when it was in open fea, they permit¬
ted the blood to run down into the waters. When the
fea w*as calm, they generally offered a lamb or a young
pig ; but if it was agitated by the winds and rough,
a black bull was deemed the moft. acceptable vidlim.
OCEANUS, in Pagan mythology, the fon of Cce-
lus and Terra, the hufband of Thetis, and the father
of the rivers and fountains, called Oceanides. The an¬
cients called him the Father of all things, imagining
that he was produced by Humidity, which, according
to Thales, was the firft principle from which every
thing was produced. Homer reprefents Juno vifiting
him at the remateft limits of the earth, and acknovv^
ledging him and Thetis as the parents of the gods.
He was reprefented with a bull’s head, as an emblem
of the rage and bellowing of the ocean when agitated
by a ftorm.
According to Homer, he was the father even of all
the gods, and on that account he received frequent
vifits from them. He is often, indeed almoft always, re¬
prefented as an old man with a long flowing beard, and
fitting upon the waves of the fea. He often holds a
pike in his hand, while ffiips under fail appear at a
diftance, or a fea monfter Hands near him. Oceanus
prefided over every part of the fea, and even the rivers
were fubje&ed to his power. The ancients were fu-
perftitious in their woifln'p of him, and'revered with
great folemnity a deity to whofe care they entrufted
themfelves when going on any voyage.
OCEIA, a woman who prefided over the facred
rites of Vefta for 57 years with the greateft faixftity.
She died in the reign of Tiberius, and the daughter of
Domitius fucceeded her.
OCELLUS Lucan IAN, an ancient Greek phi-
lofopher of the fchool of Pythagoras, who lived before
Plato. His work tw nccvhc, or “ The Univerfe,"
is the only piece of his which is come down entire to
us; and was written originally in the Doric dialeft,
but was tranflated by another hand into the Attic.
William Chriftian, and after him Lewis Nogarola,
tranflated this work into Latin; and we have feverai
editions of it, both in Greek and Latin.
OCELOT, the Mexican cat. See Felis.
OCELOXOCHITL, or tyger-flower, in bo¬
tany: A large Mexican plant, compofed of three
pointed petals, red, but towards the middle of a mixed
white and yellow, reprefenting in fome degree tl^
fpots of that wild animal from which it takes its
name. The plant has leaves alfo refembling thofe of
the iris, and a bulbous root. See Plate CCCL.
OCHINUS (Bernardin), a celebrated Italian, was
born at Siene in 1487, and firft became a Cordelier ;
but he quickly returned into the world, applied him-
felf to the ftudy of phyfic, and acquired the efteem of
cardinal Julius de Medicis, afterwards Pope Clement
VII. At length, again changing his mind, he refu¬
med
O C H r 170 ] o C *H
Ochinr-s med hie monk’s kabit in a penitential mood ; and not
 ' content with this, kut aiming at higher perfection, he
embraced in 1534 the reformed fe£t of the Capuchins.
He praCtifed, with a moft rigorous exaCtnefs, all the
rules of the order; which, being then in its infancy,
ke contributed fo much to improve and enlarge, that
fome writers have called him the founder of it. He was
certainly made vicar-general of it, and became in the
highcft degree eminent for his pulpit eloquence. He
delivered his fermons with fo much gtace and pohte-
nefs, and fpoke fo copioufly, that he ravifhed his au¬
dience wherever he was: never indeed was a man more
fuccefsful or more applauded. His extraordinary me¬
rit procured him the favour of Pope Paul III. who, it
is faid, made him his father confeffor and preacher.
He was thus the darling both of prince and people}
when,' falling into the company of one John Valde a
Spaniard, who had imbibed Luther’s doftrine in Ger¬
many, he became a profelyte. He was then at Naples,
and began to preach in favour of Protellantifm: which
being obferved, he was fummoned to appear at Rome;
and was inh is way thither when he met at Florence
I Peter Martyr, with whom, it is probable, he had be¬
come acquainted at Naples. This friend perfuaded
him not to put himfelf into the pope’s power ; and
they both agreed to withdraw to fome place of fafety.
Ochinus went firll to Ferrara, where he difguifed him¬
felf in the drefs of a foldier 5 and proceeding thence
to Geneva, arrived there in 1542, and married a
(woman of Lucca. He did not, however, fettle there,
but went to Augfburg, where he publifhed fome fer-
mons.
In 1547 he was invited, together with Peter Mar¬
tyr, into England by Archbifliop Cranmer, that he
might have their joint affiftance in carrying on the re¬
formation. They arrived in December ; and going
.to Lambeth, were kindly received by Cranmer. They
were entertained there for fome time ; and Ochinus,
as well as Martyr, was made a prebendary of Canter¬
bury (a). He laboured heartily in the conduft of the
reformation; and his dialogue upon the unjuft ufurped
primacyof thebifhop of Rome, was tranflated into Latin
by Ponet bilhop of Winchefter, and publiftied in 1549.
Rut upon the death of EdwardVI. being forced as well
as Martyr to leave England, they retired to Stiafhurg,
where they arrived in 1553. From this city Ochinus
went to Bafil, and was invited thence in 1555 to Zu¬
rich, to be minifter of an Italian church which was ga¬
thering there. This church confifted of fome refugees
from Locarno, one of the four bailiwicks which the
Switzers poflefs in Italy ; they being hindered from
the public exercife of the reformed religion by the
oppofition of the Popilli cantons. Ochinus had no
difficulty to fubfcribe the articles of faith agreed upon
by the church of Zurich, and met in that city with
Bullinger, who proved a very good friend to him. He
governed this Italian chuich till 1563, when he was
banifhed thence by the magiftrates of the town for
publilhing fome dialogues, wherein he defended the
dottrine of polygamy. From Zurich he went to
Balil; but not being fuffered to ftay there, he fled in
great diftrefs into Moravia, where he fell in with the Ochmui
Socinians, and joined them. Staniflaus Lubiemetlki, 0cht1J)ma>
the great patron of this feft, gives the following ac* —1
count of his laft days in his Htft. Reformat. Polon. Ochi¬
nus, fays he, retired into Moravia, and into Poland,
and even there he was not out of the reach of Calvin’s
letters. He returned into Moravia after king bigif-
mund’s edift ; who in 1564 puniftied with banilhment
all thofe that were called Tritheifta, Atheifts, &c.
Some gentlemen endeavoured to keep him in Poland ;
but he anfwered, that men muft obey the magiftrates,
and that he would obey them, even were he to die
among the wolves in the woods. During his travels,
he fell fick of the plague at Pinckfow, and received
there all poffible bffices of kindnefs from one of the
brethren, named Philippovius. His daughter and two
fons, whom he carried along with him, died of the
plague ; but he had buried his wife before he had left
Zurich. As for himfelf, he continued his journey to
Moravia, and within three weeks died at Slakow, in
1564, aged 77.
His character is varioufly reprefented by different
authors, as was to be expe&ed; for men like him have
all manner of things, good and bad, faid and written
of them, by fomebody or other. Bayle fays, that the
confeflion he made publicly, on the change of his re¬
ligion, is remarkable. He acknowledged, in a preface,
that if he could have continued, without danger of his
life, to preach the truth, after the manner he had
preached it for fome years, he would never have laid
down the habit of his order; but as he did not find
within himfelf that courage which is requifite to un¬
dergo martyrdom, he took fanduary in a Proteftant
country. His writings are numerous, but not bulky.
OCHLOCRACY, that form of government where¬
in the populace have the chief adminiftration of af¬
fairs.
OCHNA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous ;
the calyx pentaphyllous; the berries monofpermous,
and affixed to a large roundiffi receptacle.
OCHRE, in natural hiftory, a genus of earths,
{lightly coherent, and compofed of fine, fmooth, foft,
argillaceous particles, rough to the touch, and readily
diffufible in water. Ochres are of various colours, as
red, blue, yellow, brown, green, &c.
OCHROMA, in botany : A genus of the pentan-
dria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs ot
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
37 th order, Columnifera. The corolla con lifts of fix
petals, three of which are external, and the other three
internal; the anther® unite and form a fpiral pillar
round the ftyle; the capfule is long, and has five lo-
culaments, and contain a number of black round feeds.
Of this there is only one fpecies, v't%. the ochroma la-
gopus, the downtree or corkwood. This tree is fre¬
quent in Jamaica, is of fpeedy growth, and rifes to
about 25 or 30 feet. The flowers are large and yel¬
low. The capfules are about five inches long, round-
Z 2 ed,
(a) According to Wood, Athen. Oxon. but it refts folely on his authority, fo far as we know.
o' C K [ 180 ] OCR
Ocbus
Ockbani.
ed, and covered with a thin ikin ; which when dry-
falls off in five longitudinal fegments, and leaves the
fruit greatly refembling a hare’s foot. The down is
fhort, foft, and filky : it is ufed fometimes to ftuff
beds and pillows ; bat, like other vegetable downs, is
apt to get into clots : an infipid clear gum exudes
from the tree when wounded. The bark is tough,
and its fibres are in a reticulated form : it might be
made into ropes. The dried wood is fo very light
and buoyant, as to be ufed by the fiihermen in Ja¬
maica for their nets inflead of pieces of cork.
OCHUS, a king of Perfia, fon of Artaxerxes. Pie
was cruel and avaricious; and in order to ftrengthen
himlelf on his throne, he murdered all his brothers
and lifters. His fubjedfs revolted ; but he reduced
them to obedience, and added Egypt to his other do¬
minions. Bagoas his favourite eunuch poifoned him
lor the infults he had offered to Apis the god of the
Egyptians; and he gave his flefh to be eaten by cats,
and made handles for knives with his bones. It feems
to be not a little remarkable, that all thofe monfters
who difgraced humanity by their crimes, and funk
themfelves below the level of brutes, have met with
condign punifhment; and this in general feems true,
whether we refer to ancient or modern times.—A man
of Cyzicus, who was killed by the Argonauts.—A
prince of Perfia, who refufed to vifit his native coun¬
try for fear of giving ail the women each a piece of
gold.—A river of India or of Baftriana.— A king of
Perfia : He exchanged this name for that of Darius
Nothus. See Persia..
OCKHAM, Occam, or Occham (William of),
was a celebrated fcholaftic divine in the 14th century,
»f the order of Cordeliers. He was a native of Eng¬
land, and difciple to the famous Duns Scotns. He
was head of the Nominalifts; and acquired fo much
celebrity, as to be denominated the Invincible Doc¬
tor.
At the requeft @f Michael de Cefena, general of his
order, he became a party-man with Lewis of Raviere,
who was an avowed enemy of the church of Rome ;
and he really wrote vigorouily againft pope John XXII.
and his fucceffors. Trithemius informs us, that*he
ufed to fay to Lewis, “ My Lord, let your fword de¬
fend me, and my pen fhall be always ready to fupport
you.” He treated Charles and Clement in a book he
wrote sgainll them with grofs fcurrility.
This, however, was a bold, dangerous, and impru¬
dent ftep, and cannot well be defended on any proper
principle. The effeft of it, as might be expefted, was
an accufation againll him and Cefena. They were
charged with maintaining, that neither Chrift: nor his
apoftles had any peffefiions at all, either in common
or as private property. This dodfrine gave rife to that
pleafant queftion called the bread of the Cordeliers;
and confifted in determining, whether the dominion
of things confumcd in the ufe, fuch as bread and wine,
belonged to them, or only the fimple ufe of them,
without the dominion? Their rule not permitting them
to have any thing as property, Pope Nicolas III. who
had been of their order, devifed a method to enrich
them, without breaking their rule. To this end he
made an oidinance, that they fhould have only the
uiufriKfr of the eftates which ftiould be given to them,
and that the foil and fund of all fuch donations fhould
belong to the Roman church at large. By this means
he gave them the poffefiion of an almoft infinite
number of eftates, in the name of the church of Rome :
but on this account, Pope Nicolas’s bull was revoked
by John XXII. who condemned the ufe without the
dominion, by his Extravaganta ad Conditorem. Healfo
condemned, by another Extravaganta cum inter, the
do&rine about the pofieffion of eftates by Chrift and
his apoftles. Ockham and Cefena were alfo excommu¬
nicated, becaufe they had departed from Avignon
without the pope’s licence, and had written againft
him. Ockham, however, was abfolved, as is faid,
from this cenfure before he died, w-hich was about the
year 1347.
We have feveral pieces of his, which are written
with eonfiderable wit and fubtilty. The reformed
church fometimes makes ufe of his reafoning againft
the church of Rome. Melchior Goidaft printed,
in his treatife upon monarchy, 413 queftions of
Ockham. His works are mentioned by many au¬
thors.
OCKLEY (Simon), a learned orientalift. was born
at Exeter in 1678, and educated at Queen’s college,
Cambridge, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his in-
tenfe application to literature. At the ufual time he
took the degrees in arts, and that of bachelor in di¬
vinity ; but marrying very young, was precluded from
a fellowfhip in his college, and this oceafioned his be¬
ing afterwards involved in many difficulties. In 1705
he was prefented to the vicarage of Swavefey in Cam-
bridgefhire ; and in 1711 he was chofen Arabic pro-
feffor of the univerfity. He was perfect mailer of the
Arabic and other oriental tongues: the learned Ro¬
land faid of him, “ Vir, fi quis alius harum literarum
peritus.” Afterwards, however, he had the misfor¬
tune to be confined for fome time in Cambridge caftle
for debt. The above preferments, notwithftanding, he
enjoyed till his death, which happened on the 9th of
Auguft 1720. He wrote, 1. IntroduSio ad Lmguas
Orientales. 2. The hiftory of the prefent Jews through¬
out the world; tranflated from the Italian of Leo Mo¬
dena, a Venetian rabbi. 3. The improvement of hu¬
man reafon, exhibited in the lift of Hai Ebn Yokdhan,
tranflated from the Arabic. 4. An account of South-
well Barbary, containing what is moft remarkable in
the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco ; written by a per-
fon who had been a flave there a conliderable time, and
tranflated from his manufeript. 5. The hiftory of the
Saracens, collected from the molt authentic Arabic
authors, in 2 vols 8vo. He was not only well fkiiled
in the learned languages, but alfo in the modern, as
French, Spanifh, Italian, &e.
OCR A, a vifeous vegetable fubftance well knov/n.
in the Weft Indies, where it is ufed to thicken foup,.
and for other purpofes.
OCRISIA (fab. hill.), the wife of Corniculus, was
one of the attendants of Tanaquil the wife of Tarqui-
nius Prifcus. As Ihe was throwing into the flames
for offerings fome of the meats that were ferved on the
table of Tarquin, fhe fuddenly faw, as is reported, in
the fire what Ovid calls obfcceni forma virllis. She in¬
formed the queen of it ; and when by her command
fhe had approached near it, Are conceived a fon who.
was named Servius Tullius, and was educated in the
king’s family. He afterwards fucceeded to the va-
5. cant
OCT [ 18
cant throne. Some fuppofe that Vulcan had affumed
that form which was prtfented to the eyes of Ociilia,
and that this god was the father of the fixth king of
Rome. .
OCTAETERIS, a cycle or term of eight years,
in the Grecian chronology, at the conclufion of which
three entire lunar months were added. I his cy^le
was in ufe till Melon’s invention of the golden num¬
ber or cycle of 19 years.
OCTAGON, or Octogon, in geometry, is a figure
of eight Tides and angles; and this, when all the fidec
and angles are equal, is called a regular o£lagon, or one
that may be infcribed in a circle.
Octagon, in fortification, denotes a place that has
eight baftions. See Fortification.
OCTAHEDRON, or Octaedrqn, in geometry,
one of the five regular bodies, confiding of eight equal
and equilateral triangles.
OCTANDRIA (1*™ “eight,” and a ♦‘man,
or hufoand,”) the 8th clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem;
confiding of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which
hr; fnrnifhed with eight itamina, or male organs of ge¬
neration. See Botany, p. 43°'
OCTANT, or Octile, in aflronomy, that afpe&
of two planets, wherein they are diilant an eighth part
of a circle, or from each other.
OCTAPLA, in matters of facred literature, de¬
notes a polyglot bible, confiding of eight columns,
and as many different verfions of the facred text ; viz.
the original Hebrew both in Hebrew and Greek cha-
raefers, Greek verfions, &c.
GCTATEUCH, an appellation given to the eight
firft books of the Old Tedament.
OCTAVE, in mufic. See intcrval.
OCT A VI A, daughter of Cains O&avius and fider
to Auguftus Caefar." See the following article. She
was one of the mod illuftno.us latucs of ancient Rome t
her virtues and her beauty were equally confpicuous.
Prideaux fays die was much Irandfomer than Cleopa¬
tra. She married Claudius Marcellus, and after his
death M. Antony. Her marriage with Antony was
a political match, to reconcile her brother and him
together. Antony proved for fome time attentive
to her; but when he had feen Cleopatra, he neglefted
and defpifed her; and when die attempted to with¬
draw him from this illegal amour by going to meet
him at Athens, die was rebuked and totally banidied
from his prefence. This affront was highly relented
by her brother; and though Gddavia endeavoured to
pacify him by palliating Antony’s behaviour, yet he.
refolved to revenge her caufe by arms. After the battle
of aiumand the death of Antony, Odfavia, forget¬
ful of her own injuries, took into her houfe all the
children of her hufband, and.treated them with extra¬
ordinary tendernefs. Marcellus, her fon by her lirit
hud)and, was married to a niece of Auguftus, and open¬
ly intended as a fucceffor to his uncle. His hidden
death plunged all the family into the greateft grief.
Virgil, whom Auguftus patronized, undertook of
himftlf to pay a melancholy tribute to the memory of
a young man whom Rome had looked upon as her
future father and patron He was defired to repeat
!us compofition in the prefence of the emperor and
his filler. O&avia buril .into tears even when the
i ] OCT
poet began ; but when he mentioned Tu Marcellus 06hyia,
erisy fhe fwooned away. This tender and pathetic
encomium upon the merit and the virtues of young
Marcellus fhe liberally rewarded, and Virgil received
10,000 feflerces, according to fome L.78 : 2 : 6, for
every one of the verfes. Odtavia had two daughters
by Antony, Antonia Major and Antonia Minor,
d he elder married L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, by
whom fhe had Cn. Domitius, who was the father of
the Emperor Nero by Agrippina the daughter of Ger-
manicus. Antonia Minor, who was as virtuous and
as beautiful as her mother, married Drufus the fon of
Tiberius, by whom fhe had Germanicus and Claudius,
who reigned before Nero. The death of Marcellas
conflantly preyed upon the mind of OAavia, who
died of grief or melancholy, about 11 years before the
Chriftian era. Her brother paid great regard to her
memory, and pronounced her funeral oration himielf.
The Roman people alfo fhowed their regard for her
virtues, by wifliing to pay her divine honours.—A
daughter of the Emperor Claudius by Meffalina. She
was betrothed to Silanus, but by the intrigues of
Agrippina, fhe was married to the Emperor Nero
in the 16th year of her age. She was foon after di¬
vorced under pretence of barrennefs; and the emperor
married Poppaea, who exercifed her enmity upon
Ootavia by procuring her to be banifhed into Cam¬
pania. She was afterwards reca’led by the people ; but
Poppaea, who was determined on her ruin, caufed her
again to be banifhed to an ifland, where fhe tfras or¬
dered to kill herftlf by opening her veins. Her head
was cut off and carried to Poppaea.
OCTAVIANUS, or Octavius Ca’sar, was ne¬
phew of Julius Ciefar the dictator, being the fon of
Accia his filter by Octavius a fenator, and afterwards
became the feeond emperor of Rome. He was born
in the year of the city 691, during the confulfhip of
Cicero. His uncle Julius Cosfar adopted him, and
left him the greateft part of his fortune. When he
was but 20 years of age, he was raifed to the conful-
flrip. His youth and inexperience were ridiculed by
his enemies; notwithfianding which obftncle, his pru¬
dence and valour raifed his confequence. He made war
againft his opponents on pretence of avenging the
air.funatioa of his uncle. He engaged in five civil
wars with great futcel's, viz. The wars of Mutina,
Perufia, Philippi, Sicily, and Actium : the firft and
laft of which were againft M. Antony ; the fecond
againil L. Antony brother of the triumvir ; the third
was againft Brutus and Caluus ; and the fourth
againft Sext. Porapey,Ion of. Pompey the Great. He
united his forces with Antony’s at the battle of Phi¬
lippi ; and had he not been fupported by the affivity
and bravery of his colleague, he would ddubtlefs have .
been totally ruined in that engagement. In his tri¬
umvirate with Antony and Lepidus,-he obtained the
weftern parts of the Roman empire ; and, like his other
colleagues, more firmly to eftaUftih his power, he pro-
feribed his enemies and cut them off. The triumvirate
laited for 10 years. He had given his lifter O&avia in
marriage to Antony,to make their alliancemore failing; ,
but when Cleopatra had charmed this unfortunate man, ,
O&avia was repudiated. Auguftus immediately took up. -
arms to avenge the wrongs of his fifter ; but perhaps •
OCT [ 18
■Oft3\’ianiis,morc eagerly to remove a man whofe power and ex-
Oekoher. jpence kept him in continual fear and conftant de-
ptndence. Both parties met at Aftium to decide
the fate of Rome. Antony was fupported by all the
power of the eaft, and Auguitus by Italy. Cleopa¬
tra lied from the battle with 60 (hips, and her flight
ruined the intereft cf Antony, who followed her into
Egpyt. The conqueror foon after went into Egypt,
likevvife beflepred Alexandria, and honoured with a mag*
■nifleent funeral his unfortunate colleague and the cele¬
brated queen, whom the fear of being led in the vidor’s
triumph at Rome had driven to commit filicide. Af¬
ter he had eflabliflied peace all over the world, he fhut
the gates of the temple of Janus, A. U. C. 753. He
was twice determined to lay down the fupreme pow'er
immediately after the vidory obtained over Antony,
and on account of his ill health ; but his two faithful
friends Mecaenas and Agrippa diffuaded him, and
contended, that if he did he Would leave it to be the
prey of the moll powerful, and expofe himfelf to the
greateft dangers. He died at Nola in the 76th year
ot his age, after he had held the fovereign pow'er for
57 years.—He was an adive emperor, and confulted
the good of the Romans with the greateft anxiety and
care. He vilited all the provinces except Africa and
Sardinia, and his confummate prudence and experi¬
ence occafioned many falutary laws. He is, however,
aceukd of licentioufnefs and adultery ; but the good-
nefs of his heart, the fidelity of his friendfhip, and the
many good qualities which the poets whom he patro¬
nized have perhaps truly celebrated, made fome,
though in the eye of ftrid religion and true morali¬
ty but little, amends for his natural foibles. He was
ambitious of being efteemed handfome; and as he was
publicly reported to be the fon of Apollo according
to his mother’s declaration, he wifhed his flatterers
to reprefenthim with the figure and attributes of that
god. Like Apollo, his eyes were clear, and he af-
fefted to have it thought that they pofieffed fome di¬
vine irradiation, and was well pleafed if, when he fix¬
ed his eyes upon any body, they held down their eyes
as if overcome by the glaring brightnefs of the fun.
He diftinguifhed himftlf by his learning; he wras a
complete matter of the Greek language, and wwote
fopie tragedies, befides memoirs of his life and other
■vtforks, which are now loft. He married four times ;
but he was unhappy in all thefe connections ; and his
only daughter Julia difgraced herfelf and her father
by the debauchery and licentioufnefs of her manners.
Tie recommended at his death his adopted fon Tibe¬
rius as his fucceflbr. He left his fortune partly to
him and to Drufus, and made donations to the army
and Roman people. The title of Auguftus was
confeired upon him by the fenate after the battle of
Adtium and the final deflruCtion of the Roman re¬
public. The title continued afterwards, being given
to his fucceflbrs in the empire. Virgil is laid to have
written his iEneid at the defire of Auguttus, whom
lie reprefents under the amiable and perfedl chara&er
of Aeneas. T he name of OCfavius was very com¬
mon at Rome; it was the name of a variety of men of
very confiderable rank.
OCTOBER, in chronology, the eighth month of
Romulus’s year, which the name implies; but tenth
2 1 o c z
in the kalendar of Numa, Julius Cxfar, &c. The O&ober
fenate gave this month the name Faujiinus, in compli- tquus
menttoFauftina, the wife of the Emperor Antoninus; w
Commodus would have it called Invifius ; and Domi- ^
tian named it Domtianus ; but in fpite of all thefe at¬
tempts it ftill retains its original name. This month
was facred to Mars, and under his proteClion.
October Equus, a horfe annually facriliced to Mars
in the month of Oftober, either becaufe the horfe is
a warlike animal, or to punifh him for the taking of
Troy. A race was run with chariots, drawn by two
horfes, previous to the facrifices, and he that ran quick-
eft wTas adjudged to be the victim.
OCTOSTYLE, in the ancient architecture, is the
face of an edifice adorned with eight columns.
OCULUS, the eye, in anatomy. See there, n° 142,
Oculvs Belt, in natural hiftory, one of the femi*
pellucid gems, of a greyifh white colour, variegated
with yellow and with a black central nucleus: it
is of a roundifh form, and its variegations very beau¬
tifully reprefent the pupil and iris of the eye ; whence
the name.
Oculus Mundi, er Lapis Mutabilis. See Hydro*
phanes.
Oculus Catl. See Asteria.
OCYMOPHY LLON, in botany : a name given
by Buxbaum to a new genus of plants, the charafters
of which are thefe: The flower is of the ftamineous kind,
having no petals ; this Hands upon the embryo fruit,
which afterwards becomes an oblong quadrangular feed-
vefifcl, divided into four cells, and containing roundiih
and very fmall feeds; its leaves are like thofe of the
common ocymum or bafil, whence its name ; and its
place of growth is in damp marfties. Boccone has de-
feribed it under the improper name of giaux, calling
it the great, green-Jlowercil, marjh giaux.
OCYMUM, basil 5 a genus of the gymnofpermia
order, belonging to the didy namia elafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 42d order, Ver-
ticillat/e- The upper lip of the calyx is orbiculated,
the inferior one quadrifid ; the corolla is refupinated,
with one lip quadrifid, the other undivided ; the ex¬
terior filament fends out a reflected procefs at the bafe.
There are eight fpecies, all of them natives of warm
climates, rifing from fix inches to two feet in height,
and having a ftrong aromatic fmtll, refembling that of
cloves. One of the fpecies is ufed in the kitchen, par¬
ticularly by the French cooks, who make great ufe of
it in their foups and fauces. This rifes about ten
inches high, fending out branches by pairs oppofite,
from the bottom ; the ftalks and branches are four-
cornered 5 the leaves are oval, fpear-fhaped, ending in
acute points, and are indented on their edges ; the
whole plant is haiiy, and has a ftrong feent of cloves
too powerful for moft perfons, but to fome it is very
agreeable. Thefe plants are propagated by feeds, and
will thrive in this country in the open air,and will even
ripen their feeds if placed in a ftove or airy glafs-cafe.
OCZAKOW, or Oczakoff, a town of Turkey in
Europe, and capital of a Sangiack of the fame name,
inhabited by Tartars. During a late war, here was a
Turkifti garrifon of 20,000 men. However, it was ta¬
ken by the Ruffians in 1737, and all thofe that refifted
were put to the f.vord. The Ruffians themfelves loft
6 18,ooo
Oczaltow
U 11 V
yh- Bach;
O D A
t S,00O men in the afiault. rlhe Turk
f?.me year with 70,000 men to retake it ; hut were ob¬
liged to retire, after the lofs of 20,000. In )73^> tlie
Ruffians withdrew their garrifon, and demohfhed the
fortifications. It is feated on the river Bog, to the
well of the Nieper, or rather where they both unite
and fall into the Black Sea. It is 42 miles fouth-weft
of Bialagrod, and 190 north by call of Conftantinople.
It has been lately a fubjea of great conteft between
the Ruffians and Turks. The affair is frelh in our
readers memories ; but the following more particular
account of the place, will not, we truft, be unaccep¬
table to our readers.—It is called by the Burks JDxain
Crimenda, is feated at the mouth of the Nieper into
the Black Sea, 120 miles from Bender, to the fouth-
eaft. The river is here above a mile broad. Hi¬
ther the Turkiffi galleys retire which guard the
mouth of the river, to prevent the Coffacks from pi¬
rating upon the Black Sea. Here is no port, but
good anchorage. It is defended by a caftle, furround-
ed with walls 25 feet high ; thofe of the town are
much lower. There are about 2000 people at Oc-
zakow. Below the caftle are two towns or fuburbs,
fituated on the declivity of a hill, which on the other
fide has nothing but precipices. To the fouth of thefe
towns is another fmall caftle, where is fome artillery
to prevent veffels from coming up the river. Here is
alfo a tower, in which are always fome Turks upon
the watch to difcover from afar any of the Coffacks
at fea, and give notice of them to the galleys by a fig-
nal. The city is inhabited by Tartars though garri-
foned by Turks. E. Eong. 30. 50. N. Eat. 46. 50.
ODA, in the Turkifh feraglio, fignifies a clafs, or¬
der, or chamber. The grand ngnior’s pages are di¬
vided into five claffes or chambers. The firft, which
is the lowed in dignity, is called the great oda, from
the greater number of psrfons that compofe it; thefe
are the juniors, who are taught to read, write, and
fpeak the languages. The fecond is called the little
oda, where from the age of 14 or 15 years, till about
20, they are trained up to arms, and the ftudy of all
the polite learning the Turks are acquainted with. The
third chamber, called kilar oda, confifts of 200 pages,
which, befidqs their other exercifes, are under the
command of the kilardgi-bachi, and ferve in the pan¬
try and fruitery. The fourth confifts only of 24, who
are under the command of the khazineda-bachi, and
have charge of the treafure in the grand fignior’s
apartment, which they never enter with cloaths that
have pockets. The fifth is called has oda or privy-
ehamler ; and is compofed of only 40 pages who attend
in the prince’s chamber. Every night eight of thele
pages keep guard in the grand iignior's bed-chamber
while he fleeps : they take care that the light, which
is conftantly kept in the room, does not glare in his
eyes, left it fhould awake him : and if they find him
difturbed with troublefome dreams, they caufe him to
be awaked by one of their agas.
Oda-Bachi, or OddalaJJi, an officer in the Turkifh
foldiery, equivalent to a ferjeant or corporal among us.
The common foldiers and janizaries, called oldachis, af¬
ter having ferved a certain term of years, are always
preferred and made biquelairs ; and of biquelairs in
time become odobaehis, i. e. corporals of companies,
[ 183 ] ODE
returned the or chiefs of certain divifions, whofe number is not fix¬
ed ; being fometimes ten, and fometimes twenty.
Their pay is fix doubles per month ; and they are di-
ftinguifhed by a large felt, a foot broad and above a
foot long, hanging on the back, with two long oftrich
feathers.
ODE, in poetry, a fong, or compofition proper to
be fung. See Poetry.
ODED, a prophet of the Lord, who being at Sa¬
maria, when the Ifraelites of the ten tribes returned
from the war, with their king Pekah, together with
200,000 of the people of Judah captives, he went out
to meet them, and faid, “ You have feen that the Lord
God of your fathers was in wrath againft Judah ; he
has therefore delivered them into your hands, and you
have flain them inhumanly, fo that your cruelty has
afeended up into heaven ; and more than this, you
would make flaves of the children of Judah, who are
your brethren, and would add this fin to the many
others you have committed : therefore, hear the coun-
fel that I give you ; fend back thefe captives, left the
Lord ftiould pour out his fury upon you.” Oded ha¬
ving done fpeaking, fome of the chiefs of Samaria fe-
conded him, and by their remonftranccs prevailed with
the Ifraelites to fet the captives at liberty (2 Chron.
xxviii.) SeeAnAZ.
The enlargement of the captives being obtained, the
principal men of Samaria took care of them, gave them
cloaths and food and other neceffary affiftances. After
which they furniffied them with horfes, becaufe the
greateft part of them were fo tired and exhaufted that
they were not able to walk. Thus they conduced them
to Jericho, which was in the confines of the land of Ju¬
dah. This is all that is come to our knowledge con¬
cerning the prophet Oded.
ODENSEE, the capital of the ifle of Funen, a
place of fuch high antiquity, that fome Danilh
writers derive its foundation and name from Oden,
the god and hero of the Gothic nations. “ Its-
name certainly occurs (fays Mr Coxe) in the earlieft
ages of the Danifh hiftory ; and it was a town of
great note long before Copenhagen exifted. Odenfee
ftands upon a fmall river, not navigable, and about
tw?o miles from the bay of Stegeftrand. Many of
the houfes are ancient, bearing dates about the middle
of the 3 6th century ; but part is newly built : it con¬
tains about 5-2CO inhabitants, who carry on fome com¬
merce, exporting chiefly grain and leather; the lat¬
ter is much efteemed, and its goodnefs is fuppofed to
arife from a. certain prop; y in the river water, in
which it is foaked for tanning. The Danilh cavalry
are fupplied from thence with the- greateft part of
their leathern accoutrements.
“ Odenfee is the feat of a bifliop, which was founded
by H-arald Blaatand in 98c, and is the richeft in Den¬
mark next to Copenhagen. It has afehool, endowed
by the celebrated Margaret of Valdemar, in which
a certain number of fcholars, from fix to 16 years of
age, are inftrudled gratis : they live and board in the
town, and each receives a yearly penfion ; other fcho-
larlhips have been alfo founded by private perfons.
The whole number amounted to 70. There is alfo
a gymnafium, inilituted by Chriftian IV. for the ad-
miffion of ftudents at the age of 16. This, feminary
was.
Ode
i!
OdeiilrC.
OJiii.
odi r >84 i
Oderntus was ft 111 further improved by the liberality of Heiberg the dialed of the
the Danifh hiftorian, who proteded letters with the
fame zeal with which he cultivated them. It is now
greatly fallen from its former flourifhing Hate, con¬
taining, when I paffed through the town, only eight
ftudents. The cathedral is a large old brick building,
which has nothing remarkable except fome coftiy mo¬
numents of a private Danifh fam ly. The church,
which formerly belonged to the convent of Reeulets,
contains the fepulehre of John king of Denmark, and
of his fon Chriftian II.” E. Long. 10. 27. N. Lat.
55. 28.
ODENATUS, a celebrated prince of Palmyra.
He very early inured himfelf to bear fatigues, artd
by hunting leopards and wild beads, accuftomed
himfelf to the labours of a military life. He was
a faithful friend to the Romans ; and when Aure-
lian had been taken prifoner by Sapor king of Per-
fia, Odenatus warmly interefted himfelf in his caufe4
and folirited his releafe, by writing to the conqueror,
and by fending him prefents. The king of Perfia
was offended at this liberty of Odenatus, be tore the
letter, and ordered the prefents that were offered to
be thrown into a river; and in order to punifh Odenatus,
who had the impudence, as he called it, to pay homage
to fo great a monarch as himfelf, he commanded him
to appear before him, on pain of being devoted to
inftant deftruftion with all his family, if he dared to
refufe. Odenatus defpifed this haughty fummors of
.Sapor, and oppofed force by force. Pie obtained
fome conflderable advantages over the troops of the
Pei flan king and took his wife prifoner, with a great
and rich booty. Thefe fervices were obferved with
gratitude by the Romans; and Gallienus, the then
emperor, named Odenatus as his colleague on the
throne, and gave the title of Augujhis to his children
and to his wife the celebrated Zenobia. Odenatua
invefted with new power, refolved to fignalife himfelf
more confpicuoufly by conquering the barbarians of
the north : but bis exulting was oi fhort duration; he
perifned by the dagger of one of his own relations,
v'hom he had (lightly offended at a domeftic enter¬
tainment. He died at Emeffa about the 267th year
of the Chriflian era. Zenobia i'ucceeded to his titles
and honours.
ODER, a river of Germany, which has its fource
near a town of the fame name in Sileiia, and on the
confines of Moravia. It runs north through that
province, and then into the Marche of Brandenburg
and Pomerania, where it »*-ms a large lake, afterwards
falling into the Baltic Sea by three mouths ; between
which lie the iflands Ufedom and Wolin. It paffes by
feveral towns; as Ratibor, Oppelen, Bieflau, Glogan,
and Croffen, in Sild'a ; Francfort, Lebus, and Cu-
itrin, in Brandenburg ; and Gartz, Stetin, Cammin,
Wallin, PTfedom, and Wolgafl, in Pomerania.
ODEUM, in Grecian antiquity, a nvufic-theatre,
built by Pericles ; the infide of which was filled with
feats and ranges of pillars, and on the outfide the
roof defeended (helving downwards from a point in the
centre, with many bendings, in imitation of the king
of Perfia’s pavilion. PIere the mufical prizes were con¬
tended for ; and here alfo, according to Ariftophanes,
•was a tribunal.
*Oc)lN (ice Frfa), in mythology, called alfo in
N° 245.
o D 1
Anglo-Saxons IVcdcn or JVodan, a Odin
name given by the ancient Scythians to their fupreme —v—
god, and affurned, about 70 years before the Chrill-
ian era, by Sigge, a Scythian prince, who conquered
the northern nations, made great changes in their go¬
vernment, manners,and religion enjoyed great honours,
and had even divine honours paid him. According to
the account given of this conqueror by Snorro, the
ancient hi it or i an cf Norway, an 1 his commentator
Torfaeus, Odin was a Scythian, who withdrew himfelf,
with many others in his trairi, by flight, from the ven¬
geance of the Romans, under the con Juft of Pompeyj
and having officiated a1 prielt in his own country, he
affumed the direction of the religious worffiip, as well
as the civil government, of the nations which he con¬
quered. Having fubdued Denmark Sweden, and Nor¬
way, he retired to Sweden, where he died. There ia
nothing certain in this account ; hut it is probable, that
the god, whofe prophet or prieit this Scythian pretend¬
ed to be, was named Odin, and that the ignorance of
fucceeding ages confoun led the Deity with his prieff,
compofing out of the attributes of the one, and the
hi (lory of ttie other, the character of the northern
conqueror. Fie deluded the people by his enchant¬
ments and (kill in magic : having cut oh the head of
one Mimer, who in h'S lifetime was in great reputa¬
tion for wifdom, he caufed it to be embalmed, and
perfuaded the Scandinavians that he had reftored it to
the ufe ot fpeech ; and he caufed it to pronounce what¬
ever oracles he v anted. The Icelandic chronicles re-
prefent Odin as the molt eloquent and perfuafive of
men ; they aferibe to him the introduction of the art
of poetry among the Scandinavians, and likewife the
invention of the Runic charadters. Pic had alio the
addrefs to pevfuade his followers, that ht could run
over the world in the twinkling of an eye ; that he
had the diredlion of the air and tempefts that he could
transform himfelf into all forts of fhapes, could raife
the dead, could foretel things to come, deprive his
enemies, by enchantment, of health and vigour, and
difeover all the treafures concealed in the earth. They
add, that by his tender and melodious airs, he could
make the plains and mountains open and expand with
delight ; and that the gholls, thus at trailed, would
leave their infernal caverns, and Hand motionlefs about
him. Nor was he lefs dreadful and furious in battle ;
changing himfelf into the (hape of a bear, a wild bull,
or a lion, and amidft ranks of enemies committing the
moll horrible devaftation, without receiving any wound
himfelf.
Dr Henry gives this account of him : “ Odin is be-
lieved to have been the name of the one true God £il . 0
among the firlt colonies who came from the eat! and v
peopled Germany and Scandinavia, and among their
poilerity lor ieveral ages. But at length a mighty
conqueror, the leader of anew army of adventurers
from the eaft, over-run the north of Europe, ercdleJ
a great empire, affutned the name of Odin, and claim¬
ed the honours which had been formerly paid to that
deity. From thenceforward this deified mortal, un¬
der the name of Odin or IVodin, became the chief ob-
jetl of the idolatrous worfhip of the Saxons and Danes
in this ifland, as well as of many other nations. Ha.
ving been a mighty and fuccefsful v/an ior, he was b
lieved to be the god of war, who gave vidory, and
revived
o r> i C 185 1 o d y
Oi'm revived courage in the confUft. Having civilized, in
“Oclio tt^Gme meafure> countries which he conquered, and
Atia. introduced arts formerly unknown, he was alfo wor-
t—Y— fhipped as the god of arts and artifts. In a word, to
this Odin his deluded worfhippers impioully aferibed
all the attributes which belong only to the true God :
to him they built magnificent temples, offered many
facrifices, and confecrated the fourth day of the week,
which is ft ill called by his name in England and in
all the other countries where he wras formerly worlhip-
ped. Notwithftanding all this, the founders of all the
kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy pretended to
be defeended from Wodin, and fome of them at the
diftance only of a few generations.”
Odin's Fire. We have this account of it in Gough’s
Cambden. “In Evie parifti, in the Orkneys, near the fea,
arc fome rocks, which frequently in the night appear on
fire ; and the church of St Michael there was often feen
full of lights, called fires fent by Odin to guard their
tombs, but now ceafed. This may be a meteor, or
fome inflammable matter on the cliffs, as at Char-
mouth Dorfet.”
OD1NUS, a celebrated hero of antiquity, who
flourifhed about 70 years before the Chriftian era, in
the northern parts of ancient Germany, or in the mo¬
dern kingdom of Denmark. He was at the fame time
a prieft, a foldier, a poet, a monarch, and a viftor.
He impofed upon the credulity of his fuperftitious
countrymen, and made them believe that he could
raile the dead, and that he was acquainted with futu¬
rity. When he had extended his pow’er, and increaftd
his fame by conqueft and by artifice, he deter mined to
die in a different way from other men. He afiembled
1 his friends, and with the (harp point of a lance he made
in his body nine different wounds in the form of a circle;
-and when expiring he declared that he was going to
Scythia, where he ftrould become an immortal god.
He added, that he would prepare blifs and felicity for
thofe of his countrymen who lived a virtuous life, w! o
fought with bravery, and who died like heroes in the
field of battle. Thefe injun&ions had the wifhed-for
effedl: his countrymen fuperilitioufly believed him,
and conftantly recommended themfelves to his protec¬
tion when they engaged in battle ; and they entreated
him to receive the fouls of fuch as fell in war.
Be Odio et Alia. See Falfe Imprisonment.
The writ de odio et atia was anciently ufed to be di-
redled to the flieriff, commanding him to inquire whe¬
ther a prifoner charged with murder was committed
•upon juft caufe of fufpicion, or merely propter odium et
atiam, fur hatred and ill will ; and if upon the inqui-
fition due caufe of fufpicion did not then appear, then
there iffued another writ for the flier iff to admit him
to bail. This writ, according to Bradlon, ought not
to be denied to any man ; it being exprefsly ordered
to be made out gratis, without any denial, by,magna
charta, c. 26. and flatute Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. 1. c. 29;
But the ftatute of Glocefttr, 6 Edw. 1. c. 9. reftrain-
td it in the cafe of killing by mifadventure or felf-de-
fence, and the ftatute 28 Edw. III. c. 9. abolifhed it
in all cafes vvhatfoever: but as the flat. 42 Ed. III. c j.
repealed all ftatntes then in being, contrary to the
great charter, Sir Edward Coke is of opinion that the
writ de odio et atia was thereby revived. See Habeas
Corpus.
Vol. XIII, Part I.
ODO (St), fecond abbot of Clugni In France, was
illuftrious for learning and piety in the xoth century.
The fan ft icy of his life contributed greatly to enlafge
the congregation of Clugni; and he was fo efteemed,
that popes, bifhops, and fecular princes, ufually chofe
him the arbiter of their difputes. He died about the
year 942, and his works are printed in the Bibliotheq
of Clugni.
Odo Cantianus, fo called as being a native of Kent
in England, was a Benediftine monk in the 12th een
tury, in which order his learning and eloquence raifed
him to the dignity of prior and abbot. Archbifhop
Becket was his friend; and his panegyric was made by
John of Salifbury. He compofed Commentaries on
the Pentateuch, and the Second Book of Kings; Moral
Refleftions on the Pfalms ; treatifes intitled, De cnere
Philijlim ; Be moribus Ecclejiajlicis ; De vitiis et virtutibus
Anima, &c.
ODO ACER, according to Ennodius, was meanly
born, and only a private man in the guards of the
emperor Auguftulus, when (A. D. 476, under the con-
fulfhip of Baiilicus and Armatus) the barbarians chofe
him for their leader. The barbarians thought, as they
often defended Italy, they had a rigS’t at leaft to part of
it ; but upon demanding it they were refufed, and
the confequence was a revolt. Odoacer is find to
have been a man ?ff unccfmmon parts, capable alike
of commanding an army or governing a ftate. Ha¬
ving left his own country when he was very young,
to ferve in Italy, as he was of a ftature remarkably
tall, he was admitted among the emperor’s guards,
and continued in that ftation till the above year ;
.when, putting "himfelf at the head of the barbarians
in the Roman pay, who, though of different nations,
hhd unanimoufly chofen him for their leader, he march¬
ed againft Oreftes, and his fon Auguftulus, who
ftill refufed to fttare any of the lands in Italy. The
Romans were inferior both in numbers and valour,
and were eaftly conqueied : Oreftes was ordered to be
fiain ; but the emperor Auguftulus was fpared, and,
though ftripped of his dignity, was treated with hu¬
manity, and allowed a liberal firm for his own fup-
port and for that of his relations. Odoacer was pro¬
claimed king of Italy; but affumed neither the purple
nor any other mark of imperial confequence. He
was afterwards defeated and fiain by Theodoric the
Oftrogoth. See Ostrogoth.
ODONTaLGIA, the toothach. See Medi¬
cine, n° 210 and 411.
ODONTOIDE, in anatomy, an appellation given
to the procefs of the fecond vertebra of the neck, from
its refemblance to a tooth.
ODOROUS, or Odoriferous, appellations given
to whatever fmells Itrorigly, whether they he fetid or
agreeable ; but chiefly to things whofe fmell is brifk
and pleafant.
ODYSoEY, the name of an epic poem compofed
by Homer, which, when compared with the Iliad,
exhibits its author as the fetting fun, whofe gran¬
deur remains without the heat of his meridian beams.
The poet’s defign in the Odyffey was to paint the
miferies of a kingdom in the abfcnce of its fupreme
governor, and the evil confequences refulting from a
difregard of law, and of that lubordination without
which fociety cannot exift. With this view he fets
A a before
Ode
Odyfleys.
O E D
[ 186 ]
O E G
before Ins countrymen the adventures of a prince who
had been obliged to foifake hia native country, and
to head*an ar - y of his. fuhjcfts in a foreign expedi¬
tion ; and he artfully contrives,- without interrupting
the narrati to make the reader acquainted with
the {late of the country in the abfence of its foverei^n.
The chief h ng glorieufly finifiled the enterprife in
which he was engaged, was’returning with his army;
but in fpite of 'ill his eagernefs to be at home, lie
was detained on the way by tempefts for ftveral years,
and caft upon feveral countries differing from each
ntfs and cold, yielding little rcfiflance, retaining the
print of the finger when preffed with it, and accompa¬
nied with little or no pain.
This tumour obtains no certain fituation in any par¬
ticular part of the body, fince the head, eye-lids,
hand0, and fometimes part, fometimes the whole body,
is afflicted with it. When the laft mentioned is the
cafe, the patient is fiiid to he troubled with a cachexy,
leucophlegmatia, or dropfy. But ir any particular
part is more fubjedt to this difordcr than another, it
is certainly the feet, which are at that time called
Oedcr*
O-gwa,
other in mstnr eis and in government
gers his companions, not itricily oh
periflt through their
the grandees of
Ids
oBeying his orders,'
own fault. In the mean time
ils country abufe the freedom which
bfence gave them ; confume his eftate ; confpire
In thefe dan- Jewelled or adematous feet.
to de'lroy his fon ; endeavour to compel his queen to
accept one of them for her hufband ; and indulge
themf hes in every fpecies of violence, from a per-
fuafion that he would never return. In this they were
difappointed. He returns ; and difeovering himfelf
only to his fon and feme others who had maintained who was ordered to put him to death,
their allegiance, he is an eye-witnefs of the infolence prevent the misfortunes with which he vv:
of his enemies, puniflies them according to their de-
ferts, and reftorts to his iflaud that tranquillity and
repofe to which it had been a ftranger during the
many years of his abfence.
1 Such is the fable of the Odyffey, in which there
is no opportunity of difplaying that vigour and fnb-
lindty which charadterife the Iliad. “ It defeends
OEDERA, in botany r A genus of the polyparnia
fegregata order, belonging to the fyngenelia clais of
plants. The cilyces are multiflorous ; tlie corollets-
tubular, hermaphrodite, and one or two feminine ones
ligulate; the receptacle is chaffy ; the pappus with nu¬
merous chaff.
OEDIPUS, the unfortunate king of Thebes, whofe
hiftory is partly labulous, fioiujilhed about 1266 B. C.
It is laid he was given by his father to a ffiepherd,
in order to
was threatened
by on oracle. But the fliepherd, being unwilling to
kill him with his own hands, tied him by the feet
to a tree, that he might he devoured by wild beads.
The infant was however found in this fituation by
another fnepherd named Phorbas, who carried him to
Polybus king of Corinth ; where the queen, having
no children, educated him with as much care as if he
4 Blair's
IteSiurei.
from the dignity of gods and heroes f, and warlike had been her own fon. When he was grown up, he
wars informed that he was not the fon of Polybus : ou
which, by order of the oracle, he went to feek for
his father in Phocis ; but fearce was he arrived in that
country, when he met his father on the road, and
killed him without knowing him. A ffiort time after,
having delivered the country from the monller called
atchievements; but in recorrpence we have more piea-
fing pi&ures of ancient manners. Inftead of that fe¬
rocity which reigns in the other poem, this prefents us
with the mo ft amiable images of hofpitality and hu¬
manity ; entertains us with many a wonderful adven¬
ture ; and inltru&s us by fuch a conftant vein of mo¬
rality and virtue which runs through the poem,” the sphinx, he married Jocafta, without knowing that
fometimes in precepts, and always in the eonduft of Ihe was his mother, and had four children by her; but
the heto, that we ftiould not wonder if Greece, which afterwards, being informed of his inceft, he'quitted the
gave the appellation of ’wife to men who uttered (ingle throne, and, thinking himfelf unworthy of the light,
put out his eyes. Eteocles and Polynices, who were
celebrated amongft the Greeks, were born of this in-
ceftuous marriage.
OEGWA, a town on the gold coaft of Africa,
fentenqes of truth, had given to Homer the title of
the father of virtue, for introducing into his work fuch
a number of moral maxims. As a poem, however,
the Odyffey has its faults. The laft twelve books are
tedious and languid ; and we are difappointed by ihe
calm behaviour of Penelope upon the difeovery of her
long loft hufband.
OECONOMICS, the art of managing the affairs
Handing, according to Artus, on the brow of an
eminence, raifing itfelf by a gentle afeent to a confi-
derable height, and defended by rocks, againft which
the waves beat with the utmoit violence, the noife of
of a family or community; and hence the perfon who which is heard at a great diftance.
Barbot affirms, that Oegwa contains above too
honfes, disjoined by narrow crooked ftreets; and that
from the fea it has the appearance of an amphitheatre.
Des Marchais reduces the number of houfes to 200,
in the centre of which Hands a large fquare building.
takes care of the re venues and other affairs of churches,
xnonafteries, and the like, is termed mconomus.
OECONOhlY, denotes the prudent conduct, ordif-
creet and frugal management; whether of a man's own
eftate or that of another.
minimal Osconomy, comprehends the various ope- the repofitory of their gold-duft and other commo-
rations of nature in the generation, nutrition, and pre- dities. The houfes are built of earth and clay, but
+ See G<?nf-fervat’on °‘ animalsf. The dodftrine of the animal convenient, and well furniftied with chairs, flools,
rttion, Nu- oecouomy is nearly connected with phyfiology, which mats, carpets, earthen pots, and even looking-glaffes,
srition, &c. explains the feveral parts of the human body, their which laft they purchafe from the Europeans. No
ftrudture, ufe, &c. See Anatomy and Medicine. part of the coaft; is better provided with all kinds of
OECUMENICAL, fignifies the fame with genera/ eatables, which are fent in from the adjacent cantons,
or univerfal; as, (ecumenical council, bifhop, &c. and fold in public markets. Every thing is bought
OEDEMA, or Phlegmatic Tumour, in medi- and fold with gold-duft, which is the ftandard of all
cine and furgery, a fort of tumour attended with pale* other commodities, and brought hither in great abun¬
dance
O E N [ 187 ] O E N
from ail quarters of Fttu, Abrambo, Afliento, rr It grows in great plenty all over Pembrokelbire, Oen.rnii.e
and Man din go. The gold is fold by weight, and the and is called by tue inhabitants Jivejingered root: it o^nos.
quantity determined by nice fcales, made in the conn- is much ufed by them in cataptafms tor the felon or
try before it was frequented by the Europeans: a worft kind of whitlow. 1 hey eat fome parts of it, but
proof that thofe negroes are not wholly ignorant ol carefully avoid the roots or llalk. 1. itefe indeed ire
the more refined principles of mechanics. Next to of a moft pernicious nature, and never fail to prove
gold, the chief commerce of the place con lifts in inllantly fatal, unlefs a proper remedy is applied, i he
the hie of filh, of which they catch prodigious quan- following inifance, in addition to what has been fiid,
I dies oh the coafl. Although the natives are brave of the effedfs of this plant on man, is given in the
■and warlike, yet in time of peace no people are more Gentleman’s .Magazine for July 1747.
induftrious, their whole time being employed in catch- Three French prifoners being in the fields near the
fng fifh or cultivating the fruits of the earth. They town of Pembroke, dug up a large quantity of a p.ant
are extremely expert in throwing the line, and fiftmig with its roots (which they took to be wild celery) to (
by the hook; nor is their intrepidity in combating eat with their bread and butter for dinner. After
the elements, and purfuing their employments in all waffling it, while yet in the fields, they ail three eat,
kinds of weather, lefs allonhfhing. Every day in the or rather only tailed of the roots,
week, except Wednefday, which is facre i to the As they were entering the town, one of them was
Fetiche, they employ in their fcveral occupations, and feixed with convulfions. i he other two ran and fent
no feafon of the year is exempted from filhing. Their a lurgeon, who endeavoured iirlt to bleed, and then
canoes weather {forms which would endanger the vomit hi'm ; but in vain, and he died prefently.
largell (hipping ; and the negroes have the dexterity Ignorant of the caufe of their comrade s death,
of making their advantage of thofe fe-tfons, which and of their own danger, they gave of thefe roots
oblige others to difeontinue their labours, by throw- to eight other prifoners, who all cat fome of them
ing their lines with the fame fuccefs in tempeftuous with their dinner.
as in calm weather. A few minutes after, the two who gathered the
O EL AND, an ifiand of Sweden, feated on the plants were Teized in the fame manner as the lirft ;
Baltic fea, between the continent of Gothland and the of which one died : i he other was bled, and an eme-
ifle of Gothland. It lies between 56° and 570 of north tic with great difficulty forced down, on account of
latitude, and between 17* and 180 of ealt longitude, his jaws being fet. i.his operating, he recovered ; but
It is about 60 miles in length, and 15 in breadth ; was fome time much affected with a dizzinefs in his
having a y> hole fome air, and a fertile foil, with rifing head, though not lick, or in the kail difordered in
hills, and feveral eaftles. It has no town of any great his ftomach. 'i he other eight, being bled and vo-
IJOte< * mited immediately, were foon well.
OENANTHE, water dropwob t : A genus of rl his vegetable is fo extremely like celery, and there-
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs fore, as in the above caie, lo apt to be miftaken for it,
of plants;-and in the natural method ranking under that it cannot be enough guarded againft by all who have
t he 4vth order, Urriellata. The florets are ditform ; a proper regard for themfelves. In the plate (fee Plate
thofe of the dife feffile and barren; the fruit crowned CCCXLVll.), X is the fhape of the root, a, 1 he
with the calvx. There are live fpecies ; of which part cut oft from the ftalk. b, A branch taken from
the moft remarkable is the crocata, or hemlock drop^ the bottom of the llalk, where the leaves are largefl. r,
wort, growing frequently on the banks of ditches, ri- A top branch with the umbels of flowers, d. An
vers, and lakes, in many parts of Britain. The root anterior view of the flower in its natural iize. e, A
and leaves of this plant are a llrong poifon ; feveral pofteiior view of the fame, f, I he anterior appear*
perfons have periftied by eating it through miftake, ance of the flower through a microicope. 1 he
cither for water-parfnips or for celery, which lafl it pofterior view of the fame. A view of the rudi-
refembles pretty much in its leaves. So exceedingly means of the fruit after the decay of the flower. /,
deleterious is this plant, that Mr Lightfoot tells us ’I he fame magnified A ^ I he ihape of a leaf of re-
he has heard the late Mr Chriflopher d’Eh ret, tire ^ry- B, A leaf of parfley. Thefe two are printed,
celebrated botanic painter, fay, that while he was to prevent any unhappy miftake in eating the poifonous
drawing it, the fmell or effluvia only rendered him fo plant inftead of either. We have added to the figures
giddy, that he was feveral times obliged to quit the of this dangerous plant thefe leaves of celery and par-
room, and walk out In the frefli air to recover himfdf; fley, which, as we have faid, it greatly refembles, in
but recoiledling at laft what might be the probable order to (how our readers how careful they ought to
caufe of his repeated illnefs, he opened the door and be in cafe of an accident becaufe of this fimilarity.
windows of the room, and the free air then enabled OENKJE, in botany, a fpecies of iris. See Ik is. ^
him to finifh his work without anymore returns of OENOPIaE, in Grecian antiquity, a kind o£
the giddinefs. Mr Lightfoot informs us, that he cenfors at Athens, who regulated entertainments,
has given a fpoonful of the juice of this plant to a and took care that none drank too much, nor too
dog, but without any other efferil than that of making litt’e.
him very flek and ftupid. In about an hour he re- OENOS, in ornithology, the name ufed by authors
covered ; and our author has feen a goat eat it with for the flock dove, or wood-pigeon, called alfo by
impunity. To fuch of the human fpecies as have un- fome vinago, fomewhat larger than the common pigeon,
fortunately eat any part of this plant> a vomit is the but of the fame fhape and general colour. Its neck
moft approved remedy. is of a fine changeable hue, as differently oppafed to
Lobel calls this vegetable ananthe aquatica cicuta fa- the light; and its breaft, fhoulders, and wings, are of
7 A a 2 a
O E N [ 1S8
Oeno^Vicr^. a fine purplifh hue, or red wine colour, from whence
—r—1 it has its name imago. Its legs are red, and feathered
a little below the joint.
OENOTHERA, tree-primrose: A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the oftandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Calycanthema. The calyx is quadri-
’ fid ; the petals four ; the capfule cylindric beneath ;
the feeds naked. There are feven fpecies ; the moll
remarkable of which are,
1. The biennis, or common biennial tree-primrofe.
It hajh a long, thick, deeply-ftriking root; crowned
with many large, oval, fpear-fhaped, plane, fpreading
leaves ; upright, thick, firm, rough, hairy ftems, rifing
three or four feet high ; garnifhed with long, narrow,
lanceolate, clofe-fitting leaves, irregularly ; and at all
the axillas, from the middle upwards, large bright-
yellow flowers.
2. Oclovalvis, or o&ovalved, frnooth, biennial tree-
primrofe, hath upright, firm, fomcwhat hairy ftems,
rifing a yard high; oblong, fpear ihaped, pointed,
plane, fmooth leaves; and at the axillas large bright-
yellow flowers.
3. The fruticofa, or fhrubby, narrow-leaved, peren¬
nial tree primrofe, hath long thick roots; upright
under-lhrubby like red ftems, two or three feet high ;
fpear-fhaped,* lightly-indented leaves ; and at the axil¬
las pedunculated clufters of yellow flowers, fucceeded
by pedicellated, acute-angled capfules.
4. The pumila, 01 low perennial tree-primrofe, hath
fibrous roots, crowned with many oval, fpear-fhaped,
elofe-fitting leaves; flender herbaceous ftems from 10
to 12 inches long; garnifhed with fpear-fhaped, blunt,
fmooth leaves, having very fhort f6ot-ftalks ; and at the
axillas fmallifh bright yellow flowers, fucceeded by a-
cute-angled capfules.
All thefe plants flower very profufely in June and
July, coming out almoft half the length of the ftalks
from the axillas ; and as the ftalk advances in ftature
new flowers are produced, fucceeding thofe below ; in
which order the plants continue flowering from about
midfummer till Oftober : each flower is moderately
large and confpicuous, confifting of four plane petals,
which with the calyx forms a very long tube below,
•and fpreading above, generally expand moft towards
the evening; and are fucceeded by plenty of feed in
autumn for propagation.
Thefe plants are exotics from America ; but are all
very hardy, profper in any common foil and fituation,
and hava- been long in the Eqglifh gardens, efpecially
the three firft forts; but the oenothera biennis is the
moft commonly knowm
The firft and fecond fpecies are biennial, and the
third and fourth are perennial in root.
They are proper to be employed as plants of orna¬
ment for embellififing the pleafure-garden ; they may
be placed anywhere, and will effedl a very agreeable
variety three or four months with their plentiful blow
of flowers.
The biennial kinds muft be raifed annually from
feed, for they totally perifli after they have flowered.
Tut the perennials, once raifed, continue for years by
the root.
The propagation of all the forts is by feed, and the
perennial alfo by parting the roots.
8
Oeltruifc
] O E S
OENOTRIA, an ancient name of Italy ; fo called Oenotrla
from the Oenotri, (Virgil); inhabiting between Pse*
ftum and Tarencum, (Ovid). Originally Arcadians,
(Dionyfius Halicarnaffbeus), who came under the con- '
dud of Oenotrus fon of Lycaon, 17 generations be¬
fore the war of Troy, or 459 years, at 27 years each
generation, and gave name to the people. Cato de¬
rives the name from Oenotrus, king of the Sabines and
Etrufcans; but Varro from Oenotrus, king of the JLa-
tins; and Servius from the Greek name for wine, for
which Italy was famous ; of which opinion is Strabo.
OENOTRIDES j Strabo, Pliny), two fmall ifiands
in the Tufcan fea, over-againft Velia, a town of Lu-
called Pontia and Ifcia ; now Penza and Ifcbta,
on the coaft of the Principato Citra, or to the well of
Naples. So called from the Oenotri, an ancient people
of Italy.
OESEL, an ifland of the Baltic fea, at the en¬
trance of the gulf of Livonia. It is about 70 miles
in length, and in breadth, and contains loparifhes.
It is defended by the fortrefles of Airenftmrg and
Sonneburg. It lies between 220 and 24° of call longi-f
tude, and between 58° and 590 of north latitude.
OESOPHAGUS, in anatomy, the Gula, or Gi//-
let, is a membranaceous canal, reaching from the fau¬
ces to the ftomach, and conveying into it the food ta¬
ken in at the mouth. See Anatomy, n° 92.
OESTRUS, in zoology, a genus of infeds be- piatc
longing to the order of diptera. It has no mouth ; CCCI*.
but three pundures, without trunk or beak : Antenna:
taper, proceeding from a lenticular joint. There are
five fpecies.
1. Bovis, the breeze or gad-Jly.—Thorax yellow,
with a black tranfverfe line between the wings: Ab-
dopien tawny, with fine black tranfverfe lines; lafti
fegment black : Wings white, with a brown tranf¬
verfe line, and three brown fpots. Size of the large
blue fly. Depofits its eggs under the Ik in on the-
backs of oxen, where the maggots are nourifhed the
whole winter till the month of June ; and plague the
cattle fo all the fummer, that they are obliged to fly
for refuge into the water, and dare not quit it the
whole day. »
2. The hamorrhoidalis.—Body long, black, covered
with tawny hair; middle of the thorax lefs hairy;
wings immaculate ; antennae very fhort: Length half
an inch. Depofits its eggs in the redum of horfes,
and occafions great torment. See botts.
3. Ovis, the grey jly.—Spotted with black ^ front
pale-yellow ; legs brownifli ; wings with fhort black •
veins: length half an inch. Breeds in the frontal
finus of fheep ; where the maggots, hatched from the
eggs, lodge the whole winter, vellicating the internal
membranes, and often bringing on death.
5. The nafalis.— Body black; .but the head, thorax,
and abdomen, covered with pale-red hair, except the
firft fegment of the latter, which is covered with white
hair; the wings immaculate. Breeds in th« fauces of
horfes, entering by their nofe.
5. The tarandi.—Thorax yellow ; with a black line
between the wings, which are immaculate : Abdomerr
tawny, laft fegment black. Infeft the back of the
rein-deer, fo ,as greatly to retard the breed The
rein-deer of Lapland are obliged every year to fly to
the Alpine mountains, to efcape the purluit of th efe
infedff
_ Plate CCCXLMi
c_
r//////
ias/.
r//&, •//, ''A'r/ / f. /Ay/.i/''" foi -yv^v A.
Plate C C CL .
O E T r 189
infe&s: yet a fourth part of their number, peril'll by
them at two years old ; the reft are emaciated, .and
have their Ikins fpoiled. It is one of the moft curious
genera of infedls. They are diftinguifhed into feveral
fpecies, by reafon of the different places wherein
they depofit their eggs. Some, in drafted by nature
that their eggs cannot be hatched but under the
fkins of hying creatures, fuch as bulls, cows, rein-deer,
flags, and camels, fix upon them at the inftant of lay¬
ing’ their eggs. From the hinder part of their body
fflues a whiruble of wonderful ftrufture . It is a fcaly
cylinder, conipofed of four tubes, which draw out
like the pieces of a fpy ing-glafs ; the laft is arme d with
three hooks, and is the gimblet with which the ceftu
bore through the tough hides of horned cattle. Fhe
animal feems to experience no pain from the punfture,^
unlefs the infeft, plunging too deep, attacks fome
nervous fibre ; in which cafe, the beaft runs about,
and becomes furioas. The eggs being hatched, the
grub feeds on the matter of the wound. The place
of its abode forms upon the body of the quadrupeds
a bunch fometimes above an inch high. When full-
grown, the larva breaks through the tumor, and Aides
down to the ground ; for doing which it taxes the
cool of the morning, that it may neither be over¬
powered by the heat of the day, nor chilled by the
cold of the night: it then digs itfelf a burrow, into
which it retires. Its ikin grows hard, and turns to. a
very folid fhell. There it is transformed to a chryfalis,
and afterwards to a winged infeft. Nature has pro¬
vided for every exigence : the (hell wherein the oeftrus
is inclofed, is of fo ftrong a texture that it could not
make its way out, if at one of the ends there were not
a fmall valve, faftened only by a very flight filament.
The firft pufh the oeftrus makes, the door gives way
and the prifon opens. The infeft wings its way to
woods and places frequented by cattle.
OETA (anc. geog.), a mountain of Theffaly, ex¬
tending from Thermopylae weftward to the Sinus
Ambracius, and in fome meafure cutting at right
angles the mountainous country ftretching out be¬
tween Parnaffus to the fouth, and Pindus to the north.
At Thermopylae it is very rough and high, rifing and
ending in fharp and fteep rocks, affording a narrow
paffage between it and the fea from Theffaly to Lo-
cris (Strabo), with two paths over it; the one above
Trachis, very fteep and high ; the other through the
country of the fEnianes, much eafier and readier for
travellers; by this it was that Leonidas was attacked
in rear by the Periians (Paufanias). Here Hercules
laid himfelf on the funeral pile (Silius Italicus, Ovid) ;
the fpot thence called Pyra (Livy), who fays, that
the extreme mountains to the eaft are called Oeta;
and hence the poets allege, that day, night, fun, and
ftars, arofe from Oeta (Seneca, Statius, Silius Italicus,
Catullus, Virgil’S CWtfxJ—circumftances which fliow
the height of this mountain.
OETING, a town of Germany, in Upper Bavaria,
tinder the jurifdiftion of Burkhaufen. It is divided
into the upper and the lower town, and feated on the
river Inn, eight miles weft of Burkhaufen. E. Long.
12. 47. N. Lat. 4$. o. There is a greatrefort of pil¬
grims to the old chapel.
Geting, or Oetingen, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, and capital of a county of the fame
] . 0 . F F
name, feated on the river Wirnizt. E. Long. 10. 45.
N. Lat. 48.52. . , . . f
Oeting, a county of Germany, in the. circle.ot
Suabia, bounded on the north and eaft by Franconia;
on the fouth by the duchy of Neuburg; and on the
weft by that of Wirtemberg. It is about 40 miles
from eaft to weft, and 20 from north to fouth.
OFFA’s-dyke, an entrenchment call up by Offa,
Oeting
II
OfTrings.
a Saxon king, to defend England againft the incur-
fions of the Welch. It runs through Hertfordfhire,
Shroplhire, Montgomeryfhire, Denbighfhire, and Flint-
Ihire.
OFFANTO, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples. It rifes in the Apennine mountains, in the
Farther Principato ; and palling by Conza, and Monte
Verde, it afterwards feparates the Capitanata from the
Bafilicata and the Terra-di Barri, and then it falls into
the gulf of Venice, near Salpe.
OFFENCE, in law, an aft committed againft the
law, or omitted where the law requires, it.
OFFERINGS. The Hebrews had feveral kinds
of offerings, which they prefented at the temple. Some
were free-will offerings, and others were of obligation.
The firft-fruits, the tenths, the lin-offerings,’ were of
obligation; the peace-offerings, vows, offerings or
wine, oil, bread, falc, and other things, which were
made to the temple or to the miniiters of the Lord,
were offerings of devotion. The Hebrews called all
offerings in general corban. But the offerings of bread,
fait,fruits, and liquors, as wine and oil, which were pre¬
fented to- the temple, they called mincha. The facrifices
are not properly offerings, and are not commonly in¬
cluded under that name. See Corbin and Sacrifice.
The offerings of grain, meal, bread, cakes, fruits,
wine, fait, and oil, were common in the temple. Some¬
times theie offerings were alone, and fometimes they
accompanied the facrifices. Honey was never offered
with the facrifices; but it might be offered alone
in the quality of firft fruits. Now thefe were the
rules that were obferved in the prefenting of thofe
offerings, called in Hebrew mincha, or kerbon mincha ;
in the Septuagint, offerings of facrifice; and the fame
by St Jerom, oblationem facrificii; but by our tranf-
lators, meat offerings (Lev., ii. 1. &c.) There were
five forts of thefe offerings: 1. Fine flour or meal.
2. Cakes of feveral forts, baked in an oven. 3. Cakes
baked upon a plate. 4. Another fort of cakes, baked
upon a gridiron, or plate with holes in it. 5. The.
firft fruits of the new corn, which were offered either
pure and without mixture, or roaited or parched in the
ear, or out of the ear.
The cakes were kneaded with oil-olive, or fried
with oil in a pan, or only dipped in oil after they were
baked. The bread offered to be prefented upon the
altar, was to be without leaven ; for leaven was never
offered upon the altar, nor with the facriiices. But
they might make prefents of common bread to the
priefts and minifters of the temple. See Cake, &c.
The offerings now mentioned were appointed on ac¬
count of the poorer fort,who could not.go to the charge
of facrificing animals. And even thofe that offered
living viftims were not excufed from giving meal,
wine, and fait, which was to go along with the great¬
er facrifices. And* alfo thofe that offered only ob¬
lations of bread or of meal, offered alfo oil, incenfe*
fait,.
OFF [ 190 ]
fait, ?.nd wine, which were in a manner the feafoning
oi it. The prielt in waiting received the offerings from
th e hand of him that offered them ; laid a part of them
npon the altar, and referved the reff for his own fub-
hifcnce : that was his right as a minifter of the Lord.
Nothing was burnt quite up hut the ineenfe, of which
the pried kept back nothing for his own (hare.
When an Ifraelite offered a loaf to the pried, or a
Vvlude cake, the prieft broke the loaf or the cake into
two parts, fetting that part aficle that he referved to
him fell , and broke the other into crumbs ; poured oil
tipun it, fait, wine, and incenfe; and fpread the whole
upon the lire of the altar. If thefe offerings were ac¬
companied by an animal for a faerifice, it was all
thrown upon the vibfim, to be confunaed along with
it.
If thefe offerings were the ears of new corn, either
of wheat or barley, thefe ears were parched at the fire
or in the flame, and nibbed in the hand, and then of¬
fered to the prieft in a veffel; over which he put oil,
incenfe, wine, and fait, and then burnt it upon the
altar, firft having taken as much of it as of right be¬
longed to himfelf.
The greateft part of thefe offerings were voluntary,
and of pure devotion. But when an animal was of¬
fered-in facrifice, they were not at liberty to omit
thefe offerings. Every thing was to be fupplied that
was to accompany the facrifice, and which ferved as
a feafoning to the victim. There are feme cafes in
which thelaw requires only offerings of corn, or bread :
for example, when they offered the firft-fruits of their
harveft, whether they were offered folemnly by the
whole nation, or by the devotion of private perfons.
As to the quantity of meal, oil, wane, or fait, which
was to go along with the facrifices, we cannot eafily
fee that the law had determined it. Generally the
prieft threw an handful of meal or crumbs upon the
fire of the altar, with wine, oil, and fait in proportion,
and all the incenfe. All the reft belonged to him, the
Quantity depended upon the liberality of the offerer.
We obferve in more places than one, that Mofes ap¬
points an Affaron, or the tenth part of an ephah of
meal, for thofe that had not wherewithal to offer the
appointed fin-offerings (Lev. v. 11. xiv. zt.) >n the
folemn offerings of the firft fruits for the whole nation,
they offered an entire Iheaf ol corn, a lamb of a year
oldj two tenths or two affarons of fine meal mixed with
oil, and a quarter of an hin ot wine for the libation
(Lev. xxiii !o. iJ. 12, See.)
In the facrifice of jealoufy (Numb. v. ty-)? when a
jealous hufband accufed his wife of infidelity, the
hufband offered the tenth part of a fatum of barley-
meal, without oil or incenle, hecaufe it was a facrifice of
jealoufy,to difeover whether his wiie was guilty or not.
1 he offerings of the fruits of the earth, of bread,
of wine, oil, and fait, are the moft ancient of any that
have come to our knowledge. Cain offered to the
Lord of the fruits of the earth, the firlt-fruits of his
labour (Gen. iv. 3. 4.) Abel offered the firftlings of
his flocks, and of their fat. The heathen have no¬
thing more ancient in their,religion, than thefe forts
of offerings made to their gods. They oftered clean
wheat, flour, and bread.
OFFICE, a particular charge or trnft, or a dignity
attended with a public fun&ion. See Honour.—
The word is primarily ufed in fpeaking of the offices Ofg
of judicature and policy ; as the office of fecretary of ^1!
ftate, the office of a fheriff, of a juilice of peace, &c. , l'c
Office alfo fignifies a place or apartment appmm"
ed for officers to attend in, in order to difeharqe their
refpedlive duties and employments ; as the fecretary’s
office, ordnance office, excife-office, figmet-office, pa¬
per-office, pipe-office, fix clerks office, &c.
Pffice, in architedture, denotes all the apart¬
ments appointed for the. neceflary occafions of a pa¬
lace or great houfe ; as kitchen, pantries, confeftiona-
ries, &c.
Office, in the canon-law, is ufed for a benefice
that has no jurifdiftion annexed to it.
Duty upon Offices and P&ifions, a branch of the
king’s extraordinary perpetual revenue, confifting in a
payment of 1 s. in the pound (over and above all other
duties) out of all falaries, fees, and perquilites, of
offices and penfions payable by the crown. Tin's
highly-popular taxation was impofed by ftert-d1 Geo.lL
c. 22. and is under the diredtion of the commiffiontrs
of the land-tax.
OFFICER, a perfon pofftffed of a poft or office.
See the pi f eeding article.
The great officers of the crown, or Rate, are, The
lord high-lleward, the lord high-chancellor, the lord
high-treafurer, the lord-prefident of the council, the
lord privy-feal, the lord-chamberlain, the lord high-
conftabie, and the earl-marfhal; each of which fee under
its proper article.
Non ■ commiffloned Officers, are ferjeant-majors, quar¬
ter-raafter ferjeants, ferjeants, corporals, drum and fife
majors ; who are nominated by their refpe&ive cap¬
tains, and appointed by the commanding officers
of regiments, and by them reduced without a court-
martial. . . , -.> ,,
Orderly non-commiffloned Officers, are thofe who are
orderly, or on duty for that week ; who, on hearing
the drum beat for orders, are to repair to the place
appointed to receive them, and to take down in wri¬
ting, in the orderly book, what is diflated by the ad¬
jutant, or ferjeant major : they are then immediately
to fliow thefe orders to the officers of the company,
and afterwards warn the men for duty.
N/ag Officers. See Flag Officers, and Admirals.
Commijfwn Officers, are fuch as are appointed by
the king s commiffion. Such are all from the general
to the cornet and enfign inclufive. They are thus
called in contradiftin&ion to non-commiffioned officers.
See Non-CjOmmiffioned Officers.
General Officers, are thofe vvhofe command is not
limited to a Tingle company, tryop, or regiment ; but
extends to a body of forces compofed of feveral regi¬
ments: fuch are the general, lieutenant-general, major-
general, and brigadier.
Officers cf the Houfehold. See the article Hoyst-
HOLD. *
StaffiOfficers, are fuch as, in the king’s prefence,
bear a white llaff or wand ; and at other times, on
their going abroad, have it carried before them by a
footman bare-headed : fuch are the lord-fteward, lord-
chamberlain, lord treafurer, &c.
The white ftaff is taken for a commiffion ; and, at
the king’s death, each of thefe officers breaks his llaft
ovt'r the^hearfe made for the king’s body, and by this
* means
O G I r 191 ] O G Y
0 Peer 5
II
U'illn'.
means lays down his commiHion, and difeharges all his
inferior officers.
Subaltern Officers^ are all who adminifter juftice in
the name of fubjedfs; as thofe who zA under the
earl rnarfhal, admiral, &c. In the army, the fufealtern
officers are the lieutenants, cornets, enfigns, ferjeants,
and corporals.
OFFICIAL, in the canon law, an ecdefiaftical
judg^, appointed, by a bifhop, chapter, abbot, &c.
with charge of the fpiritual jurifdidfion of the dio-
Official, Is nlfo a deputy appointed by an arch*
deacon as his affiftant, who fits as iudoe in the arch-
deacon’s coiirt.
‘ OFFICINAL, in pharmaev, an appellation given
to fuch medicines, whether fimple or compound, as
arc required to be conflactly kept in the apothecaries
(hops. The officinal Jtmples are appointed, among us,
by the college of phylicians ; and the manner of ma¬
lting the compofitions diredfed in their difpenfatory.
See Pharmacy.
OFFING, or Gffin, in the fea language, that part
of the fea a good diftance from ffiore, where there is
deep water, and no need of a pilot to conduft the
flip : thus, if a flip from fhore be feen failing out to
feaward, they fay, Jhe Jlatuls for the offing; and if a
flip, having the fliore near her, have another a good
way without her, or towards the fea, they fay, that
(hip i.f in the offing.
OFF-SETS, in gardening, are the young fhoots
that foring from the roots of plants; which being
carefully feparated, and planted in a proper foil, ferve
to propagate the fpecies.
Off-sets, in furveying, are perpendiculars let fall,
and meafuring from the ftationary lines to the hedge,
fence, or extremity of an inelofure.
OGEE, or O. G. in archite&ure, a moulding con-
lifting of two members, the one concave and the other
convex ; or of a round and hollow, like an S- See
Architecture.
OGH AMS, a particular kind of fteganography, or
writing in cypher pradfife 1 by the Irifii ; of which
there were three kinds: The firft was compofed of
certain lines and marks, which derived their power
from their filiation and pofition, as they ftand in re¬
lation to one principal line, over or under which they
are placed, or through which they are draw-n ; the
principal line is horizontal, and ferveth for a rule or
guide, whofe upper part is called the left, and the un¬
der fide the right ; above, under, and through which
line, the ch a rafters or marks are drawn, which (land
in the place of vowels, confonants, diphthongs, and
triphthongs. Some authors have doubted the exilt-
ence of this fpecies of writing in cypher, called Ogham
among the Irifi; but thefe doubts are perhaps ill-found¬
ed; for feveral MSS. in this charafter fill exilf, from
which Mr Aftle has given a plate of them.
OGILBY (John), an eminent writer, was born in
or near Edinburgh, about the 17 th of November i6co.
His father having fpent his eftate, and being prifoner
in the King’s Bench for debt, could contribute but
little to his education; however, he obtained fome
knowledge in the Latin grammar, and afterwards fo
much money as to procute his father’s difeharge from
prifon, and to bind himfelf an apprentice to a dancing-
mafter in London ; when, by his dexterity in his pro-
feffion, an 1 his eomplaifaut behaviour to bis matter’s
fcholars, he obtained money to buy out the remainder
of his time, and to fet up for himfelf. But being af¬
terwards appointed to dance in the duke of Bucking¬
ham’s great made, he by a falfe ftep drained a vein in
tiie: infide of his leg, which occafoned his being ever
after fomewhat lame. When Thomas earl of Strafford
was made lord lieutenant of Ireland, he was entertain¬
ed as a daneing-mafter in his family, and made one of
the earl’s troop of guards ; at which time he compo¬
fed a hunao'rous piece called the CharaBer of a Tmo tier.
He was foon aftsr appointed mailer of the revels in
Ireland, and built a theatre at Dublin. About the
time of the Conclulion of the war in England, he,left
Ireland, and, being ffiipwtecked, came to London in a
neceffitous condition ; but foon after walked to Cam¬
bridge, where, being affi led by feveral fcholars, he be¬
came fo complete a mailer of the Latin tongue, that
in 1649 publilhed a trunfl ition of Virgil. ~ He foon
after learned Greek; and in 1660 publilhed, in folio,
a tranfl ition of Homer’s Iliad, with Annotations. A-
bout two years after he went into Ireland, where he
was made mailer of the revels by patent- He then
built another theatre in Dublin, which coll him about
loco 1. He publilhed at London, in folio, a tranflation
of Llomer’s Odyffey, with Annotations ; and after¬
wards wrote two heroic poems, intitled the Ebhefian
Matron, and the Roman Slave. He next compoftil
the Carolics, an epic poem, in 12 books, in honour of
king Charles I. but this was entirely loll in the fire of
London; when Mr Ogilby’s houfe in White Friars
was burnt down, and his whole fortune, except to the
value of five pounds, dellroyed. He, however, foon
procured his houfe to be rebuilt, fet up a printing-
office within it, was appointed his majelty’s cofmo-
grapher and geographic printer, and printed feveral
great works, tranfiated or collefted by himfelf and
his affitlants, particularly his Atlas. He died in
1676.
OGIVE, in architefture, an arch <« branch of a
Gothic vault; which, milead of being circular, paffes
diagonally from one angle to another, and forms a
crofs with the other arches. The middle, where the
ogives crofs each other, is called the key; being cut in
form of a tofe, or a cul de lamps. The members or
mouldings of the ogives are called nerves, branches, or
reins; and the arches which feparate the ogives, double
arches.
OGYGES, king of the Thebans, or, according to
others, of Ogygia and Aftse, afterwards called Bceotia
and Attica. He is recorded to have been the firlt founder
of Thebes and Eleufin. The famous deluge happened
in his time, in which fome fay he perilhed with all his
fubjefts, 1796 B. C.
OGYGIA (Homer), the ifiand of Calypfo ; placed
by Pliny in the Sinus Scylaceus, in the Ionian Sea,
oppolite to the promontory Lacinium; by Mela in the
flrait of Sicily, calling it AAee; which others place
at the promontory Circeiuna, and call it the illand of
Circe
Ogygia, the ancient name of Thebes in Boeotia ;
fo called from Ogyges, an ancient king, under whom
happened
OIL t k
liappened a great deluge, 1020 years before the firft
, 'J. Olympiad.
_ ■ OHIO, a river of North America, called by the
French the Beautiful River, has its fource between the
Allegany mountains and the lake Erie ; and running
fouth-weft through a mod delightful country, and alfo
receiving many fmaller rivers in its paffage, at length
falls into the Miffiffippi, in about 37 degrees of lati¬
tude. The French had feveral forts on and near it;
but the whole country through which it flows was
ceded by the peace of 1763 to the Britifli.
O HETEROA, one of the South Sea iflands late¬
ly difcovered, is fituated in W. Long. 150. 47. S.
Lat. 22. 27. It is neither fertile nor populous ; nor
has it an harbour or anchorage fit for (hipping, and
the difpofition of the people is hoftile to fuch as vifit
them.
OIL, in natural hiftory, an un&uous inflammable
fufeltance, drawn from feveral natural bodies, as animal
and vegetable fubftances.
Animal oils are their fats, which are originally ve^
getable oils : all animal fubftances yield them, toge¬
ther with their volatile falts, in diftillation.
Vegetable oils are obtained by expreffion, infufion,
and diftillation.
The oils by expreflion are obtained from the feed,
leaves, fruit, and bark of plants; thus, the feed of mu
{lard, and of the fun-flower, almonds, nuts, beech-
maft, See. a(Ford a copious oil by expreffion ; and the
leaves of rofemary, mint, rue, wormwood, thyme,
fage, &c. the berries of juniper, olives, Indian cloves,
nutmeg, mace, &c. the barks of cinnamon, faffafras,
and clove, yield a confiderable proportion of effential
oil by diftillation.
The method of procuring oils by expreffion is very
Ample: thus, if either fweet or bitter almonds, that are
frefh, be pounded in a mortar, the oil may be forced
out with a prefs, not heated : and in the fame manner
(hould the oil be prefled from linfeed and muftard. The
avoiding the ufe of heat, in preparing thefe oils in¬
tended for internal medicinal ufe, is of great import¬
ance, as her4 gives them a very prejudicial rancid-
nefs.
This method holds of all thofe vegetable matters
that contain a copious oil, in a loofe manner, or in cer¬
tain cavities or receptacles; the fides whereof being
broken, or fqueezed, makes them let go the oil they
contain : and thus the zeft or oil of lemon-peel,, orange-
peel, citron-peel, &c. may be readily obtained by
preflure, without the ufe of fire. But how far this me¬
thod of obtaining oils may be applied to advantage,
feems not hitherto confidered. It has been common¬
ly applied to olives, almonds, linfeed, rape-feed, beech-
maft, ben-nuts, walnuts, bay-berries, mace, nutmeg,
&c. but not, that we know of, to juniper-berries, ca-
(hew-nuts, Indian cloves, pine-apples, and many other
fubftanccs that might be enumerated, both of foreign
and domeftic growth. It has, however, been of late
fuccefsfully applied to muftard-feed, fo as to extraft a
curious gold-coloured oil, leaving a cake behind, fit
for making the common table-muftard.
Certain dry matters, as well as moift ones, may be
made to afford oils by expreffion, by grinding them
into a meal, which being fufpended to receive the va-
N° 245.
,2 1- OIL
pour of boiling water, will thus be rcoiftened fo as to 0
afford an oil in the fame manner as almonds; and thus
an oil may be procured from linfeed, hemp-feed, let¬
tuce-feed, white-poppy feed, See.
As to the treatment of oils obtained by expTeffion,
they (hould be fuffered to depurate themfelves by (land¬
ing in a moderately cool place, to feparate from their
water, and depofit their fasces ; from both which they
ought to be carefully freed. And if they are not thus ,
rendered fufficiently pure, they may be waffied well
with frefh water, then thoroughly feparated from it
again by the feparating-glafs, whereby they will be
rendered bright and clear.
The next clafs of oils are thofe made by infufion, of
decodlion, wherein the virtues of fome herb or flower
are drawn out in the oil; as the oils of rofes, chamo¬
mile, hypericum, alder, Sec. However, thefe require
to be dilfeiently treated: thus, for the feented flowers,
particularly rofes, infolation does bed ; becaufe much
boiling would exhale their more fragrant parts : but
oils impregnated with green herbs, as thofe of chamo¬
mile and alder, require long boiling, before they re¬
ceive the green colour defired. And, in general, no
oils will .bear to be boiled any longer than there remains
fome aqueous humidity, without turning black.
There are many compound oils prepared in the fame
manner, viz. by boiling and mfolation, and then drain¬
ing off the-oil for ufe.
The fame contrivance has likewife its life in making
effences for the fervice of the perfumer ; not only where
effential oils cannot be well obtained in fufficient quan¬
tities, but alfo where they are too dear. The effential
oil of jeffamine flowers, honey-fuckles, fweet-briar,
damalk-rofes, lilies of the valley, &c. are either, ex¬
tremely dear, or fcarcely obtainable by diftillation;
and, in fome of them, the odorous matter is fo fub-
tile, as almoft to be loft in the operation. But if thefe
flowers be barely infufed in fine oil of nuts, or oil of
ben, drawn without heat, and kept in a cool place,
their fubtile odorous matter will thus pafs into the oil,
and richly impregnate it with their flavour. And thefe
effences may be rendered dill more perfect by draining
off the oil at firft put on, and letting it (land again,
without heat, upon freffi flowers ; repeating the ope¬
ration twice or thrice.
Oils or fats may likewife be obtained, by boiling
and expreffion, from certam artimal-fubftances; for the
membranes which contain the fat, being chopped
fmall, and fet in a pan over the fire, become fit for the
canvas bag, and, by preffure, afford a large quantity
of fat ; as we fee in the art of chandlery, which thus
extra&ing the oily matter, leaves a cake-behnid, com¬
monly called graves.
As to the effential oils of vegetables, they are ob¬
tained by diftillation with an alembic and a large re¬
frigeratory. Water mud be added to the materials,
in fufficient quantity, to prevent their burning ; and
they (hould be macerated or digefttd in that water, a
little time before diftillation. The oil comes over with
the water; and either fwims on tne top, or finks to
the bottom, according as it is fpecifically heavier or
lighter than water.
This procefs is applicable to the diftilling of the ef¬
fential oils from flowers, leaves, barks, roots, woods,
gums,
OIL L 103 1 OLD
gums, and balfams, with a flight alteration of circum-
ftances, as by longer digeition, brifker diftillation, &c.
according to the tenacity and hardnefs of the fubjedt,
the ponderofity of the oil, &c.
Eflential oils may be divided into two clafles, ac¬
cording to their different fpecific gravities ; fome float-
ing upon water, and others readily finking to the bot¬
tom. Thus, the eflential oils of cloves, cinnamon, and
faflafras, readily fink, whereas thofe of lavender, mar¬
joram, mint, &<;. fwim, in water : the lighteft of thefe
eflential oils is, perhaps, that of citron-peel, which
even floats in fpirit of wine ; and the heavieft ieems to
be oil of faflafras.
For obtaining the full quantity of the more ponder¬
ous oils from cinnamon, cloves, faflafras, &c. it is
proper to reduce the fubje&s to powder; todigeftthis
powder for fome days in a warm place, with thrice its
quantity of foft river-water, made very faline by the
addition of fea-falt, or fharp with oil of vitriol; to ufe
the (trained decodtion, or liquor left behind in the ftill,
inftead of common water, for frefli digeflion ; to ufe
for the fame purpofe the water of the fecond running,
after being cleared of its oil; not to dittil too large a
quantity of thefe fubiedts at once ; to leave a confide-
rable part of the ftill, or about one fourth, empty ; to
ufe a brilk fire, or a ftrong boiling heat, at the firft,
but to flacken it afterwards; to have a low ftill-head,
with a proper internal ledge and current leading to the
nofe of the worm ; and, finally, to cohobate the wa¬
ter, or pour back the liquor of the fecond running
upon the matter in the ftill, repeating this once or
twice.
The directions here laid down for obtaining the pon¬
derous oils to advantage, are eafily transferred to the
obtaining of the lighter ; fo that we need not dwell
particularly upon them.
Many of the eflential oils being dear, it is a ve¬
ry common praftice to adulterate or debafe them fe-
veral ways, fo as to render them cheaper both to the
feller and the buyer. Thefe feveral ways feem redu¬
cible to three general kinds, each of which has its
proper method of dete&ion, viz. I. With exprefled
oils. 2. With alcohol. And, 3. With cheaper eflen-
tial oils.
If an eflential oil be adulterated with an exprefled
oil, it is eafy to difeover the fraud ; by adding a little
fpirit of wine to a few drops of the fufpefted eflential
oil, and fliaking them together; for the fpirit v/ill
diflblve all the oil that is eflential, or procured by di¬
ftillation, and leave all the expreffed oil that was mix¬
ed with it, untouched.
If an eflential oil be adulterated with alcohol, or
rectified fpirit of wine, it may be done in any propor¬
tion, up to that of an equal quantity, without being
eafily difcoverable either by the fmell or tafte: the
way to difeover this fraud, is to put a few drops of
the oil into a glafs of fair water; and if the oil be
adulterated with fpirit, the water will immediately turn
milky, and, by continuing to (hake the glafs, the whole
quantity of fpirit will be abforbed by the water, and
leave the oil pure at top.
Finally, if an eflential oil be adulterated by a cheap¬
er eftential oil, this is commonly done very artfully ;
the method is to put fir-vveod, turpentine, or oil of
Vol. XIII. Part I.
turpentine, into the ftill, along with the herbs to be
diftilled for their oil, fuch as rofemary, lavender, ori¬
ganum, &c. and by this means the oil of turpentine
diftilled from thefe ingredients comes over in great
quantity, and intimately blended with the oil of the
genuine ingredient. The oils thus adulterated always
difeover themfelves in time, by their own flavour be¬
ing overpowered by the turpentine-fmell: but the
read^way to deteft the fraud, is to drench a piece of
rag, or paper, in the oil, and hold it before the fire ;
for thus the grateful flavour of the plant will fly off,
and leave the naked turpentine-feent behind.
The virtues of oils, being the fame with thofe of the
fubftances from whence they are obtained, may be
learned under their feveral articles, to which we refer.
We have this account of different oils in the ifland
of Madagafcar in the Univerfal Hiftory.
Oils are of different forts ; the moft common are
thofe of menach-tanhetanhe, menach fignifying oil,
menachil,menach-chouivau,menach-mafoutra, menach-
vourave, menach-apocapouc, menach-vintang, and me¬
nach arame. Menach-tanhetanhe is drawn from a
particular plant, called, in the language of the coun¬
try, tanhetanhey and known in Europe by the name of
pa/ma Chrljliy or Ricinus. Menachil is an oil from the
feed of fefame, which they call voancaze; a great quan¬
tity whereof is made in the valley of Amboule. Me¬
nach chouivau is drawn from a fruit of the fize of an
almond, extremely good in liquors or meats. Menach-
mafoutra is drawn from nuts, the fruit of the tree
which produces dragon’s blood. Mcnach-vourave is
drawn from a fruit named fontji. Menach-apocapouc
is fqueezed from the fruit apocapouc, extremely poi-
fonous. Menach-vintang is an oil from large acorns,
or maft. Menach-arsme is drawn from nuts, the fruit
of the tree from which the gum tacamahaca is pro*
duced.
Rock Oil. See Petroleum.
EJJential Oil of Rofes. See Roses.
Method of Purifying Rancid Oils. See Chemistry,
n° 14-31.
OINTMENT, in pharmacy. See Unguent.
OKEHAM, the capital of Rutlandfhire, in Eng¬
land, feated in a rich and pleafant valley, called the
vale of Catmus. It is pretty well built, has a good
church, a free-fehool, and an hofpital. W. Long. o.
45. N. Lat. 52. 40.
OKINGHAM, Ockingham, or IVoxingharriy a
large town of Berkfhire, in England, noted for the
manufacture of filk ftockings. W. Long. o. to. N-
Lat. 51. 26.
OLAUS magnus. See Magnus.
OKRA. See Hibiscus.
O LAX, in botany : A genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants’; and in
the natural method ranking with thofe of which the
order is doubtful. The calyx is entire ; the corolla
funnel-fhaped and trifid; the nettarium tetraphyi-
lous.
OLD age. See Longevity. Many methods
have been propofed for lengthening life, and render¬
ing old age comfortable. Cornara’s Treatile on this
fuhjeCt is known to every body, and needs not be
quoted. To fome of our readers the following fet. Qf
£ k refolutioiis
O L D
I 194 1
OLD
refolntions will perhaps be new, and may certainly be
ufeful. . r
The old men fhould refolve, except the reafons for
a change be invincible, to live and to uie in the puo-
lic profefiion of the religion in which they were horn and
bred. To avoid all profane talk and intricate de¬
bates on facred topics. To endeavour to get the bet-
ter of the intrufions of Indolence of mind and body,
thofe certain harbingers of enfeebling age. Rather
to wear out, than to mil out. To rife early, and as
often as poffible to go to bed before midnight. Not
to nod in company, nor to indulge rtpofe too ne-
quently on the couch in the day. To watte as little
of life in deep as may be, for we Avail have enough in
the grave. Not to give up walking ; nor to ride-on
horfeback to fatigue. Experience, and a late medical
opinion, determine to ride five miles every day. No¬
thing contributes more to the prefervation of appetite,
and the prolongation of life. Cheyne's direction to
the valetudinary, “ to make exercife a part of their
religion,” to be religioufly obferved. To continue
the praftice of reading, purfued for more than hfty
venrs, in books on all fubje&s ; for variety is the fait
of the mind as well as of life. Other people s thoughts,
like the bed converfation of one’s companions, are ge¬
nerally better and more agreeable than one’s own.
Frequently to think over the virtues of one’s acquain¬
tance, old and new. To admit every eheerful ray of
fun-lhine on the imagination. To avoid retrofpe&ion
on a part friendfhip, which had much of love in it ;
for memory often comes when fhe is not invited. To
try to think more of the living and lefs of the dead ;
for the dead belong to a world of their own. To live
within one’s income, be it large or little. Not to let
paffion of any fort run away with the underltanding.
Not to encourage romantic hopes nor fears. Not to
drive away hope, the foveteign balm of life, though
he is the greateib of all flatterers. Not to be under
the dominion of fuperftition or enthufiafm. Not wil-
fuilv to undeitake any thing for which the nerves of
the'mind or the body are not ftrong enough. Not to
run the race of competition, or to be in another’s way.
To avoid being joflled too much in the ftreet, being
overcome by the noife of the carriages, and not to be
carried even bv curiofity itfelf into a large crowd. To
ftrtve to embody that dignified fentiment, “ to^write
injuries in duft, but kindneffes in marble.” Not to
give the reins to conftitutional impatience,Xor it is
apt to hurry on the firib expreffions into the indecen¬
cy of fwearing. To recoiled, that he who can keep
his own temper may be mailer of another’s. If one
cannot be a ttoic, in bearing and forbearing, on every
trying occafion, yet it may not be impoffible to pull
the check-flring againft the morofenefs of fpleen or
the impetuofity of peevifhnefs. Anger is a fhort mad-
nefs. Not to fall in love, now on the precipice of
threefcore, nor expeft to be fallen in love with. A
connexion between fummer and winter is an impro¬
per one. Love, like lire, is a good fervant, but a
bad mailer. Love is death, when the animal fpirits
are gone. To contrive to have as few vacant hours
upon one’s hands as poffible, that idlenefs, the mo¬
ther of crimes and vices, may not pay its vifit. To
be always doing of fomething, and to have fomething
to do. To hll up erne’s time, and to have a good deal
to fill up ; for time is the materials that life is made
of. If one is not able by fituation, or through the ”
ncceffity of railing the fupplies within the year, or by
habit (for virtue itfelf is but habit),to do much ollenta-
tious good, yet do as little harm as poffible. To make
the heft and the mod of every thing. Not to in¬
duce too much in the luxury of the table, nor yet to
underlive the conftitution. The gout, rheum.atifm,
and dropfy, in the language of the Spectator, feetn
to be hovering over the difhes. Wine, the great pur¬
veyor of pleafure, and the fecond in rank among the
fenfes, offers his fervice, when love takes his leave.
It is natural to catch hold of every help, when the
fpirits begin to droop. Love and wine are good cor¬
dials, but are not proper for the leverage of common
uie. Refolve not to go to bed on a full meal. A
light fupper and a good confidence are the heft re¬
ceipts for a good night’s reft, and the parents of im-
difturbing dreams. Not to be enervated by the flatu¬
lency of tea. Let the fecond or thiid morning’s
thought be to confider of the employment for the
day ; and one of the laft at night to inquire what has
been done in the courfe of it. Not to let one's tongue
run at the expence of truth. Not to be too commu¬
nicative nor unreferved. A clofe tongue, with an
open countenance, are the fafeft paffports through the
journey of the world. To correA the error of too
much talking, and reftratn the narrativenefs of the ap¬
proaching clima&cric. To take the good-natured fide
in converfation. However, not to praife every body,
for that is to praife no body. Not to be inquifitive,
and eager to know fecrets, nor be thought to have a
head full of other people’s affairs. Not to make an
enemy, nor to lofe a friend. To aim at the efteem
of the public, and to leave a good name behind. Not
to be lingular in drefs, in behaviour, in notions, or
expreffions of one’s thoughts. Never to give bad ad¬
vice, and to {hive not to fet a bad example. Seldom
to give advice till afked, for it appears like giving
fomething that is fuperfluous to one’s felf. Not to
like or diflike too much at firft fight. Not to won¬
der, for all wonder is ignorance that poffeffion falls
ffiort of txpeftation. The longing of twenty years
may be difappointed in the unanfvvered gratification
of a tingle hour. Whilft we are wiping, we fee the
teil fide ; after we have taken poffeffion, the worft.
Refolved to attend to the arguments on both lides,
and to hear every body againft. every body. The mind
ought not to be made up, but upon the heft evidence.
To be affe&ionate to relations, which is a kind of felf-
love, in preference to all other acquaintance. But not to
omit paying the commanding refpedt to meiit, which
is fuperior to all the accidental chains of kindred.
Not to debilitate the mind by new and future com-
pofitions. Like the fpider, it may fpin itfelf to death.
The mind, like the field, muft have its fallow feafon.
The leifure of the pen has created honourable ac¬
quaintance, and pleafed all it has wifhed to pleafe.
To refolve not to be too free of promifes, for per-
foimanees are fometimes very difficult things. Not to
be too much alone, nor to read, nor meditate, or talk
too much on points that may awaken tender fenfa-
tions, and be too pathetic for the foul. fo enjoy the
prefent, not to be made too unhappy by refleaion on
the paft, nor to be opprefled by invincible gloom on
the
OM.
OLD r '
the future. To give and receive comfort, thofe ne-
cefiary alms to a diftrelied mind. To be conftantly
S thankful to Providence for the plenty hitherto poffef-
  fed, which has preferved one from the dependence on
party, perfons, and opinions, and kept one out of debt.
The appearance of a happy fituation, and opportuni¬
ties of tailing many worldly felicities (for content has
feldom perverted itfelf into difeontent), has induced
many to conclude, that one mull be pleafed with one’s
lot in life ; and it occafions many to look with the
eye of innocent envy. To refolve mere than ever to
{him every public ftation and refponfibility of conduft.
To be fatisfied with being mailer of one’s felf, one’s
habits, now a fecond nature, and one’s time. Deter¬
mined not to folicit, unlefs trampled upon by fortune,
to live and die in the batnefs of trade, or a proieffion.
To take care that pity (humanity is not here meant )
does not find out one in the endurance of any calami¬
ty. When pity is within call, contempt is not far off.
Not to wifh to have a greater hold of life, nor to quit
that hold. The poffible tenure of exiilence is of too
fhort poffeffxon for the long night that is to fucceed :
therefore rot a moment to be loft. Not to lofe fight,
« even for a fingle day, of thefe good a»,d proverbial
dodlors —diet—merryrnan—and quiet. Refolved to
remember and to recommend, towards tranquillity and
longevity, tbe three oral maxims of bir Hans Sloane
“ Never to quarrel with one’s felf—one’s wife —
or one’s prince.” Daftly, not to put one’s felf too
much in the power of tbe elements, thofe great ene¬
mies to the human frame ; namely, the fun—the wind
— the rain —and the night air.
O/.P-Man of tbe Mountain. See Assassins.
OLDCASTLD (Sir John), called the Good Lord
Colham, was born in the reign of Edward III. and
was the firtl author as well as the firfl martyr among
the Englifh nobility : he obtained his peerage by mar¬
rying the heirefs of that Lord Cobham who with fo
much virtue and patriotifm oppofed the tyranny of
Richard II. By his means the famous flatute againft
provifors was revived, and guarded againft by feverer
penalties ; he was one of the leaders of the reforming
party ; was at great expence in procuring and difper-
fing copies of Wickliffe’s writings among the people,
as well as by maintaining a number of his difciples as
itinerant preachers. In the reign of Henry V. he was
accufed of herefy j the growth of which was attribu¬
ted to his influence. Being a domeftic in the king’s
court, the king delayed his profecution that he might
reafon with him himfelf; but not being able to re¬
claim him to the church of Rome, he in great difplea-
fure refigned him to its cenfure. He was apprehended
■and condemned for herefy ; but efcaping from the tow¬
er, lay concealed for four years in Wales, until the ru¬
mour of a pretended confpiracy was raifed againft him,
and a price fet upon his head : he was at laft feized,
and executed in St Giles’s f ields ; being hung alive in
chains upon a gallows, ami burned by a fire placed
underneath. He wrote “ Twelve Conclufions, ad-
dreffed to the Parliament of England.”
OLDENBURG, a title of the royal houfe of
Denmark. The origin of this illuitrious family, we
are told, is this.
On the death of Chriftopher king of Denmark, See.
in 1448, without iffue, there was a great cor.teil about
?5 ] O I. D
the fuceeflion ; ?ncl a variety of faftions were raifeJtf
particularly in Sweden and Norway, for the promo¬
tion of different perfons, and various animolities and
numerous difeords were excited by the feveral parties,
in order each to obtain their own ends.
As foon as thefe intrigues were known in Denmark,
the fenate relblved to proceed to the ele&ion of a
king ; for it did not appear expedient to commit the
government of affairs to the queen-dowager, at a time
when they had every thing to fear from the two neigh¬
bouring crowns. At this time a lord of great weight,
property, and ambition, fought the queen in marriage,
the more eafdy to pave his way to the throne. This
is a fadl mentioned by Pontanus and Meurfius, though
neither takes notice of his name. But as lor a great
number of years there was no precedent for eiedling a
king out of the body of nobility, though agreeable to
law, the queen entered into the views of the fenate,
and declared fine would give her hand to no prince
who ftiould not be judged deferving of the crown by
the fupreme council of the nation.
The advantages which would have accrued from an¬
nexing the duchy of Slefwick and Kolftein to the
crown, made the fenate rirft call their eyes on Adol¬
phus. This matter required no long deliberation ; all
faw the conveniencies refulting from fuch an union,
and gave their afient. Immediately an embaffy was
difpatched with the offer to Adolphus; but that prince
confulting the good of his fubjedls, whofe intereft
would have been abforbed in the fuperior weight of
Denmark, declined it, with a moderation and difin-
tereilednefs altogether uncommon among princes.
However, that he micht not be wanting in refpCdl to
the fenate, he propofed to them his nephew Chriftian,
fecond fon to Theodoric, count of Oldenburg, a prince
bred up at the court of Adolphus from his infancyc
The propofition was fo agreeable to the fenate, that,
without lofs of time, the ambaffadors were fent to
Theodoric, to demand either of his fons he fhould
pitch upon for their king. Theodoric’s anfwer to the
ambaffadors was remarkable : “ I have three fons,
fays he, of very oppofite qualities. One ia pafiion-
ately fond of pleafure and women ; another breathes
nothing but war, without regarding the juftice of the
caufe ; but the third is moderate in his difpofition,
prefers peace to the din of arms, yet Hands unrivalled
in valour, generofity, and magnanimity.” He faid
he painted thefe charadlers for the fenate’s informa¬
tion, defiring they would choofe which of the young
princes they believed weald render the kingdom hap-
piell. It was a matter which would admit of no he-
iitation : with one voice the fenate declared for that
prince whofe panegyric the father had lo warmly
drawn ; and under thefe happy a nip ices commenced
the origin of the grandeur of the houfe of Oldenburg,
at this day feated on the throne of Denmark.
Oldenhurg (Henry', a learned German gen¬
tleman in the 17th century, was defeended from the
noble family of his name, who were earls of the coun¬
ty of Oldenburg, in the north part of Weftphalia, for
many generations. He was born in the duchy of
Bremen in the Lower Saxony ; and during the long
Englifh parliament in King Charles I.’s time, was ap¬
pointed conful for his countryim-n, at London, after
the afurpation of Cromwell : but being difeharged of
• £ b 2 that
OLD [
Oldenburg that employ, he was made tutor to the lord Henry
Oldham 0’Bryiin> an Trifh nobleman, whom he attended to the
t . - J. unlverfity of Oxford, where he was admitted to fludy in
the Bodieian library in the beginning of the year 1656.
He was afterwards tutor to William lord Cavendifh,
and was acquainted vvkh Milton the poet. During his
reiidence at Oxford, he became alfo acquainted with the
members of that body there which gave birth to the
royal fociety ; and upon the foundation of this latter,
he was eledted fellow ; and when the fociety found it
neceflary to have two fecretaiies, he was chofen af-
fiftant-fecretary to Dr Wilkins. He applied himfelf
with extraordinary diligence to the bufinefs of his
office, and began the publication of the Philofophical
Tranfactions with N° 1. in L664. In order to dif-
charge this talk with greater credit to himfelf and the
fociety, he held a correfpondence with more than fe-
venty learned perfons, and others, upon a valt variety of
fubjedis, in different parts of the world. This fatigue
would have teen intupportable, had not he, as he
told Dr Lifter, managed it fo as to make one letter
.anfwer another ; and that to be always frefh, he never
read a letter before he had pen, ink, and paper, ready
to anfwer it forthwith ; fo that the multitude of his
letters cloyed him not, nor ever lay upon his hands.
Among others, he was a conftant correfpondent of Mr
Robert Boyle, with whom he had a very intimate
friendfhip ; and he tranflated feveral of that ingenious
gentleman’s works into Latin.
Mr Oldenburg continued to publifh theTranfadfions,
as before, to n° xxxvi. June 25. 1677. After which
the publication was difcontinued till the January fol¬
lowing, when it was again refumed by his fucceffor in
the fecretary’s office, Mr Nehemiah Grew, who car¬
ried it on till the end of February 1678. Our author
dying at his houfe at Charleton, near Greenwich in
Kent, in the month of Auguit that year, was interred
there.
OLDENLANDIA, in botany : A genus of the
tetrandria monogynia clafs. Its charadlers are thefe :
The empalement of the flower is permanent, fitting up¬
on the germen ; the flower has four oval petals, which
fpread open, and four ftamina, terminated by fmali
fummits; it hath a roundifh germen, fituated under
the flower, crowned by an indented ftigma ; the ger¬
men afterwards turns to a globular capfule, with two
cells filled with fmali feeds. We have but one fpeeies
ol this plant in the Englilh gardens; but Linnasus
enumerates fix.
OLDHAM (John), an eminent Englifh poet in
the 17th century, fon of a nonconformilt minifter,
was educated under his father, and then fent to Ed-
mund-hall in Oxford. He became ufher to the free-
fchool at Croydon in Surry ; where he received a vi-
fit from the earls of Rocbefter and Dorfet, Sir Charles
Sedley, and other perlons of diftindlion, merely upon
the reputation of fome verfes of his which they had feen
in manufcript. He was tutor to feveral gentlemens
fons fucceffively ; and having faved a Imall fum of
money, came to London, and became a perfedt vo¬
tary to the bottle, being an agreeable companion.
He was quickly found out here by the noblemen who
had vifited him at Croydon, who brought him ac¬
quainted with Mr Dryden. Fie lived moftly with
fiie earl of Kingfton at Holme-Pierpoint in Not-
196 ] OLE
tinghamfhire, where he died of the fmallpox in 1683, OlffHead
in the 30th year of his age. His acquaintance with 11
learned authors appears by his fatires againft the Je-
fuits, in which there is as much learning as wit difco- '
vered. Mr Dryden efteemed him highly. His works
are printed in 2 vols i2mo. They chiefly conlift of
fatires, odes, tranflations, paraphrafes of Horace and
other authors, elegiac verfes, imitations, parodies, fa¬
miliar epiftles, &c.
OLD-HEAD, fituated in the county of Cork, and
province of Munfter, four miles fouth of Kinfale, in
the barony of Courcies, Ireland : it is a promontory,
running far into the fea, on which is a light-houfe for
the convenience of (hipping.—A mile from its extre¬
mity is an ancient caftle of the lords of Kinfale, built
from one fide of the Ifthmus to the other, which de¬
fended all the lands towards the head : this place was
formerly called Duncearma, and was the old feat of the
Iriffi kings. The Ifthmus, by the working of the fea,
was quite penetrated through, fo as to form a ttupen-
dous arch, under which boats might pafs from one
bay to the other. Among the rocks of this coaft there
are aviaries of good hawks; alfo the fea-eagle or ofprey
build their ntfts and breed in them.
OLDMIXON (John), was defcended from an an¬
cient family in Somerfetffiire : he was a violent party-
writer and malevolent critic, who would fcarcely have
been remembered, if Pope, in refentment of his abufe,
had not condemned him to immortality in his Dun-
ciad. His party-wiitings procured him a place in the
revenue at Liverpool, where he died at an advanced
age in the year 1745- Befideshis fugitive temporary
pieces, he wrote a Pliftory of the Stuarts in folio; a
Critical Pliftory of England, 2 vols 8vo ; a volume of
Poems, fome dramatic pieces, &c.; none of them wor¬
thy of notice, his principal talent being that of falfify.
ing hiftory.
Old-wife, or Wrajfe. See Laerus.
Old-wife Fiji), See Balistes.
Old-woman's island, a narrow flip of land, about
two miles long, feparated from Bombay in the Ealt
Indies by an arm of the fea, which, however, is paff-
abie at low water. It terminates at one extremity in
a fmali eminence, on which a look-out houfe is kept
for veffels. Near the middle are three tombs kept con-
ftantly white, as land-marks into the harbour. From
the end of the ifland a dangerous ledge of rocks (hoots
forth, which are not very eafily cleared. It produces
only pafture for a few cattle.
OLE A, in botany, the olive-tree'. A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
44th order, Sapieria. The corolla is quadrifld, with
the fegments nearly ovate. The fruit is a monofper-
inous plum.
There are three fpecies of the olea. 1. The Euro¬
pean or common olive-tree, rifes with upright folid'
(terns, branching numeroufly on every fide, 20 or 30
feet high ; fpear-fliaped, (tiff, oppofite leaves, two or
three inches long, and half an inch or more broad 5
and at the axiilas (mall clufters of white flowers, fuc-
ceeded by oval fruit.
This fpecies is the principal fort cultivated for its
fruit; the varieties of which are numerous, varying in
fize, colour, and quality.
It
OLE [ 197 ] OLE
It is a native of the fouthern warm parts of Europe,
and is cultivated in great quantities in the fouth of
France, Italy, and Portugal, for the fruit to make
the olive-oil, which is in fo great repute, and is tranf-
ported to all parts, to the great advantage of thofe
countries where the trees grow in the open ground i
the green fruit is alfo in much tfteem for pickling, of
which we may fee plenty in the Ihops.
2. The capenjisy or cape box-leaved olive, rifes
with fhrubby ftems, branching numeroufly from the
bottom, fix or feven feet high ; fmall, oval, thick,
ftiff, Ihining leaves ; and at the axillas fmall clufters of
whitilh flowers; fucceeded by fmall fruit of inferior
value.
3. Olea odoratijjima (Indian name, quefa; Japanefe
name,^/o Ran, it: SjuRun) is thus defcribed byThun-
berg, bulbis JibroJis, folih enjbforrmbm, fejjililus, flori-
luspendulis. (See Plate CCCXLIX.) The flower of
the olea odoratiflima is by fome find to give the fine
flavour to the green tea ; but Thunberg attributes the
faid flavour to the Cemellie feftrque.
Olive-trees are eafily propagated by (hoots ; which,
when care has been taken to ingraft them properly,
bear fruit in the fpace of eight or ten years. Thofe
kinds of olive-trees which produce the pureft oil, and
bear the greateft quantity of fruit, are ingrafted on
the flocks of inferior kinds.
Different names are affigned by the French to the
different varieties of the olive-tree ; and of thefe they
reckon 19, whilfl in Florence are cultivated no fewer
than 32.
Ohve (hoots are ingrafted when in flower. If the
operation has been delayed, and the tree bears fruit,
it is thought fufficient to take oft' a ring of bark, two
fingers breadth in extent, above the higheft graft. In
that cafe the branches do not decay the firft year ;
they afford nourffhment to the fruit, and are not lopped
off till the following fpring. Olive-trees are common¬
ly planted in the form of a quincunx, and in rows at
a conliderable diftance from one another. Between
the rows it is ufual to plant vines, or to fow fome
kind ot grain. It is obferved, that olives, like many
other fruit-trees, bear well only once in two years.
The whole art of dreffing thefe trees conlifts in remo¬
ving the fuperfluous wood ; for it is remarked, that
trees loaded with too much wood produce neither fo
much fruit nor of fo good a quality.
Their propagation in England is commonly by layers.
The laying is performed on the young branches in
fpring. Give plenty of water all fummer, and they will
fometimes be rooted and fit for potting off in autumn;
but fometimes they require two fummers to be rooted
effeftually : when, however, they are properly rooted,
take them off early in autumn, and pot them feparate-
ly; give water, and place them in the fhade till they
have taken freftr root ; and in O&ober remove them
into the green houfe, &c.
Thofe you intend to plant in the open ground, as.
before fuggefted, (hould be kept in pots, in order to
have occaiional (belter of a garden-frame two or three
years, till they have acquired fome fize, and are hard¬
ened to the full air ; then transplant them into a warm
border againft a wall : mulch their roots in winter, and
mat their tops in frafty weather.
Olives have an acrid, bitter, extremely difagreeable
tafte : pickled (as we receive them from abroad) they
prove lefs difagreeable. The Lucca olives, which
are fmaller than the others, have the weakeft tafte ;
the Spanilh, or larger, the ftrongeft ; the Provence,
which are of a middling fize, are generally the molt
efteemed.
When olives are intended for prefervation, they are
gathered before they are ripe. The art of preparing
them conlifts in removing their bitternefs, in preferv-
ing them green, and in impregnating them with a
brine of aromatifed fea-falt, which gives them an a-
greeable tafte. For this purpofe different methods
are employed. Formerly they ufed a mixture of a~
pound of quicklime, with fix pounds of newly fifted
wood-afhes ; but of late, inftead of the afhes, they
employ nothing but a lye. This, it is alleged, foftens
the olives, makes them more agreeable to the tafte,
and lefs hurtful to the conftitution. In forne parts
of Provence, after the olives have lain fome time in
the brine, they remove them, take out the kernel, and
put a caper in its place. Thefe olives they preferve iiv
excellent oil; and when thus prepared, they ftrongly
ftimulate the appetite in winter. Olives perfeftly ripe
are foft and of a dark-red colour. They are then eaten
without any preparation, excepting only a feafoning of
pepper, fait, and oil; for they are extremely tart, bit¬
ter, and corroftve.
The oil is undoubtedly that part of the produce of
olive-trees which is of greateft value. The quality
of it depends on the nature of the foil where the trees
grow, on the kind of olive from which it is expreffed,
on the care which is taken in the gathering and pr ef¬
fing of the fruit, and likewife on the feparation of
the part to be extracted. Unripe olives give an into¬
lerable bitternefs to the oil ; when they are over ripe,
the oil has an unguinous tafte : it is therefore of im¬
portance to choofe the true point of maturity. When
the fituation is favourable, thofe fpecies of olives are
cultivated which yield fine oils ; otherwife, they cul¬
tivate inch fpecies of trees as bear a great quantity of
fruit, and they extract oil from it, for the ufe of foap-
cries, and for lamps.
They gather the olives about the months of No¬
vember or December. It is beft to put them as foon
as poffible into balkets, or into bags made of wool or
hair, and to prefs them immediately, in order to ex¬
tract a fine oil. Thofe who make oil only for foap-
eries, let them remain in heaps for fome time in their
ftorehoufes; when afterwards preffed, they yield a
much greater quantity of oil. Thofe even who ex-
traft oil to be ufed in food, fometimes allow them to
ferment in heaps, that they may have more oil; but
this is extremely hurtful to the quality of the oil, and is
the reafon why fine oil is fo very rare. M. Duhamel
recommends not to mix found olives with thofe in
which a fermentation has already begun, and ftill lefs
with fuch as are putrified : in both cafes, the oil which
is extra&ed is of a bad quality, and unfit for preferva¬
tion. In order to have the oil in its purity, we muft
allow it to depofit its fediment, and then pour it off
into another veffel. The oil extradled from the pulp
only of olives is the moft perfect which can be ob¬
tained, and. will keep for feveral years; but that which
OLE [ 1 OLE
is extracted from the kernel only, or from the nut, or
from the whole olive ground in the common way in
public mills, has always more or fewer defers, lofes
its limpidity in a certain time, and is very apt to be¬
come rancid. Care muft be taken likewife to keep
the oil in proper veffels well fhut. After all, in the
courfe of time, olive-oil lofes its qualities, becomes
difagreeable to the tafte and fmell, diminiihes in flui¬
dity, and at length thickens confiderably.
The refufe of the firft prefling, when fqueezed a
fecond time, yields an oil, but thicker and lefs pure
than the former. What remains after the fecond
prefiing, when mixed with a little water and placed
in a pan over the fire, produces by preflure a third
oil, but of a very inferior quality. What remains af¬
ter all the oil is exprefled, is termed grignon, and is of
no farther ufe but as fuel.
The fediment, or faces, of new oil, we name after
the ancients, amurca : it is an excellent remedy in
rheumatic affe&ions. In Paris the wax ufed for flioes
is commonly made of the dregs of defecated oil and
fmoke-black.
Oil of olives i* an ingredient in the compofition of
a great many balfams, ointments, plaflers, mollify¬
ing and relaxing liniments. It is of an emollient and
folvent nature ; mitigates gripes of the colic, and the
pains accompanying dyfentery ; and is one of the hell
remedies when one has chanced to fwallow corrofive
poifons ; but it by no means prevents the fatal acci¬
dents which enfue from the bite of a fnake, as has
been pretended. It is an effectual cure, as M. Bour¬
geois tells us, for the fling of wafps, bees, and other
infedls. A bandage foaked in the oil is immediately
applied to the fling, and a cure is obtained without
any inflammation or fwelling.
Olive oil is of no ufe in painting, becaufe it never
dries completely. The bell foap is made of it, mixed
with Alicant falt-wort and quicklime.
Great drought, as well as much rain, is extremely
injurious to the crop of olives. This fruit is much
expofed to the attacks of a worm peculiar to itfelf,
and which injures it fo much, that afier the olives
are gathered the produce of the oil extraifled from
them is diminilhed one half.
The wood of the olive tree is beautifully veined,
and has a pretty agreeable fmell: it is in great efteem
with cabinet-makers, on account of the fine polilh
which it affumes. It is of a refinous nature, and con-
lequently excellent for burning.
As the laurel branch is the fymbol of glory, fo the
olive-branch covered with leaves has fiom the molt
ancient times been the emblem of concord, the fymbol
of friendfhip and peace.
The leaves of olive-trees have an aftringeht quality.
Many people ufe them in making gargles for inflam¬
mations of the throat.
Thefe plants in this country muft be kept princi¬
pally in pots for moving to the fhelter of a green-houfe
in winter ; fot they are too tender to profper well in the
open ground in this climate : though fometimes they
are planted againft a warm fouth wall, and fheltered oc-
cafionally ffom froft in winter, by mulching the roots,
and matting their tops ; whereby they may be pre-
ferved, and will fometimes produce fruit for.pickling :
a very fevere winter, however, often kills or greatly
injures their young branches ; therefore let the prin-Oleaginoas
cipal part be potted in rich earth, and placed among II
the green houfe Ihrubs, and managed as others of u eariu*
that kind. w ^
Thefe trees are often fent over from Italy to the
Italian warehoufes in London, along with orange-
trees, &c. where pretty large plants may be purchafed
reafonably, which fhould be managed as dire&ed for
orange-trees that are imported from the fame country.
See Citrus.
OLEAGINOUS, fomething that partakes of the
nature of oil, or out of which oil may be exprefled.
OLEANDER, or rose bay, nerium : A genus
of the peutandria monogynia clafs. Its charadlers are
thefe : The empalement of the flower is permanent,
and cut into flve acute fegments; the flower has one
funnel-lhaped petal, cut into five broad obtufe feg¬
ments, which are oblique ; it hath a ne&arium, ter¬
minating the tnbe, which is torn into hairy fegments;
it hath five fhort awl-fhaped ftamina within the tube ;
it hath an oblong germen, which is bifid, with fcarce
any ftyle, crowned by Angle ftigmas ; the germen af¬
terwards turns to two long, taper, acute-pointed pods,
filled with oblong feeds lying over each other like the
feales of a fiih, and crowned with down. There are
four fpecies.
Thefe plants are generally propagated by layers in
this country ; for although they will take root from
cuttings, yet that being an uncertain method, the
other is generally preferred; and as the plants are very
apt to produce fuckers or fhoots from their roots,
thofe are belt adapted for laying; for the old branches
will not put out roots: when thefe are laid down,
they fliould be flit at a joint, in the fame manner as
is pra&ifed in laying of carnations. There are few
plants which are equal to them either to the fight
or fmell, for their feent is very like that of the flower*
of the white thorn ; and the bunches of flowers will
be very large if the plants are ftrong.
It is called nerium from “ humid/’ becaufe it
grows in humid places. The plant itfelf has a force
which is infuperable ; for its juice excites fo great
and violent an inflammation, as immediately to put a
flop to deglutition ; and if it be received into the
ftomach, that part is rendered incapable of retaining
any thing ; the pernicious drug exerting its force, and
purging both upwards and downwards.
Nerium in qualities refembles the apocynum. See
Apocynum. But when handled and examined upon an
empty ftomach, in a clofe chamber, it caufes a numb-
nefs coming by degrees, with a pain in the head ;
which ftrows that fomething poifonous belongs even to
the fmeli, though there is no danger if it be received
in the open air, as may be found upon trial. Antidotes
againft itspoifon are vinegar and all acids.
OLEARIUS (Adarn), minilter to the duke of
Holftein, and feoretary to the embafl'y fent in 1633 to
the great duke of Muicovy and to the king of Perfia.
He fpent fix years in this employment; and, on hi*
return, publiftred a relation of his journeys, with maps
and figures, at Slefwic, i6if6, in folio. He wrote an
Abridgement of the Chronicles of Ho/fein from 1448
to 1663 ; and was appointed librarian to the duke of _
Holftein, in which capacity he probably died. He
has the character of an able mathematician, an adept
©f
OLE [ IQ9 ] O L I
Olearim of mnfic, and a good orientalift, efpcciaily in the Per-
, II fian language.
Cleum. Olearius (Godfrey), fon of Godfrey Oleanus,
_ v D. D. fuperintendant of Halle in Saxony, was born
there in 1639- He became profeffor of Greek at
Leipfic ; and (howed his abilities in that language by
52 exercitations on the dominical epiftles, and upon
thofe parts of the epiftles in the New Teilament which
are read in the public exercilV.s, and which among the
Lutherans are the fubjett of part of their fermons. He
difcharged the molt important polls in the univerfity,
and among other dignities was ten times reftor of it.
His learning and induftry were difplayed in to6 theo¬
logical deputations, 61 in philofophy, fome program-
mas upon difficult points, feveral fpeeches and theolo¬
gical counfels ; which make two thick volumes : be-
fide his Moral Theology, his introduAion to Theology,
which treats of cafes of confcienee, and his Herme-
neutica Sacra. He lived to a good old age, dying in
1713. His eldeft fon of his own name was a man of
genius and learning, a profefibr in the lame univerlity,
who publilhed feveral works, but died young of a con-
fumption before bis father.
OLECRANUM, or Olecranon, in anatomy, the
protuberance of the ulna, which prevents the joint of
the elbow from being bent back beyond a certain
length. See Anatom y, n° 51.
OLENUS, a Greek poet, older than Orpheus,,
came from Xanthe, a city of Lycia. He compofed
feveral hymns, which were fang in the ifland of Delos
upon fellival days. Olenus is faid to have been one
«f the founders of the oracle at Delphi ; to have been
the firft who filled at that place the office of prieft of
Apollo; and to have given refponies in verfe : but the
truth of thefe affertions is very doubtful.
OLE RON, an ifland of France, on the coaft of
Aunis and Saintonge, about five miles from the con¬
tinent. It is 12 miles in length, and five in breadth;
and is very fertile, containing about x 2,000 inhai i-
tants, who are excellent feamen. It is defended by a
caftle, which is well fortified ; and there is a light-
houfe placed there for the diredlion of (hips. It is 14
miles fouth-eaft of Rochelle. W. Long. 1. 26. N.
Lat. 46. 10.
Sea-Laws of Oleron, certain laws relative to ma¬
ritime aiTairs, made in the time of Richard I. when he
was at the ifland of Oleron. Thefe laws, being ac¬
counted the moft excellent fea-laws in the world, are
recorded in the black book of the admiralty. See &?/-
den's Mare Claufum.
OLEUM palm* ch risti, commonly called ca-
Jlor oily is extra&ed from the kernel of the fruit pro¬
duced by the Ricinus Atnertcanus. (See Ricinus).
This oil has been much ufed as a purgative in medi¬
cine. It a&s gently on the bowels, with little or no
irritation. By many phyficians it has been deemed
a fovereign remedy in bilious, calculous, and nephri¬
tic complaints ; but its tafte is extremely naufeous, and,
when frequently ufed, it is apt to relax the tone of the
bowels. It is recommended to be given in clyfters; and
Dr Canvane of Bath affirms, that when children can¬
not be made to fwallow any medicine, if the navel
and hypochondria be rubbed with this oil, it will
produce one or two phyfxcal (tools. He adds, that
I
given in fmall draughts, or by clyfter, or by embro- Olf.uflory
cation, it is an excellent and wonderful vermifuge. _ II
OLFACTORY nerves. See Anatomy, n° 136
and 140.
OLGA, queen of Igor the fecond monarch of
Ruffia, who flouriftied about the year 880, having fuc-
ceeded his father Ruric, who died in 878. Olga was
born in Plefeow, and was of the belt family in that
city. She bore him one fon, called Swdojlaw. Igor
being murdered by the Drewenfes, orDrewliani, Olga
revenged his death. She went afterwards, for what
reafon wtc know not, to Conllantinople, where ftie was
baptized, and received the name oi Helena.
The emperor John Zimifces was her god-father,
and fell in love with her as we are told : but (he, al¬
leging their fpiritual alliance, refufed to marry him.
Her example made fome impreffion upon her fubjedls,
a good number of whom became converts to Chri-
ftianity ; but none upon her fon, who reigned for a
long time after her death, which happened at Pereflaw,
in the 80th year of her age, 14 years after her baptifm.
The Ruffians to this day rank her among their faints,
and commemorate her feilival on the I ith of July.
OLIBANUM, in pharmacy, a gummy reiin, the
pro ludl of the juntperus I'jCia (Lin.), brought from
Turkey and the Eaft Indies, ufualiy in drops or tears
like thofe of rnaftich, but larger; of a pale yellowifti,
and fometinies reddifh, colour ; a moderately warm
pungent tafte, and a ftrong, not very agreeable fmell.
This drug has received many different appellations,
according to its different appearances : the fingle tears
are called Amply olibanum, or thus ; when two are join¬
ed together, they have been called thus mafculum, and
when very large, thus jeemininum : fometimes four or
five, about the bignefs of filbreds, are found adhering
to a piece of the bark of the tree which they exuded
from ; thefe have been named thus cortkofurn : the finer
powder which rubs off from the tears in the carriage,
mica thurts; and the coarfer powder, manna thuris. This
drug is not however, in any of its ftates, what is now
called thus or franklncenfe in the (hops. See the article
Thus.
Olibanum confifts of about equal parts of a gummy
and refinous fubftance ; the firft foluble in water, the
other in rectified fpirit. With regard to its virtues,
abundance have been attributed to it, particularly in
diforders of the head and bread, in hsemoptoas, and
in alvine and uterine fluxes: but its real eff'efts in thefe
cafes are far from anfwering the promifes of the re-
commenders. Riverius is faid to have had large experi¬
ence of the good effects of this drug in pleurifies, efpe-
cially epidemic ones : he diredls a fcooped apple to be
filled with a dram of olibanum, then covered and roaft-
ed under the afties; this is to be taken fora dofe, three
ounces of carduus water after it, and the patient co¬
vered up warm in bed; in a (hort time, he fays, either
a plentiful fweat, or a gentle diarrhoea, enfues, which
carry off the difeafe. Geoffrey informs us, that he
has frequently made ufe of this medicine after venefec-
tion, with good fuccefs ; but acknowledges that it has
fometimes failed.
OLIG2EDRA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
genus of cryftals compofed of very few planes, as the
name expreffes. The word is compounded of “ a
few,”
O L I [ 200 1 O L I
* Oligarchy few,5* and (t a plane.” The bodies of this clafs
O 'varc arC cryftals t^ie *mPer^e<^ kind ; being compofed
. of columns affixed irregularly to feme folid body at
one end, and the other terminated by a pyramid: but
the column and pyramid being both pentangular, the
whole confifts only of ten planes, and not, as the com¬
mon kind, of 12.
OLIGARCHY, a form of government where¬
in the adminiftration of affairs is confined to a few
hands.
OLIO, or Oglio, a favoury diffi, or food, com-
;pofed of a great variety of ingredients ; chiefly found
at Spanifh tables.
The forms of olios are various. To give a notion
of the ftrange aflemblage, we fliall here add one from
an approved author.
Take rump of beef, neats tongues boiled and dried,
and Bologna faufages; boil them together, and, after
boiling two hours, add mutton, pork, venifon, and
bacon, cut in bits ; as alfo turnips, carrots, onions,
and cabbage, borage, endive, marigolds, forrel, and
fpinach ; then fpices, as faffron, cloves, mace, nut¬
meg, &c. T his done, in another pot put a turkey
or goofe, with capons, pheafants, wigeons, and ducks,
partridges, teals, and flock-doves, fnipes, quails, and
larks, and boil them in water and fait. In a third
veflel, prepare a fauce of white wine, ftrong broth,
butter, bottoms of artichokes, and chefnuts, with
cauliflowers, bread, marrow, yolks of eggs, mace, and
faffron. Laitly, difh the olio, by firft laying out the
beef and veal, then the venifon, mutton, tongues, and
faufages, and the roots over all ; then the largeft
fov/ls, then the fmalleft, and laftly pour on the fauce.
OLISIPO, (Pliny, Antonine, Infcriptions); a town
of Lufitania, fituated on the north fide of the frith of
the Tagus ; of fuch antiquity, that Solinus thought it
was built by Ulyfles ; and Mela, probably to favour
this opinion, writes, according to the common copies,
Ulyjfipo ; both of them perhaps deceived by the fimi-
larity of found. It was a municipium, with the fur-
name Felicltas ’Julia.) a privilege granted by the mu¬
nificence of Auguftus, (Infcriptions, Pliny). Now
Lifbon, capital of Portugal, fituated on the north
bank of the Tagus, diffant about ten miles from its
mouth. See Lisbon.
OLIVAREZ (Count de), by name Z)on Gajparde
Gtixmari) favourite and minifter to Don Philip IV. of
Spain, about 1620 ; a man of great parts and bound-
lefs ambition. Philip no fooner became king, than
lie became the fubjeft of this his favourite. The king
had abilities, it is true, but they lay dormant ; and
whilft he fpent his time in liftlefs inadlivity, the
whole government was under the direction of Oliva¬
rez. The count’s management, indeed, was fuffici-
ently dexterous in accon<plifhing his own defigns ; for
by the beft framed excufes, and on the moft plaufibie
pretexts, he removed all fuch as he thought flood in
his way ; nor did he flop there, but fometimes perfe--
cuted his rivals even to death, of which Don Rodrigo
Calderona was a melancholy inffance, an inftance which
at that time excited univerfal compaffion. This minifter,
in fhort, had a genius of no common kind; added to
which, he had a difpofition which fpurned all con*
troul.
He had perfecuted the late miuiftry for their pufilla-
N° 245.
nimity in the management of affairs ; he therefore Olivarez,
thought it neceffary, and it was certainly prudent, to 1—v—^
purfue new meafures. His felf-fufficiency, though un¬
bounded, was concealed under the veil of aflumed
modefty, and he was careful to make it appear that
he was wholly taken up with the things of his own
province. His politics were of a refined perhaps, but
not of a very ufeful, tendency ; for his imprudence, or
his wrong notions on the fubjedl, made him renew a
war with Holland, contrary to the univerfal opinion
of the council and the people. By the fame impru¬
dence, or by fomething worfe, he provoked England,
and obliged her to endeavour to humble the pride
and leflen the authority of the houfe of Auftria.
Thus far he had been of little fervice to his country,
havingonly provoked the refentment of the moft power¬
ful ftates, particulary England, France, Holland, &c. to
confpire for its ruin. It is remarkable that Olivarez,
notwithftanding this, never loft his credit; and indeed
things fo turned about in the end, that though Spain
for a whole year was put to the fevereft trials, it ac¬
quired a degree of fame which fufficiently, in the ge¬
neral opinion, overbalanced fome-little lofs. Olivarez
too was particularly fortunate in making the peace;
in which tranfaftion he gained a very confiderable ad¬
vantage over Richlieu, fo that things appeared to be
ftill in a very favourable train. Fortune, however, was
not always quite fo indulgent to the fchemes of this
minifter : he again drew Spain into a war with Man¬
tua, contrary to the fentiments of the wil'eft men ;
from which is juftly dated its declenfion, if not its
ruin.
On the whole, Olivarez feems to have been always
averfe to peace; and with fuch a reltlefs difpofition,
it is undoubtedly wonderful that he held his place
fo long and with fo few complaints as he did.
It was certainly owing to his ambition and obfti-
nacy, that an almoft general war was excited about
the year 1627, and which, as we have faid, proved
fo fatal to Spain. So averfe, indeed, does he appear
to have been to peace, that he ufed every means in
his power to prevent the reftoration of it in Italy;
and for this very purpofe he fent Feria into Milan,
whom he knew to be a man of fuch a temper and
abilities as fuited his purpofes ; for he was naturally
averfe to quiet. He endeavoured to break the al¬
liances of the duke of Mantua by various ftratagems ;
but they did not fuececd: the fchemes of Olivarez
and the intrigues of Feria being totally defeated. Our
minifter had foon after this another caufe of mortifica¬
tion, on Richlieu’s being created a duke and peer of
France, and unanimouffy admitted among the Vene¬
tian nobility; which could not fail to be a fevere ftroke
on Olivarez, who confidered him as his implacable
enemy.
'The people at length began to fee and to be dif-
plealed with his conduft ; and with reafon, had they
known it all, for it was in many inftances cruel and
deceftable. Indeed thedifferenceswhich at thattimehad
fo long fubfifted between France and Spain were the
effedtof the private animofity betweenhim and Richlieu.
Things, however, fo turned about, and Spain was fo
unuiually fuccefsful, that the faults of the minifter
were overlooked for the time; but this unexpected
good fortune had no other effect than that of making
him
O L I
[ 20* ]
O L 1
Qftvarez. him far more infolent than ever. He was, in every
- V"™ inftance, one of the moft headftrong and obftinate
men in the world : he had fet his heart on the reduc¬
tion of Cafal in Italy, and he was determined on it
at whatever hazard ; this foolifh enterprife was, how¬
ever, unaccountably defeated, and the Spanifli army
experienced a total defeat.
The revolt of the Catalans, whom he wifhed to de¬
prive of their privileges, was the next confequence of
his folly: he had privately employed the Marquis de
los Velez to extinguilh this rebellion ; but the cruelty
of the meafures ufed for this purpofe only inflamed
it the more. The revolution of Portugal, another
difaftrous event, was alfo the refult of his obftinacy
and rigour.
This feries of ill fortune, which ought to have
opened the eyes of the Catholic king and his miniilers,
feemed to infatuate both. The great fecret by which
Olivarez had governed his mafter was being the com¬
panion, or at lead the confident, of his pleafures.
While he aflc£led to deceive the world with a fpe-
cious appearance of religion and piety, he was not
only immerfed in vice himfelf, but encouraged and
promoted it in his prince, to the fcandal of his fub-
je&s, aud the prejudice of his affairs. At this time,
of all others the moft improper, Olivarez produced
a baftard of his, hitherto called Ju/ian : he had taken
fo little care of this fon, that, not able to fubfift in
Spain, he had paffed over to the Indies, where, in
very mean ftations, he had fcarce got bread. On
him he now beftowed the name of Don Henrico de
Gunman; and, bringing him with great pomp and
fplendor to court, either flattered or forced the con-
ftable of Caftile to give him his daughter ; in cofifl-
deration of which alliance he was to devolve upon him
his duchy of St Lucar. In the beginning of his ad-
miniftration, by feme accident'or other, he prefented
to the king a memorial, in relation to an affair upon
which his majefty had already received one from Don
Balthafar de Zuniga : upon comparing them, they
Contradidled each other flatly. The king ordered
a perfon of great quality to inquire thoroughly into
this bufinefs ; in confequence of which Don Baltha-
far’s memorial appeared to be the truth, and that ef
Olivarez the reverfe of it. The king was very angry;
but the count regained his favour, by procuring for
him the fair a&refs Calderona. By this woman he
had a fon, of whem no great notice Was taken ; but
now, to obfeure the folly of the Conde Duke, this
youth, fcaree in the 14th year of his age, was pro¬
duced, with the title of Don yuan of Hujlriat and de¬
clared geneialiflimo of the army againft Portugal;
while the heir apparent to the crown, Don Balthafar,
was left under the tuition, or rather in the cuftody,
of the countefs of Olivarez ; at which condu<ft the
queen was chagrined, the people enraged, and the
world in general aftoniihed.
His fchemes now began to be entirely broken and
defeated everywhere and in every kind ; he fell under
the difpleafure of the queen, the emperor, the gran¬
dees, and the people all at once, and experienced the
difgrace he had long merited. His ill fortune, which
came upon him with the force of a torrent, did not,
however, wholly overpower him ; he was indeed ob
iiged to conceal himfelf, in order to avoid the ra<re of
V01..XIII. Part I.
the populace ; but he had ftill confidence enough to
offer an apology for his conduft, which poffeffed no
inconfiderable fhare of wit and humour, well temper¬
ed with fpirited and mafterly reafoning. It was not,
however, of any confequence to him ; for he was
banifhed to Toro, where, worn out by infirmities,-
or overcome by defpair, he ended his days about the
year 1645.
OLIVE, in botany. See Olea.
OLivE-Prcfs. In order to obtain the olive oil, the-
olives are firft bruifed in a rough trough, under a mill-.
Hone, rolling perpendicularly over them; and when-
fufficiently mafhed, put into the maye, or trough, wz,-
of an ©live-prefs, where aa are the upright beams, or'
cheeks; b, the female, and c, the male ferew ; f the
board on which the ferew prefi’es; g> a cubical piece
of wood, called a block ; h, the peel, a circular board,
to be put under the block. By turning the ferew, all
the liquor is preffed out of the mafhed olives, and is
called virgin-oil; after which, hot water being poured-
upon the remainder in the prefs, a coarfer oilis obtain¬
ed. Olive-oil keeps only about a year, after which ft
degenerates.
OliI'M- Colour, a yellow mingled with black.
Olive (Peter John), was born in France, and died
in 1297, in the fiftieth year of his age. In his youth
he wrote a book in praife of the Virgin Mary, which
was condemned during the pontificate of Nicholas III.
as containing fome things too extravagant. He after¬
wards was frequently accufed by the brothers of his or¬
der, whofe refentment he had drawn upon himfelf by his
fevere reproofs ef their luxury, and his endeavours to
recal them to the poverty and rigour of their firft in-
ftitution. After his death his body was dug up, he
was condemned as a heretic, and his writing? were
burrit, and remained prohibited till the time of Sixtus
IV. who having ordered them to be examined, decla¬
red they contained nothing .exprefsly contrary to the
Catholic faith. The propofitions condemned by John
are mentioned by Emmericus, in his Dire&ory of the
Inquifition, under twenty-two heads. The chief of
them are, “ That the Pope was the myftical antichrift ;
that St Francis was the angel in the Revelations faid
to have the mark of the living God, and that his rule
was the true gofpel ; that the perfect ftate of the
church began with St Francis; and that Chrift and his
apoftles had no property either in common or in par¬
ticular, but only the ufu-fruft of what they enjoyed.”
OLIVER (Ifaac), an excellent Englifh painter,
born in 1556, eminent both for hiftory and portraits.
Several fine miniatures of this mafter are to be feen in
the collections of our nobility and gentry ; fome
them portraits of himfelf. As he was a very good de-
figner, his drawings are finiflied to an extraordinary
degree of perfection ; many being copies after Parme-
giano. Rubens and Vandyck painted James I. after
a miniature of Oliver’s, which is a fufficient teftimony
of his merit. He died in €617.
Oliver (Peter), the fon and difciple of Ifaac Oli¬
ver, was born in 1601. He arrived at a degree of per¬
fection in miniature portraits confeffedly fuperior to his
father, or any of his cotemporaries, as he did not con¬
fine his fubjeCts to a head Only. In the collections of
Charles I. and James II. there were 13 hiftorical fub¬
jeCts painted by this Oliver; of which feven are ftill
. C c .preferred
Olive,
Oliver.
I
Plate
cccxLvir.
/
O L *
[ »02 ]
O L Y
Olivet,
Olivetan.
prcferved In the clofet of queen Caroline at Kenfing-
ton ; and a capital painting of his wife is in the pof«
feffion of the duchefs of Portland. He died in 1660.
OLIVET, or Mount of Olives (anc geog.), was
fituated to the eaft of the city of Jerufalem, and part¬
ed from the city only by the brock Kidron, and by
the valley of jehofhaphnt, which ftretches out from the
north to the fouth. It was upon this mount that So¬
lomon built temples to the gods of the Ammonites
(1 Kings xi. 7.) and of the Moabites, out of com-
plaifance to his wives, who were natives of thefe na¬
tions. Hence it is that the Mount of Olives is called
the mountain of corruption (2 Kings xxiii. 13.) Jo-
fephus fays, that this mountain is at the dillance of
jive ftadia, or furlongs, from Jerufalem, which make
62 J geometrical pace?, or the length of a Sab! ath-
day’s journey, fays St Luke (A£ls i. 12.) Fhe Mount
of Olives had three fummits, or was compofed of three
feveral mountains, ranged one after another from north
to fouth. The middle fummit is that from whence
our Saviour afcended into heaven. It was upon chat
towards the fouth that Solomon built temples to his
idols. The fummit which is moft to the north is
diflant two furlongs from the middlemoft. This
is the high ell of the three, and is commonly called
Galilee.
In the time of King Uzziah, the Mount of Olives
was fo (battered by an earthquake, that half of the
earth that was on the weftern fide fell down, and
soiled four furlongs or 50c paces from thence, towards
the mountain which was oppofite to it on the eaft j fo
that the earth blocked up the highways, and covered
the king’s gardens.
Mr Maundrell tells us, that he and his company
going out of Jerufalem at St Stephen’s gate, and croi-
jfmg the valley of Jchofhaphat, began immediately to
afcend the mountain ; that being got above two-thirds
of the way up, they came to certain grottoes cut with
intricate windings and caverns under ground, which
syere called the fepulchres of the prophets ; that a little
kigher up were twelve arched vaults under ground,
ftanding fide by fide, and built in memory of the
apoftles, who are faid to have compiled their creed in
this place j that fixty "paces higher they came to the
place where Chrill is faid to have uttered his prophecy
concerning the final deftruftion of Jerufalem ; and a
lit'cle on the right hand, to another, where he is faid
to have di&ated a fecond time the Lord’s prayer to
his difciples ; that fomewhat higher is the cave of a
faint called Pelagia ; a little above that a pillar, de¬
noting the place where an angel gave the Blefled Vir¬
gin three days warning of her death; and at the top,
of all, the place of our Blefted Lord’s afeenfion.
OLIVET AN (Robert), related to the famous Cal-
sfin, printed at Neufchatel in 1535, in folio, a verlion
of the Bible into French, the firft which had been
^ranflated from the original Hebrew and Greek. It
is written in an uncouth and barbarous ftyle, and is far
fijom being faithful. The charadlers in which it is
printed are Gothic, and the language of it is no lefs
fo. It is valued only becaufe it is rare to be found.
Calvin is thought to have had a very confiderable (hare
in this tranflation. Olivetan furvived his publication
but a (hort time ; for he was poifoned at Rome the
year after, of which his tranftation is alleged to have
been the caufe. Qlivetan's Bible, revifed by John Cal¬
vin and N. Malinger, was reprinted at Geneva, in 1540,
in quarto. This edition is ftill rarer than the former.
It is called the : ible de I’Epec, becaufe the printer had
a fword for his fign.
OLIVIER (Claude Matthieu), advocate of the par-
liament of Aix, was born at Marfeilles in 1701, and ap¬
peared at the bar with eclat. He had a chief hand in tne
eftablifhment of the academy of Marfeilles, and was one
of its original members. He poftefied a quick and lively
genius. A few hours retirement from fociety and from
his phafures were frequently fufficient to enable him
to Leak and write, even on important cesufes ; but his
works commonly bore marks of hafte. Given to excels
in every thing, he would employ a fortnight in kudy-
ing the Code and the Digeft, or in (ioriog 1m mind
with the beauties of Demoilhenes, Homer, Cicero,
or Bofiuet; and then abandon himfdf for another fort¬
night, frequently a whole month, to a life of frivolity
and diffipation. He died in 1736? at t^ie aSe 35*
He publifhed I. L’llijhire de Phillippe roi de Mace*
doine, et pare d’Alexandre Id Grand, 2 vols. l2mo. No
writer has fo ably handled the hiftory ot the age of
Philip, the interefts of the diffeient nations of Greece,
and their manners and cuftoms : but the conduct of the
work is extremely defective, d he digreifions are too
frequent, and often tedious. The ftyle is in no icfpett
fuitable to a hiftory. It is in general dry, uncon-
nedled, and like the ftyle of a differtation. Some¬
times, however, we find in it pafTagesi full of iiie and •
beauty, and turns of exprefiicn truly original A dif-
eafe of the brain,, with which he was attacked, and
under which he laboured feveral years, prevented him
from putting his laft hand to the work 2. Memoire
fur les fecours donnes aux Romains par Us Marfeiilois
pendant la 2de Guerre P unique. 3. Memoire fur les fe¬
cours donnes aux Romains peer les Marftillois durant la
Guerre contre les Gaulois.
OLMUTZ., a town in Germany, in Moravia, with
a biftiop’s fee., and a famous univerfity. The public
buildings are very haudfome, particularly the Jefuits
college. It is a populous, tradiug, and very tlrong
place ; and yet it was taken, with the whole garrifon,
by the king of Pruffia in 1741. In July, 1 75 8 he be-
fieged it again ; and when he had almoft taken the
pl-ice he was obliged to raife the ftege, to go and
meet the Ruffian army It is feated on the river Mo-
rave. E. Long. 17 3 J. N Lat. 49. $P.
OLOCENTROS, in natural hiftory, a name given
by the old Greeks to a fmall animal of the fpider kind,
whofe bite was accounted mortal. It is the fame with
the folipuga, fo called from its Hinging, orbiting moft:
violently, in places, or feafons, where the fun had the
moft power, as Africa, Sec. The name folifvga was
a corrupt way of writing that word; and this feems alfo
a falfe way of writing the word heliocentrosy which fig-
nifies the fame as folipuga.
OLYMPIA (Mallachini Donna), a woman of a
very uncommon charabter. She fkmrifhed about the
middle of the laft century. She was fifter-in-law to
Pope Innocent X and had the addrefs to acquire an
unlimited power over this vain,- weak, and injudicious
ecclefiaftie. Her fon Camillo was promoted to the
cardinalate, under the title of Pamphilio ; but falling iu
love with the PrincefsRo(fana,abeautiful young widow,
he laid afide his hat, and married. The crime, if it was
one, was efteemed by the Romans in general at leaft ve¬
nial,
O L Y [ 203 ] O L Y
Olympia- nial. The pope, however, was diTpleafed ; and Olym-
v1"— pia procured their banifhment, being afraid leil her
daughter-in-law fhould leffen her authority in the /acred
court. This authority, equally unnatural and uncommon,
rellefted neither honour on her who held it, nor oil the
man who allowed her to hold it. Such elevated fituations,
diowever, whether they are the reward of merit, the effedl
of chance, or acquired by cunning, are fddom very fe-
cure. Olympia, who had procured the difgrace of
many who did not deferve it, and who had herfelf long
merited fuch a fate, at length experienced both difgrace
andbaniihment. This was obtained by means of cardinal
Panzirollo, a great favourite of the pope’s. The im¬
mediate caufe of it was this: The pope had determined,
in order to leffen his own trouble, to adopt a nephew,
and to make him a Cardinal Patron, in order to give au¬
dience to ambafiadors and minifters, and in hisabfenceto
prelide at the council. For this purpofe, at the recom¬
mendation of his favourite, his holinefs made choice of
Allalli, brother of the Marquis Aftalli, who had mar¬
ried a niece of Olympia. Olympia indeed was {lightly
confulted on the affair, and fhowed no difapprobation
of the appointment. The pope, however, no fooner
got him fixed in his new office, than he fhowed his
own weaknefs by repenting of it. Olympia too was
difpleafed, and by her felicitations procured the dif¬
grace of Aftalli, before he had enjoyed either the
honours or emoluments of his office. Panzirollo, how¬
ever, foon managed matters fo as to turn the feales :
he prevailed on the pope again to countenance and
honour Aftalli; and, what was more, had influence fuf-
ficient to perfuade him to difgrace Olympia, and to
banifh her the court. She had indeed abufed her au¬
thority in a moft fcandalous manner, and had gained
fuch an abfolute afeendant over the pope, that in every
thing his will had been fubfervient to her didlates. Her
avarice and ambition were unbounded : fhe difpofed
of all benefices, which were kept vacant till fhe fully
informed herfelf of their value : fhe rated an office of
1000 crowns for three years, at one year’s revenue, and
if for life, at 12 years purchafe, one half of which fum
fhe required to be paid in advance : fhe gave audienfce
upon public affairs, ena&ed new laws, abrogated thofe
of former popes, and fat in council with Innocent,
with bundles of memorials in her hands. It was gene¬
rally faid that they lived together in a criminal corre-
fpondence, and that fhe had charmed him by fome fecret
incantation. In the Proteftant countries the loves and
intrigues of Innocent and Donna Olympia were repre-
fented upon the ftage; and fevere farcafms were daily put
into the hands of Pafquin at Rome. As fhe had ufurped
fuch an abfolute authority, the new cardinal nephew
law the neceffity of ruining her credit; he therefore
feconded the endeavours of Panzirollo. He infinuated
to the pope, that his reputation had fuffered greatly
among the Catholics by her fcandalous proceedings,
and that his nuncios were treated with difrefpeft and
contempt at the courts of the Emperof, France, and
Spain. Upon thefe reprefentations, Innocent at
length, but with great reluctance, banifhed Olympia,
and was reconciled to Prince Camillo and the Princefs
Roflana ; though fome authors affirm that her banifh-
ment was no more than a political retreat, and that fhe
flill in private dire&ed the affairs of the pope. A
woman of Olympia’s charafter, however, with fuch un¬
bounded ambition, fuch an extravagant luft for pawer, Olyiryi*.
and fuch an ambitious defire of wealth, and who had ——
once pofiefled fo great an afcendency over fuch a man
as Innocent, was not to be fo eafily put off. She was
bafiifhed in 16 ^0; but in 1653, fhe aga>n afiumed the
fupreme direftion of affairs juft as before her difgrace.
She again accomplifhed the difgrace of Aftalli, and pro-
cured the promotion of Azzolini to the office of fecre-
tary of the briefs. In 1654, his holinefs refigned himfetf
entirely into the hands of this afiuming woman; who, ob-
ferving his infirmities daily increafing, redoubled her ra¬
pacity, difpofing of benefices to the higheft bidders in all
parts of Italy. She was again, however, in hazard of be¬
ing difplaced by anew favourite, wz. the Cardinal de
Retz: and had not the pope’s diffolution prevented it, it
would in all probability quickly have taken place. Du -
ring his laft illnefs he received nothing but from the
hands of Donna Olympia, who was at great pains to
prolong his life, watched continually at his bed-fide,
and prevented the ambafladers or others from difturbjng
him with difeourfes upon bufinefs. She is faid, du¬
ring the laft ten days of his life, when he continued
without the ufe of reafon, to have atnafled about half
a million of crowns. She did not find the fucceeding
pope (Alexander \rII.) fo eafy to be played upon as his
weak predeceflbr: a number of memorials were fent
in againft her, and his holinefs was well difpofed to
attend to them : he ordered her to retire from Rome,
ami at the fame time began to examine witneffes re-
fpedling her condudf. She was cut off, however, be¬
fore the trial was finifhed, by the plague, which, in
1636, afflidled Rome and its neighbourhood. Her
eftate was not confifeated as was generally expe&ed ;
and the prince Pamphilio was allowed to fucceed her.
The pope only referved for his own relations about a
million of crowns.
Olympia (anc. geog.), with the furname Pi/atis
(Strabo) ; fo called from the territory of Pifa in Elis;
deferibed by Strabo, “ as the temple of Jupiter Olym-
pius, before which ftands a grove of wild olive-trees,
in which is the ftadium, or foot-courfe, fo called be-
caufe the eighth part of a mile ; and by which the
Alpheus, coming down from Arcadia, runs.” Olym¬
pia, however, was famous, not merely for the temple
of Jupiter, but alfo for a temple of Juno, 63 feet long,
with columns round it of the Doric order ; and a
Metroum or temple of the mother of the gods, a large
Doric edifice 5 with holy treafuries. Thefe, and the
porticoes, a gymnafium, prytaneum, and many more
buildings, chiefly in the enclofure, with the houfes of
the priefts and other inhabitants, made Olympia no in-
tonftderable place. The ftadium was in the grove of
wild olive-trees, before the great temple ; and near it
was the hippodrome or courfe for the races of horfes
and chariots. The Alpheus flowed by from Arcadia
with a copious and very pleafant ftream, which was re¬
ceived on the coaft by the Sicilian fea.
The temple of Jupiter was of the Doric order, 68
feet high to the pediment, 95 wide, and 230 long ; the
cell encompaffed with columns. It was erefted with the
country-ftone; the roof, not of earth baked, but of
Pentelic marble ; the flabs difpofed as tiles ; the way
to it up a winding ftaircafe. The two pediments were
enriched with fculpture; and one had over the centre
a ftatue of Vi&ory gilded, and underneath a votive
C c 2 buckler
OltTirpia.
O L Y [ 204 ] O L Y
buckler of gold. At each corner was a gilded vatfe.
Above the columns were fixed 2 t gilded bucklers, of¬
fered at the conclufion of the Achaean war by the Ro¬
man general Mummius. The gates in the two fronts
'were of brafs, and over them were carved the labours
of Hercules. Within the cell were double colonnades,
between which was the approach to the image.
The Jupiter of Olympia was accounted alone fuffi-
cient to immortalize its maker, Phidias. It was of
ivoiy and gold, the head crowned with olive. In the
right hand was a ilatue of Vidfory ; in the left a
flowered fceptre, corr.pofed of various metals, on which
was an eagle. The fandals were of gold, as alfo the
veftment, which was curioufly embofled with lilies and
animals. The throne was gold inlaid with ebony and
ivory, and ftudded with jewels, intermixed with paint¬
ings and exquifite figures in relievo. The pillars be¬
tween the feet contributed to its fupport. Before it
were walls, ferving as a fence, decorated principally
with the exploits of Hercules; the portion oppofite to
the door of a blue colour. It was the office of a fa¬
mily defcended from Phidias, called phtedrunta or the
poltfhers, to keep the work bright- and clean. The
veil or curtain was cloth rich with the purple dye of
Phoenicia and with Affyriah embroidery, an offering
of king Antiochus, and was let down from above by
loofing the firings. The image impreffed on the fpec-
tator an opinion that it was higher and wider than it
meafured. Its magnitude was fuch, that though the
temple was very large, the artifl feemed to have erred
in the proportions. The god, fitting, nearly touched
the ceiling with his head ; fuggefting an idea, that if
he were to rife up, he would defiroy the roof. A part
of the pavement before it was of black marble, en-
clofed in a rim of Parian or white, where they poured
oil to preferve the ivory.
The altar of Jupiter Olympius was of great antiqui¬
ty, and compofed of affies from the thighs of the vic¬
tims, which were carried up and confumed on the top
with wood of the white poplar-tree. The afhes alfo of
the prytaneum, in which a perpetual fire was kept on
a hearth, were removed annually on a fixed day, and
fpread on it, being firft mingled with rvater from the
Alpheus. The cement, it was affirmed, could be made
with that fluid only ; and therefore this river wTas much
refpefted, and efteemed the mofi; friendly of any to the
god. On each fide of the altar were ftone-fteps. Itsheight
was 22 feet. Girls and women, when allowed to be at
Olympia, were fuffered to afcend the bafement, which
was 125 feet in circumference. The people of Elis
facrificed daily, and private perfons as often as they
chofe.
Religion flourifhed at Olympia, and many deities
were worfliipped befides Jupiter. Paufanias has enu¬
merated above 60 altars of various fliapes and kinds.
One of the unknown gods ftood by the great altar.
The people of Elis offered on all thefe monthly ; lay¬
ing on them boughs of olive ; burning- incenfe, and
wheat mixed with honey ; and pouring libations of
fuch I’quors as the ritual prefcribed. At the latter
ceremony fometimes a form of prayer was ufed, and
they fung hymns compofed in the Doric dialed.
Olympia was fituated on an eminence, between two
mountains called OJfa and Olympus. Though its ancient
jjplendor is gone, the place reminds the traveller of
of what it once was. It is in the Marca, being now Olympiad,
a fmall place called Longimco, 50 miles fouth of Le- t)mnpias.
panto, in E. Long. 22. o. N. Lat- 37. 40. ""v" J
OLYMPIAD, the fpace of four years, whereby
the Greeks reckoned time.—The firft Olympiad fell,
according to the accurate and learned computation of
fome of the moderns, exactly 776 years before the
firft; year of Chrift, or 775' before the year of his birth,
in the year of the Julian period 393!^, and 22 years be¬
fore the budding of the city of Rome. The games
were exhibited at the time of the full moon next after
the fummer folft?ce ; therefore the Olympiads were
of unequal length, becaufe the time of the full
moon differs r 1 days every year, and for that reafon
they fometimes began the next day after the folitice,
and at other times four weeks after. The compu¬
tation by Olympiads ceafed, as fome fuppofe, after the
364th, in the year 440 of the Chriftian era. It was
univerfally adopted not only by the Greeks, but by
many of the neighbouring countries ; though ftill the
Pythian games ferved as an epoch to the people of
Delphi and to the Boeotians ; the Nemaean games to
the Argives and Arcadians; and the Ifthmian to the
Corinthians and the inhabitants of the Peloponnefiani
ifthmus. To the Olympiads hiftory is much indebted.
They have ferved to fix the time of many momen¬
tous events ; and indeed before this metho 1 of com¬
puting time was obferved, every page of hiftory is
moftly fabulous, and filled with obfeurity and con-
tradiftion, and no true chronological account can be
properly eftablifhed and maintained with certainty.
OLYMPIAS, a celebrated woman, who was daughter
of a king of Epirus, and who married Philip king
of Macedonia, by whom ffie had Alexander the Great.
Pier haughtinefs, and more probably her infidelity,
obliged Philip to repudiate her, and to marry Cleo¬
patra, the niece of King Attains. Olympias was
fenfible of this injury, and Alexander ffiowed his dif-
approbation of his father's meafures, by retiring from
the court to his mother. The murder of Philip,
which foon followed this difgrace, and which fome
have attributed to the intrigues of Olympias, was
produftive of the greateft extravagances. The queen
paid the greateft honour to her hulband’s murderer.
She gathered his mangled limbs, placed a crown of
gold on his head, and laid his affies near thofe of
Philip. The adminiftration of Alexander, who had
fucceeded his father, was in fome inftances offenfive to,
Olympias; but when the ambition of her fon was con¬
cerned, ffte did not fcruple to declare publicly that
Alexander was not the fon of Philip, but that he
was the offspring of an enormous ferpent who had
fupeinaturally introduced himfelf into her bed. When
Alexander was dead, Olympias feized the government
of Macedonia ; and, to eftablifh her ufurpation, ffie
cruelly put to death Aridseus, with his wife Eury-
dice, as alfo Nicanor the brother of Caffander, witlr
100 leading men of Macedon,- who were inimical to
her intereft. Such barbarities did not long remain
unpuniffied: Caffander befieged her in Pydna, where
ffie had retired w ith the remains of her family, and
, fhe was obliged to furrender after an obftinate fiege.
The conqueror ordered her to be accufed, and to be
put to death. A body of 200 foldiers were ordered
to put the bloody 'commands into execution, but the
4 fplen-
o L Y [ 205 1 O L Y
I * (lilies's
'Hi/lory of
wircetf.
Olympic, fplenc^or and majefty of the queen d!farmed their
-courage; and fhe was at laft maffacred by thofe whom
fhe had cruelly deprived of their children, about 316
years before the Chriftian era.
OLYMPIC games, were folemn games among the
ancient Greeks, fo called from Olympian Jupiter, to
whom they were dedicated ; and by fome faid to he
firft inftituted by him, after his viftory over the
fons of Titan ; others afcribe their inflitation to Her¬
cules, not the fon of Alcmena, but one 6f much
greater antiquity ; others to Pelops ; and others to
Hercules the fon of Alcmena. By whomfoever they
were inftituted, we know that, at a period rather early,
they had fallen into difufe. The wars which prevail¬
ed among the Greeks, for a while, totally interrupted
the religious ceremonies and exhibitions with which
they had been accuftomed to honour the common gods
and heroes; but the Olympic games were reftored
on the following occafion. Amidft the calamities
, which afHi&ed or threatened Peloponnefus, Iphitus,
a defeendant of Oxylus, to whom the province of
Eleia * had fallen in the general partition of the pe-
ninfula, applied to the Delphic oracle. I he priefts
of Apollo, ever difpofed to favour the views of kings
and legiflators, anfwered agreeably to his wifh, that
the feftivals anciently celebrated at Olympia, on the
Alpheus, muft be renewed, and an armiftiee proclaim¬
ed for ail the ftates willing to partake of them, and
dtfirous to avert the vengeance of heaven. Fortified
by this authority, and aflifted by the advice of Lycur-
gus, Iphitus took meafures, not only for reftoring
the Olympic folemnity, but for rendering it perpetual.
rl he injunction of the oracle was fpeedily diffufed
through the remoteft parts of Greece by the nume¬
rous votaries who frequented the facred fhrine. I he
armiftice was proclaimed in Pelopannefus, and prepa¬
rations were made in Eleia for exhibiting fhows and
performing facrificts. In the heroic ages, feats of
bodily ftrength and addrefs were deftined to the ho¬
nour of deceafed warriors ; hymns and facrifices were
referved for the gods: but the fkxitle texture of Gre-
cian fuperftition, eafily confounding the exprefiions
of refpe&ful gratitude and pious veneration, enabled
Iphitus to unite both in his new inftitution.
The feftival, which lafted five days, began and
ended with a facrifice to Olympian Jove. I he in¬
termediate time was chiefly filled up by the gymnaftic
exercifes, in which all freemen of Grecian extraction
were invited to contend, provided they had been born
in lawful wedlock, and had lived untainted by any in¬
famous immoral flain. The preparation for this part
of the entertainment was made in the gymnafium of
Elis, a fpacious edifice, furrounded by a double range
of pillars, with an open area in the middle. Ad¬
joining were various apartments, containing baths,
and other conveniences for the combatants. I he
neighbouring country was gradually adorned with por¬
ticoes, fliady walks and groves, interfperfed with feats
and benches; the whole originally deftined to relieve
the fatigues and anxiety of the candidates for Olym¬
pic fame ; and frequented, in later times, by fophifts
and philofophefs, who were fond to contemplate wif-
dom, and communicate knowledge, in thofe delight¬
ful retreats. The order of the athletic exercifes, or
combats, was eftablilhed by Lycurgus, and corre-
fponded almoft exacftly to that deferibed by Homer, in
the 23d book of the Iliad, and eighth of the Odyffey.
Iphitus,' we are told, appointed the other ceremonies
and entertainments ; fettled the regular return of the
feftival at the end of every fourth year, in the month
of July ; and gave to the whole folemnity that form,
and arrangement, which it prefervei with littie va¬
riation above a thoufand years ; a period exceeding
the duration of the moft famous kingdoms and re¬
publics of antiquity. Among the benefadors of Oiy m -
pia, at a much later period, was reckoned Herod, who
was afterwards king of Judaea. Seeing, on his way to
Rome, the games negleded or dwindling into infigniii-
cance from the poverty of the Eleans, he difplayed vaft
munificence as prefident, and provided an ample reve¬
nue for their future fupport and dignity.
The care and management of the Olympics belong¬
ed for the moft part to the Eleans ; who on that ac¬
count enjoyed their poffellions without moleftation,
or fear of war or violence. They appointed a certain
number of judges, who were to take care that thofe
who offered themfelves as competitors fhould perform
their preparatory exercifes; and thefe judges, during
the folemnity, fat naked, having before them a crown
of vidory, formed of wild olive, which was prefented
to whomfoever they adjudged it. Thofe who were
conquerors wer'e called Olympionices, and were loaded
with honours by their countrymen. At thefe games
women were not allowed to be prefent; and if any wo¬
man was found, during the folemnity, to have palled
the river Alpheus, fhe was to be thrown headlong
from a rock. This, however, was fometimes neglect¬
ed ; for we find not only women prefent at the cele¬
bration, but alfo fome among the combatants, and
fome rewarded with the crown. The preparations
for thefe feftivals were great. No perfon was permit¬
ted to enter the lifts if he had not regularly exerciftd
himftlf ten months before the celebration at the pu¬
blic gymnafium of Elis. No unfair dealings were al¬
lowed ; whoever attempted to bribe his adverfary was
fubjeCted to a fevere fine ; and even the father and re¬
lations were obliged to fwear that they would have
recourfe to no artifice which might decide the victory
in favour of their friends. No criminals, nor fuch as
were connected with impious and guilty perfons, were
fuftered to prefent themfelves as combatants. The
wrefilers were appointed by lot. Some little balls fu-
perferibed with a letter were thrown into a filver
urn, and fuch as drew the fame letter were obliged to
contend one with the other. He who had an odd let¬
ter remained the laft; and he often had the advantage,
as he was to encounter the laft who had obtained the
fuperiority over his adverfary. In thefe games were
exhibited running, leaping, wreftling, boxing, and
the throwing of the quoit, which was called altogether
*£.’toc3-xov, or quinquertium. Befides thefe, there wera
horfe and chariot races, and alfo contentions in poetry,
eloquence, and the fine arts. The only reward that
the conqueror obtained was a crown of olive. This,
as fome fuppofe, was in memory of the labours of
Hercules; which were accompliihed for the univerfal
good of mankind, and for which the hero claimed no
other reward but the confcioufnefs of having been the
friend of mankind. So fmall and trifling a reward
ftimulated courage and virtue, and was the fource cf
greater
O L Y
[ 206 T
DMA
prypatfr hoB(5?ur3 than the moft unhotmded treafures.
’“■’■"v The ftatues of the conquerors, called Oiympiomca, were
ereded at Olympia in the fncred woo<l of Jupiter.
Their return home was that of a warlike conqueror ;
they were drawn in a chariot by four horfes, and
everywhere received with the greatell acclamations.
Their entrance into their native city was not through
the gates ; to make it more grand and more folemn a
Dreacu was made in the walls. Painters and poets
were employed in celebrating their names; and indeed
the vidlories feverally obtained at Olympia are the
fubjefls of the mofl beautiful odes of Pindar. The
combatants were naked. A fcarf was originally tied
round their waift; but when it had entangled one of
the adverfaries, and been the caufe that he loft the
viftory, it was laid afide, and no regard was paid to
decency. The Olympic games were obferved every
-fifth year, or, to fpeak with greater exa&nefs, after
a revolution of four years, and in the firft month of
the fifth year, and they'continued for five fucceffive
■days. As they were the moft ancient and moft fo-
,lemn of all the feftivals of the Greeks, it will not ap¬
pear wonderful that they drew fa many people, not
',only inhabitants of Greece, but of the neighbouring
ifiands and countries.
Such is the account of Grecian writers, who have,
doubtlefs, often aferibed to pofitive inftitutian many in¬
ventions and lifages naturallyrefulting from the progref-
five manners of fociety. When we come to examine the
Elean games in their more improved ftate, together
with the innumerable imitations of them in other pro-
vincesof Greece, there will occur reafons for believing,
that many regulations, referred by an eafy foliation
to the legiflative vvifdom of Iphitus or Lycurgus,
were introduced by time or accident, continued thro*
cuftom, improved by repeated trials, and confirmed
by a fenfe of their utility *. Yet fuch an inftitution
as the Olympiad, even in its leaft perfeft form, muft
have been attended with manifeft advantages to fo¬
ciety. It is fufficient barely to mention the fufpen-
fion of hoftilities which took place, not only during
the celebration of the feftival, but a confiderable time
both before and after it. Confidered as a religious
ceremony, at which the whole Grecian name was in¬
vited, and even enjoined, to affift, it was well adapted
to facilitate intercourfe, to promote knowledge, to
foften prejudice, and to haften the progrefs of civi-
lifation and humanity. Greece, and particularly Pe-
Joponnefus, was the centre from which the adventu¬
rous fpirit of its inhabitants had diffufed innumerable
colonies through the furrounding nations. To thefe
widely feparated communities, which, notwithftanding
their common origin, feemed to have loft all connection
and correfpondence, the Olympiad ferved as a com¬
mon bond of alliance and point of reunion. The
celebrity of this feftival continually attradled to it the
chara&ers moft diftinguifhed for genius and enterprife,
whofe fame would have otherwife been unknown and
loft in the boundlefs extent of Grecian territory. The
remote inhabitants, not only of European Greece,
but of Afia and Africa, being afiembled to the wor¬
ship of common gods, were formed to the fenfe of a
general intereft, and excited to the purfuit of national
honour a-nd profperity. Strangers of fimilar difpo-
lioos might confirm ia Elis the facrcd and indifl'o-
*• GUleS s'
Hiftorj </
Greece.
luble ties of hofpitality. If their communities were
endangered by any barbarous power, they might here
folicit affiftance from their Grecian brethren. On other ,
occafions they might explain the benefits which, in
peace or wjr, their refpeftive countries were beft qua¬
lified to communicate. And the Olympic feftival
might thus fevve the purpofe of refident ambaiTadors,
and other inflitutions alike unknown to antiquity.
OLYMPUS, the name of feveral mountains.—One
bounding Bithynia on the fouth.—Another in the
ifiand of Cyprus, on whofe top was a temple of Venus,
which women were not permitted either to enter or to
fee (Strabo.)—A third, Olympus of Galatia (Livy).
— A fourth, of Lycia, with a noble eognominal town,
near the fea-coaft (Strabo, Cicero), extindl in Pliny’s
time, there remaining only a citadel: the town was Je-
ftroyed by P. Servilius Ifamicus (Florus), having
been the retreat of pirates. From this mountain there
was an extenfive profpedl of Lycia, Pamphylia, and
Pifidia (Strabo).—A fifth, Olympus of Myfia (Pto¬
lemy) ; thence furnamed Olympenay anciently Minor;
one of the higheft mountains, and furnamed Myjiiis
(Theophraftus J; fituated on the Propontis, and thence
extending more inland. — A fixth,on the north of Thef-
faly, or on the confines of Macedonia ; famous for the
fable of the giants (Virgil, Horace, Seneca); reckon¬
ed the higheft in the whole world, and to exceed the
flight of birds (Apuleius), which is the reafon of its
being called heaven, than which nothing is higher:
the ferenity and. calmnefs which reign there are cele¬
brated by Homer, Lucan, and Claudian.
OLYRA, in botany : A genus of the triandria
order, belonging to the noecia clafs of plants; and iu
the natural method ranking under the 4th order, Gra-
mina. The male calyx is a biflorous and ariftated
glume ; the corolla a beardlefs glume ; the female ca¬
lyx is an uniflorous, patulous, and ovate glume ; the
ftyle is bifid, and the feed cartilaginous.
OMAR (Ebn A1 Khattab) fuccefl'or of Abu Beer.
—The Mohammedan impofture, like every other falfe-
hood of its kind, copies after the truth as far as was
thought convenient or proper ; and miracles being the
grand proof of revelation, it was to be expedfed that
all pretences to that fhould aflume at leaft the ap¬
pearances of them. Few fyftems of faith are more
abfurd than Mohammed’s; yet, though he declaimed
miracles, it was fupported, as we are told by latter wri¬
ters, by a variety of them, which, however unfor¬
tunately for the creed they were contrived to fup-
port, are too trifling, abfurd, and contradictory, to
deferve the fmalleft attention.
They tell us, but upon grounds too vague and in¬
determinate to command belief, that Omar was mira-
culoufly converted to this faith; a man he is report¬
ed to have been, before this event, truly refpectable,
and in particular a violent oppofer of the Arabian
prophet. Mohammed, it feems, felt this oppoiitioit
and regretted it; he therefore, with the fervour, and,
as it happened, with the fuccefs of a true prophet, ac¬
cording to his followers account, prayed for the conver-
fion of this his dangerous antagonift. Omar, it is faid,
had no fooner read the 20th chapter of the Koran than
he was convinced : upon which he inftantly repaired to
Mohammed and his followers, and declared his conver-
fioa. It is faid, that at one time he intended to
3 murder
Oiymp*i
tl
Omar.
O M A [ 207 ] o M A
Oirui*. mnrder the'propliet; and various caufen are affigned for
—- the prevention of this fhocking’piece of facrilege. After
his wonderful converlion, the Mohammedan writers
inform us that he was furnnmed Al Faruh, or the
“ divider hecaufe, fay they, when a certain Moflem
w as condemned by Mohammed for his iniquitous treat¬
ment of a Jew, and appealed afterwards from the fen-
tence of the prophet to Omar, he cut him in two
with his fcimitar, for not acquiefeing in the decifion
of fo upright a judge : which circum(lance when
Mohammed heard, he gave him the fumame of Al
J'arnk, or “ the divider l ecaufe, by this adion,
he had fhown himfelf capable of perfectly dKlinguifh-
ing between truth and falfchood. Al Kodai affirms,
that 39 of Omar’s adherents followed his example the
fame day he pro felled himfelf a votary of Mohammed.
'I be converfion of Hamza and Omar Ebn Al Khattab
happened in the year preceding the firft flight of the
Modems into Ethiopia, or the fourth year of Mo¬
hammed’s million, according to Abulfeda. He was
unqueftionably a great acquiiition to the prophet, and
enabled him to carry on his fcbemes to far more pur-
pofe than he could poffibly have done without him,
or if he had continued his enemy. Omar at length
found his fcrvices in the caufe he had undertaken fuf-
fidently honoured and amply rewarded ; for on the
death of Abu Beer, who had fucceeded the impoftor
himfelf, he was promoted to the regal and pontifical
dignity. The title firft affigned him was the khallf of
the hhalif of the affile of God; or in other words the
fuccrjjor of the fucceffor of Mohammed; but the Arabs
confidering that this title, by the addition to be an¬
nexed to it at the acceffion of every future khalif,
would be too long, they, by univerfal confent, fa-
luted him the emperor of the believers. Which illuftri-
©us title, at this juncture conferred on Omar, defeend-
ed afterwards to all the fucceffors of that prince. Our
readers will not expedl us to follow the khalif with
minute exadlnefs through the tranfaclions of his reign.
This would indeed fwell our article beyond all propor¬
tion. We ftiall therefore confine ourfelves to fome
©f the leading fadls.
His arms appear to have been particularly fuocefs-
ful ; the Perfians he conquered, and Jerufalem fub-
nritted to his power ; nor does he appear to have been
checked in a fingle inftance. In coniequence, however,
of his fuccefs, an attempt was made to afiafirnate him.
The fa£t is thus related ; Wathek Eln Mufafcr, a ra-
folute young Arab, was procured by the king of Ghaf-
fan, and fest to Medina for this very purpofe. Some
time after his arrival, obferving Omar to fall' afleep
under a tree on which he had placed himfelf, fo as
not to be difeovrered by any perfon, he drew his dag¬
ger, and was upon the point of dabbing him, when,
lifting up his eyes, lie faw a lion walking round about
him, and licking his feet. Nor did the lion qeafe
to guard the khalif till he awoke ; but then inftantly
went away. This phenomenon ftruck Wathek with
a profound reverence for Omar, whom he now revered
as the peculiar care of heaven. He therefore came
down from the tree, on which the lion had forced him
to remain, kified the khalif’s hand, confeffed his crime,
and embraced the Mohammedan religion ; being fo
ftrongly affc&ed with the wonderful deliverance he
had been an eye-witnefs of. His life, however, was
at length ended by affaffinatiGn ; for about two years Omar,
after the conclufion of the Nohawandian war, in J *
which the Arabs probably ftill farther extended their
eonquefts, though no account of their military ope¬
rations during that period has reached us, that is, in
the 23d year of the Hegira, according to Abu Jaafar
Al Tabari, the khalif Omar Ebn Al Khattab was
affaffinated by a Perfian (lave ; of which horrid faft
the Arab writers have handed down the following
particulars : Abu Lulua, a Perfian of the Magian
ftdl, whofe name w as Firwi, one of Al Mogheira
Ebn Al Shaabah’s (laves, was obliged by his maftcr
to pay daily two dirhems, in conformity to the Mo¬
hammedan cuftom, for the free exercife of his reli¬
gion. Firuz refenting this treatment, complained of
it to the khalif, and defired that fome part at lead of
the tribute exacted of him might be remitted ; but
this favour being refufed by Omar, the Perfian
threatened his deftru&ion ; which he foon after ef-
fc£led,by dabbing him thrice in the belly with a dag¬
ger, whilft he was in the mofque at Medina petform¬
ing his morning devotions. The Arabs then prefent
perceiving that the villain had embrued his hands in
the blood of their fovereign, immediately ruftied upon
him ; but he made fo defperate a defence, that he
wounded 13 of the affailants, and fevea of them
mortally. At laft, one of the khaliPs atten¬
dants threw his veft over him, and feized him ;
upon which he dabbed himfelf, and foon after ex¬
pired. According to Theophanes, this Firuz was
an apoftate or renegade, and confequently had be¬
fore embraced the Mohammedan religion : but this
adertion is by no means probable ; becaufe, on his
becoming a convert to lilamifm, he mud have been
manumitted by his raafter, and on his relapfing into
Magifm, he would have been put to death by the
khaliPs order : neither of which particulars are con¬
fident with what we find related by the Arab hifto-
rians, and even by our Greek chronographer himfelf.
Gmar languifhed three days, and then died, in the
month of Dhu’lhajja, and the 23d year of the Hegira,
w’hich began in the year of our Lord 643, Authors
are not agreed with regard to the duration of his kha¬
lifat. The Arab hiftojians, whom we are inclined
to follow, fay that he reigned between 10 and ii
years. Theophanes affirms, that he was murdered in
the 12th year of his khalifat, and Dionyfius Telma-
renfis extends the length of his reign to 12 complete
years. Only one of the wounds given him by Firuz
was mortal, and that he received under his navel. At
his death he was 63 years old ; which, as we are told
by an Arab author, was the age of Mohammed him-
felf, Abu Beer, and Ayefiia, one of the prophet’s
wives, when they died. When Omar fell in the
mofque, Abd’alrahman Ebn Awf, one of Mohammed’s
fir ft converts, fupplied his place during the remainder
of the fervice ; and three days before hir, death, Sahib
Ebn Tarfib, at his command, officiated for him. Hia
body was interred in Ayeffia’s apartment, near that
of the prophet Mohammed. We are informed by-
Eutychius, that during his khalifat he performed the
pilgrimage to Mecca nine times. His extenfive con-
quelts made the Modem empire one of the mod power¬
ful and formidable monarchies in the world. His difpofl-
tian is reprefented to us, with evident partiality indeed,,
ai
O M B > . [ 208 ] OMB
Ombu ns one of the beft pofiible, and his temperance has al- of him who has fludied mankind, this animofity con- Ombre,
—v ' Ways been highly extolled. tinned between the inhabitants of the two cities long  v—
OMB I, a city, of ancient Egypt, afterwards called after the crocodile and ichneumon had loft their di-
Jrfinoe and Crocodilopolu, was the capital. of one of vinity.
the nomes into which that country was divided, and The condu& of the Egyptian monarch was adon¬
is remarkable, in the annals of idolatry, for the ha- rably calculated for preventing the nation from com-
tred of its inhabitants to the religion of their neigh- bining againft the government ; and it extended its
hours the citizens of Tentyra. influence over the whole kingdom. Diodorus informs
The genius of paganifm was fo complying with us, that he affigned to each nome an animal to won-
refpect to the objects of religious worlhip, that al- ftnp, which was hated, killed, and fometimes fed up*
though each nation, each city, and almoft every fa- on by the inhabitants of the neighbouring nome ; and
mily, had its own tutelar god, we know not a Tingle we know upon higher authority than his, that the
inftance, out of Egypt, of one tribe of pagans perfe- Ifraelites could not offer facrifices in Egypt, becaufe
t cuting another for worftiipping gods different from the bullock was deemed facred over the whole coun-
theirs. The Jews and Chriftians were indeed perfe- try.
cuted by the Romans, not however for worfhipping OMBRE, a celebrated game at cards, borrowed
the true Gofl, but becaufe, together with him, they from the Spaniards, ani played by two, by three, or
would not worftiip Jupiter, Juno, and all the rabble by five perfons, but generally by three. When three
of heathen divinities. play at this game, nine cards are dealt to each party ;
The reafon of the almoft univerfal tolerance of ido- the whole ombre pack being only 40 ; becaufe the
laters to one another, and of the intolerance of all
to the Jews and Chriftians, is very obvious. Not a fingle
.pagan, a very few pbilofophers perhaps excepted, ever
thought of paying his adoration to the Supreme and
felf-exiftent Being, but to inferior divinities, to whom
it was fuppofed that the care of particular perfons,
families, cities, and nations was configned by the
God of the univerfe. The confequence was, that, as
no perfon denied the divinity of his neighbour’s ob¬
ject of worfhip, an intercommunity of gods was every
where admitted, and all joined occafionally in adoring
the gods of the various nations. By the Jews and
Chriftians this communion was rejedled as in the high-
eft degree impious; and it could not well be mantain*
ed between the citizens of Ombi and thofe of Ten¬
tyra.
That brutes were Worfiupped in Egypt is univerfally
known (See Polytheism) ; and Diodorus the Sici-
* Prep. lliin informs us, in a paffage quoted by Eufebius*,
Evang. that “ the cities and nomes of Egypt being at one
P* 32- time prone to rebellion, and to enter into confpiracies
Steph. ei. agajn{^ monarchical government, one of their moft
politic kings contrived to introduce into the neigh¬
bouring nomes the worftiip of different animals; fo
that while each reverenced the deity which itfelf held
facred, and defpifed that which its neighbours had
confecrated, they could hardly be brought to join cor¬
dially in one common defign to the diftmbance of the
government.”
In this diftributionof gods he conferred upon Ombi
the crocodile, and uponTentyra the mortal enemy of that
monfter, the ichneumon. The confequence of which was,
that while the Ombites worfhipped the crocodile, the
Tentyrites took every opportunity of flaughtering
him, infomuch that, according to Strabo, the very
voice of an inhabitant of Tentyra put the crocodile
to flight. This, we confefs, is a very improbable
faft; but it is certain that the mutual hatred of thofe
cities, on account of their hoftile gods, rofe to fueh
a height, that whenever the inhabitants of the one-
were engaged in the more folemn rites of their reli¬
gion, thofe of the other were fure to embrace the
opportunity of fetting fire to their houfes, and ren¬
dering them every injury in their power to inflift.
And what may, to a fuperficial thinker, appear extra¬
ordinary, though it will excite no wonder in the bread
N° 246,
eights, nines, and tens are thrown out of the pack.
There are two forts of counters for ftakes, the greater
and the leffer; the laft having the fame proportion to
the ether as a penny to a ihilling: of the greater coun¬
ters each man ftakes one for the game; and one of the
leffer for paffmg for the hand, when eldeft, and for
every card taken in. As to the order and value of the
cards, the ace of fpades, called fpadillo, is always the
higheft trump, in whatfoever fuit the trump be ; the
manilk, or black duce, is the feeond ; and the hajlo,
or ace of clubs, is always the third : the next in order
is the king, the queen, the knave, the feven, the fix,
the five, four, and three. Of the black there are 1 t x
trumps ; of the red, 12. The leaft fmall cards of the
red are always the beft, and the moft of the black ;
except the duce and red feven, both of which are called
the manilles, and are always fecond when the red is a
trump. The red ace, when a trump, enters into the
fourth place, and is called punto, otherwife it is only
called an ace. The three principal cards arc called ma-
tadores ; which have this privilege, that they are not
obliged to attend an inferior trump when it leads; bat
for want of a fmall trump, the perfon may renounce
trumps, and play any other card ; and when thefe are
all in the fame hand, the others pay three of the great¬
er counters a-piece ; and with thefe three for a foun¬
dation, he may count as many matadores as he has
cards in an uninterrupted feries of trumps; for all which
the others are to pay one counter a-piece. He who
hath the firft hand is called ombre, and has his choice
of playing the game, of naming the trump, and of ta¬
king in as many and as few cards as he pleafes ; and
after him the fecond, &c. But if he does not name
the trump before he looks on the cards he has taken in,
any other may prevent him, by naming what trump
he pleafes. He that has the firft hand fhould neither
take in, nor play, unlefs he has at leaft three fare tricks
in his hand : for, as he wins the game who wins moft;
tricks, he that can win five of the nine has a fure game;
which is alfo the cafe if he wins four, and can fo divide
the tricks as that one perfon may win two, and the
other three.
If a perfon plays without difcarding or changing
any cards, this is called playing fans prendre; and if
another wins more tricks than he, he is faid to win co*
dille. The over-fights in the courfe of the game arc
called
Ombre
On elet.
O M E f :
cnlled beajls. And if tfie ombre wins all the nine
tricks, it is called winning the vole.
In ombre by five, which many-j on account of its
not requiring fo clofe an attention, prefer to that by
three, only eight cards a-piece are dealt ; and five
tricks muft be won, otherwife the ombre is beafted.
Here the perfon who undertakes the game, after
naming the trump, calls a king to his affiftance; upon
which the perfon in whofe hand the king is, without
difcovering himfelf, is to affift him as a partner, and
to fhare his fate. If, between both, they can make
five tricks, the ombre wins two counters, and the auxi¬
liary king only one; but when the counters are even,
they divide them equally. If the ombre venture the
game without calling in any king, this too is called
playing fans prendre; in which cafe the other four are all
againft him, and he muft win five tricks alone, or be
beafted. The reft is much the fame as by three.
Ombre de foleit, “ Shadow of the fun,” in heral¬
dry, is when the fun is borne in armory, f® as that the
eyes, nofe, and mouth, which at other times are re-
prefented, do not appear; and the colouring is thin,
fo that the field can appear through it.
OMBRIA, the ancient name of a province of Italy,
in the territory of the pope, now called Spoletto and
Perugia.
OMBRO, or Lombro, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Tufcany, and territory of the Siennois,
fituated near the Tufcan fea, a little fouth of the lake
of Caftiglione, 45 miles fouth-weft of Sienna.
OMBROMETER, a machine to meafure the
quantity of rain that falls. We have the defcription
and fign of one in Phil. Tranf. n° p. 12. It
confifts of a tin-funnel, whofe furface is an inch
fquare, with a flat board, and a glafs-tube fet into the
middle of it in a groove. The rife of the water in the
tube, whofe capacity at different times muft be mea-
fiired and marked, fhows the quantity of rain that
has fallen.
OMELET, or Amlet, a kind £>f pancake orfrl-
caffee of egg?, with other ingredients, very ufual in
Spain and France. It may be made as follows : The
eggs being beaten, are to be feafoned with fait and
pepper, and then fried in butter made boiling hot;
this done, gravy is to be poured on, and the whole
ftewed with chives and parfley fkred fmall : when
ore fide is fried enough, it is to be turned on the
other.
Vol. XIII. Part i.
109 1 O M E
OMEN, is a word which, in its proper fenfe, flgni-
fies a fign or indication of fome future event taken'
from the language of a perfon fpeaking without any
intent to prophecy. Pleoce Tully fays, “ Pythago-
rei non folum voces deorUm obfervarunt, fed etiam ho-
minum, quse vocent omina“the Pythagoreans at¬
tend to the difeourfe not only of gods, but alfo of
men, which they call omem.” This fort of omen was
fuppofed to depend much upon the will of the perfon
concerned in the event; whence the phrafes accepit
omen, artipuit omen. Such were the original omens ;
but they were afterwards derived1 from things as well
as from words. Thus Paterculus, fpeaking of the head
of Sulpicius on the roftrum, fays, it was vtlut omen im*
minentis proferiptionis, “ the omen of an impending pro ]
feription.” Suetonius fays of Auguftus, that he be¬
lieved implicitly in certain omens; and that,yf/wa/it?
Jibi calceus perperam, ac finijler pro dextero induceretur, ut
dirum, “ if his ftioes were improperly put on in the
morning, efpecially if the left fhoe was put upon his
right foot, he held it for a bad omen.,> Omen was
ufed in a ftill larger fenfe, to fignify an augury ; as in
the following line of Tully ; “ Sic aquike clarum fir-
mavit Jupiter “thus Jove confirmed the bright
omen of the eagle.” It was laftly ufed, in the moft
generic fenfe of all, for a portent or prodigy ; as in
the third book of the JEneid, where a myrtle torn up
by Atneas dropped blood. Upon this appearance, fays
the hero,
Mihi frigidus horror
Omen.
Membra quatit, gelidufque cbit formidine fanguis.
And the fame thing being repeated upon his breaking
a branch from another tree, he prayed to the gods to
avert the omen.
Multa movens animo Nymphas venerabar agreftes,
Gradivumque patrem, Geticis qui prafidet arvis.
Rife fecundarent vifus, ome«que levarent (a).
Thefe portentous or fupernatural omens Were either
external or internal. Of the former fort were thofe ftiow-
ers of blood fo frequently occurring in the Roman hif-
tory, which were much of the fame nature with this
adventure of iEneas, which he calls monstra drum.
Of the fecond fort were thofe hidden confterna-
tions, which, feizing upon men without any vifible
caufe, were imputed to the agency of the god Pan,
and hence called panic fears. But indeed there was
D d
(a) Inftead of tranfiating thefe Ihort quotations, we (hall here give Dry den’s verfion of the whole of this
portentous adventure, as we are perfuaded that the mere Englilh reader, who alone can wilh for a tranfiation,
will be glad to have the fulleft account of the bleeding myrtle, together with its effedls on the mind of the
hero. It is as follows :
Not far, a rifing hillock flood in view;
Sharp myrtles on the fides and corners grew.
There, while I went to crop the fylvan feenes,
And (hade our altar with their leafy greens,
I pull’d a plant (with horror I relate
A prodigy fo ftrange, and full of fate):
The rooted fibres rofe ; and from the wound
Black bloody drops diftill’d upon the ground.
Mute and amaz’d, my hair with terror flood-;
Tear fhrunk my fiirews, and congeal’d my blood.
Mann’d once again, another plant I try;
That other gulh’d with the fame fanguine dye.
Then, fearing guilt for fome offence unknown,
With prayers and vows the Dryads I atone.
With all the fitters of the woods, and moft '
The God of arms, who rules the Thracian coaft
r' hat they, or he, thefe omens would avert,
Releafe our fears, and better figns impart*
Qmeu.
O M E [21
har^iy^any tiling, however trivial, from which the an¬
cients did not draw omens. That it fhould have been
thought a direful omen when any thing befel the tem¬
ples, altars, or ftatues of the gods, need excite no
wonder ; but that the meeting of a eunuch, a negro,
a bitch with whelps, or a fnake lying in the road,
fhould have been looked upon as portending bad for¬
tune is a deplorable inftance of human weaknefs, and
of the pernicious influence of fuperftition on the
mind. • j
It is more than probable that this pra&icc of
king ordinary events ominous of good or bad for¬
tune took its rife in Egypt, the parent country of al-
moft every fuperftition of paganifm ; but wherever it
may have arifen, it fpreads itfelf over the whole inha¬
bited globe, and at this day prevails in a greater or
lefs degree among the vulgar of ail nations.
In England, it is reckoned a good omen, or a fign
of future happinefs, if the fun ftiines on a couple co¬
ming out of the chuich after having been married.
It is alfo efteemed a good fign if it rains whilit a oorpfe
is burying:
Ha^py is the bride that the fun ftrines on ‘r
Happy is the corpfe that the rain rains on.
To break a looking-glafs is extremely unlucky ; the
party to whom it belongs will lofe his beft friend.
If, going a journey on bufinefs, a fow crofs the roadr
you will probaoly meet with a difappointment, if not
a bodily accident, before you return home. To avert
this, you muft endeavour to prevent her crofling you ;
and if that cannot be done, you muft ride round on
frefli ground. If the fow is attended with her lit¬
ter of" pigs, it is lucky, and denotes a fuccefeful jour¬
ney.
It is unlucky to fee, firft one magpye, and then
more ; but to fee two, denotes marriage or merriment;
three, a fuccefsfu'rjourney ; four, an unexpe&ed piece
of good news ; fve, you will fhortly be in a great com¬
pany. To kill a magpye, will certainly be puniflied
withTome terrible misfortune.
If, in a family, the youngeft daughter fhould be
married before her elder Afters, they muft all dance at
her wedding without ftioes : this will counteract their
ill luck, and procure them hufbands.
If you meet a funeral proceflion, or one palFes by
you, always take off your hatthis keeps all evil fpi-
rits attending the body in good humour.
If, in eating, you mifs your mouth, and the victuals
fall, it is very unlucky, and denotes approaching fick-
nefs.
It is lucky to put on a Hocking the wrong fide out¬
wards : changing it, alters the luck.
When a perfon goes out to tranfaCt any important
bufinefs, it is lucky to throw an old flioe after him.
It is unlucky to prefent a knife, feiffars, razor, or
any fharp or cutting inftrument, to one’s miftrefs or
friend, as they are apt to cut love and friendlhip. To
avoid the ill effeCts of this, a pin, a farthing, or feme
trifling recompenfe, muft be taken. To find a knife
or razor, denotes ill luck and difappointment to the
party.
In theHighlands of Scotland, it is thought unlucky
if a perfon fetting out upon a journey ftumble over
o 1 O M E
the threfhold, or be obliged to return for any thing Omen,
forgotten. 'H a fportfman fee any perfon ftepping » ' L*‘
over his gun or filhing-rod, he expeCts but little fuc-
cefs in that day’s diverfion. Sneezing is alfo deemed
ominous. If one fneeze when making a bed, a little
of the ftraw or heath is taken out and thrown into the
fire, that nothing may difturb the reft of the perfon
who is to fleep in the bed. Among the fame people,
fuccefs in any enterprize is believed to depend greatly
upon the firft creature that prefents itfelf after the en¬
terprize is undertaken. Thus, upon going to Ihoot,
it is reckoned lucky to meet a horfe, but very unfor¬
tunate to fee a hare, if file efcape ; and upon meeting
any creature deemed unlucky, the beft means of avert¬
ing the omen is to.roll a ftone towards it. The Greeks
attributed the fame efficacy to. the rolling of a ftone,
though they greatly preferred killing the ominous ani¬
mal, that the evil portended might fall' on its own
head *. * See Ptte
The motions and appearances of the clouds weret!r *
not long ago confidered as certain figns by which
Ikilful Highlander might attain to the knowledge ofk* P’
futurity. On the evening before nenu-year’s-day^ if at
black cloud appeared in any part qf the horizon, it was
thought to prognofticate a plague, a famine, or the
death of feme great man in that p?rt of the country
over which it ftiould appear to fit; and in order to
afeertain the place threatened by the omen, the mo¬
tions of this cloud were often watched through the
whole night, if it happened to continue fo long vifible
above the horizon.
By the believers in this fuperftition there are days,
as well as words-and events, which are deemed omin--
ous of good or bad fortune. The firft day of every
quarter, midfummer, and new-year’s-day, are reckon¬
ed the moll fortunate days "in the year for accompliih-
ing any defign. In the Ifle of Mull, ploughing, fow-
ing, and reaping, are always begun on Tuefday, though
the moft favourable weather for thefe purpofes be in,,
this way frequently loft. That day of the week on
which, the third of May falls, is deemed unlucky,
throughout the whole year. In Morven, none will,
upon any account dig peat or turf for fuel on Friday;
and it is reckoned unlucky to number the people or.
cattle belonging to any family, and doubly fo if the^
number be taken on Friday. The age of the moon
is alf«, much attended to by the vulgar Highlanders.
It is alleged, that during the increafe things have ^
tendency to grow and ftick together; and hence, in
the Ifle of Sky, fences, which are there made of turf,
are built only at that time; whilft turf or peats for-
fuel are never, even in the moft favourable weather,
either made or Hacked up but while the moon is in.
its wane. An opinion, prevails in fome places, that
if a houfe take fire during the increafe of the moon*
the family to which, it belongs will profper in the
world but that if the fire happen while the moon is
in the decreafe, the family will from that time de¬
cline in its circumftances, and fink into poverty.
In attributing fuch influence to the moon, the
fuperftitious Highlanders have the honour to agree
with the philofophic Virgil, who in his Georgies
gives the following fage inftru&ious to the hufbaud-
man:
''Omen.
OME [211] OMO
Ipfa dies alios alio dedit ordine"'Luna
IJ Felices operum. Quint am fuve :
Septima pojl decimam felix et ponerc vitem.
Ft prenfos domitare bows, et licia tela;
Addere: nona fugae melior, contraria furtis.
The lucky days in each revolving moon
For labour choofe : the fifth be fure to Ihun.
* * * %
The feventh is next the tenth, the heft to join
Young oxen to the yoke, and plant the vine.
Then weavers ftreteh your ftays upon the waft:
The ninth is good for travel, bad for theft.
Dryden.
From this coincidence of the fuperftition of the
Homan poet with that of the natives of Mull and
Morven, we are ftrongly inclined to adopt the hypo-
thefis of the gentleman who favoured us with this ac¬
curate account of Highland omens. He juftly obferves,
that this fuperfiitious pradbee of auguring good or ill
from trifling events, and from the particular phafes of
the moon, has no connexion whatever with popifh
prieftcraft: he fhows that the Romifh clergy, even in
the darkeft age, were at pains to eradicate it as idle
and impious ; and he therefore infers, that it muft be
a relick of Hruidifm handed down by tradition from
an era prior to the introduction of Chriftianity into
the Highlands and ifles of Scotland. That the
Druids were acquainted with the particular do&rines
of Pythagoras has been fhown elfewhere (fee Druids);
that Virgil was no flranger to the Pythagorean philo-
fophy is known to every fcholar 5 that Pythagoras and
his followers were addifted to the dotages of Magic
has been made apparent in that article; and therefore
it appears to us probable at lead, that the attention
paid to pretended omens, not only in the highlands,
but alfo in the low country of Scotland, and indeed
among the vulgar in every country of Europe, is a rem¬
nant of one of the many fuperftitions which the Druids
impofed upon their deluded followers. That it is con¬
trary to every principle of found philofophy, all philo-
fophers will readily acknowledge ; and whoever has
fludied the writings of St Paul muft be convinced that
it is inconfiftent with the fpirit of genuine Chriftia-
\ nity.
OMENTUM, or Epiloon, the Ca^l, in anatomy,
a membranaceous part, ufually furniihed with a large
quantity of fat ; being placed under the peritonasum,
and immediately above the inteftines. See Anatomy,
90. ’
OMER, in Jewifh antiquity. See Corus.
St OMER’s, a ftiong, fortified, large, and popu¬
lous town of France, in Artois and capital of a con-
iiderable bailiwick, with a caftle and a biihop’s fee. It
is a fortrefs of confiderable importance, and furrounded
on one fide with a large morals ; and about it there are
many fluices, which ferve to carry the water off when it
is overflowed; and in the midft of the morafs there is a
fort of floating ifiands covered with verdure and trees.
'I’he cathedral is a handfome ftrutlure ; and there are
other fine buildings, with a rich Benedi&ine abbey.
The French became matters of this place in 1679. It is
feated on the river Aa, and on the fide of a hill, eight
miles north-weft of Aire, and 135 north of Paris. E. Omoa.
Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 54. 45. '—v'—
OMOA, a Spaniih town and fortification on the
fouth fide of the bay of F|pnduras, N. Lat. 15. 50.
W. Long. 89. 50. from London. It is the key to the
bay ; and fuch is the depth of the water, that imps of
any burden may ride in the harbour with fafety. It
is a place of the utmoft importance to Spain, as the
regitter fhips to and from Guatimala are fent to it in
the time of war. The town was firft eltablifhed in
1751, under the command of Don Jofeph Antonio
de Palmo. At that period the inhabitants were about
20 white men, 60 mulattoes and free negroes, and 200
Haves to tne king of Spain ; and the military force con¬
fided of about 30 foldiers, befides officers. The fort
was originally compofed of fand confined in boarded
coffers, and faced with half-burnt bricks. It was de¬
fended by 12 fine brafs 24-pounders mounted, four
or five iron guns of different bores, and fame field-
pieces. The Spaniards, fenfible of the importance of
the place, afterwards fortified it at an incredible ex¬
pence, the ftone of which the walls are built having
been raifed from the fea, and brought from the di-
ftance of 20 leagues. The outworks were not com-
pletdy finifhed in the year 1779, though ioco men
had then been employed upon them for 20 years.
Towards the end of that year an expedition was un¬
dertaken againtt this fortrefs, in confequence of one
formed try the Spaniards againft the Britiffi log-wood
cutters in the bay of Honduras and on the Mofquito
more. The latter, finding themfelves hard preffed by
their enemies, applied to general Dulling governor of
Jamaica far affiftance ; who accordingly fent a detach-
ment to their relief under Captain Dalrymple, with
neceffary fupphes of arms, ammunition, and artillery.
t^ei^ 3rnvaU however, the Spaniards had taken
poffeffion of St George’s Key the chief fettlement of
the Bntiffi in thefe parts, which they plundered, and
took a number of prifoners ; but thofe who efcaped*
being joined by a body of their countrymen, retook
it, and forced the enemy to retire. In the mean time
Captam Dalrymple, who had been informed of the
lo sof the place, was battening to the relief of the
inhabitants, and in his way fell in with Admiral Par-
ker, who was in queft of fome register fhips ; but
which, retreating into the harbour of Omoa, were too
itrongly protefted by the fort there to be attacked by
lea. As the Spaniards, however, had now been com¬
pelled to abandon St George’s Key, it was propofed
to unite the Bmifli forces by fea and land, and to at¬
tempt the con queft of this fortrefs. As the force un¬
der Captain Dalrymple was too inconfiderable to at¬
tempt thejort by land, it was augmented by the ma¬
rines of the fquadron and a ttrong party of the
fettlers^ though, after all, it did not exceed the num¬
ber of the garrifon who oppofed them.
The troops were landed at about nine miles diftance
from the fort in the dufk of the evening, with a de-
fign to march direaiy forward, in order to furprife
and carry it by efealade in the night-time. No
roads, however, being found, they were obliged to
explore their way through narrow foot-paths, moraffes,
and over mountains fo befet with precipices, that they
were obliged, in order to avoid them, to make ufe of
D d 2 lights
O M O [2'
Orroa. lights made of the cabbage-tree. In coafequence of thefe
impediments they were yet at a confiderable didance
from the fort, when the approach of day difeovered
them to the enemy. An engagement enfued, in which
the Spaniards were quietly routed and driven into the
town ; from whence as they continued to fire upon
the Britifh, it was fouud neceflary to fet fire to it,
tho’ very much againft the inclination of the affanants.
In the mean time the fquadron took the opportu¬
nity, while the town was m flames, to come into the
bay, and approach the fort with an intention to batter
it ; but the garrifon returned their tire fo brifidy, that
no irnpreflion could be made by that of the fquadron,
which was detained by want of wind from approach¬
ing fufficiently near. The troops then, being mafters
of the ground adjacent to the fort, ere&ed feveral
batteries in fueh fituations as were moll proper for an¬
noying it ; but though they carried on their opera¬
tions with great vigour, it was ftill found that heavier
artillery than any they pofleffed would , be requifite,
the walls being no lefs than 18 feet in thicknefs ; in
confequence of which they refolved ilill to attempt the
place by efcalade. „ ,
The attempt was made on the 2 f ft of October, early
in the m@rmng. The troops entered the ditch, which
foitunately for them happened to be dry, and fixed
their fealing ladders .againft the walls, which were near
30 feet high. Two feamen mounted firft ; and, with
admirable courage and prefence of mind, ftood by the
ladder which they had mounted, to guaid it till others
afeended ; and boldly prefented their pieces againft a
large party drawn up to receive them, though they
prudently retained their fire till their comrades came
^The fquadron, now drawing near, kept up a heavy
and continual fire upon the fort, wdiile the Spaniards
Were ftruck with fueh furprife at the exceffive celerity
and boldnefs of the afiailants, that they remained mo-
tionlefs and unable to oppofe their enemies, notwith-
ftanding the exhortation and example of their officers,
'from this panic they never recovered ; and while the
feamen and foldiers continued to fcale the walls with
amazing quicknefs, the Spaniards never made any ef¬
fort to defend themfelves. About 100 of them efca-
ped over the walls on the oppolite fide of the fort; the
remainder furrendered at ditcretion.
The whole of this tranfaeftion refie&ed the higheft
luftre both on the conduft and courage of the Britifli;
and an inftance of heroifm is related in a Britifli failor
to which hiftory affords nothing fuperior. This man,
having fcaled the walls, had armed himfelf with a cut-
lafs in each hand. Thus armed, he met with a Spa-
nilh officerunarmed, and juft roufed from fleep. The
generous tar fcorned to take advantage of his condition,
— and therefore prefented him with one of his own cut-
laffes, faying, “ You are now on a footing with me l”
The officer, however, was too much ftruck with ad¬
miration at his conduct to accept the offer, and took
care to make the circumftance fufficiently known.—
The value of the booty taken on this occafion amounted
to three millions of dollars ; but the lofs moft fenfibly
felt by the Spaniards was that of 250 quintals of quick-
filver, a commodity indifpenfibly neceffary in extraft-
ing the precious metals from their ores. They offered
therefore to rar.fom it at any price ; but though the
2 ] O M O
retention of it was far from affording a profic equa. to
that offered by the Spaniards, the Britnh commanders
abfolutely refufed to part with it, on account of the ad- ___
vantages the enemy would derive from having the metal
in their poffeffion. For the fame reafon they refufed to
accept of any ranfom for the fort, though the governor
offered to lay down 300,000 dollars for it. The Spa-
nifh military and the inhabitants were treated with the
utmoft humanity ; their perfonal effeils remaining un¬
touched : and this generoftty muft have appeared to
greater advantage, when contrafted with the behavi¬
our of their own countrymen at Honduras, where the
Britifli were treated with remarkable feverity. The
church-plate and ornaments were reftored, on condi¬
tion that the terms of capitulation fhould be faithruhy
a fhort time, however, it appeared that it would
have been better to have accepted of a ranfom for the
fort, as from circumftances at that time it could not
be retained in the .poffeffion of. Britain. A garriion
was indeed left for its defence on the departure of the
Britifli fquadron ; but as it was very inconflderable, on
account of the fmall number of men that could be fea¬
red, the Spaniards quickly determined to maice an at¬
tempt to regain the fort. For this purpofe a body of
2000 men were collected, who invefted it on the 25th
of November. The Britifli defended it with the ut¬
moft bravery; keeping up a conftant fire on the ene¬
my, and obliging them to retire for fhelter, and take
up their quarters behind a hill. Here they made pi se¬
parations for an affault, in which their numbers left
the fuccefs, as they fuppofed, by no means dubious.
The garnfonwas therefore furomonedtofurrender, with,
a ptomife of the honours of war and a fafe convey¬
ance to Great Britain, denouncing at the fame time
the utmoft vengeance in.cale of a relufal ; which being
refufed, the neceffary preparations were made for au
efcalade.
The condition of the garrifon was now luch as could
afford very little hope oi being able to make any ef¬
fectual reliftance. They were but 85 in number, moft
of whom were become incapable of duty either from
illnefs or excefiive fatigue. They were now alfo ob¬
liged to make one centinel anfwer for five, by fhifting
his place, and challenging as many times There
was no furgeon to attend the fick and wounded ; nor
had they even any water but what came from a floop
of war that lay abreaft of the fort. In this defpe-
rate fituation, they refolved, notwithftanding the me¬
naces of the Spanilh commander, to render the place
as unferviceable as they could. For this purpofe they
fpiked up all the guns ; deftroying the ftores and am¬
munition that could not be earned off: they even
locked the gates of the fort, after which they embarked
without the lofs of a fingle man. All this was per¬
formed in defiance of the large force that befieged
them ; and the exploit, when duly confidered, muft
appear not lefs a matter of aftonifliment than the ex¬
traordinary manner in which the fort had been taken.
The officer who commanded in this remarkable rep eat
was Captain Hulke of the navy.
OMOPHAGIA, an ancient Greek feflival, in ho¬
nour of Bacchus, furnamed Omophagos, i. e. eater of
raw-flefh. This feftival was obferved in the fame man.
ner with the other feftivals of Bacchus, in which they
caun-
Omoa,
Omoplu-
Ompha-
cine-oi'
il
Dciphalea.
G M P [2
counterfeited madnefs. What was peculiar to it, was,
that the worfhippers ufed to eat the entrails of goats,
raw and bloody, in imitation of the god, who was fup-
pofed to do the fame tiling.
OMPIIACINE-'ml, a vifcous brown juice ex¬
tracted from green olives. With tnis oil the ancient
Jtllets, when going to wreftle, anointed themfelves ;
and when that gymnaftic exereife was over, they roll¬
ed themfelves in the fand, which, mixing with the oil
and fweat on their bodies, conftituted \\xtfirigmtnta fo
highly efteemed in the cure of feveral difeafes. This
precious medicine was carefully feraped off the body
of the Athlet w’ith a kind of inftrument fomething
like a comb, which was called jlrigihs ; and inch was
the demand for the ferapings, that they were a very
lucrative article of trade.
OMPHALE (fab.hiff.), a queen of Lydia, daughter
of Jardanus. She married Tmolus, who at his death left
her mi it refs of his kingdom. Omphale had Ijeen in¬
formed of the great exploits of Hercules, and wiihed
to fee fo illuftrious a hero. Her wiflr w^as foon gra-
t.fied. After the murder of Eurytus, Hercules fell
lick, and was ordered to be fold as a Have, that he
might recover his health and the right ufe of his fen-
Mercury was commiffioned to fell him, and Om¬
phale bought him, and reftored him to liberty. The
hero became enamoured of his mi ft refs, and the queen
favoured his pafilon, and had a fon by him, whom fame
call Agelaus, and others Lamon. From this fon were
defeended Gyges and Crosfus ; but this opinion is dif¬
ferent from the account which makes thefe Lydian
monarchs fpring from Alcaeus, a fon of Hercules, by
one of the female fervants of Omphale. Hercules is
reprefented by the poets as fo defperately enamoured
of the queen, that, to conciliate her efteem,hefpins by
her fide among her women, while Ihe covers herfelf
with the lion’s fkin, and arms herfelf with the dub of
the held, and often ftrikes him wjth her fandals, for
the uncouih manner with which he holds the diftaff,
&c. Their fondntfs was mutual. As they once tra¬
velled together, they came to a grotto on mount Tmo¬
lus, where the queen dreffed herfelf in the habit of her
lover, and obliged him to appear in a female garment.
After they had flipped, they both retired to reft in
different rooms, as a facrifice on the morrow to Bac¬
chus required. In the night Faun us, or rather Pan,
who was enamoured of Omphale, introduced himfelf
into the cave. He went to the bed of the queen, bat
the lion’s fkin perfuaded him that it was the drefs of
Hercules ; and therefore he repaired to the bed of
Hercules, in hopes to find there the objed of his af-
fe&ions. The female drefs of Hercules deceived him,
and he laid himfelf down by his fide. The hero was
awakened, and kicked the intruder into the middle of
the cave. The noife awoke Omphale, and Faunus was
difeovered 'lying on the ground, greatly difappointed
and afhamed.
OMPHALE A, in botany: A genus of the trian-
dria order, belonging to the monoecia clais ot plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The male calyx is tetraphyl-
lous ; there is no corolla ; the receptacle, into which
the antherae are funk, is ovate. The female calyx and
corolla are as in the male ; the ftigma trifid ; the cap-
fule carnous and uilocular, with one feed-
13 1
O N A
OMPHALO-mesenteric, in anatomy. All fee- Ompha:o-
tufes are wrapped up in at leaft two coats or mem- “Enteric
branes ; moft of them have a tnird, called allantoidest onania.
or urinary,
Some, as the dog, cat, hare, &c. have a fourth,
which has two blood-veffels, viz. a vein and an ar¬
tery, called omphalo-mefenterics, becaufe paffing along
the firing' to the navel, and terminating in the meien-
tery.
OMRAH, a man of the firft rank in the Mogul
empire ; a nobleman. It is the plural of the Arabic
ameer.
ON, (anc. geog.), a city of Egypt facred to the
fun, and by the Greeks, on 'that account, called Helio¬
polis. (See Heliopolis.) It was remarkable for
the wifdom and learning of its priefthood, and for the
fpacious buildings in which they cultivated the liu-
dies of philofophy and aftronomy. i he priefts of On
were efteemed more noble than all the other priefts of
Egypt. They were always privy counfellors and mi-
nifters of ftate ; and therefore, when Pharaoh refolved
to make Jofeph prime minifter, he very wifely gave
him in marriage a daughter of the prieft of Ov, there¬
by incorporating him into the moft venerable caff in
Egypt. Bifhop Warburton thinks that the fuperior
nobility of the priefts of Oh was chiefly owing to their
high antiquity and great learning. Chat they were
much, given to the ftudy of aftronomy, we know from
the teftimany of Strabo ; and indeed nothing is more
probable than that they fliould be attached to the ftu¬
dy of that fyftem over which their god, the Sun, pre-
flded, not on!y in his moral but alfo in his natural ca¬
pacity. The learned prelate affirms, that “ whether
they received the doflrine from original tradition, or
invented it at hazard (which laft fuppofition he thinks
more probable, though v/e are of a very different opi¬
nion), it is certain they taught that the Sun is in the
centre of its fyftem, and that all the other bodies move
round it in perpetual revolutions. This noble theory
'(he continues) came with the reft of the Egyptian learn¬
ing into Greece (being brought thither by Pytha-_
goras,u'ho received it from Gdnuphis*, a prieft; of On); ^ ^
and after having given the molt diftinguifhed lull re j-
to his fchool, it funk into obfeurity, and fuffered ap. (,32.
total eclipfe throughout a long fucceffion of learned Steph. e<L
and unlearned ages; till thefe times returned its an¬
cient fplendor, and immoveably fixed it on the uner¬
ring principles of fcience.”
If it be true, as fome philofophers allege, that
Mofes appears from the firft chapter of Gencfis to
have been acquainted with the true folar fyftem, this
account of the origin of that fyftein is extremely pro¬
bable. As it is of no importance to the civil ©r reli¬
gious conftitution of a ftate whether the fyftem of Pto¬
lemy or that of Copernicus be admitted by the peo¬
ple, we cannot reafonably fuppefe that the Jewifti
lawgiver was taught aftronomy by a revelation from
Heaven. But there can be no doubt of his knowing
as much of that fcience as the priefts of On; for we
know that he was inftrufted in all the wifdotn of the
Egyptians ; and therefore, if he held the fun to be in
the centre of the fyftetn, it is morally certain that the
fame thing was held by that priefthood.
ONANIA, or Onanism, terms lately framed to de- •
note the crime of ftlf-pollulion, mentioned in ferip-
tute
e N A f 214 1 ONE
A#nania. ture to have been committed by Onan, and punifhed
j jn \vitla death.
This pradtice, however common, hath among all
nations been reckoned a veiy great crime. In fcrip-
i-ture, befides the inftance of Onan above-mentioned, we
find felf polluters termed r.ffcrivnate^ unclean, filthy, and
abominable Even the heathens, who had not the ad¬
vantage of revelation, were of the fame opinion, as
appears from the following lines of Martial.
Hoc nihil ejfe pates! fcelus ejl, mihi crede; fed ingens
Quantum vix ammo concipis ipfe tuo.
You think ’tis nothing! ’tis a crime, believe!
A crime fo great you fcarcely can conceive.
Dr Tiffbt has publifhed a treatife on the pernicious
effefts of this fhameful practice, which appears to be
no lefs baneful to the mind than to the body. Me be¬
gins with obferving, that, by the continual wafte of the
human body, aliments are required for eur fupport.
Thefe aliments, however, require certain preparations
in the body itfelf; and when by any means we become
fo altered that thefe preparations cannot be effedted,
the beft aliments then prove infufficient for the fupport
of the body. Of all the caufes by which this morbid
alteration is brought on, none is more common than
too copious evacuations ; and of all evacuations, that
of the femen is the moft pernicious when carried to ex¬
cels. It is alfo to be obferved, that though excefs in
natural venery is produdtive of very dangerous difor-
ders, yet an equal evacuation by felf-pollution, which
is an unnatural way, is produdtive of others ftill more
to be dreaded. The confequences enumerated by Dr
Tiflbt are as follow:
1. All the intelledtnal faculties are weakened; the
memory fails ; the ideas are confufed, and the patient
fometimes even falls into a flight degree of infanity.
They are continually under a kind of inward reftlefs-
nefs, and feel a conilant anguifh. They are fubjedt to
giddinefs ; all the fenfes, especially thofe of feeing and
hearing, grow weaker and weaker, and they are fub¬
jedt to frightful dreams.
2. The itrength entirely fails, and the growth in
young perfons is confiderably checked. Some are af-
flidted with almoft continual watching, and others dofe
almofl perpetually. Almoft all of them become hy¬
pochondriac or hyfteric, and are afflidted with all
the evils which attend thefe diforders. Some have
been known to fpit calcareous matter; and others
are afflidted with coughs, flow fevers, and confump-
tions.
3. The patients are affetdted with the moft acute
pains in different parts of the body, as the head,
breuft, ftomach, and inteftines; while fome complain
of an obtufe fenfation of pain all over the body on the
flighteft impreffion.
4. There are not only to be feen pimples on the
face, which are one of the moft common fymptoms ;
but even blotches, or fuppurative puftules, appear on
the face, nofe, breaft, and thighs; and fometimes flefhy
excrefcences arife on the forehead.
5. The organs of generation are alfo affedted ; and
the femen is evacuated on the flighteft irritation, even
that of going to ftool. Numbers are afflidted with an
iabitual gonorrhoea, which entirely deftroys the vigour
of the conftitution, and the matter of it refembles a Onanl*
fetid fanies. Others are affedted with painful pria- II
pifms, dyfuries, ftranguries, and heat of urine, with ®ndee,'onr|
painful tumours in the tefticles, penis, bladder, andjjow'*’
fpeimatic cord; and .impotence in a greater or lefs de- - j
gree is the never-failing confequence of this deteftable
'vice.
6. The fundtions ofthe inteftines are fometimes to¬
tally deftroyed ; and fome patients complain of cof-
tivenefs, others of diarrhoea, piles, and the running of
a fetid matter from the fundament.
With regard to the cure, the firft flep is to leave
off thofe pradtices which have occaftoned the difeafe i
which our author affertsis no eafy matter ; as, accord¬
ing to him, the foul itfelf becomes polluted, and can
dwell on no other idea ; or if fhe does, the irritabi¬
lity of the parts of generation themfelves quickly re-
cal ideas of the fame kind. This irritability is no
doubt much more to be dreaded than any pollution
!the foul can have received ; and by removing it, there
will be no occafion for exhortations to difeontinue the
pradtice. The principal means for diminifhing this
irritability are, in the firft place, to avoid all ftimula*
ting, acrid, and fpiced meats. A low diet, however,
is improper, becaufe it would further reduce the body,
already too much emaciated. The food fhould there¬
fore be nutritive, but plain, and fhould conftft of flefh
rather roafted than boiled, rich broths, &c. It is cer¬
tain, however, that as thefe foods contribute to reftorc
the ftrength of the body, the ftimulus on the organs of
generation will be proportionably increafed by the fe¬
men which is conftantly fecreted, and which will now
be in larger quantity than even in healthy perfons, ow¬
ing to the great evacuations of it which have preceded.
Some part of the femen is gradually abforbed by the
lymphatics; in confequence of which, the remainder
becomes thick, acrid, and very ftimulating. To remedy
this, exercife is to be ufed, and that not only for plea-
fare, but till it is attended with a very confidefable
degree of fatigue. The deep alfo muft be no more than
is barely fufficient to repair the fatigues occafioned by
the exercife, or other employment; for an excefs in
deep is as bad as idlenefs or ftimulating foods. Ex¬
cefs in wine or intoxicating liquors is alfo to be avoid¬
ed ; or rather fuch liquors ought never to be tailed,
unlefs as a medicine to reftorei the exhaufted fpirits s
and to all this ought to be joined the Peruvian bark,
which hath this admirable property, that, with little
or no ftimulus, it reftores the tone of the fyftcm, and!
invigorates the body in a manner incredible to thofe
who have not obferved its effefts. If thefe directions
are followed, the patient may almoft certainly expe<9t
a recovery, provided any degree of vital ftrength re¬
mains ; and thofe who ddire a life of celibacy on a
moral account, will find them much more effectual than
all the vows of chaftity they can make.
ONCA and Once. See Felis, vi. and iv.
ONEEHOURAandONEEHQ W,twofmallifland8
of that clufter which was difeovered by Captain Cook,
and by him called the Sandwich IJlands. (See Sand¬
wich Islands). Oneehoura is very fmall, and its
chief produce is yams. Oneehow is confiderably larger,
being about ten miles over. It is remarkable for the
great quantity’ of excellent yams which it produces,
and for a fweet root called tee or teay which is general-
a
Plate CCCXLIX .
ONE [2
Qntga 1y aboot the thicknefs of a man’s wrift, though fome-
Jl . times much larger This root, which the natives com-
0“ monly bake previous to their bringing it to market, is
_ of a wet clammy nature, and with proper management
makes excellent beer.
ONEGA, a river and lake of the Ruffian empire,
between Mufcovite Carelia, the territory of Cargapol,
and Swediih Carelia. It is too miles in length and
40 in breadth, having a communication with the lake
Ladoga, and confequently with Peterfburgh. The
river has its fource in Cargapol, and gives its name to
a country full of woods.
ONEGLIA, a fea-port town of Italy, in the ter¬
ritory of Genoa, with the title of a principality ; but
it belongs to the king of Sardinia, as well as the pro¬
vince, which abounds in olive-trees, fruit, and wine.
It has often been taken and retaken in the wars of
Italy ; which is no wonder, as it is an open place. The
French and Spaniards had pofleffion of it in 1744, but
were driven out by the Piedmontefe ; however, they
returned next winter, and again made themfelves ma¬
ilers of it. E. Long. 7. 51. N. Lat. 43. 58.
ONEIROCRITICA, the art of interpreting
dreams; or a method of foretelling future events by
means of dreams. See Dream, Divination, 8cc.—
The word is formed from the Greek « dream.”
and xp*7‘x», of xfio-nuf, “ judgment.”—Some call it onei-
rocratka ; and derive it from owf©- and y-pana, « I
poffefs, I command.”
It appears from feveral paflages of fcripture, that
there, was, under the Jewifh difpenfation, fuch a thing
as foretelling future events by dreams ; but then there
was a particular gift or revelation required for that
purpofe.
Hence it has been inferred, that dreams are really
fignificative, and do forbode fomething to come ; and
all that is wanting among us is the eneirocritica., or the
art of knowing what: yet it is the opinion of many,
* . that dreams are mere chimeras ; bearing indeed fome
relation to what has paffed, but none to what is to
come.—As to the cafe of Jofeph, it was poffible for
God, who knew all things, to difcover to him what
was in the womb of fate; and to introduce that, he
might take the occalron of a dream.
ONEIROCRITICS, a title given to interpreter?
of dreams, or thofe who judge of events from the cir-
cumllances of dreams.
There is no great regard to be had to thofe Greek
books called oneirocritics; nor do we know why the
patriarch of Conflantinople, and others, ffiould amufa
themfelves with writing on -fo pitiful a fubjeA.
Rigault has given us a colledlion of the Greek and
Latin works of this kind ; one attributed to Aftramp-
fichus; another to Nicephorus, patriarch of Conrlan-.
tinople ; to which are added the treatifes df Artemi-
dorus and Achmet. - But the books themfelves are
' little elfe than reveries; a kind of waking dreams, to
explain and account for fieeping ones.
The fecret of oneirocriticifm, according to them all,
confdls in the relation fuppofed to be between the
dream and the thing fignified : but they are far from
keeping to the relations of agreement and fimilitude;
and frequently have recourfe to others of diffimilitude
and contrariety. Concerning oneirocritics and onei-
rocritica, the unlearned reader will find much informa-
5 } ON*
tion in Warburton’s Divine Legation of Mofes, and
the books to which he refers.
ONESliE thermae, were, according to Strabo,
excellent baths, and falutary waters, at the foot of the e
Pyrenees in Aquitania. Near the river Aturus {lands
at this day the town Bagneres, famous for its waters,
which appear to be the Onefue of Strabo ; fituated irr
the county of Bigorre in Gafcony, near the river
Adour.
ONIfE oppidum and Templum, (Jofephus) ; fo
called from Onias, the high-prieft of the Jews in
Egypt; who built a temple in imitation of that at Je-
rufalem, by permiffion of the king of Egypt, on the
fpot where flood the temple of Diana Agreftis in
Leontopolis: it was encompafled with a brick-wall,
and had a large tower like that at Jerufalem, (Jofe¬
phus:) it was the metropolis of the Nomos Heliopc*
lites, (Ptolemy;) becaufe in Strabo’s time Heliopolis
was fallen to decay. ♦
ONGLEE, in heraldry, an appellation given to
the talens or claws of beads or birds, when borne
of a different colour from that of the body of the ani¬
mal.
ONION. See Allium, fp. 5.— Onions, leeks, and
garlic are all of the fame genus; and in their recent {late
are aciid, but harmlefs to the human body. When,
by age or climate, this acrimony, is too great, we do
not ufe them as food. In Spain, the garlic being
equally mild with the onion is ufed as common food.
By the ordinary culinary preparation their acrimony is
diffipated, and a remarkably mild fubftance remains, -
premifing much nutriment, which thofe who can di-
geft them raw will certainly obtain. Though fometimes
{hunned as food, yet they are on that account ufed in
medicine, uniting the two qualities of peftorals, viz.
on the account of their acrimony, being in their re¬
cent ftate expeftoraut; in their boiled ftate, on account
of their mucilage, demulcent, provided the quantity
taken be fufficient; Some of late, in this country,
have found in leeks, a fomniferous qqality-; but this is
not yet confirmed by a fufficievit number of experi¬
ments.— Befides the three above-mentioned, there are
feveral others belongipg to the fame tribe, which we
ufe as condiment ; butonly the leek and onion as diet.
In its recent {late, the onion is the moft acrid ; in its
boiled Hate, the leek retains its acrimony moll tena-
cioufiy. On account of this, and fome difference of tex¬
ture, the onion is more eafily digefted and more uni-
verfally ufed than the leek ; being more eafily broke
down, and more generally agreeable. '
ONISCUS, in zoology, a genus of infe&s belong:?
ing to the order of aptera. It has 14 legs, briftly-C
feelers, and an oval body. There are 15 fpecies; of
which the ■moil remarkable are,
1. The entomon, or fca wood loufe, is white; eyes
black; convex above, beneath fiat, margin acute;
Amennx.4: Four hind pair of'legs largeft, hairy.
Body of 10 fegments. Length ij-line. Found on
the -coatt. It accompanies the herring, and is an ene¬
my well known to our fifhermen ; thefe infctls- will
frequently eat up a whole hffi while it hangs.in the
net.
2. Cnifcus aquatic us, is of an affien-colour, and toler¬
ably fmooth. Its body is compofed of feven articn-
Lturns, exclufive of the head and tail; which lail part
6 is~
Onefint'
therm*.
il
Omici s.
—y — J
Plate
CCXLIX
O N K. [21
Oi ifcus fg rnucK larger than the other fegments, round at the
Onkelos. extremity, and from which iffue two appendices, each
^ divided into two threads. This infeft has that in com¬
mon with fome fea-onifei, but differs from them by the
fea ones having ten fegments. This has feven legs on
each fide ; the laft of which gradually increafe in
length, and are conflantly larger than the foremofl.
The antennae have but three long articulations, the
laft of which is much longer than the reft. This in-
feft is found in pools, fmall rivulets, and efpecially in
fprings.
^. sift:Hus, millepes, or ivood-lonfe^ is oval; the tail
obtufe, with two undivided briftles : various as to co¬
lour : length,' 5 lines. Their ufe in medicine is well
known.
4. Onifcus armadillo is broad, very gloffy,and fmooth:
its colour is black, wnth a fmall portion of white on
the edge of the fegment, which colour Often varies ;
but ft ill the infed is gloffy and fmooth. Its body is
compofed of ten fegments, befides the head and tail.
Of the ten fegments, the firft feven are broad, and the
laft three fhort. The iirft of thefe three appears di¬
vided in the middle, which is broader than the reft,
into three more. Thefe laft fhort fegments, with that
of the tail, form the extremity of the animal’s body,
which is round, without any appendix, and confti
tutes the fpecific charader of this infed. It has four¬
teen feet, ieven on each fide. This onifcus, when
touched, rolls itfelf up into a ball, bringing its head
and tail together like the animal called armadillo, and
neither ar.tennse nor feet are feen : it might be taken
for a round, fhining pearl. This onifcus is found in
woods.
ONKELOS, furnamed the Profelyte, a famous rabbi
of the firft century, and the author of the Chaldee
Targum on the Pentateuch. He flourifhed in the time
of Jefus Chrift, according to the Jewifti writers ; who
all agree that he was, at leaft in fome part of his life,
contemporary with Jonathan Ben Uzziel,author of the
fecond Targum upon the prophets. Dean Prideaux
thinks he was the elder of the two, for feveral reafons:
the chief of which is the purity of the ftyle in his Tar¬
gum, therein coming neareft to that part of Daniel
and Ezra which is in Chaldee, and is the trueft ftan-
dard of that language, and confequently is the moft
ancient; fince'that language, as well as others, was in
a conftant flux, and continued deviating in every age
from the original: nor does there feem to be any rea-
fon why'Jonathan Ben Uzziel, when he underftood his
Targum, fhould pafs over the law', and begin with the
prophets, but that he found Onkelos had done this
work before hirn, and with a fuccefs which he could
not exceed.
Azaries, the author of a book intitled Meor Enaim,
or the light of the eyes, tells us, that Onkelos was a
profelyte in the time of Hillel and Samnai, and lived
to fee Jonathan Ben Uzziel one of the prime fcholars
of Hillel. Thefe three doftors flourifhed 12 years be¬
fore Chrift, according to the chronology of Gauz; who
adds, that Onkelos was contemporary with Gamaliel
the elder, St Paul’s mafter, who was the grandfon of
Hillel, who lived 28 years after Chrift, and did not
die till 18 years before the deftru&ion of Jenifalem.
.However, the fame Gauz, by his calculation, places
N° 246. 5
6 ] O N O
Onkelos IOO years after Chrift ; and to adjuft his opi-Onkotniiry
nion with that of Azaries, extends the Life of Onkelos II
to a great length. The Talmudifts tell us that he af-
fifted at the funeral of Gamaliel, and was at a prodi- v t
gious expence to make it moft magnificent. Dean
Prideaux obferves, that the Targum of Onkelos is ra¬
ther a verfion than a paraphrafe ; fince it renders tire
Hebrew text word for word, and for the moft part
accurately and exa&ly, and is by much the bed of all
this fort: and therefore, it has always been held in
efteem among the Jews, much above all the other Tar-
gums; and being fet to the fame mufical notes with the
Hebrew text, it is thereby made capable cf being read
in the fame tone with it in their public afiemblies. From ^
the excellency and accuracy of Onkelos’s Pat gum, the
dean alfo concludes him to have been a native Jew',
fince, without being bred up from his birth in the Jew-
ifh religion and learning, and long exercifed in all the
rites and doftrines thereof, and being alfo thoroughly
fkilled in both the Hebrew and Chaldee languages, as
far as a native Jew could be, he can fcarce be thought
thoroughly adequate to that work which he perform¬
ed ; and that the reprefenting him asaprofelyte feems
to have proceeded from the err&r of taking him to
have been the fame with Akilas, or Aquila, of Pontus,
author of the Greek Targum or verfion of the pro¬
phets and Hagiographia, who was indeed a Jewifti
profelyte.
ONKOTOMY, in furgery, the opening of a tu¬
mour or ahfeefs. See Surgery.
ONOCLEA,iu botany: A genus of the natural or¬
der of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The fpike is flat, and turned to each fide,
with quinquevalved fructifications.
ONOMANCIA, or rather Onomantxa, a branch
of divination, which foretels the good or bad fortune
of a man, from the letters in his name. See the article
Divination, and Name.
From much the fame principle the young Romans
toafted their miftrefTes as often as there were letters ia
their names: Hence Martial fays,
Navia fex cyatlm,feptem 'JuJlina bibatur.
ONOMATOPOEIA, in grammar and rhetoric, a
figure where words are formed to refemble the found
made by the things fignilied ; as the buzz of bees, the
cackling of hens, &c. Refemblances of this kind are
often fancied when they are not real, though, no doubt,
there are in every language fome words of which the
found is very like to that which thofe words are em¬
ployed to exprefs. Yet, to the mortification of gram- N ,f|
marians and rhetoricians, conjunctions, which have
been juftly pronounced no parts of fpeech, are the on¬
ly founds uttered by men that are wholly natural, and
thefe are fewer than is commonly fuppofed. See
Grammar and Language.
ONONIS,in botany: A genus of the decandria or¬
der, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants. The
calyx is quinquepartite, with the fegments linear; the
vexillum ftriated ; the legumen turgid and fefiile ; the
filaments coalited without a fiflure.
ONOPORDUM, in botany: A genus of the poly-
gamia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia ciafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
^ the
O N Y
r
the 49th order, Compnfita. The receptacle is honey¬
combed ; the fcales of the calyx mucronated or point¬
ed.
ONOSANDER, a Greek author and Platonic phi-
lofopher,who wrote Commentaries on Plato’s politics,
which are loft : but his name is particularly famous for
a treatife intitled A'>osr “ Of the duty and
virtues of the general of an army which has been
tranftated into Latin, Italian, Spanifh, and French.
The time when he lived is not precifely known : but
is imagined to be in the reign of the emperor Clau¬
dius
ONOSMA, in botany: A genus of the monogynta
order, belonging to the pcntandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 41ft order,
sffperfo/ia. The corolla is campanulated, with the
throat pervious : there are four feeds.
GMT A RIO, a lake of North America, in the coun¬
try of the Iroquois, 1S0 miles in length and 60 in
breadth. There are many rivers that run into it ; and
from it the great river St Laurence proceeds. It
communicates with lake Erie by a river 33 miles in
length, in which is the remarkable cataraft of Nia¬
gara.
ONTOLOGY. See Metaphysics, n° 3.
ONUPHR1US panvinus a learned Italian, of the
order of hermits of St Auguftine, was born of a noble
family at Verona, in 1 ^29; and, being trained to lite¬
rature, became fo indefatigable in his ftudies, that he
fpent whole days and nights in reading the ancients :
which made Manutius ftyle himHelluoSlntiquitatis. His
fhft performance was A Chronicle of Popes and Car¬
dinals, which was printed without his knowledge at
Venice in l$57; and fome time after, more corre&ly
by himfelf. He afterwards continued Platina’s Lives
of the Popes, from Sextus IV to Pius V. and fubjoin-
ed annotations to the lives Platina had written. He
alfo wrote four pieces upon Roman Antiquities, which
are printed in Grtevius’s Colledlion. He died in his
39th year, in 1 568.
ONYCOMANCY, or, as fome write it, Onyman-
cy; a kind of divination by means of the nails of the
fingers. The word is formed from the Greek
“ nail,” and “ divination.”
The ancient praftice was to rub the nails of a youth
with oil and foot, or wax ; and to hold up the nails
thus fmeared againft the fun.—Upon them were fup-
pofed to appear figures or charafters, which Ihowed
the thing required.
ONYX, in natural hiftory, one of the femipellucid
gems, with varioufly coloured zones, but none red ;
being compofed of cryftal, debafcd by a fmall admix¬
ture of earth ; and made up either of a number of fiat
plates, or of a feries of coats furrounding a central
nucleus, and fcparated from each other by veins of a
different colour, refemhling zones or belts.
We have four fpecies of this gem. 1. A bluifti-
white one, with broad white zones. 2. A very pure
onyx, with fnow-white veins 3. The jafponyx, or
horny-onyx, with green zones. 4. The brown onyx,
with bluifh white zones.
The ancients attributed wonderful properties to the
onyx, and imagined that if w orn on the finger it adfed
as a cardiac ; they have alfo recommended it as an
aftringent; but at prefent no regard is paid to it.
Vol. XIII. Part I.
Oo t.
17 I O O R
The word in the Greek language fignifies nail; the O matafhka
poets making this ftone to have been formed by the
Parc® from a piece of Venus’s nails, cut off by Cupid
with one of his arrows.
OONALASHKA, one of the Hands of the Nor¬
thern Archipelago, vifited by Captain Cook in his
laft voyage. The native inhabitants of this Hand are,
to all appearances, a very peaceable people, having
been much poliftied by the Ruffians, who now keep
them in a ftate of fubjedion. As the Hand furnifhes
them with fubfiftence", fo it does, in fome meafure,
with clothing, which is chiefiy compofed of /kins.
The upper garment, which is made like a waggoner’s
frock, reaches down to the knees. Befides this, they
wear a waiftcoat or two, a pair of breeches, a fur cap,
and a pair of boots, the legs of which are formed of
fome kind of ftrong gut; but the foies and upper-lea¬
thers are of Ruffia leather Fifit and other fea ani¬
mals, birds, roots, berries, and even fea-weed, compofe
their food. They dry quantities of fifh during the
fummer, which they lay up in fmall huts for their ufe
in winter. They did not appear to be very defirous
of iron, nor to want any other inftrument, except
fewing needles, their own being formed of bone. With
theft they few their canoes, and make their clothes,
and alfo work very curious embroidery. They ufe,
inftead of thread, the fibres of planes, which they
fplit to the thicknefs required. All fewing is per-
formedbythe females,who are (hoe-makers,tailors, and
boat-builders. They manufacture mats and bafkets of
grafs, which are both ftrong and beautiful. ( here
is indeed a neatnefs and perfection in moil of their
works, that (hows they are deficient neither in inge¬
nuity nor perfeverance.
Though the climate is fometimes fevere, Captain
Cook did not obferve a fire-place in any of their ha¬
bitations. They are lighted as well as heated by
lamps ; which, though (imple, effectually anfwer the
purpofe for which they are intended. They confift
of a flat ftone, hollowed on one fide like a plate ; in
the hollow part they put the oil, mixed with fome
dry grafs, which ferves for a wick. Both fexes often
warm themfelves over one of thefe lamps, by placing
it between their legs, under their garments, and fit¬
ting thus over it for feveral minutes. E. Long. 139.
29. N. Lat 53. 5.
OONELLA, OONEMAH, two Hands of the
fame Archipelago with Oonalafhka ; the former of
which lies to the nerth-eaft of that Hand, being fe-
parated from it by a navigable ftrait ; the other is more
to the weftward, being in E. Long. 192. 30. and
N. Lat. 54. 30. The circumference of Oonella is
about feven leagues, and the produce of both much
the fame with that of Oonalalhka.
OORT (Adam Van), born at Antwerp in 1 tyy,
was the fon of LambertVanOort, a p -inter of confide-
rable reputation for perfpeefive and architecture. Adam
was inftruCled in the art by his father, and afforded
fufficicnt proofs of his having an enlarged genius ; fo
that he foon rofe into efteem, not only as a painter of
hiftory, but as an able artift in landfcape and portrait.
But the greateft honour of Van Oort proceeded from
his having been the firft inftrudor of Rubens, whofe
works have eternized his matter’s memory, along with
his own.
E e Naturally
o o s r 21:
Naturally he was of a rough and difagreeable tem¬
per, which occafioned him to lofe the love of his dif-
ciplcs and his friends; and among the number, he to¬
tally forfeited the efleem of Rubens, his beft pupil.
Jordaens was the only perfon who accommodated hun-
felf to the favage humour of his matter; but it appears
probable, that he only condefcended to endure his
morofe behaviour, out of affedtion to the daughter of
Van Oort, to whom Jordaens was afterwards mar¬
ried.
In his ftyle of painting, however, he negledted na¬
ture, and was entirely a mannerift ; nor did he feem
to have any regard to painting as a fine art, but
merely as an art that might be the means of making
him rich. In his beft time, his compofition was agree¬
able and his. defign corredl; but in his latter time,
his woiks had nothing to recommend them, except
the freedom of handling, and the goodnefs of their
colouring; yet, with all his defedts, he was accounted
a good painter. Rubens ufed to fay. that Van Oort
would have furpafled all his contemporaries, if he had
feen Rome, and formed his tafte by ftudying after the
belt models. He painted a great number of defigns
for the altars of churches in Flanders, which have
much merit in feveral parts ; and they are ftill beheld
with pleafure by good judges
OOST,a kiln for drying hops after they are picked
from the ftalks.
Oosr (Jacques Vac), a painter of hiftory, land-
fcape, and archite&ure, was born at Bruges about
the year 1600, and learned the art in his native city,
though it is not afcertained by what matter he was
inftrudted ; but he travelled to Italy, to ftudy after
the works of the great matters, and copied every thing
that pleafed his own tafte, or that he thought might
contribute to his improvement. However, among all
the famous artifts, he attached himfelf particularly to
the ftyle of Annibal Caracci, and imitated him in fuch
a manner, as to furprife the moft able connoifleurs at
Rome.
He pofieffed many of the accompliihments of a great
painter. His touch and his colouring were good ; he
introduced but few figures in his defigns, to avoid
incumbering his fuhjecl ; and he difpofed them with a
great deal of fkill and elegance ; giving them fuch
draperies as were fimple and natural. He defigned in
a good tafte ; and though his ftyle of compofition re-
lemh ed that of Annibal yet it was lefs charged than
the defigns of that malter ufually are. In his carna¬
tions, his colouring was frefh and like nature ; but he
is not fo commendable in the colour of his draperies,
which is fometimes fo broken as to give the fluffs an
appearance of hardnefs. He underflood perfpeciive
and archite&ure extremely well; and as he wras not
fond of painting landfcape (though occafionally he
painted it well), in the Head of it he ornamented his
back grounds moft frequently with buildings, co¬
lumns, arches, and different pieces of architecture,
which gave his compofition a grand effeCt.
The moil admired puflure of Van Ooft is in the
] O P A
church at Bruges which belonged to the Jefuits : the Opacity
fubjeft of it is, a Defcent from the Crofs ; in which °P*h<
the defign, the difpofition, the expreffion, colour, and ■
chiaro-fcuro, are worthy of the higheft praifes. He
had a fon of the fame name, who acquired confiderable
fame in his profefiion.
OPACITY, in philofophy, a quality of bodies
which renders them impervious to the rays of light.
OPAH, commonly called the kingfjh. See Zeus. J^LI
The body is deep ; the feales exceedingly minute : it *'
has fetaceous teeth on the tongue only, one long dor-
fal fin, and a tail fomewhat lunated. The genus of
which this is a fpecies is not numerous : This, howe¬
ver, is confiderably the largeft, and with refueCt to
its colours the moft fplendid. It is confidered by many
as the moft beautiful fifh that is found on the coaft
of Europe. Mr Pennant in his Britifh Zoology gives
the following account of this fifh, which is exceeding¬
ly rare on the Britifh coaft : “ We have only four
inftances (fays he) of this fifh being taken in our feas,
each of them in the north, viz. twice off Scotland,
once off Northumberland, and once in Filey-Bay,
Yorkfhire. This laft was caught about two years ago,
and exhibited as a fhow at Scarborough.
“ it is of that genus which Linnreus diftinguifhes
by the name of Chatodon from its briftly teeth, and
is faid to be very common on the coaft of Guinea;
(See Ch/etodon). (a)
“ It is well deferibed by an anonymous writer in
tlje London Magazine for Oftober 1767, which we
fhall borrow, as the account is confirmed to us by Mr
Travis, who had an opportunity of examining one of
the fame fpecies.
“ Newcaftle, September 12. On Saturday laft
was thrown upon the fands at Blyth, a very rare and
beautiful fifh, weighing between 70 and 80 pounds,
fhaped like the fea bream. The length was three
feet and an half; the breadth from hack to belly al-
moft two feet ; but the thicknefs from fide to fide not
above fix inches.
“ The mouth fmall for the fize of the fifh, form¬
ing a fquare opening, and without any teeth in the
Jaws. The tongue thick, refembling that of a man,
but rough and thick fet with beards or prickles, point¬
ing backwards, fo that any thing might eafily pafs
down, but could not.eafily return back; therefore
thefe might ferve inftead of teeth to retain its prey.
The eyes remarkably large, covered with a membrane,
and fhining with a glare of gold. The cover of the
gills like the falmon.
“ The body diminifhes very fmall to the tail, which
is forked, and expands 12 inches: the gill fins are
broad, about eight inches long, and play horizon¬
tally : a little behind their infertion the back fin takes
its original, where it is about feven inches high, but
flopcs away very ftxddenly, running down very near the
tail, and at its termination becomes a little broader z
the belly fins are very itrong, and placed near the
middle of the body : a narrow fin alfo runs from the
anus to the tail.
8 “ AU
( a ) Later writers feem with more
already referred.
propriety to have ranked it under the genus Zeus, to which we have
o p a r 2
“ All the fins, and alfo the tail, are of a fine fcarlet;
but the colours and beauty of the reft of the body,
which is fmooth and covered with almoft imper¬
ceptible fcales, beggars all defcription; the upper
part being a kind of bright green, variegated with
vvhitifh fpots, and enriched with a fhining golden hue,
much refembling the fplendour of the peacock’s fea¬
thers ; this by degrees vanifhes in a bright filver ; and
near the belly the gold begins again to predominate
in a lighter ground than on the back.”
OPAL, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of the chroa-
ftaces genus of gems.- This fpecies of precious ftone
is generally efteemed the moll beautiful of all the flinty
tribe, which appears to be owing to its changeable
appearance when viewed by reflection —The form of
the opal is that of a pebble, like the agate, with
tvhich authors in general have clafled it, from a fup-
pofed refemblance, of which there appears no fort
of proof. On the contrary, Bergman’s analyfis points
it out to be of a very different nature from the genus
of flints, of which the agate is a fpecies ; magnefia
conflituting a large part of its compofition, and not
entering at all into that of the agate, if we are to
judge from the analyfis of the parent fpecies or flint,
there being none yet publifhed of agate The fpe-
cific gravity of the opal is likewife extremely diffe¬
rent from that of the agate. Wallerius tells us that
its fpecific gravity is upwards of 1900 It lofes its
colour and tranfparency in the fire, and in other re
fpefts is affefted by it in the very fame manner as
quartz or flint would be. It may be melted with bo¬
rax, but not without great difficulty. The fpecies are,
1.'The opal of Nonnius. This appears olive-co¬
loured by reflection, and then opaque ; but when held
between the eye and the light, it is found to be tranf-
parent, and appears of a beautiful ruby colour. Boc-
cede Boot, author of the Complete Jeweller^ confi-
ders it as the molt precious fort of opal, and indeed
the moft wonderful of this kind of nature’s works : he
gives a lofty encomium upon it, chiefly from Pliny, wh6
called this opal paderos. This fpecies of opal is the
fangemn of India, and nonnius of the ancients and mo¬
dern Europeans, from the Roman fenator Nonnius,
pofleflbr of the famous opal of Rome, worth 20,000
fefterces, who preferred baniihment to parting wdth
it to Anthony. An opal anfwering exaftly to Pliny’s
defeription of the nonpius was difeovered about 30 or
3 $ years ago in the ruins of Alexandria, and purcha-
fed for a trifle by the French conful Lironcourt, from
his draguman Roboly. The duke de Nivernois, when
ambaffador in London in 1763, was in pofleffion of
the very ftone. The next in eftcem and value is the
Iris opal, of a glafiy white colour, but when looked
through it appears of a flame-colour, as the nonnius
does of a ruby.
Wallerius indeed is of opinion that the opal found
in Alexandria was not that of Nonnius mentioned by
Pliny ; and adds, that it was by many fuppofed to be
only a counterfeit piece of glafs or pafte. There is
another of the fame fpecies in Sweden, which by re-
fk&ion appears of a brownifh colour, but by refrac¬
tion is red with violet veins.
2. ’ he white opal, having its ground of a white
glafs-like complexion, from whence green,, yellow,
19 ] O P A
bluifh, and. purple rays are thrown out; but when Opal,
held againft the light it appears of a reddifh or rather "" V""
flame-colour. Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, fays, that
this white opal anfwers the deferiution of it given by
Pliny much better than the olive coloured one above
deferibed. There are two varieties of it: 1. 1 he
oriental opal, fhowing many colours.—Engenftroom
informs us, that he had obtained a fmall piece of
pfeudo agate from the Eait Indies, of a yellowsfli
brown and pale blue, or rather milk colour, with a
fhining brightnefs, exaCfly like that of the milky
opals already mentioned ; alfo fome other fpecimens
near Turin in Piedmont, where they are called ba- .
Jlard-agates, a name which, in his opinion, is ex¬
tremely proper for them, as they agree with the agates
in almoft every lefpeef except hardnefs : this, how¬
ever, has been controverted —Sometimes the opal is
furrounded with a white cruft, like common flints in
the ft rata of chalk ; which cruft has likewfife the lame
properties as the flint when this la mentioned fub-
ftance has been previoufly freed from the adherent
chalk ; viz. 1 It dees not diflblve in nitrous acid.
2. It is not fufibleperfe. 3. It melts pretty eaiily with
borax, but without any effervefeenee, contrary to what
is obferved in calcareous fubftances; fo that borax
will diflblve about three quarters of its own bulk of
this fubftance, though with difficulty, efpecially to¬
wards the end of the operation; but the glafs becomes
quite clear and colourlefs, inftead of becoming white
and opaque, as is the cafe with calcareous fubftances.
This oriental ftone is found in the ifiand of Ceylon,
where it is called the elementary ftone. The inu ians
put as high a value on it as on the diamond. There
is another kind of oriental opal much valued, gene¬
rally called the jlaming opal, becaule it changes its co¬
lours, as if fparks of fire cfcapecf from it in p rallel
lines.
3. The bluifh and femitranfpatent opal is lefs va¬
lued by thofe who are converfant in gems than the
others, on account of its being fuppofed more eafily
imitable by art. M. Magellan, however, informs us,
that not only this, but feveral other kinds of opals
are eafily imitable by art ; feveral compofiuions of
glafs being met with whkh {how very diflerent co¬
lours by refleftion and by retradtion. curious an¬
cient one of this kind is to be feen in the royal abbey
of St Denis near Paris, which is green on the outlide,
but (hows a fine ruby colour when held between
the eye and the light. Our author has alfo fetn fome
glafs paftes made in London by Edward Delaval, Efq;
and others by Mr More fecretary to the Society of
Arts, which appeared of a yellow brown or other
colour by refiedfion ; but when held againft the light
tranfmitted a fine blue, purple, or red colour, like
the fapphires, rubies, garnets, and other precious
ftones.—WalleriuB gives directions for making thefe
paftes ; and M. Magellan informs us, that he by
chance difeovered that the red glafs of Kunckel, when
ov^r-melted, or burnt in a common fire, produces a
fimilar effect, tranimitting one colour by refraction
and another by reflection. The fine imitations of the
true white opals, which Pliny fays were made by the
Indians, have, in our author’s opinion, hitherto baf¬
fled the art of the moderns.
E e 2
The
Opal,
Ojal.a.
O P A [210
•The fangenon or nonnius opal Js found in the Eafl
Indies : the Iris in Ceylon ; the milky opal, at Eil-
benftock and* Fry berg ; the bluifh or moil common
and le:ft efteemed, in Hungary, Silefia, Saxony, &c.;
the olive and bottle coloured cat’s eye, in Ceylon ;
the inferior in different countries of Europe. Mr
Born mentions what he calls an avantunne cat’s eye, of
a flefh colour and tranfparent, poflefling the curious
flrufture of the avanturine, viz. compofed of little
plates like fcales, with a metallic fplendour, which
reflect the rays of I'ght like the opal. This flone we
fufpeft to be that which has led authors to clafs the
avanturine with the ooal, although it is in fart a fine
opaque quartz. R iffia produces the opal at the ri¬
vulet Katfcha, near the city of Krafnajark, in the
Alta; mountains in Siberia. The cat’s eye is found
in Mount Caucafus, and is often confounded with the
opal, though improperly. See Asteria. The oculus
munii ^fee Hydrophanes) has a very intimate con¬
nexion with opal, being generally found in beds over
it, and being regarded by fume naturalifts as the
fame done m a date of decompofition by the ac¬
tion of the air Raffia podeffes this flone in the Al¬
tai mountains, where the opals are found.
No method of eflimating the opd is given by
authors that we know of. But thofe of uncommon
beauty and fize are fold for very large fums.
The late Eeopald If. emperor of Germany, was in
pofleffion of an oriental flone, fometimes defcribed as
a cat’s-eye and fometimes as an opal, of one inch dia¬
meter, and which was valued at a great orice. Prince
Potemkin, the Ruffian general, purchafed for 1000
ducats a flone ®f the fame kind, faid to have been
taken by the famous Nadir Shah from the head of a
Gentoo idol, of which it made one of the eyes. By
what chcuitous road it found its way to Potemkin,
we have not been informed ; but with many other
gems it difappeared from the tent of the Perfian con¬
queror when he was afiaffinated.
Opals are commonly found in detached pieces, in
an envelope of a different kind of Hone, from the
iize of a pin-head to that of a walnut. Beautiful
opals of this lafl fize are extremely rare ; fo that it
is difficult to find an opal fufficiently perfeX and large
to be completely poffeffed of all its beauties: this
renders it fo precious, and makes it almofl impoffible
to determine its value. They have agreed, however,
to value a beautiful oriental opal at double the price
of a fapphire of the fame fize.
It is very remarkable, that all the beautiful colours
] O P H
OPERA, a dramatic comnofition fet to mafic, and
fung on the ftage, accompanied with mufical inftru-
ments, and enriched with magnificent dreffes, machines,
and other decorations.—This fpecies of drama is of
modern invention. In its prefent Hate it was cot
known even in Italy before the beginning of the lail
century ; and at its introduXion into England, a cen¬
tury afterwards, it divided the wits, literati, and mu-
ficians of the age. By thofe who were elleemed the
belt judges of the art, the Engliffi language was con-
fidered as too rough and inharmonious for the mufic
of the opera ; and, on the other hand, critics, whofe
tafle was built on the bafis of common fenfe, looked
upon a drama in a foreign and unknown tongue as the
greatefi of all abfurdities. Many of them, however.
pleaded for operas in the Englifh language ; and it is
well known that Addifon, who was one of the oppo-
fers of the Italian opera on the London flage, wrote
in his native tongue the opera of Rofamond. This
is confeffediy a beautiful poem; but, in the opinio.,
of Dr Burney, it adds nothing to Addifon’s fame, as
it ffiows bis total ignorance of the firft principles of
mufic, and of courfe his unfitnefs for the taflc he had
undertaken. \
In queftions refpeXing the fine arts there is no ap¬
peal from the general tafle; and therefore, as the
French opera, which is in the language of the coun¬
try where it is aXed, has always been admired by
perfons of liberal education, it doubtlefs has merit
confidered as a drama ; but how the dramas of this
kind which are compofed in Italian fiiould find ad¬
mirers in England, among perfons who underfland not
a word of the language, is to us a matter of ailonifh-
ment. The mufic of them may deferve and command
the admiration of every one who has an ear; and the
aXion of the fingers may be perfeXly fuitable to the
fubjeX reprefented ; but of this fuitablenefs the ma¬
jority of the audience can be no judges.
Even when the language is thoroughly underftood,
we fliould imagine, that, to make an opera agreeable
to good fenfe, much would depend upon the choice
of the fubjeX ; for it is fur el y abfurd to have perfons
of all ranks, and on every occafion, perpetually ac¬
companied with the regular refponfes of fymphony.
To hear Casfar, Scipio, or Macbeth, when forming
plans to enfure viXory, or hatching plots of treafon
and murder, talking in recitative and keeping time
with fiddles, would furely difguft every perfon whofe
fenfe had not all evaporated in found ; but when the
fubjeX reprefented naturally admits of mufic in real
of the opal may entirely change or difappear when the life, we can fuppofe an opera to afford to perfons of
ffone is divided into pieces. This phenomenon, which tafle one of the moll exquifite and refined entertain-
has been demonflrated more than once by experience, ments of which human nature is capable. For a fur-
leads us to think that all the iparkling play of the
opal is owing to the refraXion of the rays of the fun
from the furface of the flone, which is naturally form¬
ed to produce this refraXion.
OPALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated at Rome
m honour of the god lefs Ops. Varro fays they were
held on the tqth of December, which was one of the
days of the faturnalia: thefe two feafls were celebrated
in the fame month, becaufe Saturn and Ops were huf- 7
band and wife : the vows offered to the goddefs were the order of apodes. The principal charaXers of this
made fitting on the ground. genus are the following. The head is fomewhat naked;
the
ther account of the opera, fee Music, n° 39, 42, 44,
and Poetry, n° 133, &c.
OPERATION, in general, the aX of exerting or
exercifing fome power or faculty, upon which an effeX
follows.
Operation, in furgery and medicine, denotes a
methodical aXion of the hand on the human body, in
order to re-eftablifh health.
OPHIDIUM, a genus of fifhes belonging to
Plate
CCCiA
O P H [2
Opfc'i’iuw. the teeth are in the taws, palate, and fauces ; the bo*
dy Ion^ ; the fins of the back, tail, and anus, con¬
founded in one ; no fin on the under part or tne bo¬
dy ; and the eyes covered by the common Ikin. Of
this genus there are feveral fpecies, of which the moil
curious is the ophidlum barbatu*n of Linnreus, thus de¬
fer!! ted by Dr Brouifonet in the 7iit volume of the
Philofophical Tranfadtions.
“ 1'he/cales of the ophidium (fays he) are irregularly
placed and difperfed over the whole body. 1 heir form
is fometimes round, fometimes nearly oval. 1 hey are
larger near' the head, and in the lower part of the
body ; but are 'hardly to be dillinguifhed near the
tail. They adhere to the body by means of a par¬
ticular tranfparent flein, which is in general very thin,
but fomewhat thicker near the neck, and extended
loofely over the whole head : this fkin is very eafily de-
flroyed, after which the feales falling, the body ap¬
pears fpotted (fig 1.) When you look at them with
the naked eye (fig. 2.) they appear as covered with
very fmall grains ; but viewed through a microfcope
(fig. 3.) the middle of them appears more elevated than
the margin ; and from the centre to the margin, clofe
by each other, there are many lines or rays formed
by fmall feales placed upon one another, like tiles upon
a roof, the fuperior being always the nearer to rite
centre. This fort of feales, which may be called
vmhimaltKy are fattened to the body by very fmall
veflels which are inferted in their middle ; they
are to be feen on the body only, not on the head
nor the fins.”
The anatomy of this fifK comprehends fome very
remarkable circumftances, which, our author thinks,
were never obferved in any other fpecies. When the
Ikin is drawn off, there appears a thin membrane of a
filver colour, which covers the mufcles. The mufeles
being removed, we find the peritoneum, which lines
the abdominal cavity, and is adherent to the fwimming
bladder by fome elongations. It is of a filver hue,
with fome very fmall black points. The ventricle is
not to be dittinguifiied from the inteftines by any other
mark but by its fize ; its form is oblong ; it is extend¬
ed almoft to the anus, from whence the inteftinal du£t
has a retrograde courfe, and then defeends again, ha¬
ving a little dilatation near the anns. On the ver¬
tebrae next the anus on the outfide of the peritoneum
is a kind of cavity of an oblong form, containing a
reddifh vifeus, which he takes to be the kidney.
The fir it vertebra from the head has nothing very
remarkable in its ttrudlure. The fecond has on each
fide an elongated and {harp apophyfis, to the apex
of which is annexed a fmall ligament The third
is very flat, and has on each fide a kind of tri¬
angular and fliarp apophyfis, to which adheres a
ligament as to the fecond. The fourth is remark¬
able in having a {harp apophyfis on each fide, arti¬
culated with the body of the veitebra ; and under each
of them is another articulated apophyfis, flattifh, thick,
rounditti at its extremities, and forked at its ba<fis
/ (fig. 5.) The fifth, which is ftrongly adherent to
the former, has in its middle a bifid procefs. The
iixth has in its middle a flattilh elevation, {harp on each
fide. Between the extremity of the larger apophyfis
of the fourth vertebra is a bone, or rather a hard carti¬
lage, which bears the figure of a kidney (fig. 6.) its
convexity being turned towards the body of the ver-
n 1 O P H
tebra : its pofxtion is parallel to the bodies of the ver* Ophioglof.
tebrae ; its motion is half circular ; one of its parts, ^l”1
•uza. the lowed, being in the cavity of the fwimming
bladder, to which it adheres by a thin membrane, fo J—v—. ..1
that no air can efcape at that part. It is covered by
membranes, which adhere ftrongly to its middle ; in
this part are fattened the two ligaments of the apo-
phvlis of the fecond and third vertebras, of which we
{poke before, and which are of a great tenuity. In
the fame point are fattened alfo two ligaments', each
of which belongs to an oblong mufcle parallel to each
other, and fixed to the bones of the loweft and poiie-
rior part of the head (fig. 4.)
Ail this apparatus is certainly fubfervient to the
purpofe of fvimming; but it is very remarkable, that
if thefe parts are neceflary to fome animal function,
they fhould not be found in all the individuals ; “ for L
have feen (fays our author) two, of which the verte¬
brae were not different from the vertebrae of the other
fpecies: which difference depends, perhaps, on the
difference of fex. I am inclined, to believe fo ; but
the generation in this fifh feems to be no lefs mytte-
rious than that of the ed : I could never diftinguifh
a male from a female in this fpecies.”
1 his fifh commonly grows to the fize of eight or
nine inches. It is to be found in all the Mediterranean
fea, and in great plenty in the Adriatic : its flefh is
not of a good tatte, rather coarfe, as is that of all the
fpecies of fifties which, having no ventral fins, are obli¬
ged to make great efforts in fwimming, ai?d have con-
fequently the mufcles harder.
OPHIOGLOSSUM, adder’s tongue : A genus
of the natural order of filices, belonging to the cryp-
togamia clafs of plants. The fpike is articulated, flat,
and turned to the two iides ; with the articuli or joints
opening acrofs. There are feven fpecies ; of which
the only remarkable one is the vulgatum, or common
adder’s-tongue, which is a native of feveral places of
Britain, growing in meadows and moift paftures. i he
country-people make an ointment of the freih leaves,
and life it as a vulnerary to green wounds ; which is a
very ancient application, recommended by Matthiolus,
Tragus, and others.
OPHIOMANCY, in’antiquity, the art of making
predictions from ferpents. Thus Calchas, on feeing
a ferpent devour eight fparrows with their dam, fore¬
told the duration of the fiege of Troy: and the feven
coils of a ferpent that was feen on Anchifes’s tomb,
were interpreted to mean the feven years that iEneas
wandered from place to place before he arrived at
Datium.
OPHIORHIZA, in botany : A genus of the mo*=
nogynia older, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
47 th order, Steliatte. The corolla is funnel-lhaped ;
the capfule twin, bilocular, and polyfpermous. There
are two fpecies; the moft remarkable of which is the
Afiaticum, or true lignum colubrinum. The root of
this is known in the hail Indies to be a fpecific againft
the poifon of the moft dreadful animal called the hood*
ed ferpent. There is a treatife in Amain. Acad. tom. iv.
upon this fubjedl, wherein the author joh. And. Da-
relius undertakes, from the defeription of fuch au¬
thors as had feen it upon the fpot, to afeertain the
plant from which the genuine root is taken. It ap¬
pears in this account, that it had puzzled the Eu-
7 ropean.
Ophir.
0 P H [22
Ophioxylen ropean phyficians; and what had been fold in the (hops
for it, is the root of a very different plant, and of a
poifonous nature.
The true root is called mungus, for the following
reafon.—.There is a kind of weafel in the Eaft Indies,
called mungutia by the natives, mungo by the Portu-
puefe, and muncas by the Dutch. This animal pur-
fues the hooded ferpent, as the cat does the moufe
with us. As foon as the ferpent appears, the weafel
attacks him ; and if (he chances to be bit by him, fire
immediately runs to find a certain vegetable, upon
eating which fire returns, and renews the fight.—
The Indians are of opinion that this plant is the
tnunges.
That celebrated traveller Kaempfer, who kept one
of thefe weafels tame, that eat with him, lived with
him, and was his companion wherever he went, fays
he faw one of thefe battles between her and the fer¬
pent, but could not certainly find out what root the
weafel looked out for. But whether the weafel firil
difeovered this antidote or not, it is an infallible
remedy againll the bite of the hooded feipent. And
this he undertakes to afeertain.
OPHIOXYLON, in botany: A genus of the mo
noecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of
which the order is doubt ul. The hermaphrodite ca¬
lyx is quinquefid ; the corolla quinquefid and funnel
ihaped; with a cylindrical nedtarium within its mouth.
OPHIR, a country mentioned in feripture, from
which Solomon had great quantities of gold brought
relytAtiy home in fhips which he fent out for that purpofe; but
where to fix its fituatxon is the great difficulty, authors
running into various opinions on that head. Some
have gone to the Weft, others to the Eaft Indies, and
the eaftern coafts of Africa, in fearch of it.—Mr Bruce
the celebrated Abyffinian traveller has difplayed much
Hypothefis karning anfl ingenuity in fettling this queftion of Bi-
©f MrBmce bbcal hiftory. To the fntisfadlion of molt of his
readers he has determined Ophir to be Sofala, a king¬
dom of Africa, on the coalt of Mofembique, near Zan-
guebar (fee Sofala). His reafons foi this determi
nation are fo generally known, that it would be im¬
proper to repeat them here at length ; becaufe fuch
as are not already acquainted with them may con-
fult his book, which has been long in the hands of the
public. He juflly obferves, that in order to Come to
a certainty where this Ophir was, it will be neceffary
to‘examine what feripture fays of it, and to keep
precifely to every thing like defeription which we
can find there, without \indulging our fancy farther,
i/i, Then, the trade to Ophir was carried on from the
Elanitic gulf through the Indian ocean, id/y, The
returns were gold, filver, and ivory, but efpecially
Rings, filver *. yl/y. The time of the going and coming of
the fleet was precifely three yearsf, at no period more
nor lefs.
Now, if Solomon’s fleet failed from the Elanitic
gulph to the Indian ocean, this voyage o neceffity
mull have been made by monfsons, for no other winds
reign in that ocean. And what certainly {hows this
was the cafe, is the precife term of three years in
which the fleet went and came between Ophir and
Ezion-gaber.
Thefe mines of Ophir were probably what furnifli-
Different
hypothefe
the fnua
tion of
Ophir.
$
rr. 22.
t 1 Kings,
X. 22
& Chron.
ix. 21.
2 1 O P H
ed the Eaft: with gold in the earlieft times : great Ophir.
traces of excavation muft therefore hare appeared.
But John Dos Santos fays, that he !anded at So¬
fala in the year 1586; th.t he failed up the great
river Cuama as far as Fete, where, always defirous to
be in the neighbourhood of gold, his order had placed
their convent. Thence Ire penetrated for above 200
leagues into the country, and faw the gold-mines then
workmg at a mountain called Afura, At a confi- 3
from thele are the filver mines of Chi- Arguments
at both places there is a great appearance of ^ Port
derable dtftai|ce
coua
ancient excavations ; and at both places the houfes
of the kings are built with mud and ftravv, whilft
there are large remains of mafl’y buildings of Hone
and lime.
Every thing then confprres to fix the Ophir of Solo¬
mon in the kingdom of Sofala, provided it would necef-
farily require neither more nor lefs than three years to
make a voyage from Ezion-gaber to that place and 1 ar-
fhiftr and return. ! o eftablifh this important faft, our
author obferves, that the fleet or fhip for Sofala, part¬
ing in June from Ezion-gaber (fee EzroN GABEk),
would run down before the northern monfoon to Mo¬
cha (fee Mocha). Here, not the monfoon, but the
diredfion of the gulph, changes ; and the violence of
the iouth wefttrs, which then reign in the Indian
ocean, make themfelves at times felt even in Mocha
roads. i he veflel therefore comes to an anchor in the
harbour of Mocha ; and here ftre waits for moderate
weather and a fair wind, which carries her out of the
ftraits of Babelmandeb, through the few leagues where
the wind is variable.
Her courfe from this is nearly fouth-weft, and fire
meets at cape Gardefan a ftrong fouth-wefter that
blows dircdlly in her teeth. Being obliged to return
into the gulph, fire miftakes this for a trade wind ; be-
caute fire ta not able to make her voyage to Mocha
but by the fummer monfoon, which carries her no
farther than the ftrarts of Babelmandeb, and then
leaves her n the face of a contrary wind, a flrong
current to the northward, and violent fwtll.
he attempting this voyage with fails, in thefe
circumftances, was abfolutely impoffible, as their vef-
fels went only before the wind : if it was performed
at all, it mult have been by oars ; and great havock
and iois of men muft: have been the confequence of
the feveral trials.
At fait, piulofophy and obfervation, together with
the unwearied perfeverance of man bent upon his own
views and rntereil, removed thefe difficulties, and
ftrowed t::e mariners of the Arabian guiph, that thefe
periodical win !s, which in the beginning they look¬
ed upon as invincible barriers to the trading to >»ofaIa,
when once underftood, were the very means of per¬
forming this voyage ftfely and expeditioufly.
The veflel tra ing to bo:ala failed trom the bottom
of the Arabian gulph in fummer, wrth the monloon at
north, wirtch carried her to Mocha. There the rnon-
foon failed her by the change of the direHion of the
gulph. i he foutn-weft winds, which blow without
cape Gardefan in the Indian ocean, forced themfelves
round the cape fo as to be felt in the road of Mocha,
and make it uneafy riding there. But thefe foon
changed, the weather became moderate, and the vef-
fel, wc fuppofe hi the month of Auguft, was fate at
anchor
Oph’f
O P H
anchor under cape Gardefan, where was
which, many years aftewards, was called Pramonto-
rium Aromatum. Here the fhip was obliged to ftay all
November, becaufe all thefc fummer months the wind
fouth of the cape was a flrong fouth-wefter, as hath
been before faid, direftly in the teeth of the voyage
to Sofala. But this time was not loft ; part of the
goods bought to be ready for the return was ivory,
frankincenfe, and myrrh ; and the (hip was then at
the principal mart for thefe.
Our author fuppofes, that in November the veflel
failed with the wind at north-eaft, with which ftie
would foon have made her voyage: but off the coaft
of Melinda, in the beginning of December, fhe there
met an anomalous monfoon at fouth-weft, in our days
firft obferved by Dr Halley, which cut off her voyage
to Sofala, and obliged her to put into the fmall har-
'bour of Mocha, near Melinda, but nearer ftill to
Tarfhifh, which we find here by accident, and which
we think a ftrong corroboration that we are right as
to the reft of the voyage. In the annals of Abyf-
finia, it is faid that Amda Sion, making war upon that
coaft in the 14th century, in a lift of the rebellious
Moorifti vaffals, mentions the chief of Tarlhiih as one
of them, in the very fituation where we have now
placed him.
Solomon’s vefftl, then, was obliged to ftay at Tar-
fhifli till the month of April of the fecond year. In
May, the wind fet in at north-eaft, and probably car¬
ried her that fame month to Sofala. All the time
fire fpent at Tarlhifti was not loft, for part of her car¬
go was to be brought from that place ; and fhe pro¬
bably bought, befpoke, or left it there. From May
of the fecond year, to the end of that monfoon in
O&ober the veffel could not ftir. the wind was north
call. But this time, far from being loft, was necef-
fary to the traders for getting in their cargo, which
we (hall fuppofe was ready for them.
* The fhip fails, on her return, in the month of No¬
vember of the fecond year, with the monfoon fouth-
weft, which in a very few weeks would have carried
her into the Arabian gulph. But off' Mocha, near
Melinda and Tarihiih, fhe met the north-eaft mon¬
foon, and was obliged to go into that port and ftay
there till the end of that monfoon ; after which a
fouth-wefter came to her relief in May of the third
year. With the May monfoon fhe ran to Mocha
within the {trails, and was there confined by the fum¬
mer monfoon blowing up the Arabian gulph from
Suez, and meeting her. Here fhe lay till that mon¬
foon, which in fummer blows northerly from Suez,
changed to a fouth-eaft one in October or November,
and that very eafily brought her up into the Elanitic
gulph, the middle or end of December of the third
year. She had no need of more time to complete
her voyage, and it was not poffible fhe could do it in
lefs.
Such is a very fhort and imperfeft abftradt of our au¬
thor’s reafons for placing Ophir in Sofala. If it ex¬
cite the curiofity of our readers to confult his work,
it will anfwer the purpofe for which we have made
it.
We are now to give another ingenious conje&ure
Sypothdis, concerning the lituation of Ophir and 1 arfliifh, with
Another
[ 223 ] O P H
the port which we have been favoured by Dr Doig, the learn* i Oph‘r- <
ed author of Letters on the Savage State, addreffed v
to Lord Kames.
This refpectable writer holds that Ophir was fame*
where on the weft coaft of Africa, and that Tar¬
fhifh was the ancient Bcetica in Spain. His effay is
not yet publifhed ; but he authorifes us t© give the
following ahftraii of it: “ The firft time that Ophir, or
rather^M/fr, occurs in feripture, is in Gen. x. 29. where
the facred hiftorian, enumerating the fons of Joktan,
mentions Aufir as one of them.” According to his
account, the defeendants of thofe 13 brothers fettled
all in a contiguous fituation, from Mefha (the Mocha
of the moderns) to Sepharah, a mountain of the eaft.
Mofes, as every one knows, denominates countries, and
the inhabitants of countries, from the patriarch of
whom thofe inhabitants defeended. In deferibing the
courfe of one of the branches of the river of paradife,
the fame Mofes informs us that it encompaffed the
whole land of Havilah, &c. which abounded with fine
gold, bdellium, and the onyx ftone ; and this land had
its name from Havilah the 12th fon of the patriarch
Joktan. Ophir or Aiifir was Havilah’s immediate elder
brother ; and of courfe the defeendants of the former,
in all probability, fixed their habitation in the neigh¬
bourhood of thofe of the latter. If, then, the land of Ha¬
vilah abounded with gold and precious ftones,the land of
Ophir undoubtedly produced the very fame articles. 5
Here then we have the original Ophir; here wasTheongZ-
found the primary gold of Ophir; and here lay thenabOphir
Ophir mentioned in Job xi. 24. But as navigation
was then in its infant ftate, the native land of gold Solomon j
mentioned by Job muft have been much nearer home ot which
than that to which the fleets of Solomon and Hiram
made their triennial voyages. That feveral countries
on the fouth-eaft coaft of Africa abounded with gold
long after the era of Job, is evident from the tefti-
mony of Herodotus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Pto¬
lemy, Pomponius Mela, &c.; but that in thefe coun¬
tries the Ophir of Solomon could not be-fituated, is
plain, becaufe his {hips in the fame voyage touched
at Tarfhifh, which lay in a very different quarter.
The Abyffinian traveller has placed this regio auri-
fera in Sofala on the eaftern coaft of Africa, nearly
oppofite to the iftand of Madagafcar. This hypothefis
was current an hundred years before he was born ; but
l am perfuaded (fays our author) that it is not tenable.
TheUphirof Solomon, in whatever part of Africa it lay,
muft have been well known, prior to his reign, both to
the Phoenicians and the Edomites. Thefe people na¬
vigated that monarch’s fleet, and therefore could be
no ftrangers to the port whither they were bound.
That it was in Africa is certain ; and that it was on
the welt coaft of that immenfe peninfula, will appear
more than probable, when we have afeertained the ^
fituation of Tarfhilh, and the ufual courfe of Phosni- . 0
cian navigation. 1 o thefe objects, therefore, we fhallbe afeer-
now diredt our enquiries. tamed by
“Javan, the fourth fon of the patriarch Japhet, c'‘,coverinS
had four fons, Elilhah, Tarjln/h, Kittim, and Doda-
nim or Rodanim ; among whofe ‘ defeendants were
the ifles of the Gentiles divided.’ The city of Tarfus
on the coaft of Cilicia, at once afeertains the region
colonized by the defeendants of Tarfhifh. But as much
depend*
O P H [2
OpWr, depends upon determining thepofition of this country,
W—y—j endeavour (fays the Doftor) to fix it with ail
poffible precifion.
“ !h the firft place, I muft beg leave to obferve,
that there is not a fingle paifage in any ancient author,
facred or profane, that fo much r.s alludes to any city,
diliricl, canton, or country, of the name of Tarlhifh
in the eaftern parts of the world. The defeendants of
Javan, of whom Tarfhifh wras one, are agreed on all
hands to have extended their fetdements towards the
north-weft, i. e. into Afia Minor, Italy, and Spain.
The inhabitants of Tarfhifh are every'where in ferip-
ture iaid to be addicted to navigation apd commerce*
in w'hicli they feem to have been connected with the
# Pf xlviii. Tyrians and Phoenicians*, who were always faid by
7. kxn. 10 the Jew’s to inhabit the ifles of-the fea. Indeed, in
Hebrew geography, all the countries toward the north
and weft, which were divided from Judea by the fea,
f Gen.ii.a6were called the ifles of the feaf. Thus-Ifaiah :
‘ T he burden of l yre. Howl ye fhips of Tarfhifh*
for it is laid wafte, fo that there is no houfe, no en¬
tering in : from the land Chittim it is revealed unto
them. Be ftill ye inhabitants of the Hie, thou
wheffn the merchants of Zidon, that yafs over the fea,
have replenifhed.’ The land of Chittim was Mace¬
donia, and often Greece, from which every one knows
that the deftrudion of Tyre came ; and that Tarfhifh
was not an unconcerned fpedator of that deftrudion,
is obvious from the fame prophet, who proceeds to
Hr xxlii- fay J : ‘ As at the report concerning Egypt, fo fhail
they be forely pierced at the report concerning Tyre.
Pafs over to Tarfhifh; howl ye inhabitants of the ifte.
Is this your joyous city?’ It appears likewife from
§ xxvn. 12. Ezekiil that Taifhifh was the merchant with whom
Tyre traded for filver, iron, tin, and had, and that
^ this trade was carried on in fairs.
Theorist- From al thefe paftages, it feems to be evident,
| a) 1 fli- that the defeendants of Tarfhifh fettled on the weftern
ifh where co2ft 0f Aft a Minor ; that thefe people were addided
to navigat.on and commerce ; that in the courfe of
their traffic they were conneded with the Tyrians
and Phoenicians; that tne commerce they carried
on confifted of filver, iron, tin, and lead; that
the people of Tarfhifh were connected with Kit-
tim and the ifles of the Gentiles, which are confeffed-
ly fituated toward the north and weft of Judea.
“ But left, a! ter all a fad fo fully authenticated fhould
.dill oe called in cjueftion, I fhall add one proof more,
which will place the matter beyond the reach of doubt
and controverfy.
“W hen the prophet Jonah intended to flee from the
prefence of the Lord, in order to avoid preaching at
Nineveh, let us fee where the peevffh deferter embnrk-
ed. (jonah i. 3.J ‘ And Jonah rofe up to flee un¬
to laifhifli, from the prefence of the Lord, and went
down to Joppa; and he found a ffiip going to Tarfhifh,
and he paid the fare thereof, and went down into it,
to go with them into f arfhifh, from the prefence of
Ewmy body knows that Joppa or Ja-
pruh flood upon the fhore of the Mediterranean ; of
eoune the fugitive prophet had determined to go to
fome very diftant region weftward, and by that means
to get as far from Nineveh as poffible ”
Having thus proved to a demonltration, that the
lihofSda. °n|pa 3arfcini was a reSiou on the weftern coaft of
mon. ■ K .
fuua^ed.
8
This not
24 ] OP H
Alia Minor, where either the patriarch of that name* Oph'r.
or fome of his immediate defeendants, planted a colo. —
ny, it remains to determine whether this was actually
the country from which Solomon imported the vafl
quantities of filver mentioned by the facred hiftorian.
That it was not, our author frankly acknowledges ;
and therefore, fays he, we muft look out for Solomon’s
Tarihiffi in fome other quarter of the globe.
To pave the way for this difeovery, he very jnftly
o! fervts, that it has at all times been a common prac¬
tice to transfer the name of one country to another, in
coniequence of fome analogy or refembance between
them. It has 1 kewife often happened, that when a
commodity w-as brought from a very diftant country
by a very diftant people, the people to whom it w-as
imported have taken it for granted that it was pro¬
duced in the region from which it was immediately
brought to them. Of the truth of this pofition no
man acquainted with the Greek and Roman poets can
for a moment entertain a doubt. Hence the /IJfynum
amomum of Virgil, and tire Ajjyrium malabathrum of
Horace, though thefe aitrcies were the produdl not of
Aflyria but of India. The Jews, who were as little
acquainted with foreign countries as the Greeks and
Romans, had very probably the fame notions Hth
them refpefting articles of commerce ; ami it fo, they
would undoubtedly fuppofe, that the filver fold by
the merchants of Tarfhiffi wms the produCt of that
country When this miftake came to be difeovered, 9
they very naturally transferred the name Tarthijh ft o:n o!-
the country of the merchants to that of the articlescou try
which they imported. Let us now, fays our author, t,a, sferre(l
try if we cannot find out where that country was. to another.
It has been already ffiown, by quotations from
Ifaiah and Ezekiel, that the merchants of Tarfhiffi
traded in the markets of Tyre with filver, iron, lead,
and tin. To thefe authorities, we fhall a id another
from Jeremiah : “ Silver (fays that prophet) fpreatl
into plates is brought from Tarfhifti ” “ But in
Spain , continues our learned differ tator), all thofe com¬
modities were found in the greateft abundance. All
the ancient authors who deferibe that region dwell
with rapture on its filver mines. This fadt is too ge¬
nerally known to need to be fupported by authorities.
Spain was then the region which furnifhed Solomon’s
traders with the immenfe mafs of filver he is faid to
have imported. This was, one might fay, the mo¬
dern Tarfhifh and indeed both Jofephus and Eufe-
bius are pofitive that the pofterity of Tarfhifti adlual-
ly peopled that country. If this was an early opinion,
as it certainly was, the Jews would of courfe deno¬
minate Spain from the patriarch in queftion.
“ I have ftrown above, that the inhabitants of Tar¬
fhifh were ftridtiy conneCled with the Kittim, or Gre¬
cians ; i fliall here produce an authority which will
prove to a demonftration that the Kittim had extend¬
ed their commerce into that part of Africa now called
Barbary.
“The Prophet Ezekiel, (xxvii. 6.) deferibing the
fplendor and magnificence of Tyre, tells us, ‘ that
the company of the Afhurites made her benches of
ivory, brought from the ifles of Kittim.’ In the (irft
place, I muft obferve, that there is probably a fmall
error in the orthography of the word A'fhunm. This
term is every where in feripture tranflated Aflyrians,
which
Opfiir.
OPH [2*5] OPH
wWli tranflation is certainly iuft. But how the Af- cd fo powerfully on the learned Bochart, and on lome
' fyrians could export ivory frim the iflcs of Kittim, other moderns of no mean hgure that they have po-
and fafhion it into benches for the Tyrian mariners, fitively affirmed, as Jofephus had done before them,
f3 m m opiaion a prlto The that the patriarch Tarlhhhaaually fettled rn that
fa’a is, Aihurim ihmSd be Anierim, that is, the com- country. This 1 Ihould think not altogether pro-
Ophir.
pany of the men of Affier. 1 he tribe of Affier ob
tained its inheritance in the neighbourhood of lyre ;
(fee Joffi. xix. 28.) ‘ And Hebron, and Rehob, and
Hammon and Canah, unto Zidon the great. The
companies of the tribe of the Affierites then, and not
the Afhurim, were the people who manufadtured the
benches in queftion.
“ Be that as it may, the ivory of which thefe imple¬
ments were formed was imported from the ifles of
Kittim, that is, from Greece and its neighbourhood.
Thefe iflands, it is ceitain, never, produced ivory.
They mull therefore have imported it from fome other
country ; but no other country, to which the Greeks
and their neighbours could have extended their com¬
merce, except the north of Africa,produced that
modity. The conclufion then is, that the maritime
ftales of Afia Minor, Greece, and probably the He-
trufeans on the weft coaft of Italy, carried on a gain¬
ful commerce with Spain and Barbary at a very early
* “ We have now feen that the original Tarffiilh on the
coaft of Afia Minor did not produce the metals im¬
ported by Solomon’s fleet ; that no Tarffiiffi is to be
found in the eaftern parts of the globe ; that the Tar-
ftiifti we are in queft of veas undoubtedly fituated for. e-
where towards the weft of Judea : we have fhown that
the mercantile people of Afia Minor, Greece, and p:o-
bably of Italy, adually imported fome of thofe articles
from the coaft of Africa ; we have hazarded a con-
je&ure, that Spain was the modern Tarffiilh, and that
very country from which Solomon imported his fil-
ver, and the Tyrians their filver, iron, tin, and lead.
Let us now make a trial whether we cannot exhibit
fome internal proofs in fupport of the hypothefis we
have above adopted.
“ The ancients divided Spain into three parts, Bce-
tica, Lufitania, and Tarvaconenfis. Boetica is the
modern Andalufia. It ftretched along the Fretum
Herculeum, or Straits of Gibraltar, to the mouth of
Guadalquiver. 1 his region is thought by fome. to
have been the Elyfian fields of the poets. rI he river
This I ffiould thirik
hable but that his defendants who fettled on the
coaft of Afia Minor colonized Bcetica, and carried on
an uninterrupted commerce to that country, along
with the Phoenicians, for many centuries after it was
peopled, and that from the circumftances above nar¬
rated, it was denominated Tarjh'jh, are fafts too pal¬
pable to admit of contradiftion.
“Let us now fee whether this Bcetica, where I have
endeavoured to fix the fituation of the Tarfhiffi of the
feriptures, was actually furnifhed with thofe articles of
commerce which are faid to have been imported from
that country. To enlarge on this topic would be al¬
together fuperfluous. Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Po¬
lybius, Pliny, Solinus, and, in one word, all the
Greek and Roman hiftorians who have mentioned
that region, have unanimoufly exhibited it as the na¬
tive land of filver, iron, and tin : to thefe, contrary to
the opinions of the celebrated modern traveller, they
likewife add gold in very large quantities.”
Our author having thus afeertained the fituation of
Tarfhifh, proceeds to prove, by a mafs of evidence too
large for our infertion, that the Edomites and Ty¬
rians had doubled the Cape, and almoft encompaffed
Africa, long before the era of Solomon. Then refer¬
ring to 1 Kings, chap. ix. and x. 2 Chron. viii. ix.
2 Kings xxii. and 2 Chron. xx. he obferves, that from
thefe authorities it appears indubitable, that the fleets
of Solomon and Hiram failed from Eloth and Ezion-
geber ; that the voyages to Ophir and Tarfhifh were
exa&ly the fame, performed at one and the fame time,
by the very fame fleet; which muft neceffarily have en-
compafftd the peninfula of Africa before it could ar¬
rive at the country of Tarfhifh. This being the cafe*
the traders might eafily enough colled the gold on
the coaft of Guinea, or on what is now vulgarly
called the Gold Coajl. The ivory they might readily
enough procure on the Barbary coaft, oppofite to
Tarfhifh. In Africa, too, they might hunt apes,
monkies, baboons, &c ; and peacocks, or rather par¬
rots, and parroquets, they might furprife in the forefts
which abounded on the coaft. In Spain, filver, iron.
nave uccu me juiynau iivivio vji ^      — # * ,
Boetis, which divide, it, is called Tartr/us, by Ari- lead, and tin, were, one may fay, the native produce
n .1 n* r t  c. 1 D r—Joo Ctnr.Vi nf tVi** foil. Even at this earlv neriod. the Phoenician
flotle, Stefichoms, Strabo, Paufanias, Steph. Byzant
and Avianus Plere too we have a city and a lake of
the fame name. But Tarteffus is pofitively the very
fame with Tarfhifh. The Phoenicians, by changing/^iw
into thau, made it Tartifh. The Greeks manufadured
the reft, by changing Tartifh into Tartis, and in pro-
ccfs of time into iccpTnccoc. That the Phoenicians
adually changed fch'in into thau is certain ; for Pui-
tarch tells us in the life of Sylla, that in their lan¬
guage an ox was called which is, no doubt, the
fame with the Hebrew Jhor.
“ From this dedudion,it appears highly probable at
SpanifhBce-^ea^» t^at t^e SPan^ Bcetica was originally called
tica 1 a* Tarfhifh. Indeed this fimilarity of names has operat-
Vol. XIIL Part I.
to
Tarfhifh
of the foil. Even at this early period, the Phoenician
navigators had difeovered the Caffilerides, or Scilly
iflands and Cornwall; and from that region, in com¬
pany with the merchants, may have fupplied them
with that rare commodity.
“ I have fuppofed that the navy of Solomon and Hi¬
ram colleded their gold in the courfe of their voyage
fomewhere on the coaft of Africa, beyond the Cape,
for the following reafons: Had they found the golden
fleece at Sofala (a), or any part of the coaft of Afri¬
ca, they would have chofen to return and unlade at
Eloth or Ezion geber, rather than purfue a long and
dangerous courfe, quite round Africa, to Tarfhifh; to
which laft country they might have fhaped their
F f - courfe
(a) That Sofala oppofite to the iGand of Madagafcar was Ophir, was an ancient conje&ure. See Bocchart.
Chan. 1. 2. cap. 27- p* 160. 4to.
o P H [ 226 ] O P H
courfe much more commodioufly from ZJdon, Tyre, performed a voyage round Africa, in that age, in the
Joppa, &c. But being obliged to double the Cape fame manner as that of Necho did two centuries af-
in queft of fome of thefe articles which they were en- ter.
Ophir,
joined to import, they pufiied onward to Tarfhifli,
and returned by the pillars of Hercules to Tyre, or
perhaps to Joppa, &c. i heir next voyage commen¬
ced from one or other of thefe ports, from which they
direfted their courfe to Tarfliifli ; and having taken
in part of their lading there, they afterwards coaited
round Africa, and fo arrived once more at Eloth or
Ezion geber.
“ Let us now attend to the fpace of time in which
thefe voyages were performed. We are told exprefs-
ly (2 Chron ix. 21 ) that once every three years
came the fhips of iarfhifh, &c. This is exa£fly the
time one would naturally imagine neceffary to per¬
form fuch a diftant voyage, at a period when naviga¬
tion was Hill in its infancy, and mariners feldom ad¬
ventured to lofe fight of the coaft. Of this we have
an irrefragable proof in the hiitory of a voyage round
the very fame continent, undertaken and accomplilhed
in the very fame fpace of time, about two centuries
after.
“ We learn from Herodotus, 1. 2. cap. 149. that Ne-
chus, one of the later kings of Egypt, whom the fciip-
ture calls Pharaoh Mccho, built a great number of
fhips, both on the Red Sea and the Mediterranean.
The fame hiftorian, lib. iv. cap. 42. informs us, that
this enterprifing monarch projefted a voyage round
the continent of Africa, which was a&ually accom-
plifhed in the fpace of three years. In the conduct of
this enterprife, he employed Phoenician mariners, as
Solomon had done before him. Thefe, we may fup-
pofe, were afiifted in the courfe of this navigation by
charts or journals, or at leaft by traditional accounts
derived from their anceftors: 1 Thefe navigators (fays
the hiftprian) took their departure from a port on the
Red Sea, and failing from thence into the fouthern
ocean, and, in the beginning of autumn, landing on the
coaft of Africa, there they fowed fome grain which they
had carried out with them on board their veffels, In this
place they waited till the crop was ripened; and, having
cut it down, they proceeded on their voyage. Having
fpent two years in this navigation, in the third they
returned to Egypt, by the pillars of Hercules. Thefe
mariners, adds the author, reported a faft, which, for
his part, he could by no means believe to be true ;
namely, that in one part of their courfe their fhadows
fell on their right; a circumftance which gives confi-
derable weight to the truth of the relation.’
“ Let it now be obferved, that Phcenician mariners
navigated the fleet of Solomon : the fame people con¬
ducted that of Necho : the fleet of Necho fpent three
years in the courfe of its voyage ; that of Solomon
did the fame in its courfe about two centuries before:
the fleet of Necho failed from a port on the Red fea ;
that of Solomon took its departure from Eloth or
Ezion-geber, fituated on the fame fea; the fleet of the
former returned by the pillars of Hercules; that of
the latter, according to the hypothefis, purfued the
very fame route. Such a coincidence of fimilar cir-
^umftances united with thofe adduced in the prece-
ding part of this article, feem to prove almoit to a
demonftration, that the navy of Hiram and Solomon
“ Upon the whole, I conclude, that the original
Ophir, which is really Aufir or Aufr, was fituated on
the fouth of Arabia Felix, between Sheba and Havilah,
which la ft was encompaffed by one of the branches of
the river of Paradife: that the name Ophir, i.e. Aufr,
was, in confequence of its refemblanee, in procefs of
time transferred to a region on the coaft of Africa ;
and that from it ftrft /!fer and then Africa was deno¬
minated : that the primitive Tarfhilh was Cilicia, and
that tne Jews applied this name to all the commercial
ftates on the coaft of Afia Minor, and perhaps of Ita¬
ly, there being ftrong prefumptions that the Tyrrhe¬
nians were colonifts from Tarlhifh ; that Bcetica, and
perhaps fome other regions of Spain, being planted
with colonies from Tarfhifh, likewife acquired the
name of larftiiOi ; that the Tyrians were ftriiflly con¬
nected with the merchants of Tarfhifli in their com¬
mercial enterprizes; that Tarfliiih was certainly fitu¬
ated weft ward from Judea, Phoenicia, &c.; that no
other country in the wellem quarters produced the
commodities imported by the two kings, except Spain
and the oppofite coafts; that this country, in thofe
ages, produced not only fiiver, iron, tin, and lead, but
likewife gold in great aoundance ; that the merchants
of Kittim imported ivory, of which the Afherites
made benches for the Tyrians; which commodity they
muft have purchafed on the coaft of Barbary, where
the Jews and Phoenicians would find the fame article ;
that Tarfhifh being fituated in Spain, it was impoffible
for a fleet failing from Eloth or Ezion-geber, to ar- Ir
rive at that country without encompaffing Africa ; Ophir fitu-
that, of courfe, the fleet in queftion did actually en-att'don the
compafs that continent; that the Ophir of Solomon co.a? of' .
muft have been fituated fomewhere on the coaft ofo/th^cIpeT
Africa, to the weft of the Cape, becaufe from it the
courfe to I arfhifh was more eligible than to return
the fame way back to Ezion-geber.”
Our author fupports this conclufion by manv other
arguments and authorities, which the limits preferibed
us will not permit us to detail ; but perhaps the arti¬
cle might be deemed incomplete, if we did not fhow
how he obviates an obje&ion that will readily occur
to his theory. “ If the original Ophir was i'eated on
the coaft of Arabia Felix, and the modern region of
the fame name on the weft coaft ®f Africa, it may
be made a queftion, how the latter country came to
be denominated from the former ? Nothing (fays our .
author) can be more eafy than to anfwer this queftion. tion„ 0an!C"
The practice of adapting the nameof an ancient country fwentd.
to a newly difeovered one, refembling the other in ap-
pearance,infituation,in figure,in diftance,in the nature
of theclimate,produ&4ons,&e. has ever beenfoeommon,
that to produce inllances would be altogether fuper-
fiuous. The newly difeovered region on the coaft @f
A fnca abounded with the fame fpecies of commodi¬
ties by which the original one was diftinguifned ; and,
of courfe, the name of the latter was annexed to the
former.”
Whether Mr Bruce’s hypothefis or Dr Doig’s, re-
fpefting the long difputed fituation of Solomon’s Ophir,
be the true one, it is not for us to decide. Both are
plaufible
O P H [ 227 ] CPI
OpWra plaufible, both are fupported by much ingenuity and
II uncommon erudition ; but we do not think that the
Op ryg. argUments 0f either writer furnifh a complete confu¬
tation of thofe adduced by the other. Sub judice Us
eft.
OPHTRA, in botany: A genus of themonogynia
order, belonging to the odandria clafs of plants. The
involucrum is bivalvular and triflorous ; the corolla te-
trapetalous above; the berry unilocular.
OPHI TES, in natural hiftory, a fort of variegated
marble, of a du/ky-green ground, fprinkled with fpots
of a lighter green, otherwife calledSee the
article Marble.
Ophites, in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics, fo
called both from the veneration they had for the fer-
pent that tempted Eve, and the worlhip they paid to
a real ferpent : they pretended that the ferpent was
Jcfus Chrilt, and that he taught men the knowledge
of good and evil. They diltinguifhed between Jefus
and Chnjl : Jefus, they faid, was born of the Virgin,
but Cbrilt came clown from heaven to be united with
him ; Jefus was crucified, but Chrift had left him to
return to heaven. They diftinguilhed the God of the
Jews, whom they termed Jaldabaoth, from the fu-
preme God : to the former they aferibed the body, to
the latter the foul of men. They had a live ferpent*
which they kept in a kind of cage; at certain times
they opened the cage-door, and called the ferpent:
the animal came out, and mounting upon the table,
twined itfelf about fome loaves of bread ; this bread
they broke and diftributed it to the company, who all
killed the ferpent: this they called their Eucharift.
OPHRYS twyblade : A genus of the diandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 7th order,
Orchidece. The ne&arium is a little carinated below.
The fpecies are numerous; but the molt remarkable
are the following :
I. The ovata, oval-leaved ophrys, or common t<wy-
blade, hath a bulbous, fibrated root; crowned by two
oval, broad, obtufe, veined, oppofite leaves; an eredt,
fucculent, green Italk, fix or eight inches high, na¬
ked above, and terminated by a loofe fpike of green-
ilh flowers, having the lip of the nediarium bifid.
The flo wers of this fpecies refemble the figure of gnats.
2 'Fbc fpiralis, fpiral orchis, or triple ladies-trejfes,
hath bulbous, oblong, aggregated roots ; crowned by
a clufter of oval, pointed, ribbed leaves ; ereft fimple
italks, half a loot high ; terminated by long fpikes of
■white odoriferous flowers, hanging to one fide, having
the lip of the nedtarium entire, and crenated.
3. The nidus-avis, or bird's-nejl, hath a bulbous, fi¬
brated, cluftered root; upright, thick, fucculent ftalks,
a foot high, Iheathed by the leaves, and terminated
by loofe fpikes of pale-brown flowers; having the
lip of the nedfarium bifid.
4. The anthropophorc, man-Jhaped ophrys, or man-or¬
chis, hath a roundifli bulbous root, crowned with three
or four oblong leaves ; upright thick ftalks, riling a
foot and a half high ; adorned with narrow leaves, and
terminated by loofe fpikes of greeniih flowers, repre-
fenting the figure of a naked man ; the lip of the nec-
tarium linear tripartite, with the middle fegment long-
eft: and bifid. There is a variety with brownilh flow¬
ers tinged with green.
5. The infeElifera, or infed-orchis, hath two roundilh Ophrys
bulbous roots, crowned with oblong leaves; eredt leafy .!!.
ftalks, from fix to 10 or 12 inches high, terminated by 0pim0!*‘
fpikes of infedf-lhaped greeniih flowers, having the lip "*nr"**
of the nedtarium almoft five-lobed. This wonderful
fpecies exhibits flowers in different varieties, that repre-
fent Angular figures of flies, bees, and other infedis ;
and are of different colours in the varieties.
6. 1 he monorchis, or mufky ophrys, hath a roundifh
bulbous root ; crowned with three or four oblong
leaves ; an eredl naked italk, fix inches high ; termi¬
nated by a loofe fpike of yellowilh, mufky-feented
flowers.
All thefe fix fpecies of ophrys flower in fummer, at
different times in different forts, from May until July;
and in molt of the forts exhibit a Angularly curious
appearance. The plants are all perennial in root, w'hicfi
are of the bulbous flelhy kind, from which the flower-
ftalks rile annually in fpring, and decay in autumn; at
which period is the proper time for removing the roots
froni one place to another. They all grow wild in
Britain, &c. ; are relidents of woods, bogs, marlhy
grounds, tterile paftures, chalky foils, and the like
places, where they flourilh and difplay their Angular
flowers in great abundance, from which places they
are introduced into gardens for variety; and having
procured fome plants at the proper feafon, and planted
them in foils and fituations lomewhat fimilar to that
where they naturally grow, the roots will abide for fe-
veral years, and flower annually.
As to their propagation, it may be tried by feed in
a lhady border, as foon as it is ripe ; likewife by off-
fets from the root, though they multiply fpatingly in
gardens : however, roots of fome Handing may be
examined at the proper feafon, and any off-fets fepa-
rated and planted in the proper places.
OPH i HALMObCOPY, a branch of phyfiogno-
my, which deduces the knowledge of a man’s temper
and manner from the appearance of his eyes.
OPHTHALMIA, in medicine, an inflammation
of the membranes which inveft the eye ; efpecially
of the adnata, or albugineous coat. See Medicine,
n- 175.
OPIATES, medicines of a thicker confiftence than
a fyrup, prepared with opium fearcely fluid. They
conliit of various ingredients, made up with honey
or fyrup ; and are to be ufed for a long time ei¬
ther for purgative, alterative, or corroborative inten¬
tions.
The word opiate is alfo ufed, in general, for any
medicine given with an intention to procure fleep, whe¬
ther in the form of eledfuaries, drops, or pills.
OPINION is that judgment which the mind forms
of any propofition for the truth or falfehood of which
there is not fufficient evidence to produce fcience or
abfolute belief.
1 hat the three angles of a plane triangle are equal
to two right angles, is not a matter of opinion, nor can
it with propiiety be called an objed of the mathema¬
tician’s belief .• he does more than believe it; he knows
it to be true. When two or three men, under no
temptation to deceive, declare that they were wit-
neffes of an uncommon, though not preternatural event,
their teftimony is complete evidence, and produces abl
folute belief in the minds of thofe to whom it is given ;
F f 2 but
OP1 [2
Opinion but it does not produce fcience like rigid demonftra-
il tion. The fad is not doubted, but thofe who have
Opium. jt on report do not i,now it to be true, as they know
the truth of proportions intuitively or demonftrably
certain. When one or two men relate a ftory inclu¬
ding many circumftances to a third perfon, and ano¬
ther coires who pofitively contradicts it either in whole
cr in part, he to whom thofe jarring teftimonies are
given, weighs all the circumstances in his own mind,
balances the one againft the other, and lends an affent,
more or lefs wavering, to that lide on which the evi¬
dence appears to preponderate. this affent is his
opinion refpeding the fads of which he has received
fuch different accounts.
Opinions are often formed of events not yet in be¬
ing. Were an officer from the combined armies, which
♦July x793> are juft now * befieging Valenciennes, to come into
the room where we are writing, and tell us that thole
armies are in good health and high fpirits ; that every
fhot which they fire upon the fortrefs produces fome
effed; and that they have plenty of excellent provi-
fions, whilft the befiegcd are perifhing by hunger; we
fhould abfolutely believe every fad which he had told us
upon the evidence of his teftimony ; but we could on¬
ly be of opinion that the garrifon muft foon furrender.
In forming opinions of this kind, upon which, in a
great meafure, depends our fuccefs in any purfuit,
every crrcumftance fhould be carefully attended to, and
our judgments guided by former experience. Truth
is a thing of fuch importance to man, that he fhould
always purfue the beft methods for attaining it ; and
when the objed eludes all his refearches, he fhould re¬
medy the difappointment, by attaching himfelf to that
which has the ftrongeft refemblance to it; and that
which moft refembles truth is called probability, as the
judgment v\hich is formed of it is termed opinion. See
Probability.
OPITS, orOpinus (Martin), a celebrated Ger¬
man poet, born at Breflaw in ijoy* squired
great fame by his Latin, and more by his German
poems; and, retiring to Dantzic, wrote a hiflory of
the aftcient Daci: he died of the plague in 1639.
Opits (Henry), a learned Lutheran divine, born
at Aitenburg in Mifnia in 1642. He was profeffor
of theology and of the oriental languages at Kiel,
where he acquired great reputation by a variety of ex¬
cellent works concerning oriental literature and He¬
brew antiquities. He died in 1712.
OPIUM, in the materia medica, is an infpiffated
juice, partly of the refinous and partly of the gummy
kind, brought to us in cakes from eight ounces to a
pound weight. It is very heavy, of a denfe texture,
and not pcrfe&ly dry ; but. in general, eafily receives
an impreffion from the finger : its colour is a browmfh
yellow, fo very dark and dufky that at firft it appears
black: it has a dead and faint fmell, and its talfe is
very bitter and acrid. It is to be chofen moderately
firm, and not too foft ; its fmell and tafte fhould be
very flrong, and care is to be taken that there be no
dirty or ftony matter in it.
Opium is the juice of the papaver album, or white
poppy, with which the fields of Afia Minor are in
many places fown, as ours are with corn. When the
heads are near ripening, they wound them with an in-
28 ] 0 p , 1
ftrument that has five edges, which on being fluck in- Opiur
to the head makes at once five long cuts in it ; and ^
from thefe wounds the opium flows, and is next day
taken off by a perfon who goes round the field, and
put up in a veffel which he carries faftened to his
girdle ; at the fame time that this opium is colle&ed,
the oppofite fide of the poppy-head is wounded, and
the opium colle&ed from it the next day. They di-
ftinguiffi, however, the produce of the firft wounds
from that of the fucceeding ones j for the firft juice
afforded by the plant is greatly fuperior to what is ob¬
tained afterwards. After they have colledled the opi¬
um, they moiften it with a fmall quantity of water or
honey, and work it a longtime upon a fiat, hard, and
fvnooth board, with a thick and ftiong inftrument of
the fame wood, till it becomes of the confiftence of
pitch ; and then work it up with their hands, and
form it into cakes or lolls for fale.
Opium at prefent is in great efteem, and is one of
the moft valuable of all the fimple medicines. In its
effects on the animal fyftem, it is the moft extraor¬
dinary fubllance in nature. It touches the nerves as Leaked
it were by magic and irrefiftible power, and fteeps the^
fenfes in forgetfulnefs ; even in oppofition to the de-/A;
termined will of the philofopher or phyfiologilt, appri-
fed of its narcotic effed.
The modification of matter is infinite ; and who (hall
truly fay by what peculiar or fpecific configuration of
its parts, opium, even in the quantity of a fingle grain,
adminiftered to the human body, fhall affuage the moft
raging pain, and procure profound fleep ?
The a&ion of matter upon matter, thus exempli¬
fied in the effed of opium on the animal fyftem, is not
lefs aftonifhing and incomprehenfible, than that of
fpirit upon matter or the agency of mind on the mo¬
tive powers of the body.
The firfl effeds of opium are like thofe of a ftrong,
ftimulaiing cordial, but are foon fucceeded by univer-
fal languor or irrefiftible propenfity to fleep, attended
with dreams of the moft rapturous and enthuliaftic
kind. After thofe contrary effeds are over, which
are generally terminated by a profufe fweat, the body
becomes cold and torpid ; the mind penfive and de-
fponding ; the head is affeded with ftupor, and the
ftomach with ficknefs and naufea.
It is not our bufinefs, neither is it in our power,
to reconcile that diverfity of opinion which has late¬
ly prevailed concerning the manner in which opium
produces its effeds ; or to determine whether it ads
Amply on the brain and nerves, or, according to the
experiments of Fontana, on the mafs of blood only..
Opium is the moft fovereign remedy in the materia
medica, for eafing pain and procuring fleep, and alfo
the rnoft certain antifpafmodic yet known , but, like
other powerful medicines, becomes highly noxious to-
the human conftitution, and even mortal, when impio-
perly adminiftered. Its liberal and long continued ufe
has been obferved greatly to injure the brain and
nerves, and to diminifh their influence on the vital
organs of the body. By its firft effeds, which are
exhilarating, it excites a kind of temporary deliriupi,
which diffipates and exhaufts the fpirits ; and, by its
fubfequent narcotic power, occafions confufion of ideas
and lots of memory, attended with naufea, giddinefs,
headachy
O P. I
[ 229 ]
O P o
headach, and conftlpatlon of the bowels ; in a word,
it feems to fufpend or dimimih all the natural fecretions
and excretions of the body, that of perfpiration on y
CX Thdfe who take opium to excefs become enervated
and foon look old ; when deprived of it, they are faint,
and experience the langour and dejeaion of fpints com
mon to fnch as drink fpirituous liquors in excefs ; to
the badeffeas of which it is fimilar, fmce, like thole,
they are not ealily removed without a repetition of
^B^tlie indiferiminate ufe of that preparation of
opium called Godfrey's cordial, many children are year-
ly cut off; for it is frequently given dofe alter dole,
without me deration, by ignorant women znd merce¬
nary nurfes, to t'dence the cries of infants and lull them
to deep, by which they are at laft rendered ftupid,
inaftive, and rickety. , r 4 ^ q Invnrv
Opium is univerfally known to be ufed as a luxury
in the eaft. Mr Grofe informs us, that moft of the
hard-labouring people at Surat, and efpecially the por¬
ters, take great quantities of this drug, which,they pr
tend, enables them to work, and carry heavier bur ens
than they otherwife could do. Some of thefe, our auth
aflures us, will take more than an ounce at a time
without detriment. Many people in opulent arcum-
ftances follow the fame cuftom, but with very different
motives. Some ufe it merely for the fake of the plea
fing delirium it occafions ; others for venereal purpo^
fes^ as bv this means they can lengthen the amorous
res, css uj-  r. «-Virv,,crVi rhev thus are
the poifon wa, too ftrong to admit of any remedy j o,^
which accordingly proved true, and the unfortunate
gentleman never awaked.” # ^
Opium applied externally is emollient, relaxing, and
difeutient, and greatly promotes fuppuration : if long
kept upon the flein, it takes off the hair, and always
occafions an itching in it ; fometimes it exulcerates it,
and raifes little blifters, if applied to a tender part.
Sometimes, on external application, it allays pam, and
even occafions fleep: but it mull by no means be
applied to the head, efpecially to the futures of the
fkull; for it has been known to have the moi\ terrible
effeas in this application, and even to bring on death
itfelf. . . ,
It appears,too, from fome curious experiments made ^
by Dr Leigh, to ad as the moft powerful of all ityptics. mcntai enqui.
‘‘Having laid bare the crural artery of a rabbit (fays^, i„t0the
the Dodor), I divided it, when the blood inftantlyy^
flew out with confiderable velocity ; fome of a ftrong >
folution was then applied to the divided artery, the
ends of which in a fhort fpace of time contraded, and
the haemorrhagy ceafed. The fame experiment was
performed on the brachial artery with like fuccefs.
The efieds of a ftrong folution of opium upon the
heart, appears from the fame experiments to be very ex¬
traordinary. “ I opened the thorax of a rabbit (fays the
Dodor), and by ddfedion placed the heart in full view;
the aorta was then divided, and the animal bh d till it ex¬
pired. After the heart had remained motionlcfs ten mi¬
nutes, and every appearanceoflife had ceafed forthe fame
St » by this means .hey cau Ungg *' — ™ .he hean a qua„.i.y of my
congrefs as much as they p . 8 ^ ftro foludo. . it waa mftaut 1, throwu mto mouon.
congrets as mucu as  o .
certain to bring on an abfolute impotency and prema¬
ture old age at laft. For this purpofe it ufually ta¬
ken in milk; and when they have a mind to check
or put an end to its operation, they fwallow a fpoon
ful or two of lime juice, or any fimdar acid.
Befides thefe effeds of opium, it is faid by the In
dians to have a very Angular one in bringing on a
fteming heavinefs of the head and fletpmefs of the ey e,
at the fame time that it really produces great watch-
fulnefs. It is alfo confidered as a §reat m^,rer
courage, or rather infenfibihty to danger ; fo that the
commanders make no fcruple of allowing large qua -
titles of it to the foldiers when they are going to
battle or engaged in any hazardous enterpnze.
The heft opium in the world is faid to come from
Patna on the river Ganges, where, at leaft, the great-
eft traffic of it is made, and from whence it is export¬
ed all over India ; though in fome parts, efpecia ly
©n the Malay coafts, it is prohibited under pam of
death on account of the madnefs, and murders con-
9 .1   nrluVh are occanoDed by it «
iengtn oi tunc,   4 # ^
ftrong folution ; it was inftantly thrown into motion,
which continued t.vo minutes: I then added more of the
folution, and the adion was again renewed. By thus
repeating my applications, the motions of the heart
were fupported more than ten minutes. I afterward*
opened the thorax of a rabbit, and, without doing any
injury to the large blood-veffcls, placed the heart in
view. A quantity of my tlrong folution was then ap¬
plied to it, which fo accelerated the motions as to ren¬
der it impoffible to number them : by renewing the
application, thefe were continued for fome conliderable
time. The furface of the heart now appeared uncom¬
monly red, and continued fo fome time.
Opium contains gum, refin, effentiai oil, fait, and
earthy matter; but its narcotic or fomniferous power
has been experimentally found to reiide ih its ejfential
° ^OPOB ALS AMUM, in the materia medica. Opo-
balfam, or balm of Gilead.,; See Amvris.
Mr Bruce, the celebrated traveller, wftiom we have
death, on account of the madnefs, and™^ as con- f r d h ’d f to introdllce to our readers with
fequem upon that madnefs, which are occafioned by^, frequemly^ ^ ^ ^ ^ his labours have fully
notwithftanding which fcverc prohdntion , P employs feveral pages of his Appendix
it is plentifully fmuggled into irafeertainiig the antiquity and native foil of the bah
foil about the Ganges is accounted P fam.tree, with other particulars of that nature ; after
the ftrongeft kind of opium ; ot 'wJlch f , f ^ bicb be gives us the following account of the opo-
markable inftance is related. “ A nabob of thefe pm ts wtuen n g from6 it; “At firft when it
having invited an Engldh faflory to an enteAainment, the bottle or vafe from the wound
a young gentleman, a writer in the and from whence it iffues, it is of a light, yellow colour,
fauntering about the gaiden, p uc be fell apparently turbid, in which there is a whitiih caft*.
fucked the head of it. In ^ Xch I apprehend are the globules of air that per-
into a profound fleep ; of which the . b^d vade lhe whole of it in its firft ftate of fermentation ;
prifed, and likewife m ®rme flnwer^ exoreffed his it then appears very light upon ftiaking. As it fettles
»lhe ‘imsthat 81,4cool“’ilturn,cUiir'milofc8thiltwh‘t
Opohalfa.
mum,
Opucalpa
fum
^ ^ ^ [ 230 ]
it fir(l had when flowing from the tree into the bottle, mon ftruaure.
It then has the colour of honey, and appears more
fixed and heavy than at firft. After being kept for
y£arfVt ^rows a much deeper yellow, and of the co¬
lour of gold. I have fome of it, which, as I have al¬
ready mentioned in my travels, I got from the Cadi of
Medina in the 17685 it is now ft,11 deeper in colour,
lull as much fo as the yellowed honey. It is perfectly
fluid, and has loft very little either of its tafte, fmell,
or weight. The fmell at firft is violent and ftronody
pungent, giving a fcnfation to the brain like to that of
volat.le faltswhen rafhly drawn up by an incautious
perion. 1 his lafts m proportisn to its frefhnefs ; for
eng neglefted, and the bottle uncorked, it quickly
loies this quality, as it probably will at laft by aije
whatever care is taken of it. ' 6 >
“ In its pure and frefh Hate it diftolves eafilv in wa¬
ter. If dropped on a woollen cloth, it will wafh out ea-
%, and leaves no itain. It is of an acrid,rough,pungent
tafte ; 1S ufed by the Arabs in all complaints of the
ftomach and bowels, is reckoned a powerful antifeptic,
and of ufe in preventing any infeftion of the plague.
Thefe qualities it now enjoys, in all probability, in
common with the various balfams we have received
from the new world, fuch as the balfam of Tolu, of
Peru, and the reft ; but it is always ufed, and in par¬
ticular efteemed by the ladies, as a cofmetic : As fuch
it has kept up us reputation in the eaft to this very
i„?o rh , m™ne[of aPPlying it is this : You firft go
into the tepid bath till the pores are fufficiently open-
ed , you then anoint yourftlf with a fmall quantity,
and as much as the vefiels will abforb. Never-fading
Ss Tht f be the con^ence3 of
that it £ Pur£hafe >s enough. I do not hear
of eitherT 138 ^ th0llght reftorative after the lofs
OPOCALPASUM, Opocar basum, or Apockl
pasum ; a gummy refinous fubftance, which has a ftrong
SSof Gl,he KbC'1 '^Uid n!^rh- in
U f G hey mixed with myrrh. It was
fficult, according to this w riter, to diftinguifh the
one from the other unlcfs by their effeas. h was a
fnffT8 Jn'Ce’ KhlCh frecluentIy produced lethargy
«ind fudden ft tangling^* He i i
feveral nfrfr,r,a u I- V .eclares’ that he has known
„Z , 1 f hu f,e,i "" confequence of inadvert¬
ently taking myrrh m which there was a mixture of
onocarhafiim , . . "oxiure or
opoearbarum Perhaps it was o^ ”
m rfct^ w!i^’rCeerays, 'TL
chants had brought th£Vrce ^Dlind Jhat certain mer-
good myrrh, which T , ^ COUntry of the
grow in Arabia) and°th t°3 °dltT ^or 11 does n°t
fake of its gum uAh t • ieyihad IJ,anted ^ ^ the
the blue fluffs of Surat "wld h Mud}dmen ftarch
from Mocha, in order to barte/tl7 reCei)e dama?ed
and the Abyffmians 'Fh' ! th- 1 Wlth the Gall;i
Mr Bruce declares that he^ha, "feen'h a"d
vered w.th beautiful crimfon flowers of aTe^y Som!
o P o
f fr . The fame traveller obferves, that the Opocalp*.
lafla gum ia well calculated, both on account of its fum>
abundance and its colour, to augment the quantity of 0P0l>»na*«
myrrh ; and he is the more confirmed in his opinion y ^
becaufe every thing leads him to think that no other
gummiferous tree, poffeffed of the fame properties
with the faffa, grows in the myrrh country In ftiort,
he thinks it almoft beyond a doubt that the gum of
tae faffa-tree is the opoealpafum ; and he fuopofes
Galen miftaken in afenbing any fatal property to this
drug ; and that many were believed to be killed by it,
whole death might, perhaps, with morejuftice, have
been placed to the account of the phyfician Mr
Bruce adds, tuat though the Troglodites ofthe myrrh
country are at prefent more ignorant tha;. formerly,
they are neverthekfs well acquainted with the pro¬
perties of their fimples ; and that while they wifh to
increafe the fale of their commodities, they vould
never mix with them a poifon which muft neceffarily
dmimifh it In this we accede to his opinion ; but
we muft differ from him when he fays, that no gum
or refin with which we are acquainted is a mortal poi¬
fon : the favages of both hemifpheres are acquainted
with but too many of them. The gum of the faffa-
tree, according to Mr Bruce, is of a clofe fmootii
grain, of a brown dull colour, but fometimes very
trailfparent ; ,t fwells and becomes white in .>ater ;
it has a great refemblance in its properties to gum tra-
gacanth, and may be eaten with all fafety. From all
this it appears that the opoealpafum mentioned by
P on^Dlt*tThfiafll‘ gum dtfcri! ed by Mr Bruce.
OPOPANAX, in the materia medica, is a gum-
refin of a tolerably firm texture, ufually brought to us
m loofe granules or drops, and fometimes in large
mafles, formed of a number of thefe conneded by a
quanuty of matter of the fame kind; but thefe arc
uiually loaded with extraneous matter, and are greatly
inrenor to the pure loofe kind. The drops or gra-
nules of the fine opopanax are on the outfide of a
browmfh red colour, and of a dufky yellow.fh or
whitifh colour within : they are of a fomewhat un&u-
ous appearance, fmooth on the furface ; and are to be
taile 1H C Car PleCe8, °f 3 ftr0ng fmdI and acrid
1 his gummy fubftance is obtained from the roots
of an umbelliferous plant, which grows fpontaneoufiy
in the warmer rnimti-iVo -,«.i 1  .1 11 r
the warmer countries, and hears the colds of this.
I he juice is brought from Turkey and the Eaft Indies:
and its virtues are thofe of an attenuating and aperient
medicine. Boerhaave frequently employed it,along with
a^nnU^-CUmarndga!banum,inh5rPocondriacaldl'foMer8,
obftru&ions of the abdominal vifee-a, and fuppreflions
f the men Li rual evacuations from a fluggi fluids of mu¬
cous humours, and a want of due elaftieity of the fo¬
il '' -7\th thefe lnte”tiona't is an ufeful ingredient in
ie pilule gummofae and compound powder of myrrh
o the Eondon pharmacopoeia, but it is not employed
m any compofition of the Edinburgh. It may be gi-
ven^oy itfdt rn the dole of a fcruple, or half a dram :
a wnole dram proves in many conititutions gently puiv
ga„v=: alfo d,fpc,8 flatulencicS; j f„ a/hP”
m inveterate coughs, and in diforders of the head and
nerves.
Doffor Woodville, in his Medical Botany, gives the
follouing account of this vegetable. « It is of the
“%yms orCieri and pentendria clafs of plants : the root is
perennial,
Tlate CCCLT
,S/./<,//('Snn ></€<■<'
O P o
Opopsna*. perennial, thick, fleihy, tapering like the garden parf-
v nep : the (talk is ftrong, branched, rough towards the
bottom, and rifes feven or eight feet in height; the
leaves are pinnated, confifting of feveral pairs of pinnae,
which are oblong, ferrated, veined, and towards the
bafe appear unformed on the upper fide : the flowers
are fmall, of a yellowifh colour, and terminate the
Item and branches in flat umbels; the general and
partial umbels are compoied of many radii; the gene¬
ral and partial involucra are commonly both wanting ;
ail the florets are fertile, and have an uniform appear¬
ance ; the petals are five, lance-fhaped, and curled
inwards; the five filaments are fpreading, curved,
longer than the petals, and furnifhed with roundhh
antheras ; the gerrr.en is placed below the corolla, fup-
porting two refit xed ftyles, which are fupplied with
blunt Uigmata ; the fruit is elliptical, comprefTed, di¬
vided into two parts, containing two flat feeds, en-
cornpafied with a narrow border See Piate CCCLI.
It is a native of the fouth of Europe, and flowers in
June and July.
“ This fpeeits of parfnep was cultivated in 173 r
by Mr P. Miller, who obferves, that its ‘ roots are
large, fweet, and accounted very nourifiiing,’ there¬
fore recommended for cultivation in kitchen-gardens.
It bears the cold of our climate very well, and com¬
monly maturates its feeds, and its juice here manifefts
fome of thofe qualities which are difeovered in the of¬
ficinal opopanax ; but it is only in the warm regions
of the call, and where this plant is a native, that its
juice concretes into this gummy refinous-drug. Opo¬
panax is obtained by means of incilions made at the
bottom of the ilalk of the plant, from whence the juice
gradually exudes; and by undergoing fpontaneous con¬
cretion, aflumes the appearance under which we have
it imported from Turkey and the Eaft Indies. It readi¬
ly mingles with water, by triture, into a milky liquor,
which on Handing depolits a portion of refinous mat¬
ter, and becomes yellowifh : to re&ified fpirit it yields
a gold-coloured tindf ure, which tabes and fmells ftrong-
ly of opopanax. Water diililled from it is impregna-
O P T
ted with its fmell, but no eflential oil is obtained on Oporto
committing moderate quantities to the operatidn.” II.
See Pastanaca, of which opopanax is a fpecies. Optic.
OPORTO, or Porto; a rich, handfome, and con-
fiderable town of Portugal, in the province of Entre
Douro and Minho, with a bilhop’s fee. It is a place
of great importance, and by nature almoft impregnable.
It is noted for its flrong wines ; and a large quantity
is from thence exported into Britain, whence all red
wines that come from Spain or Portugal are called
port-wines. It is feated on the declivity of a mountain
near the river Duero, which forms an excellent har¬
bour. W. Long. 8. 1. N. Lat. 41. ev
OPOSSUM, in zoology. See Didelphis.
OPPENPIEIM, a town of Germany, in the lower
palatinate of the Rhine, and capital of a bailiwic of
the fame name; feated on the declivity of a hill near
the Rhine. E. Long. 8. 20. N Lat. 49. 48.
OPPIANUS, a poet and grammarian of Anazarb*
in Cilicia, in the fecond century. He compofed a poem
of hunting, and another of fifhing, for which Anto¬
ninus Cararalla gave him as many golden crowns as-
there were verfes in his poems ; they were hence called
Oppian’s golden verfes. He died in the 30th year of
his age.
OPPILATION, in medicine, the aft of obflruc-
ting or bopping up the paffage of the body, by re¬
dundant or peccant humours. This word is chiefly
ufed for obbruftions in the lower belly.
OPTATIVE mood, in grammar, that which fervefe
to exprefs an ardent defire or v/ifh for fomething.
In mob languages, except the Greek, the optative
is only exprefied by prefixing to the fubjunftive an ad¬
verb of wifiling ; as utinam, in Latin ; pint a D'teu*
in French ; and would to God, in Englifh.
OPTIC a ngle, the angle wrhich the optic axes of
both eyes make with one another, as they tend to
meet at fome diftance before the eyes
Optic Axis, the axis of the eye, or a line going
through the middle of the pupil and the centre of
the eye.
[ 231 1
OPTIC S,
nHHAT fcience which treats of the element of light,
and the various phenomena of vifion.
HISTORY.
J I. Dfcoveries concerning the Light.
x The element of light has occupied much of the at-
Diffia.ltics tention of thinking men ever fince the phenomena of
attending nature have been the objefts of rational invebigation.
ration'of difeoveries that have from time to time been
the oher o-made concerning it, are fo fully inferted under the ar-
mena of tide Light, that there is little room for any further
hght. addition here. The nature of that fubtile element
ia indeed very little known as yet, notwiihbanding all
the endeavours of philofophers; and whatever fide is
taken with regard to it, •> hether we fuppofe it to
confift of an infinity of fmall particles propagated by
a renulfive power from the luminous body, or whether
we iuppofe it to confift ia the vibrations of a fubtile
fluid, there are prodigious difficulties, almoft, if not
totally infuperable, which will attend the explanation
of its phenomena. In many parts of this work the
identity of light and of the dearie fluid is afferted s
this, however, doth not in the lead interfere with the
phenomena of optics; all of which are guided by the
fame invariable laws, whether we fuppofe light to be
a vibration of that fluid, or any thing elfe. We ftial!
therefore proceed to,
$ 2. Difeoveries concerning the Refraction of Light.
WE find that the ancients, though they made very Refradtion
few optical experiments, neverthelefs knew, that whenknowa t®
light pafl’ed through mediums of different denfitiea, itthe an"
did not move forward in a ftraight line, but was bent,CienUJ
or refracted, out of its courfe. This was probably
fuggefted to them by the appearance of a ftraight flick
partly immerfed in water : and we find many que-
ftions concerning this and other optical appearances in.
Ariftotle ; to which, however, his anfwers are infig-
mficant. Archimedes is even faid to have written a
treatife concerning the appearance of a ring or circk
under water, and therefore could not have been igno-
3 rant
®3*
OPT
rant of the common phenomena of refraftion. But the
ancients were not only acquainted with thefe more or¬
dinary appearances of refraftion, hut knew alfo the pro-
duftion of colours by refrafted light. Seneca fays, that
if the light of the fun fliines through an angular piece
of glafs, it will fhow all the colours of the rainbow.
Thefe colours, however, he fays, are falfe, fuch as are
feen in a pigeon’s neck when it changes its pofition ;
and of the fame nature, he fays, is a fpeculum, which,
without having any colour of its own, affumes that of
any other body. It appears alfo, that the ancients were
not unacquainted with the magnifying power of glafs
3 globes filled with water, though they do not feem to
And the ^ave known any thing of the reafon of this power ;
magnifyingan(j t^e anc;ent engravers are fuppofed to have made
slaTsglobes.ufe of a glafs globe filled with water to magnify their
figures, and thereby to work to more advantage.
That the power of tranfparent bodies of a fpherical
form in magnifying or burning was not wholly un¬
known to the ancients, is further probable from cer¬
tain gems preferved in the cabinets of the curious,
which are fuppofed to have belonged to the Druids.
They are made of rock-cryftal of various forms,
amongft which are found fome that are lenticular and
others that are fpherical : and though they are not
fufficiently wrought to perform their office as well as
they might have done if they had been more judi-
cioufiy executed, yet it is hardly polfible that their ef-
fe&, in magnifying at leaft, could have efcaped the no¬
tice of thofe who had often occafion to handle them ;
if indeed, in the fpherical or lenticular form, they
were not folely intended for the purpofes of burn¬
ing. One of thefe, of the fpherical kind, of about an
inch and an half diameter, is preferved among the fof-
fils given to the univerfity of Cambridge by Dr Wood¬
ward.
The firft treatife of any note written on the fubjedt
of optics, was by the celebrated aftronomer Claudius
Ptolomseus, who lived about the middle of the fecond
4 century. The treatife is loft ; but from the accounts
Rehadtion 0f others we find that he treated of aftronomical re-
fcientifical- fta&i°n8- Though refraftion in general had been ob-
ly by Pto- ferved very early, it is poffible that it might not have
lemy. occurred to any philofopher much before his time,
that the light of the fun,moon, and ftars, muft undergo
a fimilar refradlion in confequence of falling obliquely
upon the grofs atmofphere that furrounds the earth ;
and that they muft, by that means, be turned out of
their redilinear courfe, fo as to caufe thofe luminaries
to appear higher in the heavens than they would other-
wife do. The firft aftronomers were not aware that
the intervals between ftars appear lefs near the horizon
than near the meridian ; and, on this account, they muft
have been much embarraffed in their obfervations. But
it is evident that Ptolemy was aware of this circum-
ftance, by the caution that he gives to allow fome-
thing for it, upon every recourfe to ancient obferva¬
tions.
This philofopher alfo advances a very fenfrble hypo-
5 thefis to account for the remarkably greater apparent
thdis ^con- ^lze ^ie ^un anc^ mnon when feen near the horizon,
cerning the The mind, he fays, judges of the fize of objefts by
horizontal means of a pre-conceived idea of their diftance from
fun and U9 . an<J this diftance is fancied to be greater when a
moon. number of obje&s are interpofed between the eye and
the body we are viewing; which is the cafe when wc
N° 246.
ICS. Hiftory;
fee the heavenly bodies near the horizon. In his A!-
mageft, however, he aferibes this appearance to a re-
fradion of the rays by vapours, which adually enlarge
the angle under which the luminaries appear ; juft as
the angle is enlarged by which an objed is feen from
under water.
In the 12th century, the nature of refradion was
largely confidered by Alhazen an Arabian writer ; in
fo mmh that, having made experiments upon it at the
common furface between air and water, air and glafs, 4
water and glafs or cryftal ; and, being prepoffefled with Difcoverieq
the ancient opinion of cryftalline orbs in the regions0!A5hazenf
above the atmofphere, he even fufpeded a refradion
there alfo, and fancied he could prove it by aftronomi¬
cal obfervationo. This author deduces from hence fe-
vtral properties of atmofpherical refradion, as that it
increafes the altitudes of all objeds in the heavens ;
and he firft advanced, that the ftars are fometimes feen
above the horizon by means of refradion, when they
are really below it. This obfervacion was confirmed
by Vitellio, B. Waltherus, and efpecially by the ex¬
cellent obfervations of Tycho Brahe. Alhazen obfer-
ved, that refradion contrads the vertical diameters and
diftances of the heavenly bodies, and that it is the
caufe of the twinkling of the ftars. But we do not
find that either he, or his follower Vitellio, knew any
of its juft quantity. Indeed it is too fmall to be de¬
termined except by very accurate inftruments, and
therefore we hear little more of it till about the year
1500; at which time great attention was paid to it
by Bernard Walther, Mseftlin, and others, but chiefly
by Tycho Brahe.
Alhazen fuppofed that the refradion of the atmo-
fphere did not depend upon the vapours in it, as was
probably the opinion of philofophers before his time,
but on the different tranfparency ; by which, as Mon-
tucla conjedures, he meant the denfity of the grofs air
contiguous to the earth, and the ether or fubtile air
that lies beyond it. In examining the effeds of refrac¬
tion, he endeavous to prove that it is lo far from be¬
ing the caufe of the heavenly bodies appearing larger
near the horizon, that it would make them appear lefs ;
two ftars, he fays, appearing nearer together in the
horizon, than near the meridian. This phenomenon
he ranks among optical deceptions. We judge of di¬
ftance, he fays, by comparing the angle under which
objeds appear, with their fuppofed diftance; fo that
if thefe angles be nearly equal, and the diftance of one
objed be conceived greater than that of the other, it
will be imagined to be larger. And the fky near the
horizon, he fays, is always imagined to be further from
us than any other part of the concave furface. Roger
Bacon aferibes this account of the horizontal moon to
Ptolemy ; and as fuch it is examined, and objeded to
by B. Porta.
In the writings of this Bacon, whofe genius perhaps
equalled that of his great namefake Lord Verulam,
we find the firft diftind account of the magnifying
power of glaffes ; and it is not improbable, that what
he wrote upon this fubjed gave rife to that moft ufe-
ful invention of fpedacles. For he fays, that if an
objed be applied clofe to the bafe of the larger feg-
ment of a fphere of glafs, it will appear magnified.
He alfo treats of the appearance of an objed through
a globe, and fays that he was the firft who obferved
the refradion of rays into it.
4 In
Hiftory. OPT
7 In T 27<5» Vitellio, a native of Poland, publifhed a
Of Vjtellio. treatife 0f optics, containing all that was valuable in
Alliazen, and digefted in a much more intelligible and
methodical manner. He obferves, that light is always
loft by refra&ion, in confequence of which the objefts
feen by refra<fted light always appear lefs luminous;
but he does not pretend to eftimate the quantity of this
lofs. He reduced into a tabic the refult of his experi¬
ments on the refra&ive powers of air, water, and
glafs, correfponding to different angles of incidence.
In bis account of the horizontal moon he agrees ex¬
actly with Alhazen ; obferving, that in the' horizon
fhe feems to touch the earth, and appears much more
diftant from us than in the zenith, on account of the
intermediate fpaee containing a greater variety of ob-
je<fts upon the vifible furface of the earth. He aferibes
the twinkling of the (tars to the motion of the air in
which the light is refracted ; and to illuftrate this hy¬
pothecs, he obferves, that they twinkle (till more when
viewed in water put in motion. He alfo (hows, that re¬
fraction is neceffary as well as reflection, to form the
rainbow ; becaufe the body which the rays fall upon
is a tranfparent fubftance, at the furface of which one
part of the light is always refledted and another re¬
fracted. But he feems to confider refraction as fer-
ving only to condenft the light, and thereby enabling
it to make a ftronger impreffion upon the eye. This
writer alfo makes fome ingenious attempts to explain
refraction, or to afeertain the law of it. He alfo con¬
fide! s the foci of glafs fpheres, and the apparent fize
of objedts feen through them; though upon thefe fub-
jedts he is not at all exadt. It is fufficknt indeed to
fhow the ftate of knowledge, or rather of ignorance, at
that time, to obferve, that both Vitellio, and his mafter
Alhazen, endeavour to account for objedts appearing
larger when they are feen under water by the circular
figure of its furface ; lince, being fluid, it conforms to
^ the figure of the earth.
Of Ro^er Contemporary with Vitellio was Roger Bacon, a
Bacon.' man of very extenfive genius, and who wrote upon
ahnoft every branch of fcience ; yet in this branch he
does not feem to have made any confiderable advances
beyond what Alhazen had done before him. Even
fonie of the wildcft and molt abfurd of the opinions
of the ancients have had the fandtion of his autho¬
rity. He does not hefitate to affent to an opinion
adopted by many of the ancients, and indeed by moil
philofophers till his time, that vifual rays proceed
from the eye ; giving this reafen for it, that every
thing in nature is qualified to difeharge its proper
fundlions by its own powers, in the fame manner as
the fun and other celeflial bodies. In his Specula Ma~
thematica, he added foinc obfervations on the refrac¬
tion of the light of the ftars ; the apparent fize of
objedts; the extraordinary fize of the fun and moon
in the horzon : hut in all this he is not very exabt,
and advances but little. In his Opus Majus he demon-
11 rates, that if a tranfparent body interpofed between
the eye and an objed, he convex towards the eye, the
object v. ill appear magnified. This obfervation, how¬
ever, he certainly had from Alhazen ; the only diffe¬
rence between them is, that Bacon prefers the fmailer
figment of a fphere, and Alhazen the larger, in
which the latter certainly was right.
From this time, to that of the revival of learning in
Vou. XIII. Part I.
ICS. <233
Europe, we have no farther treatife on t/ie fubjcQ of 9
refraction, or indeed on any other part of optics. O neof,VIauro*
of the firft who diltinguiflied hirafdf in this way was lj'cus
Maurolycus, teacher of mathematics at Me (fin a. In a
treatife, De Lum'me et Umbra, publifted in
demonftrates that the cryftalline humour of the eye is
a lens that colledts the rays of light iffuing from the
objects, and throws them upon the retina where is the
focus of each pencil. From this principle he difeover-
ed the reafon why fome people were (hort-fighted and
others long-fighted ; and why the former are relieved
by concave, and the others by convex, giaffes.
About the fame time that Maurolycus made fuch Difcovenes
advances towards the difeovery of the nature of villon, of B. Poua*
Joannes Baptifta Porta of Naples difeovered the ca¬
mera obfeura, which throws dill more light on the fame
fubjeft. His houfe was ccnfhntly re farted to by all
the ingenious perfons at Naples, whom he formed into
what he called an academy ef fecrels; each member
being obliged to contribute fomething that was not
generally known, and might be ufeful. By this means
he was (urniihed with materials for his Magia Natu-
ra/is, which contains his account of the camera obfeura,
and the (irft edition of which was publiihed, as he in¬
forms us, when he was not quite 15 years old. He
alfo gave the firft hint of the magic lantern ; which
Kircher afterwards followed and improved. His ex¬
periments with the camera obfeura convinced him, that
vifion is performed by the intromiflion of fomething'
into the eye, and not by vifual rays proceeding from
the eye, as had been formerly imagined ; and he was
the firft who fully fatisfied him Elf and others upon
this fubjedl. Indeed the refetnbiance between experi¬
ments with the camera obfeura and the manner in which
vifion is performed in the eye, was too ftriking to
efcape the obfervat'on of a lels ingenious perfon. But
when he fays that the eye is a camera obfeura, and the
pupil the hole in the window-ftmtter, he was fo far
miftaken as to fuppofe that it was the cryftalline hu¬
mour that correfponds to the wall which receives the
images; nor was it difeovered till the year 1604,
that this office is performed by the retina. He makes
a variety of juft obfervations concerning vifion ; and
particularly explains feveral cafes in which we ima¬
gine things to be without the eye, when the appear- *
ances are occafioned by fome affeedion of the eye it-
fi-lf, or fome motion within the eye. He obferves
alfo, that, in certain circumftances, vilion will be af-
fifted by convex or concave giaffes ; and he feems alfo
to have made fome fmail advances towards the dif¬
eovery of telefcopes. He takes notice, that a round
and flat furface plunged into water, will appear hol¬
low as well as magnified to an eye perpendicularly over
it; and he very well explains by a figure the manner
in which it is done.
All this time, however, the great problem concern-The law of
ing the meafuring of refra&ions had remained un- refraeftien
fi-lved. Alhazen and Vitellio, indeed, had attempted Covered,
it ; but failed, by attempting to meafure the angle it-
fi-lf in Head of its fine. At laft it was difeovered by
Bncilius, profi(Tor of mathematics at Leyden. This
philofopher, however, did not perfe&ly under (land
his own difeovery, nor did he live to publifh any ac¬
count of it hinffelf. It was afterwards explained by
prole (Tor Horteniius both publicly and privately be-
G g fore
!
fore it appeared in the writings of Defcartes, who
publifhtd it under a different form, without making
any acknowledgment of his obligations to Snelhus,
whofe papers Huygens affures us, from his own know¬
ledge, Defcartes had feen. Before this time Kepler
had publifhed a New Table of refrafted Angles, de¬
termined by his own experiments for every degree ot
incidence. Kireher had done the fame, and attempted
a rational or phyfical theory of refraftion, on prin¬
ciple, and on a mode of inveltigation, which, it con¬
ducted with preciiion, would have led him to the L.v
affumed or difcovered by Snellius.
n ■ 12 Defcartes undertook to explain the caufe ot refrac-
SESUtion !)y the refolution of forces, on the principles of
andLeib- mechanics. In confequence of this, he was obliged
nPz on this tQ fUppofc that light paffes with more eafe through a
iubje<fl* denfe medium, than through a rare one. The truth
of this explanation was firft queftior.ed by M. Fermat,
counfellor to the parliament of Thouloufe, and au
able mathematician. He afferted, contrary to the
opinion of Defcartes, that light fuffers more refinance
in water than air, and more in glafs than in water ;
and he maintained, that the refiftance of different me¬
diums with refpeft to light is in proportion to their
denfities. M- Leibnitz adopted the fame general
idea ; and thefe gentlemen argued upon the fubjeCt in
the following manner.
Nature, fay they, accomplifhes her ends by the
fhorteft methods. Light therefore ought to pafs from
one point to another, either by the fhorteft road, or
that in which the leafl time is required. But it is
plain that the line in which light paffes, when it falls
obliquely upon a denfer medium, is not the mofl di¬
rect or the (horteit; fo that it muft be that in which
the leaft time is fpent. And whereas it is demon;i.rabie,
that light falling obliquely upon a denfer medium (in
order to take up the leaft time poffible in palling from
a point in one medium to a point in the other) mult
be refraCted in fuch a manner, that the fines of the
angles of incidence and refraCtion muft be to one ano¬
ther, as the different facilities with which light is
tranfmitted in thofe mediums ; it follows, that fince
light approaches the perpendicular when it paffes ob¬
liquely from air into water, fo that the fine of the
angle of refraaion is lefs than, that of the angle of in¬
cidence, the facility with which water fuffers light to
pafs through it is lefs than that of the air; fo that
light meets with more reliftance in water than air.
’D'fc-'-lnes Arguments of this kmd could not give fatisiafb.on;
concerning and a little time fhowed the fallacy of the hypothefis.
the refrac- At a meeting of the Royal Society, Aug. 31. 1664.
tion ol chi experiment for raeafunng the refraclion of common
fub made with a new inftrument which they
had prepared for that purpofe ; and, the angle of in¬
cidence being 40 degrees, that of refraftion was found
to be 30. About this time alfo we find the firft men¬
tion of mediums not refracting'*the light in an exact
proportion to their d.enfuies. For Mr Boyle, in a
letter to Mr Oldenburgh, dated Nov. 3. 1664, ob-
ftrves, that in fpirit-of-wine, the proportion of the fines
of the angles of incidence to the fines of the angles
of refraction was nearly the fame as 4 to 3; and
that, as fpirit-of-wiue occafions a greater refraction
than common water, fo oil of turpentine, which is
lighter than fpirit-of-wine, produces not only a greater
refraction than common water, but a. much greater
iunces.
ICS. Hi fiery,
than fait water. And at a mee‘ing held Nov. 9. the
fame year, Dr Hooke (who had been ordered to pro-
fecute the experiment) brought in an account of one
that he had made with pure and clear falad oil, which
was found to have produced a much greater 1 frac¬
tion than any hcpior which he l ad tnen tried , lire
angle of refraaion that anfwered t© an angle of inci¬
dence of 30q being found no leis than 40' 30', and
the angle of refraaion that anfwered to an angle of
incidence of 20* being 290 47'.—M. de la Hire alfo
made feveial experiments to afeertam the refradive
power of oil with refpea to that of water and air, and
found the fine of the angle of incidence to that of re¬
fraaion to b« as 60 to 42 ; which, he obferves, is a
little nearer to that of giufs than to that oi water,
though oil is much lighter than water, and glafs much
heavier. .
The members of the Royal Society finding that the
refraaion of fait water exceeded that of frefti, purfued
the experiment farther with folutions of vitriol, falt-
petre, and alum, in water ; when they found the re-
fraaion of the folution of vittiol and faltpetre a little
move, but that of alum a little lefs, than common
^Dr Hooke made an experiment before the Royal
Societv Ftb. 11. 1663, which clearly proves that ice
refraas the light leis than water; which he took to
be a good argument that the lightnefs of ice, which
caufes it to iwim in water, is not caufed only by the
fmall bubbles which are vifible in it, but that it arifes
from the uniform conftitution or general texture of
the whole mafs. M. de la Hire alfo took a good deal
of pains to determine whether, as was then the com¬
mon opinion, the refraaivc power of ice and water
were the fame ; and he found, as Dr Hooke had done
before, that ice refra&s lefs than water.
By a moft accurate and elaborate experiment made
in the year 1698, in which a ray of light was tranf¬
mitted through a Torricellian vacuum, Mr Lowthorp
found, that the refiadtive power of air is to that of
water’as 36 to 34,400. He concludes his account of
the experiment with obfervmg, that the lefracnse
power of bodies is not proportioned to the denfity, at
leaft not to the gravity, of the refrafting medium.
For the refraftive power of glafs to that of water is
as 55 to 34, whereas its gravity is as 87 to 34 ; that
is, the fquares of their refraftive powers are very nearly
as their refpe&ive gravities. And there are feme
fluids, which, though they are lighter than water, yet
have a greater power of refradlion. I hus the refiac¬
tive power of fpnit-of-wine, according to Dr hoo ce
experiment, is to that of water as 36 to 33, ^and ^ts
gravity reciprocally as 33 to 36, or Fut Te
refra&ive powers of air and water feem to ooierve the
fimple proportion of their gravities directly. Anc. if
this fhould be confirmed by fucceeding experiments,
it is probable, he fays, that the refraaive powers of
the atmofphere are everywhere, and at all heights
above the earth, proportioned to its denfity and ex-
panfion ; and then it would be no difficult matter to
trace the light through it, fo as to terminate the flu
dow of the earth ; and, together with proper expc*
dients for meafuring the quantity of light illuminating
an opaque body, to examine at what diilances thy
moon muft be from the eaith to fuffer eclipfes of the
obferved durations. ,
2 Cailiai
Hiftory. OPT
Caflini the younger happened to be prefent when
Mr Low thorp made the above-mentioned experiment
before the Royal Society; and upon his return home,
having made a report of it to the members of the
Royal Academy of Sciences, thofe gentlemen endea¬
voured to repeat the experiment in 1700; but they
did not fucceed.—For, as they faid, beams of light
paffed through the vacuum without fuffering any re-
fra£tion. The Royal Society being informed of this,
were defirous that it might be put pall difpute, by
repeated and well-attefted trials ; and ordered Mr
Haukfbce to make an initrument for the purpofe, by
the direction of Dr Halley. It confifted of a ftrong
brafs prifm, two fides of which had fockets to receive
two plane glaffes, whereby the air in the prifm might
either be exhaufted or condenfed. The prifm had alfo
a mercurial gage fixed to it, to difeover the denfity of
the contained air; and was contrived to turn upon its
axis, in order to make the refradtions equal on each
fide when it was fixed to the end of a telefcope. The
refra&ing angle was near 64°; and the length of the
telefcope was about 10 feet, having a fine hair in its
focus. The event of this accurate experiment was as
follows:
Having chofen a proper an^ very diftinft ere£f ob-
ieft, whofe dittance was 2588 feet, June 15. O. S.
1708, in the morning, the barometer being then at
29.74, and the thermometer at 60, they firit ex¬
haufted the prifm, and then applying it to the tele¬
fcope, the horizontal hair in the focus covered a mark
on the objedt diftindly feen through the vacuum, the
two glaffes being equally inclined to the vifual ray.
Then’admitting the air into the prifm, the objedt was
feen to rife above the hair gradually as the air entered,
and in the end the hair was obferved to hide a mark
104 inches below the former mark. This they often
repeated, and with the fame fuccefs.
After this they applied the condenfing engine to
the prifm ; and having forced in another atmofphere,
fo that the denfity of the included air was double to
that of the outward, they again placed it before
the telefcope, and, letting out the air, the objedt which
before feemed to rife, appeared gradually to defeend,
and the hair at length refted on an objedt higher than
before by the fame interval of to^ inches. This expe¬
riment they likewife frequently repeated without any
variation in the event.
They then forced in another atmofphere; and upon
difeharging the condenfed air, the objedt was feen near
21 inches lowTer than before.
Now the radius in this cafe being 2588 feet, ioJ:
inches will fubtend an angle of one minute and 8 fe-
conds, and the angle pf incidence of the vifual ray
being 32 degrees (becaufe the angle of the glafs planes
was 64), it follows from the known laws of refradtion,
that as the fine of 390 is to that of 31°, 59', 26''
differing from 320 by 34" the half of 1', 8" ; fo is the
fine of any other incidence, to the fine of its angle of
refradtion ; and fo is radius, or 1000000, to 999736;
which, therefore, is the proportion between the fine
of incidence in vacuo and the fine of refradtion from
14 thence into common air.
Refradtive It appears, by thefe experiments, that the refrac-
power of tjve pOWCr of the air is proportionable to its dpnfity.
teruiined." And fince the denfity of the atmofphere is as its
ICS.
weight diredtly, and its heat inverfely, the ratio of its
denfity, at any given time, may be had by comparing
the heights of the barometer and thermometer; and
thence he concludes that this will alfo be the ratio
of the refradtion of the air. But Dr Smith obferves,
that, before vve can depend upon the accuracy of this
conclufion, we ought to examine whether heat and
cold alone may not alter the refradtive power of air,
while its denfity continues the fame. This, he fays,
may be tried, by heating the condenfed or rarefied air,
fhut up in the prifm, juft before it is fixed to the tele¬
fcope, and by obferving whether the hair in its focus
will continue to cover the fame mark all the while that
the air is cooling.
The French academicians, being informed of the
refult of the above-mentioned experiment, employed
M. Delifie the younger to repeat their former ex¬
periment with more care; and he prefently found, that
their operators had never made any vacuum at all,
there being chinks in their inftrument, through which
the air had infinuated itfelf. He therefore annexed a
gage to his infirument, by which means he was fure
of his vacuum ; and then the refult of the experiment
was the fame with that in England. The refradtion
was always in proportion to the denfity of the air,
excepting when the mercury was very low, and con-
fequently the air very rare ; in which cafe the whole
quantity being very fmall, he could not perceive much
difference in them. Comparing, however, the re¬
fradtive power of the atmofphere, obferved at Paris,
with tlie refult of his experiment, he found, that the
belt vacuum he could make was far fhort of that of the
etherial regions above the atmofphere.
Dr Hooke firft fuggefted the thought of making
allowance for the effedt of the refradtion of light, in
palling from the higher and rarer, to the lower and
denfer regions of the atmofphere, in the computed
height of mountains. To this he aferibes the differ¬
ent opinions of authors concerning the height of fevc-
ral very high hills. He could not account for the
appearance of the Peak of Teneriff, and feveral very
high mountains, at fo great a dittance as that at
which they are adtually feen, but upon the fuppofition
of the curvature of the vifual ray, that is made by its
palling obliquely through a medium of fuch different
denfity, from the top of them to the eye, very far
diftant in the horizon. All calculations of the height
of mountains that are made upon the fuppofition that
the rays of light come from the tops of them, to our
eyes, in ftraight lines, mult, he fays, be very erro¬
neous.
Dr Hooke gives a very good account of the twink¬
ling of the ftars ; aferibing it to the irregular and un¬
equal refradtion of the rays of light, which is alfo the
reafon why the limbs of the fun, moon, and planets
appear to wave or dance. And that there is fuch an
unequal diftribution of the parts of the atmofphere,
he fays, is manifeft from the different degrees of heat
and cold in the air. This, he fays, will be evident by
looking upon diftant objedts, over a piece of hot glafs,
which cannot be fuppoftd to throw out any kind of
exhalation from itlelf, as well as through afeending
Iteams of water. ; ,
About this time Grimaldi firft obferved that the
coloured image of the lun refradted through a prifm is
, G g 2 always
236 OPT
*5 always oblong, and that colours proceed from refrac-
Celours tl-on>—Way in which he firit difcovered this was by
toanferCd Vitellio’s experiment above mentioned, in which a
fromrcfrac-piece of white paper placed at the bottom of a glais
tion. veffel filled with water, and expofed to the light of
the fun, appears coloured. However, he obferved,
that in cafe the two furfaees of the refradling medium
were exactly parallel to each other, no colours were
produced. But of the true caufe of thofe colours,
viz. the different refrangibility of the rays of light,
16 he had not the lead fnfpicion. This difeovery was
Different referved for Sir Ifaac Newton, and which occurred
Iky of’the to t^'‘e 7ear ^ t‘rat: was
rays of bufied in grinding optic glaffes, and procured a
light difeo-triangular glafs prifm to fatisfy himfclf concerning
sfrllac the Phenorr,ena of colours. «Whilc he amufed him-
Nevvtcm. ftif with this, the oblong figure of the coloured
fpedtrum firii ftruek him. He was furprifed at the
great dilproportion betwixt its length and breadth ;
the former being about five times the meafure*»of
the latter. He could hardly think that any dif¬
ference in the thicknefs of the glafs, or in the com-
pofition of it, could have fuch an influence on the light.
However, without concluding any thing a priori, he
proceeded to examine the effedfs of thefe circumftances,
and particulaily tried what would be the confequence
cf tranfruitting the light through parts of the glafs
that were of different thickneffes, or through holes in
the windew-fhutter of different fizes ; or by fetting
the prifm on the outfide of the fhutter, that the light
might pafs through it, and be refradted before it was
terminated by the hole.
He then fufpedfed that thefe colours might arife
from the light being dilated by fome unevennefs in the
glafs, or fome other accidental irregularity ; and to
try this, he took another prifm, like the former, and
placed it in fuch a manner, as that the light, paffing
through them both, might be refradfed contrary wife,
and fo be returned by the latter into the fame courfc
from which it had been diverted by the former. In
this manner he thought that the regular effedfs of
the firlt prifin would be deftroyed by the fecond ; but
that the irregular ones would be augmented by the
multiplicity of refradtions. The event was, that the
light, which by the firii prifin was diffufed into an
cblong form, was by the fecond reduced into a cir¬
cular one, with as much regularity as if it had not
pafl'ed through either of them.
At latl, after various experiments and conjedlures,
he hit upon what he calls the experimentum cruets,
and which completed this great difeovery. He took
two boards, and placed one of them clofe behind the
prifm at the windows, fo that the light might pafs
through a frmll hole made in it for the purpofe, and
fail on the other board, which he placed at the di-
flance of about 12 feet; having firii made a fmall
hole in it alfo, for fome of that incident light to pafs
through. He then placed another prifm behind the
fecond board, fo that the light which was tranfmitted
through both the boards might pafs through that alfo,
and be again refra&ed before it arrived at the wall.
This being done, he took the firii prifm in his hand,
and turned it about its axis, fo much as to make the
feverai parts of the image, caft on the fecond board,
fuccdfively to pafs through the hole ia it, that he
I C S. Hiftory.
might obferve to what places on the wall the feconj
prifm would refra£l them ; and he faw, by the change
of thofe places, that the light tending to that end of
the image towards which the refraction of the firii prifm
was made, did, in the fecond prifin, fuffer a refrac¬
tion confiderably greater than the light which tended
to the other end. The true caufe, therefore, of the
length of the image was difcovered to be no other,
than that light is not fimilar, or homogeneal; hut that
it conlrfia of rays, fome of which are more refrangible
than others : fo that, without any difference in their
incidence on the fame medium, fome of them (hall be
more refraded than others; and therefore, that, ac¬
cording to their particular degrees of refrangi! ility*
they will be tranfmitted through the prifm to different
parts of the oppofite wall.
Since it appears from thefe experiments that diffe¬
rent rays of light have different degrees of refrangibi-
lity, it necefi'arily follows, that the rules laid down
by preceding philofophers concerning the refradlivc
power of water, glafs, See. mull be limited to the
middle kind of rays. Sir Ifaac, however, proves that
the fine of the incidence of every kind of light, conft-
dered apart, is to its fine of refraction in a given ra¬
tio. This he deduces, both by experiment, and alfo
geometrically, from the fuppofition that bodies refract
the light by afting upon its rays in lines perpendicular
to their furfaces. ^
The mod important difeovery with regard to tefrac-Mr ^0j.
tion fince the time of Sir Ifaac Newton is that of Mrlond’sdif-
Dollond, who found out a method of curing the c^very of _
faults of refra&ing telefcopes arifing from the different
refrangibility of the rays, and which had been gene-ing rhe
rally thought impoflible to be removed.—Nothwith-fouits in re-
llanding the great difeovery of Sir llaac Newton con• te‘
cerningthe different refrangibility of the rays of light, e
he had no idea but that they were all afttCled in the
fame proportion by' every medium, fo that the refran¬
gibility of the extreme rays might be determined if
that of the mean ones was given. From this it would
follow, as Mr Dolland obferves, that equal and con¬
trary refra&ions mull not only deftroy each other, but
that the divergency of the colours from one refradlion
would likevvife be corredled by the other, and that
there could be no poffibility of producing any fuch
thing as refraftion which would not be affedled by the
different refrangibility of light ; or, in other words,
that however a ray of light might be refraded back¬
wards and forwards by different mediums, as water,
glafs, &c. provided it was fo done, that the emergent
ray fhould be parallel to the incident one, it would
ever after be white ; and confequently, if it ffiould
come out inclined to the incident, it would diverge,
and ever after be coloured ; and from this it was na¬
tural to infer, that all fpherical objedl-glaffes of te¬
lefcopes mull be equally affedlcd by the different re¬
frangibility of light, in proportion to their apertures,
of whatever materials they may be formed.
For this reafon, Sir Ifaac Newton, and all other
philofophers and opticians, had defpaired of bringing
refradling telefcopes to any great degree of perfec¬
tion, without making them of an immoderate and very
inconvenient length. They therefore applied them-
felves chiefly to the improvement of the refle&ing te-
lefcope; and the bufinefs of refraction was dropped till
1 aboul
Hiftory. OPT
about the year 1747, M. Euler, improving up¬
on a hint of Sir Ifaac Newton's, formed a fcheme of
making objefl-glaftes of two materials, of different re-
fra&ive powers : hoping, that by this difference, the
refraftions would balance one another, and thereby
prevent the difperfion of the rays that is occafioned by
the difference of refrangibility. Thefe cbjedf glafles
were compofed of two lenfes of glafs with water be¬
tween them. This memoir of M. Euler excited the
attention of Mr Dollond. He carefully went overall
M. Euler’s calculations, fubftituting for his hypothe¬
tical laws of refradfion thofe which had been actually
afeertained by the experiments of Newton; and found,
that, after this neceffary fubflitution, it followed from
M. Euler’s own principles, that there could be no
union of the foci of all kinds of colours, but in a lens
infinitely large.
M. Euler did not mean to controvert the experi¬
ments of Newton: but he faid, that they were not con¬
trary to his hypothefis, but in fo fmall a degree as
might be neglefted ; and afferted, that, if they were
admitted in all their extent, it would be impoffible to
corredt the difference of refrangibility occafioned by
the tranfmiffion of the rays from one medium into
another of different denfity ; a corredfion which he
thought was very pcfiible, fince he fuppofed it to be
adfually effedted in the ftrudture of the eye, which in
his opinion was made to confift of different mediums
for that very purpofe. To this kind of reafoning Mr
Hollond made n« reply, but by appealing to the ex¬
periments of Newton, and the great cireumfpedfion
with which it was known that he condudted all his
inquiries.
In this ftate of the controverfy, the friends of M.
Clairaut engaged him to attend to it; and it appear¬
ed to him, that, fince the experiments of NeuUon
cited by Mr Dollond could not be queftioned, the
fpeculations of M. Euler were more ingenious than
ufeful.
The fame paper of M. Euler was alfo particularly
noticed by M. Klingenftierna of Sweden, who gave a
confiderable degree ©f attention to the fubjedf, and
difeovered, that, from Newton’s own principles, the
refult of the 8th experiment of the fecond book of In's
Optics could not anfwer his defeription of it.
He found, he fays, that when light goes out of air
through feveral contiguous refracting mediums, as
through water and glafs, and thence goes out again
into air, whether the refracting furfaces be parallel or
inclined to one another, that light, as often as by con¬
trary refraCtions it is fo corrected as to emerge in lines
parallel to thofe in which it was incident, continues
ever after to he white; but if the emergent rays he in¬
clined to the incident, the whitenefs of the emerging
light will, by degrees, in palling ©n from the place of
emergence, become tinged at its edges with colours.
This he tried by refraCting light with prifms of glafs,
placed within a prifmatic veffel of water.
By theorems deduced from this experiment he in¬
fers, that the refraftions of the rays of every fort, made
out of any medium into air, are known by having the
refraClion of the rays of any one fort; and alfo that
the refraCb’on out of one medium into another is found
as often as we have the refraCtions out of them both
into any third medium.
I c s.
On the contrary, the S wedilh philofopher obferves,
that, in this experiment, the rays of light, after paf-
fing through the water and the glafs, though they
come out parallel to the incident rays, will be co¬
loured ; but that the fmalier the glafs priftn is; the
nearer will the refult of it approach to Newton’s deferip¬
tion.
This paper of M. Klingenflierna being communi¬
cated to Mr Dollond by M. Mallet, made him enter¬
tain doubts concerning Newton’s report, and deter¬
mined him to have recotirfe to experiment.
He therefore cemented together two plates of pa¬
rallel glafs at their edges, fo as to form a prifmatic
veflel, when Hopped at the ends or bafes ; and the
edge being turned downwards, he placed in it a glafs
prifm, with one of its ecfges upwards, and filled up the
vacancy with clear water; fo that the refraClion of the
prilm was contrived to be contrary to that of the wa¬
ter, in order that a ray of light, tranfmitted through
both thefe refradfing mediums, might be affected by
the difference only between the two refractions. As he
found the water to refradt more or lefs than the glafs
piifm, he diminifhed or increafed the angle between
the glafs plates, till he found the two contrary refrac¬
tions to be equal ; which he difeovered by viewing an
objedt thro’ this double prifm. For when it appeared
neither raifed nor depreffed, he was fatisfied that the
refradtions were equal, and that the emergent rays
were parallel tc the incident.
Now, according to the prevailing opinion, he ob¬
ferves, the objedl ihould have appeared through this
double prifm in its natural colour ; for if the differ¬
ence of refrangibility had been in all refpedts equal in
the two equal rtfradfions, they would have redlified
each other. But this experiment fully proved the fal¬
lacy of the received opinion, by fhowing the diver¬
gency of the light by the glafs prifm to be almoil
double of that by the water ; for the image of the ob-
jedt, though not at all refradled, was yet as much in-
fedted with prifmatic colours, as if it had been feen
through a glals wedge only, whofe refradting angle
was near 30 degrees.
i his experiment is the very fame with that of Sir
Ifaac Newton’s above-mentioned, notwithflanding the
refult was fo remarkably different; but Mr Dollond
affures us, that he irfed all poffible precaution and
care in his procefs; and he kept his apparatus by
him, that he might evince the truth of what he
wrote, whenever he fhould be properly required to
do it.
He plainly faw, however, that if the refradting
angle of the water veffel could have admitted of a fuf-
ficient increafe, the divergency of the coloured rays
would have been greatly diminilhed, or entirely redli-
fied ; and that there would have been a very great re-
fradlion without colour, as he had already produced a
great difcolouring without refradtion : but the incon-
veniency of fo large an angle as that of the prifmatic
veflel muff have been, to bring the light to an equal
divergency with that of the glafs prifm whofe angle
was about 60 degrees, made it neceffary to try fome
experiments of the fame kind with fmaller angles.
Accordingly, he got a wedge of plate glafs, the
angle of whiclvwas only nine degrees ; and uling it in
the fame circumftancee, he increafed the angle of the
water
237
238 OP T
water wedge, in which it was placed, till the diver¬
gency of the light by the water was equal to that by
the glafs ; that is, till the image of the objedf, though
confiderably refracted by the excefs of the refraction
of the water, appeared neverthelefs quite free from any
colours proceeding from the different refrangibility of
the light; and, as near as he could then iheafure, the
refraction by the water was about -J- of that by the
glafs. He acknowledges, indeed, that he was not
very exaCt in taking the meafures, becaufe his bufi*
> nefs was not at that time to determine the exaft pro¬
portions, fo much as to fhow that the divergency of
the colours, by different fubflances, was by no means
in proportion to the refradfions, and that there was a
poffibility of refraftion without any divergency of the
light at all. \
As thefe experiments clearly proved, that different
fubftances made the light to diverge very differently
in proportion to their general refra&ive power, Mr
Hollond began to fufpeCl that fuch variety might pof-
fibly be found in different kinds of glafs, efpecially as
experience had already fhown that fome of the kinds
made much better objeCl-glaffes in the ufual way
than others ; and as no fatisfaftory caufe had been
affigned for fuch difference, he thought there was
great reafon to prefume that it might be owing to
the different divergency of the light in the fame refrac¬
tions.
His next bufmefs, therefore, was to grind v/edges
of different kinds of glafs, and apply them together ;
fo that the refradfions might be made in contrary di¬
rections, in order to difeover, as in the above-mention¬
ed experiments, whether the refraCtion and the diver
gency of the colours would vanith together. But a
confiderable time elapfed before he could fet about
, that work : for though he was determined to try it at
his leifure, for fatisfying his own curiofity, he did
uot expeCt to meet with a difference fufficient to give
room for any great improvement of telefcopes, fo
that it was not till the latter end of the year 1757
that he undertook it; but his firfl trials convinced him
that the bufmefs deferved his utmoft attention and ap¬
plication.
He difeovered a difference far beyond his hopes in
the refraftive qualities of different kinds of glafs, with
refpeCt to the divergency of colours. The yellow or
ftrawr-coloured foreign fort, commonly called Venice
glafs ; and the Englifh crown glafs, proved to be very
nearly alike in that refpeCt ; though, in general, the
crown glafs feemed to make the light diverge the lefs
of the two. The common Engliih plate-glafs made
the light diverge more ; and the white cryflal, or Eng¬
lifh flint glafs, moft of all.
It was now “his bufinefs to examine the particular
qualities of every kind of glafs that he could come at,
not to amufe himfelf with conjeCtures about the caufe
of this difference, but to fix upon two forts in which
it fhould be the greateft ; and he foon found thefe to
be the crown glafs and the white flint glais. He
therefore ground one wedge of white flint, of about
25 degrees ; and another of crown glafs, of about 29
degrees : which refraded very nearly alike, but their
power of making the colours diverge was very diffe¬
rent. He then ground feveral others of crown glafs
to different angles, till he got one which was equal,
ICS. Hiftory,’
with refpeft to the divergency of the light, to that in
the white flint-glafs: for when they were put toge¬
ther, fo as to rcfraCh in contrary diredfions, the re-
fraCted light was entirely free from colours. Then
meafuring the refradfion of each wedge with thefe dif¬
ferent angles, he found that of the white glafs to be to
that of the crown glafs nearly as two to three : and
this proportion held very nearly in all fmall angles ; fo
that any two wedges made in this proportion, and ap*
plied together, fo as to refradl in a contrary direc¬
tion, would refradt the light without any difperflon of
the rays.
In a letter to M. Klingenflierna, quoted by M.
Clairaut, Mr Dollond fays, that the fine of incidence
in crown glafs is to that of its general refradlion as I
to 1.53, and in flint glafs as 1 to 1.583.
To apply this knowledge to pradfice, Mr Dollond
went to work upon the objedf-glaffes of telefcopes ; not
doubting but that, upon the fame principles on which
a refradled colourlefs ray was produced by prifms, it
might be done by lenfes alfo, made of fimilar mate¬
rials. And he fucceeded, by coniidering, that, in or¬
der to make two fpherical glaffes that fliauld refradf
the light in contrary diredtions, the one mull be con¬
cave and the other convex ; and as the rays are to con¬
verge to a real focus, the excefs of refradfion muff
evidently be in the convex lens. Alfo, as the convex
glafs is to refradt the moft, it appeared from his expe¬
riments, that it muft be made of crown glafs, and the
concave of white flint glafs. Farther, as the refrac¬
tions of fpherical glafles are in an inverfe ratio of their
focal diftances, it follows, that the focal diftances of
the two glafles fhall be inverfely as the ratios of the
refradtions of the wedges ; for being thus proportion¬
ed, every ray of light that pafles through this combined
glafs, at whatever diftance it may pafs from its axis,
will conftantly be refradfed, by the difference between
two contrary refradtious, in the proportion required ;
and therefore the different refrangibility of the light
will be entirely removed.
Notwith(landing our author had thefe clear grounds
in theory and experiment to go upon, he found that
he had many difficulties to ftruggle with when he
came to reduce them into adtual pradlice ; but with
great patience and addrefs, he at length got into a
ready method of making telefcopes upon thefe new
principles.
His principal difficulties arofe from the following
circumftanccs. In the firft place, the focal diftances, as
well as the particular furfaces, muff be very nicely pro¬
portioned to the denfities or refradling powers of the
glaffes, which are very apt to vary in the fame fort of
glafs made at different times/ Secondly, The centres
of the two glaffes muft be placed truly in the common
axis of the telefcope, otherwife the defired effeit will
be in a great meafure deftroyed. Add to thefe, that
there are four furfaces to be wrought perfeflly fpheri¬
cal ; and any perfon, he fays, but moderately prac-
tifed in optical operations, will allow, that there muft
be the greateft accuracy throughout the whole work.
At length, however, after numerous trials, and a- re-
folute perfeverance, he was able to conftruit refradling
tclefcopes, with fuch apertures and magnifying pow¬
ers, under limited lengths, as, in the opinion of the
bell judges, far excetxled any thing that had been pro¬
duced
Hiftoiy* o p T
duced before, repre fen ting objefia ■with great diftinc'
nef?, and in their true colours.
It was objected to Mr Doilond’s difcover)', that the
fmall dvfperfion of the rays in crown glafs is only ap¬
parent, owing to the opacity of that kind of glafs
which does not tranfmit the fainter coloured rays in a
fufficient quantity ; but Hu's obie&ion is particularly
coniidered, and anfwered by M. Beguelin.
As Mr Dollond did not explain the method, wh’ h
he took in the choice of different fpheres proper to
deftroy the efftft of the different refrangibihty of the
rays of light, and gave no hint that he himtelf had
any rule 10 direft himfelf in it; and as the calculation
of the difperfion of the rays, in fo complicated an af¬
fair, is very delicate; M. Clniraut, who had given a
good deal of attention to this fubjedt, from the begin,
ning of the controverfy, endeavoured to make out a
complete theory of it.
Without fume afiillance of this kind, it is impoi-
fible, fays this author, to conllruft telefcopes of equal
goodnefs with thofe of Mr Dollond, except by a fer-
vile imitation of his ; which, however, on many ac¬
counts, would be very unlikely to anfwer. Befides, Mr
Dollond only gave his proportions in general, and
pretty near the truth ; whereas the greateft poffible
preciiion is neceffary. Alfo the belt of Mr Dolland’s te¬
lefcopes were far fhort of the Newtonian ones (a) ;
whereas it might be expefted that they fhm Id exceed
them, if the foci of all the coloured rays could be as
perfectly united after refraction through glaft, as after
reflexion from a mirror; fince there is more light loft,
in the latter cafe than in the former.
With a view, therefore, to affift the artift, he en¬
deavoured to afeertain the refvaCtive power of different
kinds of glals, and aiio their property of feparating
the rays of light, by the foilowung exait methods. He
made ufe of twm prifms placed clofe to one another, as
Mr Dollond had done: hut, inftead of looking through
them, he placed them in a darkened room ; and when
the image of the fun, tranfmitted through them, was
perfe&ly white, he concluded that the different re-
frangibility of the ra^s was correfted.
In order to afeertam with more eafe the true angles
that prifms ought to have to deftroy the effetff of the
difference of refrangibility, he conftrmfted one which
had one of its furfaccs cylindrical, with feveral degrees
of amplitude. By this means, without changing his
prifms, he had the choice of an infinity of angles ;
among which, by examining the point of the curve
furface, which, receiving the folar ray, gave a white
image, he could eafily find the true one.
He alfo afeertained the proportion in which diffe¬
rent kinds of glafs feparated the rays of light, by mea-
furing, with proper precautions, the oblong image of
the fun, made by tranfmitting a beam of light through
them. In making thefe experiments, he hit upon an
eafy method of convincing any perfon of the greater
refraftive power of Englifh flint-glafs above the com¬
mon French glnfs, both with refpeft to the mean re-
fradion, and the different refrangibility of the co.-
(a) This affertion of M. Clairaiit might .be true at
prefeot.
I C S* 239
lours; for having taken two prifms, of thefe two
kinds of glafs, but equal in all other refpedls, and
placed them fo that they received, at the fame time,
two rays of the fun, with the fame degree of incidence,
he faw, that, of the two images, that which was pro¬
duced by the Englifh^flint-glafs was a little higher up
on the wall than the other, and longer by more than
one half.
M. Clahaut was aflifted in thefe experiments by M.
De Tournieres, and the refults agreed with Mr Doi¬
lond’s in general; but whereas Mr Dolland had made
the diiperfion of the mys in giafs and in water to be
as five to four (acknowledging, however, that he did
not pretend to do it with exa&nefs), thefe gentlemen,
who took more pains, and ufed more precautions, found
it to be as three to two. For the theorems and prob¬
lems deduced by M. Clairaut from thefe new principles
of optics, with a view to che perfection of telefcopes,
we muft‘refer the reader to Mem. 4cad. Par. 1756-,
1757*
The labours of M. Clairaut were fucceeded by thofe
of M. D’Alembert, which feem to have given the ma¬
kers of thefe achromatic telefcopes all the aid that cal¬
culations can atFord them. This excellent mathemati¬
cian has Hkewife propofed a variety of new conftruc-
tions of thefe telefcopes, the advantages and difadvan-
tages of which he diftinftly notes ; at the fame time
that he points out feveral methods of correcting the
errors to which they are liable : as by placing the ob-
eCl-glaffes, in fome cafes, at a fmail diflance from one
another, and fometirnes by uling eye-glaffes of diffe¬
rent refiaCtive powers; which is an expedient that
feems not to have occurred to any perfon before him.
He even fhows, that telefcopes may be made to ad¬
vantage, confifting of only one oljcCt-glafs, and an
eye glafs of a different refraCtive power. Some of his
conftruCtions have two or more eye-glaffes of different
kinds of glafs. This fubjeCt he coniidered at large in
one of the volumes of his Opufcules Mathemaiiques.
We have alfo three me-moirs of M. D’Alembert up¬
on this fubjeCt, among thofe of the French Acade¬
my ; one in the year 1764, another in 176 c, and a
third in 1 767.
At the conclufion of his fecond memoir he fays,
that he does not doubt, but, by the different methods
he prepofes, achromatic telefcopes may be made to
far greater degrees of perf'eCHon than any that have
been feen hitherto, and even fuch as is hardly cre¬
dible : And though the crown glafs, by its greenifh
colour, may abforb fornepart of the red or violet rays,
which, however, is not found to be the cafe in fad ;
that obje&ion cannot be made to the common French
glafs, which is white, and which on this account
he thinks muft be preferable to the Englilh crewn
glafs.
Notwitbftanding Meffrs Clairaut and D’Alembert
feemed to have exhauited the bufinefs of calculation on
the fubjeCt of Mr Doilond’s telefcopes, no ufe could
be made of their labours by foreign artifts. For ftili
the telefcopes made in England, according to no exaCt.
rule, ,
time that it was made, but it is by no means fo afe C
240
OPT
rule, as frtretVners fuppofed, were greatly fuperior to
any that could l<e made elfewhere, though under the
immediate direction of thofe able calculators. For
this M. Beguelin affigned feveral reafons. Among
others, he thought that their geometrical theorems
were too general, and their calculations too complica¬
ted, for the ufe of workmen. Fie alfo thought, that
in confequence of neglefling fmall quantities, which
thefe calculators profeffedly did, in order to make their
algebraical expreffions more commodious, their con-
clufions were not fufficiently exadL But what he
thought to be of the moft confequence, was the want
of an exatt method of meafuiing the refra&ive and
difperfing powers of the different kinds of glafs ; and
for want of this, the greateft precifion in calculation
was altogether ufelefs.
Thefe confiderations induced this gentleman to take
another view of this fubjedl; but A ill he could not re¬
concile the a&ual effeft of Mr Dollond’s telefcopes
with his own concluiions : fo that he imagined, either
that he had not the true refraClion and difperfion of the
two kinds of glafs given him ; or elfe, that the abber-
ration which dill remained after his calculations, muff
have been deftroyed by feme irregularity in the fur-
faces of the lenfes. He finds feveral errors in the cal¬
culations both of M. D’Alembert and Clairaut, and
concludes with expreffing his defign to purfue this fufc-
je£t much farther.
M. Euler, who fir ft gave occafion to this inquiry,
which terminated fo happily for the advancement of
fcience, being perfuaded both by his reafoning and
calculations, that Mr Dollond had difeovered no new
principle in optics, and yet not being able to contro¬
vert Mr Short’s teftiniony in favour of the goodnefs of
his telefcopes, concluded that this extraordinary effeCt
was owing, in part, to the crown glafs not tranfmit-
ting all the red light, which would otherwife have
come to a different focus, and have diftorted the image;
but principally to his happening to hit on a juft cur¬
vature of his glafs, which he did not doubt would have
produced the fame effeft if his lenfes had all been made
of the fame kind of glafs. In another place he ima¬
gines that the goodnefs of Mr Dollond’s telefcope
might be owing to the eye-glafs. If my theory, fays
he, be true, this difagreeable confequence follows, that
Mr Dollond’s objedt-glafles cannot be exempt from the
difperfion of colours : yet a regard to fo refpettable a
teftimony emlarraffes me extremely, it being as diffi¬
cult to queftion fuch exprefs authority, as to abandon a
theory which appears to me perfe&ly well founded, and
to embrace an opinion, which is as contrary to all the
efiabiilhed laws of nature as it is ftrange and feeming-
ly abfurd. He even appeals to experiments made in a
darkened room ; in which, he fays, he is confident that
Mr Dollond’s objeift-glaffts would appear to have the
fame defeats that others are fubjett to.
Not doubting,however,but that Mr Dollond, either
by chance, or otherwife, had made fome confiderable
improvement in the conflruClion of telefcopes, by the
combination of glafles, he abandoned his former pro¬
ject, in which he had recourfe to different mediums,
and confined his attention to the corre£Hon of the er¬
rors which arife from the curvature of lenfes. But
while he was proceeding, as he imagined, upon the
NG 246.
I C S. Hijftory,
true principles of optics, of which, however, he made
but little ufe, he could not help expreffing his furprife
that Mr Dollond fliould have been led to fo important
a difeovery by reafoning in a manner quite contrary
to the nature of things. At length, however, M.
Euler was convinced of the reality and importance of
Mr Dollond’s difeoveries; and very frankly acknow¬
ledges, that he fhould perhaps never have been brought
to affent to it, had not his friend M. Clairaut affu-
red him that the experiments of the Engliffi optician
might be depended upon. However, the experiments
of M. Zeiher of Peterfburgh gave him the moft com¬
plete fatisfaiftion with refpedt to this new law of re-
fraftion.
This gentleman demonftrated, that it is the lead in
the compofition of glafs that gives it this remarkable
property, that while the rcfradlion of the mean rays is
nearly the fame, that of the extremes differs confi-
derably. And, by increaling the quantity of lead in
the mixture, he produced a kind of glafs, which occa-
fioned a much greater fepaiation of the extreme rays
than the fiint-glafs which Mr Dolland had made ufe
of. By this evidence M. Eukr owns that he was com¬
pelled to renounce the principle v/hich, before this
time, had been confidered as inconteftible, viz. that
the difperfion of the extreme rays depends upon the
refraftion of the mean : and that the former varies
with the quality of the glafs, while the latter is not
affeAed by it.
From thefe new principles M. Euler deduces theo¬
rems concerning the combination of the lenfes', and,
in a manner fimilar to M. Clairaut and D’Alembert,
points out methods of conftru&ing archromaric tele-
fcopes. . . 18
While he was employed upon this fubjeft, he informs D;ffereri£
us, that he received a letter from M. Zeiher, dated compofi-
Peterfburgh 30th of January 1764, in which he gives tion? of
him a particular account of the fuccefs of his experi-S^hy dj*
ments on the compofition of glafs ; and that, having c0r^C,ng
mixed minium and fand in different proportions, the the faults
refult of the mean refraction and the dtlperfion of the of refraift-
rays varied according to the following table.
xt r ri- Difperfion of
Mean retraction . r
r . . the rays in
irom air into /r
, r • companion dr
glais. r , r
b crown-glats.
ing tele¬
fcopes.
Proportion of
minium to
flint.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
2028
1830
1787
1732
1724
r 664
ICOO
1000
1000
1000
IOCO
J 000
4800
355°
3259
2207
1800
-354
1000
1080
1000
xooo.
1000
1000
By this table it is evident, that a greater quantity
of lead not only occafions a greater difperfion of the
rays, but alfo confiderably increafes the mean refrac¬
tion. The firft of thefe kinds of glafs, which contains
three times as much minium as flint, will appear very
extraordinary; fince, hitherto, no tranfparent fubftance
has been known, whofe refra&ive power exceeded the
ratio of two to one, and that the difperlFn occafioned
by this glafs is almoft five times as great as that of
crown clafs, which could not be believed by thofe who
enter-
IJiftoryo O P T
entertained any doubt concerning tbe fame property in
flint glaf«, the effedt of which is three times as great
as crown glafs. One may obferve, however, in thefe
kinds of glafs, fomething of a proportion between the
mean refraftion and the difperlion of rays, which may
enable us to reconcile thefe furprifing effe&s with other
principles already known.
Here, however, M. Euler announces to us another
difcovery of the fame M. Zeiher, no lefs furpriling
than the former, and which difconcerted all his fchemes
for reconciling the above-mentioned phenomena. As
the fix kinds of glafs mentioned in the above table
were compofed of nothing but minium and flint, M.
Zeiher happened to think of mixing alkaline falts with
them, in order to give the glafs a confiftence more
proper for dioptric ufes ; when he was much furprifed
to find this mixture greatly diminilhed the mean re¬
fraction, almoft without making any change in the dif-
perfxon. After many trials, he at length obtained a
kind of glafs greatly fuperior to the flint-glafs of Mr
Dollond, with refpeft to the conftrudtion of tele-
fcopes; fince it occafioned three times as great a di-
fperfion of the rays as the common glafs, at the fame
time that the mean refraftion was only as 1.61 to i.
M. Euler alfo gives particular inftrudtions how to
find both the mean and extreme refradtive power of
different kinds of glafs ; and particularly advifes to
make ufe of prifms with very large refradfing angles,
not lefs than 70°.
Notwithftanding it evidently appeared, we may fay,
to almoft all philofophcrs, that Mr Dollond had made
a real difcovery of fomething not comprehended in the
optical principles of Sir Ifaac Newton, it did not ap¬
pear fo to Mr Murdoch. Upon this occafion, he inter-
pofed in the defence,as he imagined, of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton; maintaining, that Mr Dollond’s pofitions, which,
he fays, he knows not by what mifliap have been deem¬
ed paradoxes in Sir Ifaac’s theory of light, are really
the necellary confequences of it. He alfo endeavours
to (how that Sir Ifaac might not be miftaken in his
account of the experiment above-mentioned. But, ad¬
mitting all that he advances in this part of his defence,
Newton muft have made ufe of a prifm with a much
fmaller refradting angle than, from his own account
of his experiments, we have any reafon to believe that
he ever did make ufe of.
The fad! probably was, that Sir Ifaac deceived him-
felf in this cafe, by attending to what he imagined to
be the clear confequcnce of his other experiments; and
though the light he faw was cert only tinged with co¬
lours, and he muft have feen it to be fo, yet he might
imagine that this circumftance arofe from fome imptr-
fedtion in his> prifms, or in the difpofition of them,
which he did not think it worth his while to exa-mine.
It is alfo obfervable, that Sir Ifaac is not fo particular
in his defeription of his prifms., and other parts of his
apparatus, in his account of this experiment, as he
geneially is in other cafes; and therefore, probably,
wrote his account of it from his memory only In
reality, it is no refledtion upon Sir Ifaac Newton, who
did fo much, to fay that he was miftaken in this par¬
ticular cafe, and that he did not make the difcovery
that Mr Dollond did ; though it be great praife to
Mr Dollond, and all thofe perfons who contributed to
Vol.XIII. Part I.
I 0 S. 241
this difcovery, that they ventured to call in queftion
the authority of fo great a man.
Mr Dollond, however, was not the only optician
who had the merit of making this difcovery ; it had
been made and applied to the fame purpofe by a pri¬
vate gentleman—Mr Cheft of Cheft-hall. He had
obferved that prifms of flint glafs gave larger fpec-
trums than prifms of water when the mean refradtion
was the fame in both, i. e. when the deviation of the
refradted ray from the diredfion of the incident was
the fame. He tried prifms of other glafs, and found
fimilar differences ; and he employed the difcovery in
the fame manner, and made achromatic experiments
fome time before Dollond. Thefe fadls came out in a
procefs raifed at the inftance of Watkius optician at
Charing-crofs, as alfo in a publication by MrRamfdea
optician. There is, however, no evidence that Dol¬
lond Hole the idea from Mr Cheft, or that they had
not both claims to the difcovery.
Still the beft refradting telefcopes, conftrudted on
the principles of MrDollond, are defedtive, on account
of that colour which, by the aberration of the rays,
they give to objedts viewed through them, unlefs the
object glafs be of fmall diameter. This defedt men of
genius and fcience have laboured to remove, fome by
one contrivance and fome by another. Father Bofo-
wich,to whom every branch of optics is much indebt¬
ed, has, in his attempts for this purpofe, difplayed much£)jfcovery
ingenuity; but the philofopher whofe exertions have of Dr Ro-
been crowned with moft fuccefs, and w'ho has perhapsUert ^lair
made the moft important difcovery in this branch
of fcience fince. the era of Newton, is Dr Robert Blair
regius profeffor of aftronomy in the college of Edin¬
burgh. By a judicious fet of experiments ably con-
dudted, he has proved, that the quality of difperfing
the rays in a greater degree than crown glafs, is not
confined to a few mediums, but is poffeffed by a great
variety of fluids, and by fome of thefe in a molt ex¬
traordinary degree. He has fhown, that although
the greater refrangibility of the violet rays than of the
red rays, when light paffes from any medium whatever
into a vacuum, may be confidered as a law of nature ;
yet in the paffages of light from one medium into ano¬
ther, it depends entirely on the qualities of the me¬
diums which of thefe rays ftiall be the moft refran¬
gible, or whether there fhali be any difference in their
refrangibility. In order to corredt the aberration ari-
fing from difference of refrangibility among the rays
ofiight, he inftituted a fet of experiments, in the con-
dudting of which he detedted a very Angular and im¬
portant quality in the muriatic acid. In all the di-
fperfive mediums hitherto examined, the green rays,
which are the mean refrangible in crown glafs, were
found among the lefs refrangible; but in the muriatic
acid, thefe fame rays were by him found to make a
part of the more refrangible. This difcovery led to
complete fuccefs in removing the great defedt of opti¬
cal inftruments, viz. that difiipation or aberration of
the rays which arile from their unequal refrangibility,
and has hitherto rendered it impoffible to converge ail
of them to one point either by lin^le or oppofite re¬
fractions. A fluid, in which the particles of marine
acid and metalline particles hold a due proportion, at
the fame time that it ieparates the extreme rays of the
H Jr fpedtrum
' 242
ao
Of the rc-
fratftion of
thp a'mo-
fphere.
OPT
fpedlrum much more than eiown glafs, refracts all the
orders of the rr.ys in the fame proportion that glafs
dees : and hence rays of all colours made to diverge
by the refradlion of the glafs, may either be rendered
parallel by a fubkcjuent refradtion made m the coniine
of the glafs and this fluid ; or, by weakening tae ^re-
fradive denfity of the fluid, the refraction which takes
place in the confine of it and glafs may be rendered as
regular as refledion,without the teait colour whatever.
The £)odtor has a telefcope, not exceeding 15 inches
in length, with a compound object glafs of this kind,
which equals in all re 1 pedis, if it does not furpafs, the
bcfl of Doilond’s 42 inches long. Of thisobjedi glafs
a figure will be found in the third volume of the 1 ranf-
adtions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh; and to that
volume we rnuft refer our readers for a full and per
4'picuous account of the experiments which led to this
difeovery, as well as of the important purpofes to which
it may be applied.
We Hull conclude the hiftory of the difeoveries con¬
cerning refradlion, with fome account of the refrac¬
tions of the attnoiphere.—Tables of this have been
calculated by Mr Lambert, with a view to corredl the
inaccuracies of geometrical obfervat ons of the alti¬
tudes of mountains. The obfervations of Mr Lam¬
bert, however, go upon the fuppontion tnat the refrac¬
tive power of the atmofphere is invariable : But this
is by no means the cafe ; and therefore hi rules mult
be confidered as true for the mean Hate of the air
only.
A moll remarkable variety in the refradtive power
of the atmofphere was obferved by Dr Nettleton, near
Halifax in Ycrklhire, which demonftrates how little
we can depend upon the calculated heights of moun¬
tains, when the obfervations are made with an inflru
ment, and the refradtive power of the air is to be al¬
lowed for. Being defirous to learn, by obfervation,
how far the mercury would deicend in the barorr eter
at any given elevation (for which there is the belt op¬
portunity in that hilly country), he propofed to take
the height of fome of their higheit hills; but when he
attempted it, he found his obfervation fo much dif-
turbed by refradtion, that he could come to no cer¬
tainty". Having meafured one hill of a conliderable
height, in a clear day, and obferved the mercuiy at the
bottom and at the top, he found, according to that
eftimation, that about 90 feet or more were required
to make the mercury fall Toth of an inch ; but after¬
wards, repeating the experiment on a cloudy day,
when the air was rather grofs and. hazy, he found the
fmall angles fo much increafed by refiadtion as to make
the hill much higher than before. He afterwards fre¬
quently made obfervations at his own houfe, by point-
ing a quadrant to the tops of fome neighbouring hits,
and obferved that they would appear higher in the
morning before funrife, and alfo late in the evening,
than at noon in a clear day, by feveral minutes. In
one cafe the elevations of the fame hill differed more
than 30 minutes. From this he infers, that obferva¬
tions mate on very high hills, efpecially when viewed
at a diftance, and under fmall angles, as they generally
are, are probably uncertain, and not much to be de¬
pended upon.
M. Euler confidered with great accuracy the refrac¬
tive power of the atmofphere, as affedted by different
I C S. Hiftory,
degrees of heat and elallicity; in which he fhovvs, that
its refradtive power, to a coafidcraSle diflance from the
zenith, is fufli iently near the proportion of the tan¬
gent of that diltance, and that the law of refradtion
follows the direit ratio of the height of the barometer,
ami the inverfe ratio of the difference marked by the
th-ermometer ; but when liars are in the horizon, the
changes are in a ratio fome what greater than this, more
efpeciaily on account of the variation in the heat.
The caule of the twinkling oi the liars is now ge- 2r,
nenlly acknowledge l to be tire unequal refradtion of ^bj,
light, in confequeKce of inequalities and undulations . ]on cnn_
in the atmofphere. cerning the
Mr Michell fuppofes that the arrival of fewer or l'vvin'ihn^
more rays at one time, efpeciaily from the fmaller or itar3*
the more remote fixed ftars, m y make fuch an une¬
qual imprefiion u, on the eye, as mayr, at lealt, have
lome lb re in producing this effect ; fince it may be
fuppofed, that evi n a ling! particle of light is fufficient
to make a fenfible impreffii n upon the organs of fight;
fo that very few particles arriving at the eye in a fe-
cond of time, perhaps no more than three or four, may¬
be fufficient to m ke an objedt conltantly vifible. For
though the impreffion may be confidered as momenta¬
ry, yet the perception occafioned by it is of fome du¬
ration. Hence, he fays, it is not improbable that the
number ol the particles of light which enter the eye in
a fecond of time, even from Sirius himfelf (the light
of which does not exceed that of the fmallell vifible
fixed itar, in a greater proportion than that olTrbout
xoo. to 1), may not exceed 3000 or 400 ’, and from
liars of the fecond magnitude they may, therefore,
probably not exceed 100. Now the apparent incrcafe
and diminution of the light which we obferve in the
twinkling of tire liars, feemsto be repeated at not very
unequal intervals, perhaps about four or five times in a
fecond. He therefore thought it reafonable to fup-
pofe, that the inequalities which will naturally arife
from the chance of the rays coming fomttimes a little
denftr, and fometimts a little larer, in fo fmall a num¬
ber of them as mud fall upon the eye in the fourth
or fifth part of a fecond, may be fufficient to account
for this appearance An addition ol two or three par¬
ticles of fight, or perhaps a iingle one, upon 20, efpe¬
cially if there Ihould be an equal deficiency out of the
next 20, would, he fuppofed, be very fenfible, as he
thought was probable from the very great difference in
the appearance of liars, the light of which does not
differ fo much as is commonly imagined. The light of
the middlemolt liar in the tail of the Great Bear does
not, he thinks, exceed the light of the very fmail liar
that is next to it in a greater proportion than that of
about 16 or 20 to 1 ; and M. Bouger found, that a
difference in the light of objects of one part in 66 was
fufficiently dillinguifhable.
It will perhaps, he lays, be objedted, that the rays
coming from Sirius are too numerous to admit of a
fufficient inequality arifing from the common effect of
chance fo frequently as would be neceffary to produce
this effect, whatever might happen with refpeSt to the
firraller liars ; but he obferves, that, till we know what
inequality is neceffary to produce this effect, we can
only guefs at it one way or the other.
Since thefe obfervations were publilhed, Mr Michell
has entertained fome fufpicioa that the unequa. d-n-
5 {ity
243
Hiftory. OPT
fjty ofllght does not contribute to this effe& in fo
great a degree as he had imagined, efpecially in con-
fequence of obferving that even Venus does fometimes
twinkle. This he once obferved her to do remarkably
when fhe was about 6 degrees high, though Jupiter,
which was then about 16 degrees high, and was fen-
fibly lefs luminous, did not twinkle at all. If, not-
withftanding the great number of rays which, no doubt,
come to the eye from fuch a furface as this planet pre-
fents, its appearance be liable to be affefted in this
mauntr, it muft be owing to fuch undulations in the
atmofphere, as will probably render the effect of every
other caufe altogether infonfible. The conjefture,
however, has fo much probability in it, that it well de-
ferved to be recited.
22 M. Mufchenbroek fufpedts, th&t the twinkling of
Mr Mui- the ftars arifes from feme affedtion of the eye, as well
©rinion^ ^Sas t^ie ^ate T'le atm°fpbere For he fays, that in
Holland, when the weather is frofty, and the iky very
clear, the ftars twinkle moft manifeftly to the naked
eye, though not in tekfeopes; and finee he does not
fuppoft that there is any great exhalation, or dancing
of the vapour at that time, he queftions whether the
vivacity @f the light affedfing the eye may not be con¬
cerned in the phenomenon.
But this philofopher might very eafily have fatisfied
himfelf with refpedt to this hypatbefis, by looking at
the ftars near the zenith, when the light traverfes but
a fmall part of the atmofphere, and therefore might
he expedted to affedl the eye the moft fenfibly. For
he would not have perceived them to twinkle near fo
much, as they do near the horizon, when much more
of their light is intercepted by the atmofphere.
Some aftronorrers have lately endeavoured to ex¬
plain the twinkling of the fixed ftars by the extreme
rninutehefs of their apparent diameter ; fo that they
fuppofe the fight of them is intercepted by everyr more
that floats in the air. But Mr Michell obferves, that
no object can hide a ftar from us that is not large
enough to exceed the apparent diameter of the ftar, by
the diameter of the pupil of the eye ; fo that if a liar
was a mathematical point, the interpofing objedt muft
ftill be equal in fize to the pupil of the eye : nay, it
nuift be large enough to hide the ftar from both eyes
at the fame time.
Befitles a variation in the quantity of light, a mo¬
mentary change of colour has likewife been obferved
in fome of the fixed ftars. Mr Melville fays, that
when one looks ftedfaftly at Sirius, or any bright ftar
not much elevated above the horizon, its colour feems
not to be conftantly white, but appears tindtured, at
everv twinkling, with red and blue. This obfervation
Mr Melville puts among his queries, with refpedf to
which he could not entirely fatisfy himfelf; and he
obferves, that the fiparation of the colours by the re-
fra&ive power of the atmofphere is, probably, too
fmall to be perceived. But the fuppofition of Mr Mi¬
chell above-mentioned will pretty well account for this
circumfiance, though it may be thought inadequate
to the former cafe. For the red and blue rays being
much fewer than thofe of the intermediate colours,
and therefore much more liable to inequalities, from
the common effedf of chance, a fniall excefs or defedl
in either of them will make a very ftnfible difference
l'n the colour of the ftars.
I c s.
§ 3. 2)1 cov.Ties eoncernitig the RefcPaon of Light.
However much the ancients might have been mif-Account of
taken with regard to the nature of light, we find that the difeove-
they were acquainted with two very important obfer-ries.of
'vations concerning it; viz. that light is propagatedanLient**
in right lines, and that the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of refledfion. Who it was that firft made
thefe important obfervations is not known. But in¬
deed, important as they are, and the foundation of a
great part of even the prefent fyftem of optics, it is
pofiible chat, if he were known, he might not be al¬
lowed to have any fhare of merit, at leaft for the former
of them ; the fadf is fo very obvious, and fo eafily af-
certained. As to the latter, that the angle of incidence
is equal to the angle of reflectionit was probably firft
difeovered by obferving a ray of the fun refledled
from the furface of water, or fome other poliftied
body ; or from obferving the images of objedls reflec¬
ted by fuch furfaces. If philofophers attended to this
phenomenon at all, they could not but take notice,
that, if the ray fell nearly perpendicular upon fuch a
furface, it was refl- died near the perpendicular ; and
if it fell obliquely, it was refledted obliquely : and if
they thought of applying any kind of me a fares to thefe
angles, however coarfe and imp^fedl, they could not
but fee that there was fufficient reafou to aflert their
equality. At the fame time they could not but know
that the incident and refledted rays werg both in the
fame plane.
Ariftotle was fenfible that it is the refledtion of light
from the atmofphere which prevents total darknefs
after the fun fets, and in places where he doch not
fhine in the day-time. Fie was alfo of opinion, that
rainbows, halos, and mock funs, were all occafioned
by the refledtion of t'he fim-beams in different circum-
ftances, by which an imperfedt image of his body was
produced, the colour only being exhibited, and not
his proper figure. The image, he fays, is not Jingle,
as in a mirror ; for each drop of rain is too fmall to
refledl a vifible image, but the conjundtion of all the
images is vifible.
Without, inquiring any farther into the nature of Euclid’s
light or vifion, the ancient geometricians contentedtreatile of
themfclves with deducing a fyftem of optics from the °Ptics.
two obfervations mentioned above, viz. the redtilinear
progrefs of light, and the equality of the angles wf
incidence and refledtion. The treatife of optics which
has been aferibed to Euclid is employed about deter¬
mining the apparent fize and figure of objedts, from the
angle under which they-appear, or which tire extre¬
mities of them fubtend at the eye, and the apparent
place of the image of an objedt refledted from a po-
lifhed mirror; which he fixes at the place where the
refledted ray meets a perpendicular to the mirror drawn
through the objedt. But this work is fo imperfedt,
and fo inaccurately drawn up, that it is not general¬
ly thought to be the produc/ion of that g reat geome¬
trician.
It appears from a circumftance in the hiftory of So- 25
crates, that the effedts of burning-glaffes had alfo0fthe
been obferved by the ancients ; and‘it is probable that
the Romans had a method of lighting their facred fire the anci»
by means of a concave fpeculum. It feems indeed to eats,
have been known pretty early, that there is an in-
H h 2 create
•J44
Plate
CCCLII.
26
Of fteing
images in
she air.
OFT
creafe of heat in the place where the rays of light meet,
when they are reflected from a concave mirror. The
burning power of concave mirrors is taken notice of
by Euclid in the fecond book of the treatife above-
Bientioned. If we give but a fmall degree of credit
to what fome ancient hiftorians are faid to have writ¬
ten concerning the exploits of Archimedes, we fhall
be induced to think that he made great ufe of this
principle, in conftru&ing fome very powerful burning-
mirrors ; but nothing being faid of other perfons ma¬
king ufe of his inventions, the whole account is very
doubtful. It is allowed, however, that this eminent
geometrician did write a treatife on the fubjeft of burn¬
ing-mirrors, though it be not now extant.
B. Porta fuppofes that the burning-mirrors of the
sncients were of metal, in the form of a fe&ion of a
parabola. It follows from the properties of this curve,
that all the rays which fall upon it, parallel to its axis,
will meet in the fame point at the focus. Confequent-
ly, if the vertex of the parabola be cut off, as in fig. 1.
it will make a convenient burning-mirror. In fome
drawings of this indrument the fruftum is fo fmall,
as to look like a ring. With an inftrument of this
kind, it is thought, that the Romans lighted their fa-
cred fire. Some have alfo thought that this was the
form of the mirror wMi which Archimedes burnt the
Roman fleet; ufing either a lens, to threw the rays
parallel, when they had been brought to a focus; or
applying a fmaller parabolic mirror for this purpofe, as
is reprefented fig. 2. ButDechales fiiows*that it is im-
poffible to convey any rays in a direftion parallel to
one another, except thofe that come from the fame
point in the fun’s diflc.
All this time, however, the nature of refleftion was
very far from being underftood. Even lord Bacon,
who made much greater advances in natural philofo-
phy than his predeceffors, and who pointed out the
true method of improving it, was fo far deceived with
regard to the nature of refleftion and refraftion, that
he fuppofed it pofiible to fee the image reflefted from
a looking-glafs, without feeing the glafs itfelf; and to
this purpofe he quotes a ftory of friar Bacon, who is
reported to have apparently walked in the air between
two fteeples, and which was thought to have been ef¬
fected by reflection from glaffes while he walked upon
the ground.
The whole bufinefs of feeing images in the air may
be traced up to Vitellio; and what he faid upon the
fubjeCt feems to have palled from writer to writer, with
confiderable additions, to the time of lord Bacon. What
Vitellio endeavours to fhow is, that it is poffible, by
means of a cylindrical convex fpeculum, to fee the
images of objeCts in the air, out of the fpeculum, when
the objeCts themfelves cannot be feen. But, if hisde-
fcription of the apparatus requifite for this experiment
be attended to, it will be feen that the eye was to be
directed towards the fpeculum, which w'as placed with¬
in a room, while both the objeCt and the fpeCtator
were without it. But though he recommends this ob-
iervation to the diligent lludy of his readers, he has
not defcribed it in fuch a manner as is very intelli¬
gible ; and, indeed, it is certain, that no fuch effeCt
can be produced by a convex mirror. If he himfelf
«id make any trial with the apparatus that he defcribes
I C S. Hiftoryb
for this purpofe, he mull have been under fome deccp.
tion with refpeCt to it.
B. Porta fays, that this effeft may be produced by
a plane mirror only; and that an ingenious perfon may
fucceed in it but his more particular defcription of a
method to produce this extraordinary appearance is by
a plane mirror and a concave one combined.
Kircher alfo fpeaks of the poffibility of exhibiting
thefe pendulous images, and fuppofes that they are re¬
flected from the denfe air ; and the moft perfeft and
pleafing deception depending upon the images in the
air is one of which this writer gives a particular ac¬
count in his sirs Magna Lucis et Umbra:, p. 783. In
this cafe the image is placed at the bottom of a hollow
polifhed cylinder, by which means it appears like a
real folid fubftance, fufpended within the mouth of the
veffel. In this manner, he fays, he once exhibited a
reprefentation of the afeenfion of Chrift ; when the
images were fo perfeCt, that the fpeftators could not
be perfuaded, but by attempting to handle them, that
they were not real fubftances.
Among other amufing things that were either in¬
vented or improved by Kircher, was the method of
throwing the appearance of letters, and other forms of
things, into a darkened room from without, by means
of a lens and a plane mirror. The figures or letters
were written upon the face of the mirror, and invert¬
ed ; and the focus of the lens was contrived to fall up¬
on the fereen or wall that received their images. In
this manner, he fays, that with the light of the fun he
could throw a plain and diftinft image 500 feet.
It was Kepler who firft difeovered the true reafon DifcovtrJ^,
of the apparent places of objefts feen by reflecting mir-of Kepler,
rars, as it depends upon the angle which the rays of
light, iffuing from the extreme part of an objeCt, make
with one anether after fuch reflections. In plane mir¬
rors thefe rays are reflected with the fame degree of
inclination to one another that they had before their
incidence ; but he fhows that this inclination ia chan¬
ged in convex and concave mirrors.
Mr Boyle made fome curious obfervations concern- ^
xng the reflecting powers of differently coloured fub- B
fiances. Many learned men, he fays, imagined that
fnow affeCts the eyes, not by a borrowed, but by.a
native light; but having placed a quantity of fnow in
a room from which all foreign light was excluded, nei¬
ther he nor any body elfe was able to perceive it. To
try whether white bodies refieCt more light than others,
he held a fheet of white paper in a fun-beam admit¬
ted into a darkened room ; and obferved that it reflec¬
ted much more light than a paper of any other colour,
a confiderable part of the room being enlightened by
it. Farther, to fhow that white bodies refleCt the rays
outwards, he adds, that common burning-glaffes will
not of a long time burn or difcolour white paper.
When he was a boy, he fays, and took great pleafure
in making experiments with thefe glaffes, he was much
furprifed at this remarkable circumftance ; and it fet
him very early upon gueffing at the nature of white-
nefs, efpecially as he obferved that the image of the*,
fun was not fo well defined upon white paper as upon
black ; and as, when he put ink upon the paper, the
moifture would be quickly dried up, and the paper,
which he could not burn before, would prefently take
6
OPT
fire. He atfo found, that, by expofmg his hand to
the fun, with a thin black glove upon it, it would be
fuddenly and more confiderably heated, than if he held
his naked hand to the rays, or put on a glove of thin
white leather.
To prove that black is the reverfe of white, with
refpeft to its property of refitting the rays of the fun,
he procured a large piece of black marble ; and having
got it ground into the form of a large fpherical con¬
cave fpeculum, he found that the image of the fun re-
flefted from it was far from offending or dazzling his
eyes, as it would have done from another fpeculum ;
and though this was large, he could not in a long time
fet a piece of wood on fire with it ; though a far lefs
fpeculum, ef the fame form, and of a more refle&ing
fubftance, would prefently have made it flame.
To fatisfy himfelf flill farther with refpeft to this
fubjeft, he took a broad and large tile ; and having
made one half of its furface white and the other black,
heexpofed it to the fummer fun. And having let it lie
there fome time, he found, that while the whited part
remained cool, the part that was black was grown
very hot. For his farther fatisfaftion, he fometimes
left part of the tile of its native red ; and, after expo-
fxng the whole to the fun, obferved that this part grew
hotter than the white, but was not fo hot as the black
part. He alfo obferves, that rooms hung with black
are not only darker than they would otherwife be, but
warmer too ; and he knew feveral perfons, who found
great inconvenience from rooms hung with black. As
another proof of his hypothefis, he informs us, that a
virtuofo, of unfufpedted credit, acquainted him, that,
in a hot climate, he had feen eggs well roafted in a
fhort time, by firft blacking the fhells, and then expo-
fing them to the fun.
We have already taken notice of the remarkable
fuf/nVf1 ProPerty l>gnum nephriticum firft obfervcd by Kir-
Jienum ne-cher. (See Guilanbina.) However, all his obfer-
phricicum. vations with regard to it fell very fhort of Mr Boyle.
He defcribes this lignum nephriticum to be a whitifh
kind of wood, that was brought from Mexico, which
the natives call coatl or tlapa%atliy and which had been;
thought to tinge water of a green colour only ; but
he fays that he found it to communicate all kinds of
colours. If, fays he, an infufion of this wood be put
into a glafs globe, and expofed to a ftrong light, it
will be as colourlefs as pure warer ; but if it be carried
into a place a little fhaded, it will be a moft beautiful
green. In a place ftill more fhaded, it will incline to
red ; and in a very fhady place, or in an opaque vefiel,
it will be green again.
A cup of this remarkable wood was fent to Kir-
cher by the procurator of his fociety at Mexico, and
was pvefented by him to the emperor as a great curi-
ofity. It is called lignum nephriticum, becaufe the in¬
fufion of it was imagined to be of fervice in difeafes
of the kidneys and bladder, and the natives of the
country where it grows do make ufe of it for that pur¬
pose.
Mr Boyle corretfted feveral of the hafty obfervations
of Kircher concerning the colours that appear in the
infufion of lignum nephriticum, and he diverfified the
experiments with it in a very pleafing manner. He
firft diftin&ly noted the two very different colours
which this remarkable tinfture exhibits by tranfmit-
I O SL
ted and refle&ed light. If, fays he, it be held di’re&*
ly between the light and the eye, it will appear tin¬
ged (excepting the very top of it, where a fky-colour-
ed circle fometimes appears) almoll of a golden colour,
except the infufion be too ftrong ; in which cafe it will
be dark or reddifli, and requires to be diluted with
water. But if it be held from the light, fo that the
eye be between the light and the phial, it will appear
of a deep lovely blue colour ; as will alfo the drops, if
any lie on the outfide of the glafs.
When a little of this tin&ure was poured upon a
fheet of white paper, and placed in a window where
the fun could fhine upon it, he obferved, that if he
turned his back upon the fun, the ftiadow of his pen,
or any fuch flender fubftance, proje&ed upon the li¬
quor, would not be all dark, like other lhadows ; but
that part of it would be curioufiy coloured, the edge
of it next the body being almoft of a lively golden
colour, and the more remote part blue. Thefe, and
other experiments of a fimilar nature, many of hm
friends, he fays, beheld with wonder ; and he re¬
membered an excellent oculift, who accidentally meet¬
ing with a phial full of this liquor, and being unac¬
quainted with this remarkable property of it, ima¬
gined, after he had viewed it a long time, that fomc
new and ftrange diftemper had feized his eyes: and
Mr Boyle himfelf acknowledges, that the oddnefs of
the phenomenon made him very defirous to find out
the caufe of it $ and his inquiries were not altogether-
unfuccefsful.
Obferving that this tinfture, if it were too deep,
was not tinged in fo beautiful a manner, and that the
impregnating virtue of the wood did, by being fre¬
quently infufed in frefh water, gradually decay, he cpn-
je&ured that the tin&ure contained much of the effen*
tial fait of the wood; and to try whether the fubtle
parts, on which the colour depended, were volatile
enough to be diftilled, without diffolving their tex¬
ture, he applied fome of it to the gentile heat of a
lamp-furnace ; but he found all that came over was
as limpid and colourlefs as rock water, while that
which remained behind was of fo deep a blue, that it
was only in a very ftrong light that it appeared of any
colour.
Sufpefting that the tinging particles abounded with
falts, whofe texture, and the colour thence arifing,
would probably be altered by acids, he poured into a
fmall quantity of it a very little fpirit of vinegar, and
found that the blue colour immediately vaniihed, while
the golden one remained, on which ever fide it was
viewed with refpeft to the light.
Upon, this he imagined, that as the acid falts of the
vinegar had been able to deprive the liquor of its blue
colour, a fulphureous fait, which is of a contrary na¬
ture, would deftroy their effe&s ; and having placed
bimfelf betwixt the window and the phial, and let fall ■
into the fame liquor a few drops of oil of tartar per
liquium, he found that it was immediately reftored to
its former blue colour, and exhibited ail the fame phe¬
nomena which it had done at the firft.
Having fometimes brought a round long-necked
phial, filled with this tinfture, into a darkened room,
into which a beam of the fun was admitted by a fmall
aperture ; and holding the phial fometimes near the
fun-beams, and fometimes partly in them and partly
out i
246 OPT
out cf them, chan"i»g alfo the pofition of the glafs,
and viewing it from i'everal parts of the room, it ex¬
hibited a much greater variety of colours than it did
in an enlightened room. Befides the ufual colours, it
was red in home places and preen in others, and " ith-
sn were intermediate colours produced hy the different
degrees and odd mixtures of light and (hade.
It was not only in this tinfture of lignum nephritt-
Cum that Mr Boyle obferved the difference between
reflected and tranfmitted light. He ohferved it even
in gold, though no perfon explained t he caufe of thefe
effedls before Sir Hnac Newton, hie took a piece of
leaf-gold, and holding it betwixt his eye and the light,
obferved that it did not appear of a golden colour,
but of a greenifh blue. He alfo obferved the fame
change of colour hy candle-light; but the experiment
did not fucceed with a leaf of filver.
The conftitution of the atmofphere and of the fen,
we fhall find, by obfervations made in later periods, to
be fimilar to that of this infufion ; for the blue rays,
and others of a faint colour, do not penetrate fo far
into them as the red, and others of a ftronger co¬
lour : but what this conftitution is, which is common
to them all, deferves to be inquired into. For almdft
all other tin&ures, and this of lignum nephriticum
too, after fome change made in it hy Mr Boyle, as
well as all other femi tranfparent coloured fubftances,
as glafs, appear of the fame hue in all pofitions of the
eye To increafe or dim in ifh the quantity makes no
difference, but to make the colour deeper or more
dilute.
Mr Boyle’s t^'n& account of the colours exhibited
account of ^7 thin plates of various fubftances, are met with among
the colours the obfervations of Mr Boyle. To fliow the chemifts
of thm that colours may be made to appear or vanifh, where
there is no acceffion or change either of the fulphure-
ous, the faline, or the mercurial principle of bodies,
he ohferves, that all chemical effential oils, as alfo
good fpirit of wine,being ft a ken till they rife in bub¬
bles, appear of various colours ; which immediately
vanifh when the bubbles burft, fo that a colourlefs li¬
quor .mafy be immediately made to exhibit a variety
of colours, and lofe them in a moment, without any
change in its effential principles. He then mentions
■ the colours that appear in bubbles of foap and water,
and alfo in turpentine. He fometim.es got glafs
blown fo thin as to exhibit fimilar colours ; and ob-
ferves, that a feather, of a proper fhape and fize, and
alfo a black ribbon, held at a proper diflance, be¬
tween his eye and the fun, fhowed a variety of lit¬
tle rainbows, as he c Us them, with very vivid colours,
none of which were conftantly to be feen in the fame
objedts.
Dr riooke’s Much m°re P™’5 vvere ta^en with this fubjeft, and
. account of *a mnck great(:r number of obfervations refpe&ing it
thefe co- were made, by Dr Hooke. As he loved to give fur-
lours. prife by his difeoveries, he promifed, at a meeting of
the fociety on the 7th of March 1672, to exhibit, at
their next meeting, fomeihing which had neither re¬
flexion nor refraXion, and yet was diaphanous. Ac¬
cordingly, at the time appointed, he produced the fa¬
mous coloured bubble of foap and water, of which
fuch admirable ufe was afterwards made by Sir Ifaac
,Fts44 ton, but which Dr Hooke and his contemporaries
T C r, ^ Hifi
feem to Itave overlooked in Mr Boyle1? treatlfe on co¬
lour.0, though it was puhlifhed nine years before. It is
no wonder that fo curious an appearance excited the
attention of that inquifitive body, and that they ftould
defire him to bring an account of it in writing at their
next meeting.
By the he’p of a fmall glafs-pipe, there were blown
feveral fmall bubble0, out. of a mixture of fo:ip and wa¬
ter; where it was obfervable, that, at firft, they appear¬
ed white and clear; but that, after fome time, the
film of water growing thinner, there appeared upon
it all the colours of the rainbow ; Firil a pale yellow;
then orange, red, purple, blue, green, &c. with the
fame feries of colours repeated ; in which it was far¬
ther obfervable, that the nrft and laft feries were very
faint, and that the middlemoft order or feries was very
bright. After thefe colours had paffed over the chan¬
ges above-mentioned, t' e film of the bubble began to
appear white again ; and prelently, in ftveral parts of
this fecond white film, there appeared feveral holes,
which hy degrees grew very big, feveral of them run¬
ning into one another. After reciting other obfer¬
vations, which are net of much confequence, he fays
it is ftringe, that though both the encompafling and
encompafied air have furfaces, yet he could not ob-
ferve that they afforded either reflcXion or refraXion,
which all the other parts of the enedmpaffed air did.
This experiment, he fays, at firft fight, may appear
very trivial, yet, as to the finding out the nature-and
caufe of refleXion, refraXion, colours, congruity and
incongruity, and feveral other properties of bodies,
he looked upon it as one of the moft inftruXive-. And
he promifed to coniider it more afterwards ; but we do
not find that ever he did ; nor indeed is it to be much
regretted, as we ftall foon find this bufinefs in better
hands. He adds, that that which gives one colour by
refleXion, gives another by trajeXion ; not much un¬
like the tinXure of lignum nephriticum.
Dr Hooke was the firft to obferve, if not to de-
feribe, the beautiful colours that appear in thin places
of mufeovy glafs. Thefe, he fays, are very beautiful
to the naked eye, but much more when they are view¬
ed with a microfcope. With this inftrument he could
perceive that thefe colours were ranged in rings fur¬
rounding the white fpecks or flaws in this thin fub-
ftance, that the order of the colours was the very fame
as in the rainbow, and that they were often repeated
ten times. But the colours, he fays, were difpofed as
in the outer bow, and not the inner. Some of them
alfo were much brighter than others, and fame of them
very much broader. He alfo obferved, that if there
was a place where the colours were very broad, and
confpicuous to the naked eye, they might be made, by
preffing the place with the finger, to change places,
and move from one part to another. Laftlv, he ob¬
ferved, that if great care be ufed, this fubftance may
be fplit into plates of or of an inch in diameter,
each of which will appear through a microfcope to lie
uniformly adorned with fome one vivid colour, and that
thefe plates will be found upon examination to be of
the fame thicknefs throughout.
Asa faX fimilar to this, but obferved previous to
it, we ftall here mention that Lord Brereton, at a
meeting of the Royal Society in 1666, produced fome
pieces
Hiftory. OPT
pieces of ^lafs taken out of a wifif’o^ of a church, both
on the north and on the fouth fide of it; obferving,
that they were all eaten in by the air, but tiiat the
piece taken from the fouth fide had fome colours like
thofe of the rainbow upon f, which the others on the
north fide had not. This phenomenon has been fre¬
quently obferved fince, and in other cir-umftances. It
is not to be doubted, but that in all thefe cafes, the
glnfs is divided into thin plates, which exhibit colours,
upon the fame principle with thofe wdiich Dr Hooke
obferved in the bubble of foap and water, and in the
thin plate of air, which we fhall find more fully ex¬
plained by Sir Ifaac Newton. With crre the thin
plates of the glafs may be feparated, and the theory
verified.
3* An ebfervation made by Otto Guericke, well ex-
ftars are^vi P^a‘ns t^e reaf°n why liars are v.iible at the bottom
fib!. b> .lay of a deep well. It is, fays he, becaufe the light that
ar the bot- proceeds from them is not overpowered by the rays
torn of a 0f fUIlj which are loft in the number of refleftions
which they muft undergo in the pit, fo that they
can never reach the eye of a fpe&ator at the bottom
of it.
But of all thofe who have given their attention to
this fuhjedt of the reflexion of light, none feems to
have gi/ven fuch fatisfadtion as M. Bouguer; and next
to thofe of Sir Ifaac Newton, his labours feem to have
been the molt fuccefsful. I'he object of his curious
and elaborate experiments was to meafure the degrees
of li _;ht, whether emitted, refledted, or refradted, by
different bodies. They were originally occnfioned by
nn article of M. Mairan’s in the memoirs of the French
academy for 1721, in which the proportion of the
light of the fun at the two folftices were fuppofed to
be known; and bis laudable attempt to verify what
had been before taken for granted, fuggefted a variety
of new experiments, and opened to him and to the
world a new field of optical knowledge. His firll pro-
dudtion upon this fubjeft was a treatife Intitled EJfai
({Optiques which was received with general apprtrfia-
tion. Afterwards, giving more attention to this fub-
jeCt, he formed an idea of a much larger work, to which
many more experiments were nectffary : but he was
prevented, by a variety of interruptions, from executing
his dcfign fo foon as he had propofed ; and he had
hardly completed it at the time of his death, in *758;
fo that we are obliged to his f.iend M. de la Caiile for
the care of the publication. At length, however, it
was printed at Paris in 1760, under the title of Traite
d Opiique.
33 At the entrance upon this treatife, we are induced
r>ifcove;ie* to form the moft pleating expectations from our au-
ct^u. i;ou-t|ior,g eXper;menta, by his account of the variety, the
“ ’ fingtilar accuracy, and cireumIpedtion, with which he
made them ; whereby he muff, to all appearance, have
guarded againft every avenue to error and particular¬
ly agrg'ft thofe objections to which the few attempts
that had been made, of a iimilar nature, before him
had been liable. In order to compare different de¬
grees of light, he always contrived to place the bodies
fjom which it proceeded, or other bodies illuminated
1 v them, in fuch a manner as that he could view them
diffindtly at the fame time ; and he either varied the
dillances of thefe bodies, or modified their light in fome
other way, till he could perceive no difference between
I c s.
them. Then, lonfidering their different diffances, o*
the other circumffances by which their light was af¬
fected, he calculated the proport on which they would
have borne to each other at the fame diffance, or in
the fame circumftances.
To afeertain the quantity of light loft by refleftion,
he placed the mirror,.or reflecting furface, B on which
the experiment was to be made, truly upright; and
having taken two tablets, of preciftly the fame co¬
lour, or of an equal degree of whitenefs, he placed
them exactly parallel to one another at E and D, and
threw light upon them by means of a lamp or candle,
P, placed in a right line between them. He then
placed himfelf fo, that with his eye at A he could
fee the tablet E, and the image of the tablet D, re¬
flected from the mirror B, at the fame time ; making
them, as it were, to touch one another. He then
moved the candle along the line ED, fo as to throw
more or lefs light upon either of them, till he could
perceive no difference in the ftrength of the light that
came to his eye from them. After this, he had no¬
thing more to do than to meafure the diltances EP
end DP; for the fquares of thofe diftances exprefled
the degree in which the reflection of the mirror di-
miniflied the quantity of light. It is evident, that
if the mirror leflefted all the rays it received, the
candle P muff; have been placed at C, at an equal di¬
ffance from each of the tablets, in order to make them
appear equally illuminated ; but becaufe much of the
light is loft in reflection, they can only be made to
appear equally bright by placing the candle nearer the
tablet D. which is feen by refleCtiCm only.
To find how much light is loft by oblique reflec*
tion, he took two equally poliftied plates, D and E,
and caufed them to be enlightened by the candle P;
and while one of them, D, was feen at A, by reflection
from B, placed in a pofition oblique to the eye, the
other* E, was fo placed, as to appear contiguous to it;
and removing the plate E, till the light which it re-
fkCted was no ffronger than that which came from the
image D, feen by reflection at B, he eftimated the
quantity of light that was loft by this oblique reflec¬
tion, by the fqnares of the diftances of the two qbjeCb
from the candle:
It need fcarcely be added, that in thefe experi¬
ments all foreign light was excluded, that his eye was
(hade:!, and that every other precaution was obferved
in order to make his conclufions unqweftionable.
In order to afeertain the quantity of light loft by
r fleCHon with the greateft exa&nefs, M. Bouguer in¬
troduced two beams of light into a darkened room, as
by the apertures P and Qp which he had fo contrived,
that he could place them higher or lower, and enlarge
Or contra‘t them at pleafure ; and the reflecting fur-
face (as that of a fluid contained in a veffel) was pla¬
ced horizontally at O, from whence the light coming
through the hole P, was reflected to R, upon the
fereen GH, where it was compared with another
beam of light that fell upon S, through the holt Q^;
which he made fo much lefs than P, as that the fpaces
S and R were equally illuminated ; and by the pro¬
portion that the apertures P an t Q_bore to each
other, he calculated what quantity ot light was loft
by the reflection at O.
It was neceftary, he obferves, that the two beams of
light
247
Plate
cj.ui.
%• 3*
Fig.
Fig.
OPT
light TO and-QS (which he ufually made 7 or 8 feet
long) fhould be exadtly parallel, that they might come
from two points of the Iky equally elevated above the
horizon, and having precifely the fame intenfity of
light. It was alfo necefiary that the hole Qfhould be
a little higher than P, in order that the two images
fhould be at the fame height, and near one another.
It is no lefs neceffary, he fays, that the fcreen GH be
exaftly vertical, in order that the direct and refle&ed
beams may fall upon it with the fame inclination;
iince, otherwife, though the two lights were perfect¬
ly equal, they would not illuminate the fcreen equal¬
ly. This difpolition, he fays, ferves to anfwer an¬
other important condition in thefe experiments ; for
the direCt ray QS muft be of the fame length with the
fum of the incident and reflected rays, PO and OR,
in brder that the quantity of light introduced into the
room may be fenflbly proportional to the frzes of the
apertures.
We fhall now proceed to recite the refult of the ex¬
periments which he made to meafure the quantity of
light that is loft by reflection in a great variety of cir-
cumftances ; but we fhall introduce them by the reci¬
tal of fome which were made previous to them on the
diminution oflight by reflection, and the tranfmiffion
of it to confiderable diftances through the air, by M.
Buftbn, at the time that he was conftruCling his ma¬
chine to burn at great diftances, mentioned under the
article Burning-G/ciJs.
r Receiving the light of the fun in a dark place, and
Bu‘’comparing it with the fame light of the fun reflefted
by a mirror, he found, that at fmall diftances, as four
or five feet, about one half was loft by reflection ; as
he judged by throwing two reflected beams upon the
lame place, and comparing them with a beam of direft
light; for then the intenfity of them both feemed to be
the fame.
Having received the light at greater diftances, as at
too, 20c, and 300 feet, he could hardly perceive that
it loft any of its intenfity by being tranfmitted through
inch a fpace of air.
He afterwards made the fame experiments with
candles, in the following manner: He placed himfelf
oppofite to a looking-glafs, with a book in his hand,
in a room perfe&ly dark; and having one candle
lighted in the next room, at the diftance of about 40
feet, he had it brought nearer to him by degrees,
till he was juft able to diftinguifh the letters of the
book, which was then 24 feet from the candle. ITe
then received the light of the candle, refleded by the
looking-glafs, upon his book, carefully excluding all
the light that was refie&ed from any thing elfe ; and
he found that the diftance of the book from the candle,
including the diftance from the book to the looking-
^lafs (which was only half a foot) was in all 15 feet.
iHe repeated the experiment feveral times, and always
with nearly the fame refult; and therefore concluded,
that the quantity of direCI light is to that of reflected
as 576 to 225 ; fo that the light of five candles re¬
flected from a plane mirror is about equal to that of
two candles.
From thefe experiments it appeared, that more light
ATby refleaion of the candles than of the fun,
ich M. Luffon thought was owing to this circum-
iance, that the light iifuing from the candle diverges,
N1" 247,
I C S. Hiftory,
and therefore falls more obliquely upon the mirror than
the light of the fun, the rays of which are nearly pa¬
rallel.
Thefe experiments and obfervations of M. Buffon
are curious ; though it will be feen that they fall far
fhort of thofe of M. Bouguer, both in extent and ac¬
curacy. We fhall begin with thofe which he made to
aibertain the difference in the quantity of light reflec¬
ted by glafs and poliflred metal.
Ufing a fmooth piece of glafs one line in thicknefs,^ Bou-
he found, that when it was placed at an angle of 15 suer’s di&
degrees with the incident rays, it refleCled 628 parts ofcovenes
1000 which fell upon it; at the fame time that a me* 4^
tailic mirror, which he tried in the fame circumftances, tlom
reflected only 561 of them. At a lefs angle of inch and pollfh-j
denoe much more light was reflected ; fo that at anmetal,
angle of three degrees the glafs reflected 700 parts, and
the metal fomething lefs, as in the former cafe.
Trying the reflection of bodies that were not po-
lifhed, he found that a piece of white plafter, placed
at an angle of 750, with the incident rays, reflected
t-T7 part of the light that is received from a candle
nine inches from it. White paper, in the fame circum¬
ftances, reflected in the fame proportion ; but at the
diftance of three inches, they both reflected 150 parts
of 1000 that were incident.
Proceeding to make farther obfervations on the fub-
jeCt of reflected light, he premifes the two following
theorems, which hedemonftratesgeometrically. 1. When
the luminous body is at an infinite diftance, and its
light is received by a globe, the furface of which
has a perfect polilh, and abforbs no light, it refleCts
the light equally in all directions, provided it be re- *
ceived at a confiderable diftance. He only excepts
the place where thefliadowof the globe falls; but this,
he fays, is no more than a fingle point, with refpeCt to
the immenfity of the fpherical furface which receives its
light.
2. The quantity of light reflected in one certain di¬
rection will always be exaCtly the fame, whether it —
be reflected by a very great number of fmali poliflied
hemifpheres, by a lefs number of larger hemifpheres,
or by a fingle hemifphere, provided they occupy the
fame bafe, or cover the fame ground-plan.
The ufe he propofes to make of thefe theorems is to
affift him in diftinguifhing whether the light reflected
from bodies be owing to the extinction of it wiihin
them, or whether the roughnefs or eminences which
cover them have not the fame effeCt with the fmall po-
lifhed hemifpheres above-mentioned.
He begins with obferving, that, of the light reflect¬
ed from Mercury, at leaft is loft, and that probably
no fubftances refleCt more than this. The rays were
received at an angle of ii £ degrees of incidence, that
is meafured from the furface of the reflecting body, and
not from the perpendicular, which, he fays, is what we
are from this place to underftand whenever he mentions
the angle of incidence.
The moll linking obfervations which he made with Great dif-
refpeCl to this fubjeCl, are thofe which relate to the^rei1c^ *a
very great difference in the quantity of light reflected
at different angles of incidence. la general, he fays, 0f fubftan-
that reflection is ftronger at fmall angles of incidence, ces aicord-
and weaker at large ones. 1 he difference is exceflive‘nK
when the rays itrike the furface of tranfparent fub-.^nse.
fiances,
249
i
Hiftoty. . OPT
ftanCes, witU difFerefit degrees of obliquity} but it is
almoft as great in fome opaque fubftances, and it was
alwayp more or lefs fo in every thing that he tried.
He found the greateft inequality in black marble ; in
which he was aftonilhed to find, that, with an angle of
3° incidence, though not perfeftly polifhed, yet
it reflefted almoft as well as quickfilver. Of icoorays
which it received, it returned 600; but when the angle
of incidence was 14 degrees, it refle&ed only 156 ;
when it was 30, it refledded 51 } and when it was 80,
it refle&ed only 23.
Similar experiments made with metallic mirrors ak
ways gave the differences much lefs confiderable. The
greateft was hardly ever an eighth or a ninth part of
it, but they were always in the fame way.
The great difference between the quantity of light
refledled from the furface of water, at different angles
of incidence, is truly furprifing ; but our author ob*
ferves, that this difference was greater when the fmall-
eft inclinations were compared with thofe which were
near to a right angle. He fometimea fufpe&ed, that,
at very fmall angles of incidence, the reflexion from
water wras even greater than from quickfilver. All
things confidered, he thought it was not quite fo great,
though it was very difficult to determine the precife
difference between them. In very fmall angles, he fays,
that water reflefts nearly ^ of the diredl light.
There is no perfon, he fays, but has fometimes felt
the force of this ftreng refleddion from water, when he
has been walking in 11 ill weather on the brink of a lake
oppofite to the fun. In this cafe, the refle&ed light is
y, 4, or fometimes a greater proportion of the light
that comes dire<dly from the fun, which is an addition
to the diredt rays of the fun that cannot fail to be
very fenfible. The diretd light of the fun diminifhes
gradually as it approaches the horizon, while the
Jrefleided light at the fame time grows ftronger: fo
that there is a certain elevation of the fun, in which
the united force of the dire6t and refietded light will
be the greateft pofixble, and this he fays is 12 or 13
degrees.
On the other hand, the light refleded from water
at great angles of incidence is extremely fmall. Our
author was affured, that, when the light was perpendi¬
cular, it refie<ded no more than the 37^ Par^ that
quickfilver does in the fame circumftances; for it did
not appear, From all his obfervations, that water re-
fiecds more than the 60th, or rather the 55th, part of
perpendicular light. When the angle of incidence
f was 50 degrees, the light refleeded from the furface
of water was about the 32d part of that which mer¬
cury refle<ded ; and as the reflection from water in-
creafes with the diminution of the angle of incidence,
it was twice as ftrong in proportion at 39 degrees ;
. for it was then the 16th part of the quantity that mer¬
cury reflected.
In order to procure a cotnmon ftandard by which
to meafure the proportion of light reflected from va¬
rious fluid fubftances, be pitched upon water as the moft
commodious; and partly by obfervation, and partly by
calculation, which he always found to agree with his
obfervations, he drew up the following table of the
quantity of light reflected from the fuiface of water,
at different angles with the furface.
Vol.XIIL Parti.
I G S.
Angles of
incidence.
1
1
2
2
5
1
10
12
Rays re¬
flected of
1000.
721
692
669
639
614
501
409
333
271
211
1000.
17
20
25
3°
40
50
60
70
80
90
j 78
145
97
65
34
2 2
19
18
18
18
\
In the fame manner, he drew up the following
table ©f the quantity of light reflected from the lo ok*
ing-glafs not quickfilvered.
Angles of
incidence.
2
5
7
10
12
20
25
Rays re¬
flected of
1000.
584
543
474
412
Si6
299
222
!57
Angles of
incidence.
30
40
5°
60
70
80
90
Rays re*
fleded of
1000.
112
57
34
27
25
25
. 25
Pouring a quantity of water into a veffel containing
quickfilver, it is evident that there wrill fee two images
of any objeds feen by reflection from them, one at
the furface of the water, and the other at that of the
quickfilver. In the largeft angles of incidence, the
image at the furface of the water will difappear, which
will happen when it is about a 60th or an 80th part
lefs luminous than the image at the furface of the
quickfilver. Hepreffing the eye, the image on thew^a-
ter will grow ftrongei, and that on the quickfilver
weaker in proportion ; till at laft, the latter will be
incomparably weaker than the former, and at an angle
of about 10 degres they will be equally luminous.
According to the table, tWo °f the incident rays are
refleded from the water at this angle of 10 degrees.
At the furface of the mercury they were reduced to
500 : and of thefe, part being refleded back upon it
from the under furface of the water, only 333 remain¬
ed to make the image from the mercury.
It has been obferved by feveral perfons, particularly RefledHoft
by Mr Edwards, (fee Phil. Tranf. vol. 53. p. 229.) of images
that there is a remarkably ftrong reflection into water, by the air.
wuth refped to rays iffuing from the water ; and per¬
fons under water have feen images of things in the
air in a manner peculiarly diftind and beautiful :
but this fad had not been obferved with a fufficient.
degree of attention, till it came into M. Bouguer’s
way to do it, and he acknowledges it to he very re¬
markable. In this cafe, he fays, that from the imalleft
angles of incidence, to a certain number of degrees,
the greateft part of the rays are refleded, perhaps in
as great a proportion as at the furface of metallic mir¬
rors, or of quickfilver j while the other part, which
I i docs
250
3 8
I xtiruition
of the rays'
of light v
the fur face
of tranfpa-
r&rit bodies
39
Strong re-
flcdlion by
a prifni.
OPT
does not efcape into the air, is extinguifhed or ah-
forbed ; that the furface of the tranfparent hotly ap¬
pears opaque on the infide. If the angle of incidence
he increafed only a few degrees, the ftrong reflection
ceafes altogether, a great number of rays efcape into
the air, and very few are abforbed or extinguifhed. In
proportion as the angle of incidence is farther increafed,
the quantity of the light reflected becomes lefs and lefs;
and when it is near 90 degrees, almoft all the rays
efcape out of the tranfparent body, its furface lofing
almolt all its power of refle uion, and becoming almofl:
as tranfparent as it is in other cafes, or when the light
falls upon ,it from without.
This property belonging to the furfaces of tranfpa¬
rent bodies, of abforbing or extinguifhing the rays of
light, is truly remarkable, and, as there is reafon to be¬
lieve, had not been noticed by any perfon before M*.
Boucj-uer. It had been conjectured by Sir Ifnac New¬
ton, that rays of light become extinCt only by impin¬
ging upon the folid parts of bodies ; but thefe obfer-
vationsof M. Bouguer fhow that the faCt is quite other-
wife; and that this 'effeCt is to be attributed, not to the
folid parts of bodies, which are certainly more nume¬
rous in a long traCt of water than juft in the paflage
out of water into air, but to fome power lodged at the
furfaces of bodies only, and therefore probably the
fame with that which reflects, refraCts, and infl. wls the
light.
One of the above-mentioned obfervations, viz. all
the light being reflected at certain angles of incidence
from air into denfer fubftances, had frequently been
made, efpecially in glafs prifnis; fo that Newton
made ufe of one of them, inftead of a reflecting mirror,
in the conltruCtion of his telefcope. If a beam of light
fall upon the air from within thefe prifms, at an angle
of 10, 20, or 30 degrees, the effeCt will be nearly the
fame as at the furface of quickfilver, a fourth or a
third of the rays being extinguifhed, and y or |ths re¬
flected. This property retains its full force as far as
an incidence of 49° 49', (fuppofing the proportion of
the fines of refraClion to be 31 and 20 for the mean
refrangible rays) ; but if the angle of incidence be in¬
creafed but one degree, the quantity of light reflect¬
ed inwards decreafes fuddenly, and a great part of the
rays efcape out of the glafs, fo that the furface be¬
comes fuddenly tranfparent.
All tranfparent bodies have the fame property, with
this difference, that the angle of incidence at which the
ftrong reflection ceafes, and at which the light which
is not reflected is extinguilhed, is greater in fome than
in others. In water this angle is about 4.10 32’; and
in every medium it depends fo much on the invariable
proportion of the fine of the angle of refraCtion to the
fine of the angle of incidence, that this law alone is
fufficient to determine all the phenomena of this new
circumftance, at leaft as to this accidental opacity of
the furface.
When our author proceeded to meafure the quan¬
tity of light reflected by thefe internal furfaces at great
angles of incidence, he found many difficulties, efpe¬
cially on account of the many alterations which the
light underwent before it came to his eye : but at
length, ufing a plate of cryftal, he found, that, at an
angle of 75 degrees, this internal reflection diminiflr-
ed the light 27 or 28 times 5 and as the external re-
I C S. Hi dory,
fleCh'on at the fame angle diminifhed the light only 26
times, it follows that the internal reflection is a little
ftronger than the other.
Repeating thefe experiments with the fame and dif¬
ferent pieces of cryftal, he fometimes found the two re¬
flexions to be equally ftrong; but, in general, the in¬
ternal was the ftronger. Alfo, the image reflected in¬
ternally was always a little redder than an ohjeCt which
was feen direCtly through the plate of cryftal.
Refuming his obfervations on the diminution ofQf t^e°
light, occafioned by the reflection of opaque bodies quantity of
obliquely fituated, he compared it with the appear- fight re-
ances of fimilar fubftances which reflected the light
perpendicularly. Ufing pieces of filver made very
white, he found, that, when one of them was placed at
an angle of 75 degrees with refpeCt to the light, it re¬
flected only 640 parts out of 1000. He then varied
the angle, and alfo ufed white plnftcr and fine Dutch
paper, and drew up the following table of the propor¬
tion of the light reflected from each of thofe fubftances
at certain angles.
Quantity of Light reflected from
Dutch
Angles of
incidence.
90
75
60
45
30
*5
Silver.
IOCO
802
640
455
3J9
209
Plafter.
1 coo
761
640
529
352
J94
Paper.
1000
971.
743
5°7
332
203
Suppofing the afperities of opaque bodies to confift
of very fmall planes, it appears from thefe obferva¬
tions, that there are fewer of them in thofe bodies which
refleCt the light at fmall angles of incidence than at
greater ; and our author fays, that the cafe was nearly
the fame with refpeCt to all the opaque bodies that he
tried. None of them had their roughnefs equivalent
to fmall hemifpheres, which would have difperfed the
light equally in all directions ; and, from the data in
the preceding table, he deduces mathematically the
number of the little planes that compofe thofe fur¬
faces, and that are inclined to the general furface at
the angles above-mentioned, fuppofing that the whole
furface contains 1000 of them that are parallel to it-
felf, fo as to refleCl the light perpendicularly, when
the luminous body is fituated at right angles with re¬
fpeCt to it. His conclufions redueed to a table, cor-
refponding to the preceding, are as follow :
Inclinations of
the fmall fur¬
faces with re¬
fpeCt to the
large one.
o
15
3°
45
60
75
The diftribution of the fmall
planes that conftitute the
afperities of the opaque fur¬
face in the
Silver.
1000
777
554
333
161
53
Plafter.
xooo
736
554
374
176
5°
Paper.
1000
937
545
358
166
52
Thefe
Hiftory. OPT
Thefe variations in the number»of little planes, or
furfaces, he eKpreffes in the form of a curve ; and
afterwards he fhowe, geometrically, what would be
the efe£t if the bodies were enlightened in one direc¬
tion, and viewed in another ; upon which fubjedb he
has Icveral curious theorems and problems: as, the
polk ion of the eye being given, to find the angle at
which the luminous body mult he placed, in order to
its reflecting the molt light ; or, the fituation of the
luminous body being given, to find a proper fituation
for the eye, in order to fee it the moft enlightened,
See. But it would carry us too far into geometry to
follow him through all thefe difquifitions.
41 Since the planets, as this accurate obferver takes
notice, are more luminous at their edges than at their
cr-rnini' rv,ecentres, he concludes, from the above-mentioned prin-
pianets, &c.ciples, that the bodies which form them are conllituted
in a manner different from ours; particularly that their
opaque furtaces confill of fmall planes, more of which
are inclined to the general furface than they are in
terreftrial fubftances ; and that there are in them an
infinity of points, which have exadily the fame fplen-
dour.
Our philofopher and geometrician next proceeds to
afeertain the quantity of furface occupied by the fmall
planes of each particular inclination, from confidering
the quantity of light rcfleAed by each, allowing thofe
that have a greater inclination to the common furface
to take up proportion ably lefs fpace than thofe which
are parallel to it. And comparing the quantity of
light that would be refledfed by fmall planes thus dif-
pofed, with the quantity of light that was adfualiy
reflected by the three fubftances above-mentioned, he
found, that plafter, notwithftanding its extreme white-
nefs, abforbs much light; for that, of ioco rays that
fall upon it, of which 166 or 167 ought to be re-
fkdled at an angle of "7 degrees, only 67 are in fact
returned ; fo that too out of 167 were extinguifhed,
that is, about three-fifths.
With refpecl to the planets, our author concludes,
that of 300,000 rays which the moon receives, 172,000
are ablorbed, or perhaps 204,100.
41 Having eonfidered the furfaces of bodies as ctinfift-
facel of bo" ’nS planes only, he thus explains himfelf.—Each
cits. imall furface, feparately taken, is extremely irregular,
and fome of them are really concave, and others con¬
vex ; but, in reducing- them to a middle ftate, they are
to be confidered as planes. Nevcrchelefa he confiders
them as planes only with refpedt to the reception of
the rays ; for as they are almpft all curves, and as, be-
fides this, many of thofe whofe fituation is different
from others contribute to the fame effedt, the rays al¬
ways ifliie frora an adfual or imaginary focus, and
after reflection always diverge from another.
If it be aiked, what becomes of thofe rays that are
refle&ed from one afperity to another ? he ftrows that
very few of the rays can be in thofe circumftances j
iince they muff fall upon planes which have more than
45 degre63 °f obliquity to the furface, of which there
are very few in natural bodies. Thefe rays muff allb
fall at the bottom of thofe planes, and mult meet with
other planes fimilarly lituated to receive them ; and
confidering the great irregularity of the furfaces of
opaque bodies, it may be concluded that very few of
the rays are thus refledted upon the body itfelf; and
I G S.
that the little that is fo refle&ed is probably Icit to the
fpedtators, being extinguilhed in the body.
We are obliged to Mr Melville for tome ingenious Mr Mel-
obfervations on the manner in which bodies are heated'‘'k’1* “b-
by light. He obferves, that, as each colorific particle
of an opaque body mult be fomewhat moved by theaianner ,n
readtion of the particles of light, when it is refledted which bo-
backwards and forwards between the fame particles, d‘e-are
it is mani/eft that they mult likewife be agitated withjk^f^ ^
a vibratory motion, and the time of a vibration will *° "*
be equal to that which light takes up in moving from
one particle of a body to another adjoining. This
diflance, in the molt folid opaque bodies, cannot be
fuppofed greater than TTi5_th of an inch, which fpace
a particle of light deferibes in the T7T;5Wo§oso someth
of a fecond. With fo rapid a motion, therefore, may
the internal parts of bodies be agitated by the influ¬
ence of light, as to perform 125,000,000,000,000 vi¬
brations, or more, in a fecond of time.
Thfe arrival of different particles of light at the fur-
face of the fame colorific particle, in the fame or dif¬
ferent rays, may dillurb the regularity of its vibrations,
but will evidently increafe their frequency, or raife
Hill fmaller vibrations among the parts vyhich com-
pofe thofe particles; by which means the intelline
motion will become more fuotle, and r*» re thoroughly
diffufed. If the quantity of light admitted into the
body be increafed, the vibrations of the particles mufl:
likewife increafe in magnitude and velocity, till at
laft they may be fo violent, as to make all the com¬
ponent particles dalh one another to pieces by their
mutual collilion ; in which cafe, the colour and texture
of the body muit be deltroyed.
Since there is no reflection of light but at the fur¬
face of a medium, the fame perfon obferves, that the
greateil quantity of rays, though crowded into the
Imallefl; Ipace, will not of themlelves produce any heat.
brom hence it follows, that the portion of air which
lies in the focus of the moft potent fpeculum, is not
at all affe&ed by the paffage of light through it, but
continues of the fame temperature with the ambient air;
though any opaque b»dy, or even any tranfparent body
denier than air, when put in the fame place, would be
iutenfely heated in an inftant
1 his confeqtience, evidently flowing from the plainefl:
and moft certain principles, not Teeming to have been
rightly underftood by many phiiofophers, and even
the iilence of moft phylical writers concerning this
paradoxical truth making it probable that they were
unacquainted with it, he thought it worth his while
to fay fomething in explication of it. He obferves,
that the eafieft way to be fatisiicd of the matter expe¬
rimentally is, to hold a hair, or a piece of down, im¬
mediately above the focus of a lens or fpeculum, or to
blow a Itream of fmoke from a pipe horizontally over
it ; for if the air in the focus were hotter than the
furrounding fluid, it would continually afeend upon
account of its rarefaction, and thereby fenfibly agitate
thofe flender bodies. Or a lens may be fo placed as
to form its focus within a body of water, or fome
other tranfparent fubltance, the heat of which may be
examined from time to time with a thermometer; but
care muft be taken, in this experiment, to hold
the lens as near as pofiible to the tranfparent body,
left the rays, by falling clofer than ordinary on its
^ i 2 furface.
2 J> 2 OPT
forface, fliould warm it more than the common fun-
beams (b).
To apply thefe obfervations to the explication of
natural phenomena, he obferves, that the atmofphere
is not much warmed by the paflage of the fun’s light
through it, but chiefly by its contaft with the heated
furface of the globe. This, he thought, furnifhed
one very Ample and plaufible reafon why it is coldefl:
in all climates on the tops' of very high mountains ;
namely, becaufe they are removed to the greateft di-
ftance from the general furface of the earth. 1‘or it
is well known, that a fluid heated by its contact with
a folid body, decreafes in heat in fome inverfe propor¬
tion to the diilance from the body. Hehimfclf found,
by repeated trials, that the heat of water in deep lakes
decreafes regularly from the furface downwards. But
to have this queftion fully determined, the temperature
of the air in the valley and on the mountain-top mull
be obferved every hour, both night and day, and care¬
fully compared together.
From this dodlrine he thinks it reafonable to fup-
pofe, that the heat produced by a given number of
rays, in an opaque body of a given magnitude, mult
be greater when the rays are more inclined to one
another, than when they are lefs fo ; for the direftioir
of the vibrations railed by the adlion of the light,
whether in the coloritic particles, or thofe of an in¬
ferior order, will more interfere with one another ;
from whence the inteftine (hocks and collifions mull
increafe. Befides this, the colorific particles of opaque
bodies being difpofed in various fituations, perhaps,
upon the whole, the rays will fall more dire ft ly on
each, the more they are inclined to one another.
not this, fays he, the reafon of what has been remarked
by philofophers, that the heat of the fun’s light, col-
lefted into a cone, increafes in approaching the focus
in a much higher proportion than according to its
denfity ? That the difference of the angle in which
the rays fall on any particle of a given magnitude,
placed at different diltances from the focus, is but
fmall, is no proof that the phenomenon^ cannot be
afcribed to it; fince we know not in what high pro¬
portion one or both the circumflances now mentioned
may operate. However, that it proceeds not from
any unknown adion of the rays upon one another, as
has been infinuated, is evident from this, that each
particular ray, after paffing through the focus, pre-
ferves its own colour and its own direfUon, in the fame
manner as if it were alone.
Abbe No!- The attempts of the Abbe Nollet to fire inflam-
let’s experi- mable fubftances by the power of the folar rays col-
met t- with lefled in the foci of burning mirrors, have a near rela-
"'affts ^ t'on to t^ie Prefent fubjett. Conlidering the great
power of burning mirrors and lenfes, efpecially thofe
of late conftru&ion, it will appear furprifing that this
celebrated experimental philofopher fhould not be able
to fire any liquid fubftance. But though he made the
ttial with all the care imaginable on the 19th of Fe¬
bruary 1757, he was not able to do it either with
fpirit of-wine, olive-oil, oil-of-turpentine, or aether;
ICS. Hiftory,
and though he could fire fulphur, yet he could not
fuceeed with Spanifh wax, rofin, black pitch, or fuet. *
He both threw \he focus of thefe mirrors upon the
fubftances themfelves, and alfo upon the fumes that
rofe from them ; but all the effcdl was, that the li¬
quor boiled, and was difperfed in vapour or very fmall
drops, but would not take fire. When linen-rags,
and other folid fubftances, were moiftened with any
of thefe inflammable liquids, they would not take fire
till the liquid was difperfed in a copious fume ; fo that
rags thus prepared were longer in burning than thofe
that were dry. 45
M. Beaume, who affifted M. Nollet in fome ofM. Beau-
thefe experiments, obferved farther, that the fame n;e s
fubftances which were eafily fired by the flame of
burning bodies, could not be fet on fire by the contadt
of thehotteft bodies that did not aftually flame. Nei¬
ther aether nor fpirit-of-wine could be fired with a hot
coal, or even red-hot iron, unlefs they were of a white
heat. From.thefe experiments our author concludes,
that, fuppofmg the eleftric matter to be the fame
thing with fire or light, it muft fire fpirit-of-wine by
means of fome other principle. The members of the
academy Del Cimento had attempted fo fire feveral of
thefe fubftances, though without fuccefs ; but this was
fo early in the hiftory of philofophy, that nobody
feems to have concluded, that, becaufe they failed in
this attempt, the thing could not be done. However,
the Abbe informs us, that he read an account of his
experiments to the Royal Academy at Paris feveral
years before he-attended to what had been done by the
Italian philofophers. ^
By the help of optical principles, and efpecially by b0<j;cs
obfervatians on the refledlion of light, Mr Melville dif- which feens
covered that bodies which feem to touch one another to touch
are not always in aftual conta6l. “ It is common are'not
(fays he) to admire the volubility and luftre of drops in a(auai
of rain that lie on the leaves of colewort, and fome contad.
other vegetablesbut no philofopher, as far as he
knew, had put himfelf to the trouble of explaining
this curious phenomenon. Upon infpe&ing them
narrowly, he found that the luftre of the drop is pro¬
duced by a copious refledlion of light from the flattened
part of its furface contiguous to the plant. He ob¬
ferved farther, that, when the drop rolls along a part
which has been wetted, it immediately lofes alt its
luftre, the green plant being then feen clearly through '
it; whereas,'in the other cafe, it is hardly to be dif-
cerned.
From thefe two obfervations put together, he con¬
cluded, that the drop does not really touch the plant,
when it has the mercurial appearance, but isfufpended
in the air at fome diftance from it by the force of a
repulfive power. For there could not be any copious
refledion of white light from its under-furface, unlefs
there were a real interval between it and the furface of
the plant.
If that furface were perfe&ly fmooth, the under-
furface of the drop would be fo likewife, and would
therefore (how an image of the illuminating body by
8 reflection
(b) To thefe obfervations objections might be made which it would not perhaps
we are at prefent giving only the hijlory of optics.
be eafy to anfwer j but-
Hiftory. OPT
refle&ion, like a piece of policed filver; but as it is
confiderably rough and unequal, the under-furface be¬
comes rough likewife, and fo, by refle&ing tbe light
copioufly in different directions, affumes the refplendent
white colour of unpolilhed filver.
It being thus proved by an optical argument, that
the drop is not really in contaft with the plant which
fupports it, it may eafily be conceived whence its
volubility arifes, and why it leaves no moilture where
it rolls.
47 Before we conclude the hiftory of the obfervations
Two cu- concerning the reflection of light, we muff not omit to
nout trnf notice of two curious mifcellaneous ones. Baron
obfcr'va-US Alexander Funk, vifiting fome filver mines in Sweden,
tions. obferved, that, in a clear day, it was as dark as pitch
underground in the eye of a pit, at 60 or 70 fathoms
deep ; whereas, in a cloudy or rainy day, he could
even fee to read at 106 fathoms deep. Inquiring of the
miners, he was informed that this is always the cafe ;
and,< reflecting upon it, he imagined that it arofe from
this circumftance, that when the atmofphere is full of
clouds, light is reflected from them into the pit in all
directions, and that thereby a confiderable proportion
of the rays are reflected perpendicularly upon the
earth ; whereas, when the atmofphere is clear, there
are no opaque bodies to refleCt the light in this man¬
ner, at leaft in a fufficient quantity; and rays from
the fun itfelf can never fall perpendicularly in that
country. The other was that of the ingenious Mr
Grey, who makes fuch a figure in the hiitory of elec¬
tricity. This gentleman took a piece of ftiff brown
paper, and pricking afmall hole in it, he held it at a little
diflance before him ; when, applying a needle to his
eye, he was furprifed to fee the point of it inverted.
The nearer the needle was to the hole, the more it
was magnified, but the lefs diftinCt; and if it was fo
held, as that its image was near the edge of the hole,
its point feemed crooked. From thefe appearances
he concluded, that thefe fmall holes, or fomething in
them, produce the effeCts of concave fpeculums ; and
from this circumflance he took the liberty to call them
aerialfpeculums.
$ 4. DJco'veries concerning the Infection of Light.
^ 4S
Dr Hook’s
(Mcoveries.
This property of light was not difeovered till about
the middle of the laft century. The perfon who firft
made the difeovery was Father Grimaldi ; at leaft he
firft publifhed an account of it in his treatife De lu-
mine, colorilus, et iride, printed in Dr Hooke,
however, laid claim to the fame difeovery, though he
did not publiih his ©bfervations till fix years after
Grimaldi; having probably never feen his perfotm-
ance.
Dr Hooke having made his room completely dark,
admitted into it a beam of the fun’s light by a very
fmall hole in a brafs plate fixed in the window-fhutter.
This beam fpreading icfelf, formed a cone, the apex
of which was in the hole, and the bafe was on a paper,
fo placed as to receive it at fome diftance. In this
image of the fun, thus painted on the paper, he ob¬
ferved that the middle was much brighter than the
edges, and that there was a kind of dark penumbra
about it, of about a 16th part of the diameter of the
circle ; which penumbra, be fays, muft be aferibed to
a property of light, which he promifed t® explain.-—.
ICS. 253
Having obferved this, at the diftance of about two
inches from the former he let in another cone of light;
and receiving the bafes of them, at fuch a diftance
from the holes as that the circles interfered each other,
he obferved that there was not only a penumbra, or
darker ring, encompaffing the lighter circle, but a f
manifeft dark line, or circle, which appeared even
where the limb of the one interfered with that of the
other. This appearance is diftinftly reprefented, pjate
fig- 6. . / CCCLIF*
Comparing the diameter of this bafe with its di¬
ftance from the hole, he found it to be by no means
the fame as it would have been if it had been formed
by ftraight lines drawn from the extremities of the
fun’s difle, but varied with the fize of the holes, and
the diftance of the paper.
Struck with this appearance, he proceeded to make
farther experiments concerning the nature of light
thus tranfmitted. To give a juft idea of which, he
held an opaque body BB, fig. 7. fo as to intercept
the light that entered at a hole in the window-fhutter
O, and was received on the fereen AP. In thefe cir-
cumftances, he obferved, that the ftiadow of the opaque
body (which was a round piece of wood, not bright
or poliflied) was all over fomewhat enlightened, but
more efpecially towards the edge. Some perfons who
were prefent, imagining that this light within the
ftiadow might be produced by fome kind of refleftion
Irom the fide of this opaque body, on account of its
roundnefs ; and others fuppofing it might proceed
from fome refleftion from the fides of’the hole in the
piece of brafs through which the light was admitted
into the room; to obviate both thefe objections, he
admitted the light through a hole burnt in a piece of
pafteboard, and intercepted it with a razor which had
a very fharp edge ; but ftill the appearances were the
very fame as before: fo that, upon the whole, he con¬
cluded that they were occafioned by a new property of
light, different from any that had been obferved by-
preceding writers.
He farther diverfified this experiment, by placing
the razor fo as to divide the cone of light into two
parts, the hole in the fhutter remaining as before, and
placing the paper fo as that none of the enlightened
part of the circle fell upon it, but only the fhadow of
the razor; and, to his great furprife, he obferved what
he calls a very brijh and vifib/e radiation ftriking down
upon the paper, of the fame breadth with the diameter
of the lucid circle; and this radiation always ftruck
perpendicularly from the line of fhadow, and, like the
tail of a comet, extended more than 10 times, and
probably more than 100 times the breadth of the re¬
maining part of the circle : nay, as far as he could
find, by many trials, the light from the edge ftruck
downwards into the fhadow very near to a quadrants
though the greater were the defleftions of this new
light from the direft radiations of the cone, the more
faint they -were.
Obferving this appearance with more attention, hfe
found, wherever there was a part of the interpofed body
higher than the reft, that, oppofite to it, the radiation
of light into the fhadow was brighter, asm the figure;
and wherever there was a notch or gap in it, there
would be a dark ftroke in the half-enlightned fhadow. '
I* i-qaj all thefe appearances, he concluded, that they
were. - -
254
OPT
y/ere to be afcrihed to a new property of light, whereby
it k deflefted from ilraight lines, contrary to what had
been before aflerted by optical writers.
It do.es not appear, however, that our philofopher
ever profecuted this experiment to any purpofe ; as
all that we find of his on the fubj.eft of light, after
tliis time, are feme crude thoughts which he read at a
meeting of the Royal Society, on the 18th of March
1675 ; which, however, as they are only Ihort hints, we
(hall copy.
They co.nfift of eight articles ; and, as he thought,
contained an account of feveral properties ol light
that had not been noticed before. There is a deflec¬
tion of light, differing both from refledhon and refrac¬
tion, and feeming to depend on the unequal denlity
of the conffituent parts of the ray, whereby the light
is difpevfed from the place of condenfation, and rari-
fied, or gradually diverged into a quadrant. 2. This
defledtion is made towards the luperficies of the opaque
body perpendicularly. 3. Thofe parts of the diverged
radiations which are defledled by the greateft angle
from tire ftraight or diredt radiations are the fainted:,
and thofe that aie defledted by the leaft angles are the
Rrcngeft. 4. Rays cutting each other in one common
foramen do not make the angles at the vertex, equal.
5. Colours may be made without refradtion. 6. ihe
diameter of the fun cannot be truly taken with com¬
mon fights. 7. The fame rays of light, falling upon
the fame point of an objedt, will turn into ail forts of
colours, by the various inclinations of the objedt. 8. Co¬
lours begin to appear when two pulles of light are
blended fo well, and fo near together, that the fenfe
^ t^kes them for one.
Grimaldi’s We fhall now proceed to the difeoveries of Father
difeovenes. Grimaldi. Having introduced a ray oi light, through
CCCLl! 3 ver? rma1'1 ho!e’ 8' int° a da;rkened room, he
obferved that trie light was diffufed in the form of a
cone, the bafe of which was CD ; and that if any
opaque body, FE, was placed in this cone of light,
at a confiderable diftance from the hole, and the fha-
dow was received upon a piece of white paper, the
boundaries of it were not confined within GH, or
the penumbra IL, occafioned by the light proceeding
from different parts of the aperture, and of the diik
of the fun, but extended to MN ; at which he was
very much furprifed, fufpedfcng, and finding by cal¬
culation, that it was confiderably broader than it could
have been made by rays paffing in right hues by the
edges of the objedt.
But the moil remarkable circumftance in this ap¬
pearance was, that upon the lucid part of the bafe,
CM aad ND, ftreaks of coloured light were plainly
diftinguiihed, each being terminated by blue on the
fide next to the fhadow, aad by red on the other ;
and though thefe coloured ftreaks depended, in fome
msafure, on the fize of the aperture AB, beesufe
they could not be made to appear if it was large, yet
he found that they were not limited either by it, or by
the diameter of the fun’s dilk.
He farther obferyed, that thefe coloured ftreaks
were not all of the fame breadth, but grew narrower as
they receded from the lhadow, and were each of them
broader the farther the fhadow was received from the
opaque body, and alfo the more obliquely the paper
I C S. Hi (lory,
on which they were received was held with refpefl
to it. He never obferved more than three of thefe
ftreaks.
To give a clearer idea of thefe coloured ftreaks, he
drew the reprefentation of them, exhibited in fig. 9. in
which NMO repreients the broadeft and moft luminous
ftreak, next to the dark (hadowX. In the fpace in which
M is placed there was no diftimftion of colour, but
the fpace NN was blue, and the fpace OO, on the
other fide of it, was red. The fecond ftreak, QjMl,
was narrower than the former; and of the three parts
of which it confifted, the fpace P had no particular
colour, but QQ^was a faint blue, and RR a faint red.
The third ftreaE, TSV, was exa£Uy fimilar to the
two others, but narrower than either of them, and the
colours ftill fainter.
Thefe coloured ftreaks he obferved to lie parallel to
the fnadow of the opaque body; but when it was of an
angular form, they did not make the fame acute
angles, but were bent into a curve, the outermoft be¬
ing rounder than thofe that were next the fhadow, as
is reprefented in fig 10. If it was an inward angle,
as DCH, the coloured ftreaks, parallel to each other
of the two fides, crofted without obliterating one an¬
other ; only the colours were thereby rendered either
more intenfe or mixed.
The light that formed thefe coloured ftreaks, the
reader will perceive, muft have been bent from the
body ; but this attentive obferver has like wife given
an account of other appearances, which muft have
been produced by the light bending towards the body.
For within the lhadow itfelf he fometimes perceived
coloured ftreaks, fimilar to thofe above-'mentioned on
the outfide of the lhadow. Sometimes he faw more
of them, and fometimes fewer ; but for this purpofe a
very ftrong light was requifite, and the opaque body
was obliged to be long, and of a moderate breadth ;
which, he fays, is ealily found by experience. A
hair, for inftance, or a fine needle, did not anfwer fo
well as a thin and narrow plate; and the ftreaks were
moft diltinguilhable when the lhadow was taken at the
greateft diftance ; but then the light grew fainter in
the fame proportion.
The number of thefe ftreaks within the lhado w was
greater in proportion to the breadth of the plate.
They were at leaft two, and fometimes four, if a
thicker rod were made ufe of. But, with the fame
plate or rod, more or fewer ftreaks appeared, in pro¬
portion to the diftance at which the fhadow was re¬
ceived ; but they were broader when they were few,
and narrower when there were more of them ; and
they were all much more diilinCt when the paper was
held obliquely.
Thefe coloured ftreaks within the lhadow, like thofe
on the outfide of it, were bent in an arch, round the
acute angles of the lhadow, as they are reprefented in
fig. 11, At this angle alfo, as at D, other Ihorter
lucid ftreaks were vifible, bent in the form of a plume,
as they are drawn betwixt D and C, each bending
round and meeting again in D. Thefe angular ftreaks
appeared, though the plate or rod was not wholly im-
merfed in the beam of light, but the angle of it only;
and there were more or fewer in number in propor¬
tion to the breadth of the rod or plate. If the plate
or
25j
Hiftory. OPT
or rod '.vaa very thin, the coloured ftreaks within the
thadow might be Teen to bend round from the oppo*
fite iides, and meet one another, as at B. A only
represents a fedfion of the figure, and not a proper
termination of the fhadow, and the ftreaks within
each fide of it. The coloured ftreaks without the
Shadow, he alfo obferves, bend round it in the fame
manner.
Our author acknowledges, that he omits feveral ob-
fervatioils of lofs confecjuence, which cannot but occur
to any perfon who (hall make the experiment: and he
fays, that he was not able to give a perfeftdy clear
idea of what he has attempted to deferibe, nor does he
think it in the power of words to do it.
In order to obtain the more fatisfaflory proof that
rays of light do not always proceed in ftraight lines,
but really bend, in palling by' the edges of" bodies,
he diverfified the firft of the above mentioned experi¬
ments in the foliowing manner. He admitted a beam
of light, by a very finall aperture, into a darkened
room, as before; and, at a great diftanee from it, he
CCCJLil. a plate EF, fig. 12. with a fmall aperture, GH,
which admitted only a p’art of the beam of light, and
found, that when the light tranfmitted through this
plate was received at fome diftance upon a white
paper, the Safe IK was confiderably larger than it
could poffibly have been made by rays ifiuirig in
right lines through the two apertures, as the other
ftraight lines drawn clofe to their edges plainly dC-
monftrate.
That thofe who ehoofe to repeat thefe experiments
may not be difappointed in their expectations from
them, our author gives the following mdre particular
inftrudfions. The fun’s light muft be very intenfe, and
the apeitures through which it is tranfmitted very
narrow, particularly the firft, CD, and the white
paper, IK, on which it is received, muft; be at a con-
fiderable diftance ftom the hole GH ; otherwife it
will not much exceed NO, which would be the breadth
of the beam of light proceeding in ftraight lines. He
generally made the aperture CD or'part of
an ancient Roman foot, and the fecond aperture,
ToV or to°o > an<3 the diftances DG and GN
weie, at leaft, 12 fuch feet. The obfervation was
made in the-fummer time, when the atmofpftere was
free from all vapours, and about mid-day.
F. Grimaldi alfo made the fame experiment that
has been recited from Dr Hooke, in which two beams
of light, entering a darkened room by two fmall
apertures near to one another, proje&ed cones of light,
which, at a certain diftance, in part coincided ; and
he particularly obferved that the dark boundaries of
each of them were vilxble within the lucid ground of
the other
Obferva t|1^e discoveries of Grimaldi, we fhall fubjoin
tionof'De- an additional obfervation of Dechalvs ; who took
duties. notice, that if fmall fcratches be made in any piece of
poliftied metal, and it be expofed to the beams of the
fun in a darkened room, it will reflect the rays
ftreaked with colours in the direftion of the fcratches*
as will appear if the reflefted light be received upon
a piece of white paper. That thefe colours are not
produced by refradtion, he fays, ia manifeft ; for that
if the fcratches be made upon glafs, the effedt will
fed the fame ; and in this caie, if the light had been
ICS.
refradled at the furfade of the glafs, it would have
been tranfmitted through it. From thefe, and many
other cblervations, he concludes that colour does not
depend upon the refradb’on of light only, nor upon a
variety of other circumfiances, which he particularly
enumerates, and the effects of which he difeuffes, but
upon the intenlity of the light only.
We (hall here give an account of a phenomenon of M/dek
of vifion obferved by M. De la Hire, becaufe the Hire. ‘
fubjedt of this fediion, viz. the infu'ctwn of light, fee ms
to fupply the true folution of it, though the au¬
thor himfelf thought otherwife. It is obfervable, he
fays, that when we look at a candle, or any luminous
body, with our eyes nearly fhut, rays of light are ex¬
tended from it, in feveral directions, to a confiderabld
diltattee, like the tails of comets. This appearance
exercifed the fagacity of Defcartes and Rohault, as
well as of our author ; but all three feem to have been
miftaken with refpedt to it. Defcartds aferibed this
effect to certain wrinkles in the furface of the humours
of the eye. Rohauk fays, that when the eye lids'are
nearly clofed, the edgds of them adt like convex len-
fifs. But our author fays, that the ittoifturd on the fur-
face df the eye, adhering partly to the eye itfelf, and
partly to the edge of the eye-lid, makes a concave
mirror, and fo difperfes the rays at their entrance in¬
to the eye. But the true reafen feems to be, that thd
light paffing among the eye-ladies, in this fituation of
the eye, is infiedfted by its near approach to them, and
therefore enters the eye in a- great variety of direc¬
tions. The two former of thefe opinions are particu¬
larly ftated and objedted to by our author.
The experiments of Father Grimaldi and Dr Hooke sir Ifmc-
were net only repeated with the greateft care by Sir Newton’s
Ifaac Newton, but carried much farther than they had ^^C0Yeric8ir
thought of. So little ufe had been made of Grimal¬
di’s obfervations, that all philofophers before Newton
had aferibed the broad ftiadows, and even the frino-es
of light which he deferibed, to the ordinary refradlion
of the air : but we (hall fee them placed in a very difi.
ferent point of view by our author.
He made in a piece of lead a fmall hole with a pin,
the breadth of which was the 42ft part of an inch.
Through tin's hole he let into his darkened chamber a;.
beam of the fun’s light; and found, that the fhadows of
hairs, and other fiender fubftances placed in it, were
confiderably broader than they would have been if the
rays of light had palled by thofe bodies in right lines.
He therefore concluded, that they muft have paffed as
they are reprefented in fig. 1. in which X reprefents
a feftion of the hair, and AD, BE, &c. rays of light Plate
paffing by at different diftances, and then falling upon CC(^LIir*
the wall GQ^ Since, when the paper which receives
the rays is at a great diftance from the hair, the fha-
dow is broad, it muft follow, as he obferves, that the
hair ads upon the rays of light at fome confiderable
diftance from it, the adion being ftrongeft on thole
rays which are at the leaft diftance, and growing weak¬
er and weaker on thofe which are farther off, as is
reprefented in this figure ; and from hence it comes to
pafs that the lhadow of the hair is much broader in
proportion to the diftance of the paper from the hair
when it is nearer than when it is at a great diftance.
He tound, that it was not material whether the hair
was furrounded with air, or with any other pellucid
7 fub»-
4$6
OPT
fubftance ; for he wetted a polifhed plate of glafa, and
laid the hair in the water upon the glafs, and then
laying another polilhed plate of glafs upon it, fo that
the water might fill up the fpace between the glafies,
and holding them in the beam of light, he found
the fhadow at the fame diftances was as big as be¬
fore. Alfo the fhadows of fcratches made in polilh-
ed plates of glafs, and the veins in the glafs, call the
like broad lhadows : fo that this breadth of lhadow
mull proceed from fome other caufe than the refrac¬
tion of the air.
The fhadows of all bodies, metals, {tones, glafs,
wood, horn, ice, &c. in this light were bordered with
three parallel fringes, or bands of coloured light, of
which that which was contiguous to the lhadow was
the broadelt and moft luminous, while that which was
the mof£ remote was the narroweft, and fo faint as not
eafily to be vifible. It was difficult to diftinguilh thefe
colours, unlefs when the light fell very obliquely upon
a fmooth paper, or fome other fmooth white body, fo
as to make them appear much broader than they
would otherwife have done ; but in thefe circumllan-
ces the colours were plainly vjfible, and in the follow¬
ing order. The firlt or innermoll fringe was violet,
and deep blue next the ffiadcw, light blue, green,
and yellow in the middle, and red without. The fe-
cond fringe was almoft contiguous to the firft, and
the third to the fecond$ and both were blue within,
and yellow and red without ; but their colours were
very faint, efpecially tbofe of the third* The colours,
therefore, proceeded in the following order from the
lhadow ; violet, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red;
blue, yellow, red ; pale blue, pale yellow, and red. The
fhadows made by fcratches and bubbles in polifhed
plates of glafs were bordered with the like fringes of
coloured light.
He alfo obferves, that by lookmg on the fun through
a feather, or black ribbon, held clbfe to the eye, feve-
- ral rainbows will appear, the fhadows which the fibres
or threads caft on the retina being bordered with the
like fringes of colours.
Meafuring thefe fringes and their intervals with the
greateft accuracy, he found the former to be in the pro-
greffion of the numbers if and their inter¬
vals to be in the fame progreffion with them, that is, the
fringes and their intervals together to be in continual
progreffion of the numbers i, \/ -r? t»
or thereabouts. And thefe proportions held the fame
very nearly at all diflances from the hair, the dark in¬
tervals of the fringes being as broad in proportion to
the breadth of the fringes at their firft appearance as af¬
terwards, at gteat diftances from the hair, though not
fo dark and diftin£t..
In the next obfervation of our author, we find a ve¬
ry remarkable and curious appearance, which we fhould
hardly have expelled fi;om the circumftances, though
it is pretty fimilar to one that was noticed by Dr
Hooke. The fun fhining into his darkened chamber,
through a hole ^ of an inch broad, he placed, at the
diftance of two or three feet from the hole, a fheet of
pafteboard, black on both fides ; and in the middle of
it he had made a hole about of an inch fquare, for
the light to pafs through ; and behind the hole he faf-
tened to the pafteboard the blade of a lharp knife, to
intercept fome part of the light which paffed through
JNT0 247,
ICS. Hi
the hole. The planes df the paftfcboard and blade of
the knife were parallel to one another, and perpendi¬
cular to the rays } and when they were fo placed that
none of the light fell on the pafteboard, but all of it
pafted through the hole to the knife, and there part
of it fell upon the blade of the knife, and part of it
palled by its edge, he let that part of the light which
palled by fall on a white paper, 2 or 3 feet beyond the
knife, and there faw two {breams of faint light fhoot.
out both ways from the beam of light into the lha¬
dow, like the tails of comets. But becaufe the fun’s
direct light, by its brightnefs upon the paper, obfeu-
red thefe faint ftreams, fo that he could fcarce fee
them, he made a little hole in the midft of the paper
for that light^o pafs through and fall on a black cloth
behind it ; and then he faw “he two ftreams plainly.
They were like^one another, and pretty nearly equal
in length, breadth, and quantity of light. Their light,
at that end which was next to the fun’s direft light,
was pretty tirong for the fpace of about ^ of an inch,
or i of an inch, and decreafed gradually till it became
infenfible.
The whole length of either of thefe ftreams, mea»
fured upon the paper, at the diftance of 3 feet from
the knife, was about 6 or 8 inches ; fo that it fubtend-*
ed an angle, at the edge of the knife, of about 10 or
12, or at moft 14, degrees. Yet fometimes he thought
he faw it fhoot 3 or 4 degrees farther; but with a light
fo very faint, that he could hafdly perceive it. This
light he fufpedled might, in part at leaft, arife from
fome other caufe than the two ftreams. For, placing
his eye in that light, beyond the end of that ftream
which was behind the knife, and looking towards the
knife, he could fee a line of light upon its edge ; and
that not only when his eye was in the line of the ftreams,
but alfo when it was out of that line, either towards
the point of the knife, or towards the handle. This
line of light appeared contiguous to the edge of the
knife, and was narrower than the light of the inner-
moft fringe, and narroweft when his eye was fartheft
from the diredl light; and therefore feemed to pafs
between the light of that fringe and the edge of the
knife ; and that which pafted neareft the edge feemed
to be moft bent, though not all of it.
He then placed another knife by the former, fo that
their edges might be parallel, and look towards one
another, and that the beam of light might fall upon
both the knives, and fomc part of it pafs between their
edges. In this fituation he obferved, that when the
diftance of their edges was about the 400th part of an
inch, the ftream divided in the middle, and left a fha¬
dow between the two parts. This lhadow wasfo black
and dark, that all the light which paired between the
knives feefned to be bent and turned aftde to the one
■hand or the other ; and as the knives ftill approach¬
ed one another, the lhadow grew broader and the
ftreams fhorter next to it, fill, upon the contact of the
knives, all the light vaniihed.
From this.experiment oiir author concludes, that the
light which is leaft bent, and which goes to the inward
ends of the ftreams, paiTes by the edges of the knives
at the greateft diftance ; and this diftance, when the
ffiadovv began to appear between the ftreams, was
about the 800th part of an inch ; atfd the light which
pafled by the edges of the knives at diftances ftill lefs
and
OTTICS .
Plate CCCLK.
x
S /./,!,•////risi- ir/!/.Y(^i/t>r/cftS■
*57
Hiftory. O P T
am! lefs, wag more anti more faint, and went to thofe
parts of the ftreams which were farther from the di¬
rect light ; becaufe, when the knives approached
one another till they touched, thofe parts of the
ftreams vanifhed laft which were fartheft from the di¬
re ft light.
In the experiment of one knife only, the coloured
fringes did not appear; hut, on account of the
breadth of the hole in the window, became fo broad
as to run into one another, and, by joining, to make
one continual light in the beginning of the ftreams ;
but in the laft experiment, as the knives approached
one another, a little before the fhadow appeared be¬
tween the two ftreams, the fringes began to appear on
the inner ends of the ftreams, on either fide of the di-
reft light; three on one fi !e, made by the edge of one
knife, and thlee on the other fide, made by the edge
of the other knife. They were the moft diftinft when
the knives were placed at the greateft diftance from the
hole in the window, and became ftill more diftinft by
making the hole lefs; fo that he could fometimes fee
a faint trace of a fourth fringe beyond the three above-
mentioned : and as the knives approached one another,
the fringes grew more diftinft and larger, till they
vanifhed ; the outermoft vnnifhing firft, and the inner-
moft laft. After they were all vanifhed, and the line
of light which was in the middle between them was
grown very broad, extending itfelf on both fides into
the ftreams of light deferibed before, the above-men¬
tioned fiiadow began to appear in the middle of this
line, and to divide it along the middle into two lines
of light, and increafed till all the light vanifhed. This
enlaigement of the fringes was fo great, that the
raj s which went to the innermoft fringe feemed to
be benr about 20 times more when tire fringe was
ready to vanifh, than when one of tire knives was taken
away.
From both thefe experiments compared together,
our author concluded, that the light of the firft fr inge
pafted by the edge of the knife at a diftance greater
than the Booth part of an inch ; that the light of the
fecond fringe pnfled by the edge of the knife at a
greater diftance than the light of the firft fringe,
and that of the third at a greater diftance than that
of the fecond; and that the light of which the ftreams
above-mentioned confided, pafied by the edges of
the knives at lefs diftances than that of any of the
fringes.
Fie then got the edges of two knives ground truly
ftraight, and pricking their points into aboard, fo
that their edges might look towards one another, and
meeting near their points, contain a reftilinear angle,
be faftened their handles together, to make the angle
invariable. The diftance of the edges of the knives
from one another, at the tliftance of 4 inches from the
angul-’r point, where the edges of the knives met, was
the 8th part of an inch ; fo that the angle contained
by their edges was about 94'. The knives being
thus fixed together, he placed them in a beam of the
fun’s light let into his darkened chamber, through a
hole the 42d part of an inch unde, at the diftance
of 10 or 1 3 feet from the hole ; and he let the light
which pa{fed between their edges tall very obliquely
on a fmooth white ruler, at the diftance of 4- inch,
or an inch, from the knives 5 and there he faw the
Vol. XIII. Parc I.
I G S.
fringes made by the two edges of the knives run along
the edges of the lhadows of the knives, in lines pa¬
rallel to thofe edges, without growing fenfibly broad¬
er, till they met in angles equal to the angle contain¬
ed by the edges of the knives ; and where they met
and joined, they en led, without croffing one another.
But if the ruler was held at a much greater diftancr
from the knives, the fringes, where they were farther
from the place of their meeting, were a little narrower,
and they became fomething broader as they approach¬
ed nearer to one another, and after they met they
crofted one another, and then became much broader
than before.
From thefe obfervations he concluded, that the di¬
ftances at which the light compofing the fringes pafted
by the knives were not increafed or altered by the ap¬
proach of the knives, but that the angles in which the
rays were there bent were much increafed bj' that ap¬
proach; and that the knife which was neareft to any
ray determined which way the ray Ihould be bent, but
that the other knife increafed the bending.
When the rays fell very obliquely upon the ruler, at
the diftance of a third part of an inch from the knives,
the dark line between the firft and fecond fringe of the
fhadow of one knife, and the dark line between the
firft and fecond fringe of the fha low of the other knife,
met one another, at the diftance of the fifth part of
an inch from the end of the light which palled be¬
tween the knives, where their edges met one another;
fo that the diitance of the edges of the knives, at the
meeting of the dark lines, was the i6cth part of an
inch ; and one half of that light pafied by the edge of
one knife, at a diftance not greater than the 320th
part of an inch, and, falling upon the paper, made the
fringes of the fhadow of that knite ; while the other
half pafted by the edge of the other knife, at a dt-
ftance not greater than the 320th part of an inch, and,
falling upon the paper, made the fringes of the Ihadow
of the other knife. But if the paper was held at a di¬
ftance from the knives greater than the third part of
an inch, ' the dark lines above mentioned met at a
greater diftance than the fifth part of an inch from the
end of the light which pafied between the knives, at
the meeting of their edges ; fo that the light which
fell upon the paper where thofe dark lines met pafted
between the knives, where their edges were farther di-
ftant than the 160th part of an inch. For at another
time, when the two knives were 8 feet and 5 inches
from the little hole in the window, the light whiclr fell
upon the paper where the above-mentioned dark lines
met pafied between the knives, where the diftance be¬
tween their edges was, as in the following table, at the
diftances from the paper there noted.
iDiftances of the paper from
the knives in inches.
1 i
3 r
S f
32
96
131
From thefe obfervationi
Diftances between the
edges of the knifes in
millefirnal parts of an
inch.
6,012
0,020
0,034
0,0 SI
0,08 £
0,087
he concluded, that the
k light
■Sj8 OPT
light which makes the fringes upon the paper is not
the fame light at all diftances of the paper from the
knives ; but that, when the paper is held near the
knives, the fringes are made by light which pafles by
the edges of the kniires at a lefs diftance, and is more
bent than when the paper is held at a greater diftance
from the knives. . .
When the fringes of the fhadows of the knives fell
perpendicularly upon the paper, at a great didance
Plate from the knives, they were in the form of hyperbolas,
CCCLIII. their dimenfions being as follows. Let CA, CB, re~
*• prefent lines drawn upon the paper, parallel to. the
edges of the knives ; and between which all the light
would fall if it fuffered no infleftion. DE is a right
line drawn through C, making the angles ACD,
BCE, equal to one another, and terminating all the
light which falls upon the paper, from the point where
the edges of the knives meet. I hen e i and
slv, will be three hyperbolical lines, reprefenting the
boundaries of the fhadow of one ol the knives, the uaik
line between the firft and fecond fringes of that fha-
dojw, and the dark line between the fecond and third
fringes of the fame fhadow. Alfo xipy ykand %lry
will be three other hyperbolical lines, reprefenting the
boundaries of the fhadow of the other knife, the dark
line between the iirft and fecond fringes of that fha¬
dow, and the dark line between the fecond and third
fringes of the fame fhadow. Thefe three hyperbolas
are fimilar, and equal to the former three, and crofs
them in the points i, t, and / ,* fo that the fhadows of
the knives are terminated, and diftinguifhed from the
firft luminous fringes, by the lines eis and xip> till the
meeting and crofting of the fringes ; and then thofe
fines crofs the fringes in the form of dark lines termi¬
nating the firft luminous fringes on the infide, and di-
ftinguifhing them from another light, which begins to
appear at /, and illuminates all the triangular fpace ip
LEj, comprehended by thefe dark lines and the right
line DE. Of thefe hyperbolas one afymptote is the
line DE, and the other afymptotes are parallel to the
lines CA and CB.
The fan fhining into his darkened room through
the fmall hole mentioned above, he placed at the hole
a prifm to refraft the light, and to form on the op-
pofite wall the coloured image of the fun; and he found,
that the fhadows of all bodies held in the coloured
light between the prifm and the wall, were bordered
with fringes of the colour of that light in which they
were held ; and comparing the fringes made in the fe*
veral coloured lights, he found, that thofe made in the
red light were the largeft, thofe made in the violet
were the leaft, and thofe made in the green were of a
middle bignefs. For the fringes with which the fha¬
dow of a man’s hAir were -bordered, being meafured
crofs the fhadow, at the diftance of fix inches from
the hair, the diftance between the middle and moft lu¬
minous part of the firft or innermoft fringe on one fide
of the fhadow, and that of the like fringe on the other
fide of the fhadow, was, in the full red light TVi °f
an inch, and in the full violet The like di¬
ftance between the middle and moft luminous parts of
the fecond fringes, on either ficle of the fhadow, was
in the full red light and the violet Tt °f an inch;
and thefe diftances of the fringes held the fame pro-
ICS. Hiftoryv
portion at all diftances from the hair, without any
fenfible variation.
From thefe obfervations it was evident, that the rays
which made the fringes in the red light, paffed by the
hair at a greater diftance than thofe which made the
like fringes in the violet; fo that the hair, in caufing
thefe fringes, adted alike upon the red light or leaft
refrangible rays at a greater diftance, and upon the
violet or moft refrangible rays at a lefs diftance ; and
thereby occafioned fringes of different fizes, without
any change in the colour of any fort of light.
It may therefore be concluded, that when the hair
in the firft: obfervation was held in the white beam of
the fun’s light, and caft a fhadow which was bordered
with three fringes of coloured light, thofe colours arofe ^
not from any new modifications imprefled upon the
rays of light by the hair, but only from the various
inflexions whereby the feveral forts of rays were fepa-
rated from one another, which before feparation, by the
mixthre of all their colours, compofed the white beam
of the fun’s light; but, when feparated, cornpofed lights
of the feveral colours which they ate originally difpo-
fed to exhibit.
The perfon whofe name we find firft upon the lift 53
of thofe who purfued any experiments fimilar to thofe Maraldi 9
of Newton on infle&ed light is M. Miraldi; whofe ob- 1 k'oveues*
fervations chiefly refpeX the inflexion of light towards
other bodies, whereby their fhadows are partially illu¬
minated; and many of the circumftances which he no¬
ticed relating to it are well worthy of our attention, as
the reader will be convinced from the following account
of them. ■
He expofed in the light of the fun a cylinder of J4
wood three feet long, and 6t lines in diameter; when^P^1"
its fhadow, being received upon a paper held clofe tocerning th'e
it, was everywhere equally black and well defined, (hariows of
and continued to be fo to the diftance of 23'inches cylinders,
from it. At a greater diftance the fhadow appeared
to be of two different denfities ; for the two extremi¬
ties of the fhadow, in the direXion of the length of the
cylinder, were terminated by two dark ftrokes, a little
more than a line in breadth. Within thefe dark lines
there was a faint light, equally difperfed through the.
fhadow, which formed an uniform penumbra, much
lighter than the dark ftrokes at the extremity, or than
the fhadow received near the cylinder. This appear¬
ance is reprefented in Plate CCCLIII. fig. 3.
As the cylinder was removed to a greater diftance
from the paper, the two black lines continued to be
nearly of the fame breadth, and the fame degree of
obfeurity; but the penumbra in the middle grew light¬
er, and its breadth diminifhed, fo that the two dark
lines at the extremity of the fhadow approached one
another, till, at the diftance of 60 inches, they coinci¬
ded, and the penumbra in the middle entirely vanifhed.
At a ftill greater diftance a faint penumbra was viftble;
but it was ill defined, and grew broader as the cylin¬
der was removed farther off, but was fenfible at a very
great diftance.
Befides the black and dark fhadow, which the cy¬
linder formed near the opaque body, a narrow and
faint penumbra was feen on the outfide of the dark
fhadow. And on the outfide of this there was a traX
more flrongly illuminated than the reft of the paper.
The
' *
Hiilory. OPT
The breadth of the external penumbra increafed with
the diftance of the fhadow from the cylinder, and the
breadth of the tra& of light on the outfide of it was
alfo enlarged } but its fplendor diminifhed with the di¬
ftance.
He repeated thefe experiments with three other cy¬
linders of different dimenfions ; and from them all he
inferred, that every opaque cylindrical body, expofed
to the light of the fun, makes a ftiadow which is black
and dark to the diftance of 38 to 45 diameters of the
cylinder which forms it; and that, at a greater diftance,
the middle part begins to be illuminated in the manner
ileferibed above.
In explaining thefe appearances, our author fuppofes
that the light which diluted the middle part of the fha¬
dow was occafioned by the inflection of the rays, which,
bending inwards on their near approach to the body,
did at a certain diftance enlighten all the fhadow, ex¬
cept the edges, which was left undifturbed. At the
fame time other rays were deflefted from the body,
and formed a ftrong light on the outfxde of the fha¬
dow, and which might at the fame time contribute to
dilute the outer fhadow, though he fuppofed that pe¬
numbra to be occafioned principally by that part of the
paper not being enlightened, except by a part of the
fun’s difk only, according to the known principles of
optics.
The fame experiments he made with globes of feve-
Concerning ral diameters ; but he found, that, whereas the fhadows
thofe of of the cylinders did not difappear but at the diftance
globes. of 41 of their diameters, thofe of the globes were not
• vifible beyond 15 of their diameters; which bethought
was owing to the light being inflected on every fide of
a globe, and confequently in fuch a quantity as to
difperfe the fhadows fooner than in the cafe of the cy¬
linders.
In all thefe cafes, the penumbra occafioned by the in-
fledted light began to be vifible at a lefs diftance from
the body in the ftronger light of the fun than in a
weaker, on account of the greater quantity of rays in*
flefted in thofe circumftances.
Confidering the analogy between thefe experiments
His miftake an^ t^e phenornena °f an eclipfe of the moon, immer-
concerning fed in the fhadow of the earth, he imagined, that part
the moon, of the light by which ftie is then vifible is inflected
light, and not that which is refracted by the atmo-
fphere ; though this may be fo copious as to efface fe-
veral of the above-mentioned appearances, occafioned
by infle&ed light only. But this gentleman fhould
have confidered, that as no light is inflected but what
paffts exceedingly near to any body, perhaps fo near
as the diftance of ^ part of an inch, this caufe muft
be altogether inadequate to the effeft.
Being fenfible that the above-mentioned phenomena
of the fhadows were caufed by inflected light, he was
induced to give more particular attention to this re¬
markable property; and, in order to it, to repeat the
experiments of Grimaldi and Sir Ifaac Newton in a
darkened room. In doing this, he prefently obferved,
that, befuies the enlarged fhadow of a hair, a fine
needle, &c. the bright gleam of light that bordered
it, and the three coloured rings next to this enlightened
part, when the fhadow was at a confiderable diftance
from the hair, the dark central fhadow was divided in
ICS. 259
the middle by a mixture of light j and that it was
not of the fame denfity, except when it was very near
the hair.
This new appearance will be feen to be exaftly
fimilar to what our philofopher had obferved with re-
fpe£t to the fhadows in the open day-light above men-
tianed ; but the following obfervations, which he made
with fome variation of his apparatus, are much more
curious and linking, though they arife from the fame
caufe.
Having placed a briftle, which is thicker than a com¬
mon hair, in the rays of the fun, admitted into a dark
chamber by a fmall hole, at the diftance of nine feet
from the hole, it made a fhadow, which, being recei¬
ved at five or fix feet from the objeft, he obferved to
confiil of feveral ftreaks of light and fhade. The middle
part was a faint fhadow, or rather a kind of penumbra,
bordered by a darker fhadow, and after that by a nar¬
rower penumbra; next to which was a light flreak
broader than the dark part, and next to the ftreak of
light, the red, violet, and blue colours were feen as ia
the fhadow of the hair.
In the fame manner he placed, in the fame rays of
the fun, feveral needles of different fixes ; but the ap¬
pearances were fo exceedingly various, tho’ fufficiently
iingular, that he does not recite them particularly, but
choofes rather to give, at fome length, the obfervations
he made on the fhadows of two plates, as by that
means he could better explain the phenomena of the
round bodies. ' ^
He expofed in the rays of the fun, admitted by a Hxperi-
fmall hole into a dark chamber, a plate that was twoments con-
inches long, and a little more than half a line broad..net^ing: th/
This plate being fixed perpendicularly to the rays, at ..;;ace°3'VS °
the diftance of nine feet from the hole, a faiat light*
was feen uniformly difperfed over the fhadow, when it
was received perpendicularly to it, and very near. The
fliadow of the fame plate being received at the diftance
of two feet and a half, was divided into four very nar¬
row black ftreaks, feparated by fmall lighter intervals
equal to them. I he boundaries of this fhadow on each
fide had a penumbra, which was terminated by a very
ftrong light, next to which were the coloured ftreaks
of red, violet, and blue, as before. This is reprefented
in Plate CCCLIII. fig. 4.
ri he fhadow of the fame plate, at 4T feet diftance
from it, was divided into two black ftreaks only, the
two outermoft having difappeared, as in fig. 5. ; but
thefe two black ftreaks which remained were broader
than before, and feparated by a lighter fhade, twice as
broad as one of the former black ftreaks, when the iha-
dow was taken at 2| feet. This penumbra in the
middle had a tinge of red. After the two black
ftreaks there appeared a pietty ftrong penumbra, ter¬
minated by the turn ilreaks of light, which were now-
broad and fplendid, after which followed the coloured
ftreaks.
A fecond plate, two inches long and a line broad,
being placed like the former, 14 feet from the hole
by which the rays of the fun were admitted, its fhadow
being received perpendicularly very near the plate, was
illuminated by a faint light, equally difperfed, as in the
cafe of the preceding plate. But being received at •
the diftance of 13 feet from the plate, fix fmall black
, K k 2 ftreaks
$6o OPT
p, ftreaks began to be vifible, as in fig. 6. At 17 f^et
CCCLUI. from the plate, the black ftreaks vrere broader, more
diftindt, and more feparated from the ftreaks that were
lefs dark. At 42 feet from the plate, only two black
ftreaks were feen in the middle of the penumbra, as
in fig. 7. This middle penumbra between the two
black ftreaks was tinged with red. Next to the black
ftreaks there always appeared the ftreaks of light,
which were broad, and the coloured ftreaks next to
them.
Receiving the fhadow of the fame plate at the di-
ftance of 72 f et, the appearances were the fame as in
the former fituation, except that the two black ftreaks
were broader, and the interval between them, occupied
by the penumbra, was broader aifo, and tinged with a
deeper red.
In the fame rays of the fun he placed different
plates, and larger than the former, one ot them a line
and a half, another two lines, another three lines
broad, &c. but receiving their Shadows upon paper,
be could not perceive in them thofe ftreaks of faint
light which he had obferved in the fhadows of the
fmall plates, though he received thefe fhadows at the
diftance of 56 feet. Nothing was feen but a weak
light, equally diffufed, as in the fhadows of the two
fmalleft plates, received very near them. But had his
dark chamber been large enough, he did not doubt,
but that, at a proper diftance, there would have been
the fame appearances in the fhadows of the larger
plates as in thofe of the. fmalleft. For the fame rea-
i'on, he fuppofed, that, if the fhadows of the fmall
needles could have been diftintlly viewed very near
thofe bodies, the different ftreaks of light and fhade
would have been as vifible in them as in thofe of
the fmall plates; and indeed he did obferve the fame
appearances in the fhadows of needles of a middling
fize.
The ftreaks of light in thefe flvadows our author
aferibed to the rays of light which are infle&ed at dif¬
ferent diftances from the bodies ; and he imagined
that their crofting one another was fufficient to account
for the variations obfervable in them at difterent di¬
ftances.
The extfaordinary fize of the fhadows of thefe fmall
fubftances M. Maraldi thought to be occafioned by
the fhadow from the enlightened part of the fky, added
to that which was made by the light of the fun, and
alfo to a vortex occafioned by the circulation of the
inflefted light behind the object; but our readers will
probably not think it neceffary for us either to produce
all his reafons for this hypothefis, or to enter into a re¬
futation of them.
Our author having made the preceding experiments
upon fingle long fubftances, had the curiofity to place
two of them fo as to crofs one another in a beam of
the fun’s light. The fhadows of two hairs placed in
this manner, and received at fome diftance from them,
appeared to be painted reciprocally *»ne upon the
other, fo that the obfeure part of one of them was vi¬
fible upon the obfeure part of the other. The ftreaks
of light alfo crofted one another, and the coloured
ftreaks did the fame.
Having placed a needle and a hair crofting one an¬
other, their fhadows, at the fame diftance, exhibited
I C S. Hiftory.
the fame appearances as th? fhadows of the two hairs,
though the (hadow of the needle was the ftronger.
He alfo placed in the rays of the fun a briftle and
a plate of iron a line thick, fo that they crofted one
another obliquely ; and when their fhadows were re¬
ceived at the fame diftance, the light and dark ftreaka
of the fhadow of the briftle were vifible fh far as the
middle of the fhadow of the plate on the fide of the
acute angle, but not on the fide of the obtufe angle,
whither the briftle or the plate were placed next to
the rays. The plate made a fhadow fufficiently dark,
divided into fix black ftreaks; and thefe were again
divided by as many light ones equal to them; anl
yet all thg ftreaks belonging to the fhadow of the
briftle were vifible upon it, as in kg. 8. Fo ex¬
plain this appearance, he fuppofed that the rays of
the fun glided a little along the briftle, fo as to en¬
lighten part of that which was behind the plate. But
this feems to be an arbitrary and improbable fuppofi-
tion.
Our philofopher did not fail to expofe feveral fmall
globes in the light of the fun in his dark chamber,,
and to compare their fhadows with thofe of the long
fubftances, ax he had done in the day-light, and the
appearances were ftill fimilar. It was particularly
evident, that there v»as much more light in the fha¬
dows of the globes than in thofe of the cylinders, not
only when they were both of an equal diameter, but
when that of the globe was larger than that of the
cylinder, and the'fhadows of both the bodies were re¬
ceived at the fame diftance. He alfo obferved, that
he could perceive no difference of light in the fhadows
of the plates which were a little more than one lin2^
broad, though they were received at the diftance of
7 2 feet ; but he could cafily fee a difference of fhades
in thofe of the globes, taken at the fame diftance, tho'
they were z} lines in diameter.
In order to explain the colours at the edges of thefe
fhadows, he contrived to throw fome of the fliadowa
upon others ; and the following obfervations, though
they did not enable him to accomplifh what he in¬
tended, are curious and worth reciting.
Having thrown feveral of the fimilar colours upon
one another, and thereby produced a tinge more lively Expcri-
than before, he threw the gleam of light, which
ways intervened between the colours and the darker^ colourC(,
part of the fhadow, upon different parts of other fha-foadows.
dows; and obferved, that, when it fell upon the exte¬
rior penumbra made by another needle, it produced
a beautiful fky-blue colour, almoft like that which
was produced by two blue colours thrown together.
When the fame gleam of light fell upon the deeper
fhadow in-the middle, it produced a red colour; which
feemed to prove, that the reddifh colour in the middle
of feveral of the fhadows might come from the little
light inflected into that place. But here our author
feems to have been mifled by fome falfe hypothefi#
concerning colours.
He placed two. plates of iron, each three or four
lines broad, very near one another, but with a very
fmall interval between them:: and having placed them
in the rays of the fun, and received their fhadows at
the diftance of 1 5 or 20 feet from them, he faw no
light between them but a continued fhadow, in the
middle
Hiftory- ° .P T
middle of which were fome ftveaks of a lively purple,
parallel to one another, and fcparated by other black
ftreaks; but between them there were other ftreaks,
both of a very faint green, and alfo of a pale yellow.
He alfo informs us, that M. Dtlifle had obferved co¬
lours in the ilreaks of light and fhr.de, which are ob-
fervable in fhadows taken near the bodies,
c,, Among thofe who followed Sir Ifaac Newton in
M Mai- his ohfervations on the inflexion of light, we alfo find
pn’sobfcr- ingenious M. Ma:r?.n : but, without attempting
ratiuns. ^ difcovery of new fads, he only endeavoured to
explain the old ones, by the hypothefis of an atmo-
fphere furrounding ail bodies; and confequently ma¬
king two refie&ions and refra&ions of the light that
impinges upon them, one at the furface of the atmo-
fphere, and the other at that of the body itfelf. This
atmofphere he fuppofed to be of a variable denfity and
refra&ive power, like the air.
60 M. Mairan was fuccceded by M. Hu Tour, who
t^le varisble atmofphere fuperfiuous, and ima-
ilouri U gined that he could account for all the phenomena
by the help of an almofphere of an uniform denfity,
and of a lefs refractive power than the air furrounding
all bodies. But what we are molt obliged to this
gentleman for, is, not his ingenious hypothe/is> but the
beautiful variety with which he has exhibited the ex¬
periments, which will render it much ealier for any
perfon to invertigate the true caufes of them.
Before M. Hu Tour gave his attention to this fub-
jed, only three fringes had been obferved in the co¬
lours produced by the infledion of light; but he was
accidentally led to obferve a greater number of them,
and adopted from Grimaldi the following ingenious
method of making them all appear very dirtind.
He took a circular board A13EB (fig.9.), 13 inches
in diameter, the furface of which was black, except at
the edge, where there was a ring of white paper about
three lines broad, in order to trace the circumference
of a circle, divided into 360 degrees, beginning at the
point A, and reckoning 180 degrees on each hand to
the point E ; B and H being each of them placed at
90 degrees. A flip of parchment three inches broad,
and difpofed in the form of a hoop, was faftened round
the board, and pierced at the point E with a fquare
hole, each fide being four or five lines, in order to in¬
troduce a ray of the fun’s light. Laftly, in the centre
of the board C, and perpendicular to it, he fixed a pin
about | of a line in diameter.
This hoop being fa difpofed, that a ray of light
entering the dark chamber, through a vertical cleft of
two lines and a half in length, and about as wide as
the diameter of the pin, went through the hole at E,.
and parting parallel to the plane of the board, proje&ed
the image of the fun and the ihadow of the pin at A.
In thefe circualliances he obferved,
1. That quite round the concave furface of this
hoop, there were a multitude of coloured ftreaks; but
that the fpace mAn, of about 18 degrees, the middle
ef which was occupied by the image of the fun, was
covered with a faint light only.
2. The orjler of the colours in thefe ftreaks was
generally fuch that the moft refrangible rays were the
neareft to the incident ray EGA ; fo that, beginning
from the point A, the violet was the firft and the red
the laft; colour in each of the ftreaks. In fome of
(Plate
iCLin.
I C S. 261
them, however, the colours were difpofed in a contrary
order.
3. The image of the fun, projedled on each fide of
the point A, was divided by the rtiadow of the pm,
which was bordered by two luminous ftreaks.
4. The coloured ftreaks were narrower in fome parts
of the hoop than others, and generally decreaied in
breadth in receding from the point A.
5. Among thefe coloured ilreaks, there were fomc-
times others which were white, a line or a line and an
half in breadth, which were always bordered on both
fides by a ftreak of orange colour, at leatl when the
light of the fun was intenfe, and the chamber fuffi-
ciently dark.
From this experiment he thought it was evident,
that the rays which parted beyond the pin were not
the only ones that were decompofed, for that thofe
which were refie&ed back from the pin were decom-
pofed alfo ; from which he concluded, that they mu ft
have undergone fome reffa&ion. He alfo thought
that thofe which went beyond the pin fullered a re-
fleftion, fo that they were all aftecled in a fimilaF
manner.
In order to account for thefe fafts, our author de-
feribes the progrefs of a ray of light through an uni¬
form atmofphere, which he fuppofes to furround the'
pin ; and Ihows, that the differently refrangible rays
will be feparated at their emergence from it: but he
refers to fome experiments and obfervations in a future
memoir, to dem@nftrate that all the coloured ftreaks;
are produced by rays that are both reflected and re¬
fracted.
To give fome idea of his hypothefts, he fhows that 6r
the ray a b, fig. 10. after being refracted at b, reflected Account of
at r and u, and again refracted at s and t, will be di-*>u
vided into its proper colours; the lead refrangible or
the red rays iffuing at x, and the moft refrangible or
violet at y; which agrees with his obfervations. Thofe
ftreaks in which the colours appear in a contrary order
he thinks are to be aferibed to inequalities in the fur¬
face of the pin. This might eafily have been afeer-
tained by turning the pin round ; in which cafe thefe
differently-coloured ftreaks would have changed their
places.
If any perfon fhould chobfe to repeat thefe experi¬
ments, he obferves that it requires that the fky be very
clear and free from vapours, in order to exhibit the
colours with the greateft diftinftnefs ; fince even the
vapours that are imperceptible will diminilh the laftre
of the colours on every part of the hoop, and even
efface foinc of them, efpecially thofe which are on that
part in which the beam of light enters, as at E, fig. 9,
where the colours are always fainter than in any other
place, and indeed can never be diftinguidled except
when the hole E is confined by black fubllances, fo as
to intercept a part of the light that might reach the
pin ; and unlefs alfo thofe rays which go beyond the
pin to form the image of the fun at A be flopped,
fo that no rays are vifible except thofe that are re¬
flected towards the hole, and which make the faint
ftreaks.
The coloured ftreaks that are next the fhadgw of
the pin, he fhows, are formed by thofe rays which,,
entering the atmofphere, do not fall upon the pin ;
and, without any reflection, are only refracted at their
entering:
262
Plate
CCCLI1I.
OPT
entering and leaving the atmofphere, as at b and r m,
fig. 11. In this cafe, the red or leaft refrangible rays
will ifiue at r, and the violet at u.
To diftinguilh the rays which fell upon the hoop
in any particular dire£tion, from thofe that came in
any other, he made an opening in the hoop, as at P,
fig. 9. by which means he could, with advantage, and
at any diftance from the centre, obferve thofe rays un¬
mixed with any other.
To account for the coloured ftreaks being larger
next the fhadow of the pin, and growing narrower to
the place where the light was admitted, he fliows, by
fig. 12. that the rays ab are farther feparated by both
the refractions than the rays c d.
Sometimes our author obferved, that the broader
ftreaks were not difpofed in this regular order ; but
then he found, that by turning the pin they changed
their places, fo that this circumftance muft have been
an irregularity depending upon the accidental furface
of the pin.
1 he white ftreaks intermixed with the coloured
ones he afcribes to fmall cavities in the furface of the
pin, or feme other .foreign circumftance; for they
alfo changed their places when the pin was made to
turn upon its axis.
Other obfervations ef our author feem to prove that
the refrafting atmofpheres funounding all kinds of
bodies are of the lame fize ; for when he placed a
great variety of fubftances, and of different fizes
ado, he always found the coloured ftreaks of the lame
dimenfions. /
M. Du Tour obferves that his hypothefis contradi&s
an ©bfervation of Sir Ifaac Newton, that thofe rays
which pafstthe neareft to any body are the moft in-
flefted; but he thinks that Newton’s obfervations were
not fufficiently accurate. Befides, he obfervea, that
Newton only laid that be thought it to be fo, without
afferting it pofitively.
Since the rays which formed thefe coloured ftreaks
are but little diverted out of their way, our author
infers that this atmofphere is of fmall extent, and
that its refractive power is not much lefs than that
of air.
Expofing two pieces of paper in the beam of light,
fo that part of it palled between two planes formed by
them, M. Du lour obferved, that the edges of this
light, received upon paper, were bordered with two
orange coloured ftreaks, which Newton had not taken
notice of in any of his experiments. To account for
tnera, he iuppofes, that, in fig. 13. the more refran¬
gible of the rays which enter at' £ are fo refra&ed,
that they do not reach the furface of the body itfelf
at R.: fo that the red and orange-coloured light may
be reflected from thence in the dire&ion JM, where
the orange-coloured ftreaks will be formed ; and, for
the fame reafou, another (treak of orange will be
formed at by the rays which enter the atmofpheie
on the other fide of the chink. In a fimilar manner
he accounts for the orange coloured fringes at the
borders of the white llreaks, in the experiment of the
hoop.
The blue rays, which are not refkaed at R, he
fuppofes, pafs on to 1; and that of thefe rays the
blue tinge obfervable in the lhadows of fonts bodies are
formed.
I G S. Hi {lory.
We may here make a general obfervation, appli- 62
cable to all the attempts of philofophers to explain hypo-
thefe phenomena by atmofpheres. Thefe attempts
give no explanation whatever of what is attempted, founded.1 '
i. e. the phyfical caufe of the phenomena. A phe¬
nomenon is fome individual fail or event in nature.
We are faid to explain it when we point out the ge^
neral fact in which it is comprehended, and Ihow the
manner in which it is fo comprehended, or the parti¬
cular modification of the general fa3. Fhilofophy re-
fembles natural hiltory, having for its fubjedt the
events of nature ; and its inveftigations are nothing but
the clalfification of thefe events, or the arrangement of
them under the general fads of which they are indi¬
vidual inllances. In the prefent inilance there is no
general fa3 referred to. The atmofphere is a mere
gratuitous fuppofition; and all that is done is to Ihow
a refemblance between the phenomena of infledion
of light 10 what would be the phenomena were bodies
furrounded with fuch atmofpheres ; and even in this
point of view, the difeuflions of Mairan and Du Tour
are extremely deficient. They have been fatisfied with
very vague refemblances to a fad obferved in one Jingle
iti/lance, and not fufficientiy examined or deferibed in
that inftance, namely, the refradion of light through
the atmofphere of this globe.
The attempt is to explain how light is turned out
of its diredion by paffing near the furface of bodies.
This indicates the adion of forces in a diredion tranf-
verfe to that of the light. Newton took the right
road of inveftigation, by taking the phenomenon in
its original fimplicity, and attending merely to this,
that the rays are defleded from their former courfe ;
and the foie aim of his inveftigation was to difeover
the laws, i. e. the more general fads in this defkdion.
He deduced from the phenomena, that fome rays
are more defleded than others, and endeavoured to
determine in what rays the defledions are moft re¬
markable : and no experiment of M. Du Tour has
fhown that he was niiftaken in his modified affertion,
that thofe rays are moft infleded which pafs neareft
to the body. We'fay modijied ajfertion ; for Newton
points out with great fagacity many inftances of alter¬
nate fits of inflection and deflection ; and takes it for
granted, that the law of continuity is obferved in thefe
phenomena, and that the change of infledion into de¬
fkdion is gradual.
But thefe analogical difeufiions are eminently defi-
cieht in another refped : They are (p’rima facie) held
out as mechanical explanations of the changes of mo¬
tion obferved in rays of light. When'it fhall be fhown,-
that thefe are precifely fuch as are oblerved in refrad-
ing atmolpheres, nothing is done towards deciding
the original queftion ; for the adion of refrading at¬
mofpheres prefents it in all its difficulties, and we muft ^
ftili aik ho'Zu do thefe atmofpheres produce this eJfeCi ? No
advance whatever is gained in fcience by thrufting in
this hypothetical atmofphere ; and Newton did wifely
in attaching bimfelf to the Ample fad: and he thus.g^^
gives us another flep in fcience, by fhowing us afra&ion,*
fad unknown before, viz. that the adion of bodiesd inflec-
on light is not confined to tranfparent bodies. He311 Pro'
added another general fad to our former flock, thdf^
light as zveil as other matter is acted on at a dflance he fame
and thus he made a very important dcdudlion, that forces.
Jlediot
Hiftory. OPT
Jlediotty refraStor), and inflexion) are prolally brought
about by the fame forces.
We would extend this obfervation to all attempts
of philofophers to explain the phenomena of nature
by the immediate aftion of invifible fluids, magnetieal,
eledlrical, nervous, aethers, &c. and we would add, that
all of them are equally illogical. They are all attempts
te explain changes of motion byimpulfe; and proceed
on the previous fuppofition, that the changes of mo¬
tion by impulfe are perfeftly underftood ; a fuppofition
quite gr?*uitous, nay falfe. We may challenge any
philofopher to demonllrate, from unexceptionable prin¬
ciples, and by juft argument, what will be the effedt of
one particle of matter in motion meeting with another
particle at reft, thefe two particles conftituting the
whole of the univerfe. The queftion is to this day
undecided.
But this is not all—changes of motion by impulfe
are very familiar,, and the general laws are pretty well
known ; fo that when it can be ftiown that impulfe
really operates in a phenomenon, we are fatisfied with
the explanation. When we fee a glafs ball hanging
as a pendulum put in motion by the ftroke of another
equal ball fimilarly fufpended, we think its motion is
fufficiently explained by the common laws of collifion.
But this is a very incomplete view of the matter. It
remains to be proved, that the motion was really pro¬
duced by impulfe, that is, by the one ball’s coming
into contadl with the other; and we {hall find that real
impulfe is far from being fo familiar as we imagine.
When one objeft glafs of a very long telefcope lies
upon another, nothing is obferved at the place of con-
ta£t of the two fpherical glaffes, unlefs the weight of
the upper one be confiderable ; in which cafe a greafy-
like fpot is obferved. If now the upper glafs be preffed
on the other, the fpot will increafe in diameter, and
have a coloured margin. By gradually increafing the
preffure, the breadth of the coloured fpot will inereafe,
and it will be found to confift of concentric arches of
different colours, increafing in number and breadth by
an increafe of preffure. When this is fufficiently great,
a blaqk or unreflefting fpot appears in the middle,
ftiarply defined, with a filvery margin, and increafing
in breadth with the preffure. No additional preffure
makes any change excepting in the diameters of the
coloured rings. When the preffure is gradually dimi-
niflied, the rings contrail, the black fpot vaniffies, and
all the colours vanifh in the contrary order to that of
their firft appearance. When the preffure is meafured
which is neceffary for producing the black fpot, it is
found confiderably to exceed 800 pounds for every
fquare inch of the black fpot.
64 It is inconteftably proved, that the coloured rings
$00 pounds are produced by the refleition of light in thofe parts
ev.-.U °n wliere the glaffes are at certain fmall diftances from
fquare inch each other, infeparable by means of the diameters'of
necctr .ry to the coloured rings and the diameter of the fpheres,
bod W° of which the adjoining furfaces of the gl'affes are por-
appu iitUO tions ; and the want of refle&ion in the middle feems
conutf. to indicate the want of this neceffary diftance, and
that the two glaffes are there in contact, making but
one, their furfaces being flattened by compreifion.
The glaffc-s feem to be kept afunder by mutual forces,
which are overcome by external preffure, and which
again feparate them when the preffure is removed.
I C S. 263
When therefore the glafs ball mentioned above puts
the other in motion by ftriking it, we are in titled to
fay, that unlefs the preffure during the ftroke has
been equal to 800 pounds for every fquare inch of
contact, the motion has been produced without con¬
tact or real impulfe, by the adtion of repulfive forces
exerted between the bails, in the fame manner as would
happen between two magnets floating on cork with
their north poles fronting each other; in which cafe
(if the motion has been fufficiently flow) the ftriking
magnet will be brought to reft, and the other move
off, with its original velocity, in the fame manner as
happens to the glafs balls. Many fuch communications
of motion happen, where we cannot fay that the im-proiuce4
pulfive preffure is greater than that now mentioned ; without
and in fuch cafes we are well intitled to fay, that theirnPufle>
motion has been produced without real irnpulfe, by
repulfive forces adling at a diftance. This evidently
diminifties to a great degree the familiarity of the fa£t
of impulfe.
But we conclude too haftily, from the phenomena
of the objeft glaffes, that a prtffure exceeding 800
pounds on the fquare inch will produce contact.
Blow a foap bubble, and let it fall on a piece of
cloth, and cover it with a glafs bell: after fome time
you will obferve rings of colours on its upper part,
which will increafe in number and bi-eadth, and be in
every refpedt fimilar to thofe between the obje£t-glaffes.
Thefe arife from the gradual fhining of the upper part'
of the foap bubble; a certain thicknefs of this, as well
as of the interval between the glaffes, invariably re¬
flecting a certain colour. At laft a black fpot appears
a-top, which is ffiarply defined, and increafes in diame¬
ter. Soon after this the bubble burfts. Thus then
there is a certain thicknefs neceflary for enabling the
plate of leap fuds to reflet; light fo as to be very fen-
iible. Analogy obliges us to extend this to the ob-
jeft-glaffes, and to fay, not that the glafles touch each
other through the extent of the black fpot, but that
their diftance is there too fmall for the fenfible reflec¬
tion of light; and it remains undecided whether any
preffure, however great, can annihilate all diftance be- 65
tween them. So tar, therefore, from impulfe being a It is doubts
familiar fa£l, and its fuppofed laws being proper andful whe‘
logical principles of reafoning and explanation, it ap-
pears extremely doubtful whether the fa£t has ewreverYeen
been obferved; and it muft therefore be againft the obfervecL -
rules of logic to adduce the laws of impulfe for the ex¬
planation of any abftrufe phenomenon,
./Ether and other fluid atmofpheres have often been
reforted to by philofophets puzzled for an explana¬
tion ; and all this trouble has been taken to avoid the
fuppofed difficulty of bodies afting at a diftance. We
now fee that this is only putting the .difficulty a ftep
farther off. We mayhere add, that in all thefe attempts
the very thing is fuppofed which the philofophers
wifti to avoid. Thefe aethers have been fitted for
their talks by fuppofing them of variable denfities.
It is quite eafy to fhow, that fuch a variation in den- 67
fity cannot be conceived without fuppofing the parti-Su^P°*re<J
cles to a& on particles not in contact with them, anda7,'ers fur"
to a diftance as great as that to which the change of^LS^f10'
dentity extends. . i he very firnpleft form of an elafttcthe phe-
fluid fuppofes this, .either with refpe£t to its own par-nomena
tides, or with refped to the particles of a ftill m0reiaflcai8Cj
fubtiie
I
264 OPT
fubtile flaul, from the interfperfion of which it de¬
rives its claftieity. To get rid of one action at a di-
llance, therefore, we introduce millions. Inftead,
therefore, of naturalifts pluming themfdves on fuch
explanations, and having recourfe, in all their diffi-
ficulties, to the tether of Sir Ifaac Newton, which they
make a drudge, a Mungo here, Mungo there, Mungo
everywhere; let us rather wonder how that great
man, not more eminent for penetration and invention
than for accuracy of conception and juftnefs of reafon-
ing. fhould fo far forget himfelf, and deviate from that
path of logical inveiligaticn in which he had mod fuc-
cefsfully advanced, and fhould, in his fabrication of
aether, and application of it to explain the more ab-
ftrufe phenomena of nature, at once tranfgrefs all the
rules of philofophizing which he had preferibed to
himfeif and others. Let this flip, this mark of frail
mortality, put us on our guard, left we alfo be feduced
by the fpecious offers of explanation which are held out
to us by means of invifible atmofpheres of every kind.
£S M. Le Cat has well explained a phenomenon of
Ohjefts vifion depending upon the inflexion of light, which
fometimes fhows, that, in fome cafes objedts appear magnified
magnified Py this means. Looking at a diftant fteeple, when a
flecSion'of w’re» a diarncter than the pupil of his eye, was
Ij^ht. pretty near to it, and drawing it feveral times
betwixt his eye and that objedf, he was furprifed to
find, that, every time the wire paffed before his pu¬
pil, the fleeple feerned to change its place, and fome
bids beyond the fteeple feemei to have the fame mo¬
tion, juft as if a lens had been drawn betwixt his eye
and them.
Examining thisappearance more attentively,he found
that there was a pofition of the wire, but very diffi¬
cult to keep, in which the fteeple feemed not to have
any motion, when the wire was paffed before his eye;
and in this cafe the fteeple appeared lefs diftindfly, and
feemed to be magnified. Thefe effedls being fimilar
to thofe of a lens, he attended to them more particu¬
larly ; and placed his eye in fuch a manner with re-
fpedl to the fteeple, that the rays of light by which
he faw it muft come very clofe to the edge of a win¬
dow, where he had placed himfelf to make his obfer-
vations. Then paffing the wire once more before his
eye, he obferved, that, when it was in the vifual axis,
the fteeple appeared nearer to the window, on which¬
ever fide the wire was made to approach. He repeat¬
ed this experiment, and conftantly with the fame re-
fult, the objedt being always magnified, and nearly
doubled, by ttys means.
( This phenomenon is eafily explained by fig. 14. in
CCCLI’I which B reprefents the eye, A the fleeple, and C the
diameter of the wire. The black lines exprefs the
cone of light by which the natural image of the fteeple
A is formed, and which is much narrower than the
diameter of the wire C ; but the doted lines include
not only that cone of light, flopped and turned out of
its courfe by the wire, but alfo more diftant rays
inflc&ed by the wire, and thereby thrown more con-
verging into the pupil; juft as would have been the
effect of the interpolition of a lens between the eve
anti the objeiS. The refultof this experiment was the
fame, whatever fubflances he made ufe of in the place
of the wire, provided they were of the fame diameter.
N0247.
C S. Hiftory.
§ 5. Difcoveries concerning Vijion.
Maurolycus was the firft who fhowed the true ^
theory of viiion, by demonftrating that the cryftalline Difeoveriei
humour of the eye is a lens which colletfts the light of Mauro-
iffuing from external obje&s, and thro- s them upon
the retina, where is the focus of each pencil. He did concerning
not however find out, that, by means of this refrac-vifion. *
tion of the rays, an image of every vifible objedl was
formed upon the retina, though this feems hardly to
have been a ftep beyond the difeovery he had already
made. Montucla indeed conjectures, that he was
prevented from mentioning this part of the difeovery
by the difficulty of accounting for the upright ap¬
pearance of objeCts, as the image on the retina is al¬
ways inverted. This difeovery was made by Kepler j
but he, too, was much difficulted with the inverted
poiition of the image. The rectification of thefe
images, he fays, is the bufinefs of the mind; which,
when it perceives an impreffion on the lower part of
the retina, confiders it as made by rays proceeding
from the higher parts of objeCts; tracing the rays back
to the pupil, where they crofs one another. But this
hypothefis can fcarcely be deemed fatisfaCtory.—Kep¬
ler did not pretend to account for the manner in which
the mind perceives the images upon the retina, and
very much blames Vitellio for attempting premature¬
ly to determine a queftion of this nature, and which
indeed, he fays, does not belong to optics. He ac¬
counts, however, though not in a fatisfaCtory manner,
for the power we have of feeing diftinCtly at different
diilances.
The difeovery concerning vifion was completed by
Schemer. For, in cutting away the coats of the backDifcoveriw
part of the eyes of ftleep and oxen, and prefenting fe-Sehdncr.
veral objeCts before them, within the ufual diftance of
vifion, he faw their images diftinClly and beautifully
painted upon the retina. He did the fame thing with
the human eye, and exhibited this curious experiment
at Rome in 1625. He takes particular notice of the
refemblance between the eye and the camera obfeura,
and explains a variety of methods to make the images
of objeCts ereCt. As to the images of objeCts being
inverted in the eye, he acquiefces in the reafon given
for it by Kepler. He knew that the pupil of the eye
is enlarged in order to view remote objeCts, and that
it is contracted while we are viewing thofe that are
near ; and this he proved by experiment, and illuftrated
by figures.
Scheiner alfo took a good deal of pains to afeer-
tain the denlity and refraCtive power of all the humours
of the eye, by comparing their magnifying power with
that of water or glafs in the fame form and circum-
ftances. The refult of his inquiries was, that the
aqueous humour doth not differ much from water in
this refpeCt, nor the cryftalline from glafs ; and that
the vitreous humour is a medium between both. He
alfo very accurately and minutely traces the progrefs
of the rays of light through all the humours of the
eye; and after difeuffing every poffible hypothefis con¬
cerning the proper feat of vifion, he demonftrates that
it is in the retina, and fhows that this was the opinion
of Alhazen, Vitellio, Kepler, and all the moft emi¬
nent philofophers. He produces many reafons of his
own for this hypothefis; anfvvers a great number of
1 objeCtiona
Hi (lory. OPT
obje&ion* to it { and, t>y a variety of arguments, re¬
futes the opinion of former times, that the feat of vi-
7* _ fion is in the cryftalline.
Dcfcartes makes a good number of obfervations on
cartes, phenomena of vifion. He explains fatisfaftorily
the natural methods of judging of the magnitudes, fi-
tuations, and diftances, of obje&s by the direction of
the optic axes; comparing it to a blind man’s judg¬
ing of the fixe and diftance of an objedt, by feeling at
it with two flicks of a known length, when the hands
in which he holds them are at a known diftance from
each other. He alfo obfervcs, that having been ac-
cuftomed to judge of the fituatiotl of objetts by their
images'falling on a particular part of the eye; if by
any diftortion of the eye they fall on a different place,
we are apt to miftake their fituation, or imagine one
objeft to be two ; as, till we become accuftomed to
it, we imagine one flick to be two, when it is placed
between two contiguous fingers laid acrofs one ano¬
ther. But he obferves, that all the methods we have
of judging of the diftances of objefts are very uncer¬
tain, and extend but to narrow limits. The dire&ion
of the optic axes, he fays, will not ferve us beyond 15
or 20 feet, and the change of form of the cryftalline
not more than three or four feet. For he imagined
that the eye conforms itfelf to the view of near or di-
ftant objects by a change in the curvature of the cry¬
ftalline, which he fuppofed to be a mufcle, the ten¬
dons of it being the proceffus ciliares. In another
place, he fays, that the change in the conformation of
the eye is of no ufe to us for the purpofe of judging
of diftances beyond four or five feet, and the angle of
the optic axes not more than 100 or 200 feet: for
this reafon, he fays, that the fun and moon are con¬
ceived to be much more nearly of the fame fi/,e than
they are in reality. White and luminous objedls, he
fays,, appear larger than others, and alfo the parts
contiguous to thofe on which the rays actually im-
pinge; and for the fame reafon, if the objedls be fmall,
and placed at a great diftance, they will always appear
round, the figure of the angles difappearing.
fietk.iey’i The celebrated Berkeley bifbop of Cloyne publilb-
e^’.ln 17°9> -An EJfay towards a New Theory of Vifiony
which contains the folution of many difficulties. He
does not admit that it is by means of thofe lines and
angles, which are extremely ufeful in explaining the
theory of optics, that different diftances are judged of
by thc .fenfe of fight ; neither does he think that the
mere dire&ion of the optic axes, or the greater or lefs
divergency of the rays of light, are fufficient for this
purpofe. “ 1 appeal (fays he) to any one’s experi¬
ence, whether, upon fight of an obje8y he compute its
diftance by the bignefs of the angle made by the meet¬
ing of the two optic axes ? or whether he ever thinks
of the greater er lefs divergency of the rays which
arrive from any point to his pupil ? Nay, Whether it
be not perfettly impoffible for him to perceive, by
fenfe, the various angles wherewith the rays according
to their greater or leffer divergency fell upon his eye ?’*
That there is a neceffary connection between thefe va¬
rious angles, &c. and different degrees of diftance,
and that this connexion is known to every perfoh fkitl-
ed in optics, he readily acknowleges ; butin vain
(fays he) (ball all the mathematicians la the world tell
Vox.. XIII. PartL
f C S. S6/
me, that I perceive certain lines aftd cngtesy which in¬
troduce into my mind the various notions of dijlancet
fo long as I am myfelf confcious of no fuck thing.”
Diftance, magnitude, and even figure, he maintains to
be the obje&s of immediate perception only by the
fenfe of touch ; and that when we judge of them by
fight, it is from different fenfations felt in the eye
which experience has taught us to be the confe-
quence of viewing obje&s of greater or lefs magrii-
tude, of different figures, and at different diftances.
Thefc various fenfations, with the refpe&ive diilances,
figures, and magnitudes by which they are occafioned,
become fo clofely affociated in the mind long before
the period of diftinft recolleftioti, that the prefence
of the one inftantly fuggefts the other ; and we attri¬
bute to the fenfe of fight thofe notions which are ac¬
quired by the fenfe pf touch, and of which certain,
v'fual fenfations are merely the figns or fymbols, juft
as words are the fymbols of ideas. Upon thefe prin¬
ciples he accounts, in a manner worthy of the reader’s
attention, for fingle vifion by both eyes, and for our v
perceiving objefts ereft by inverted images of them oft
the retina tunica. Subfequent writers have made
great difeoveries in the theory of vifion ; and among
them there is hardly any one to whom this branch of
fciencc is fo much indebted as to Dr Reid. Their
reafomngs, however, our limits will not permit us to
detail, nor do they properly belong to this part of
the article ; they are coniie&ed with the defeription
of the eye itfelf, the various modes of vifion, and opti*
cal deceptions to which we are liable; and thefe will
be confidered in a fucceeding part of this treatMe.
§ 6. Of Optical Injlruments, and Dijcoveries concerning
them,
. So little were the ancients acquainted with the Invemiots
icienee of Optics, that they feem to hive had ho in-°f fpec-
ftruments of the optical kind, excepting the glafstacles‘
globes and fpeculums formerly mentioned, which they
ufed m foms cafes for magnifying and burning. Al-
hazen, as we have feen, gave the firft hint of the in¬
vention of fpeilacles, and it is probable that they were
found out foon after his time. From the writings of
Alhazen, together with the obfervations and experi¬
ments of Roger Bacon, it is not improbable that fome
monks gradually hit upon the conftruaion of fpeda-
efes ; to which Bacon’s leffer fegment, notwithftand-
mg his miftake concerning it, was a nearer approach
than Alhazen’s larger one. Whoever they were that
purfued the difeoveries of Bacon, they probably ob-
lerved, that a very fmall convex glafs, when held at a
greater diftance from the book, would magnify the
letters more than when it was placed clofe to them, in
which pofition only Bacon feems to have ufed it. In
the next place, they might try whether two of thefe
fmall fegments of a fphere placed together, or a elafs
convex on both ftdes, would not magnify more than
Ter0f,tiem* r?ey wouW then find, that two of
thefe glaffes, one for each eye, would anfwer the pur-
pofe o. reading better than one; and laftly, they might
find, that different degrees of convexity fuited different
perfons.
It is certain that fpe&acles were Well known in the
J3th century, and not long before. It is faid that
Alcx=>
266
O
Alexander Spina, a native of Pifa, who died in I3T3»
and who was very ingenious in executing whatever he
faw or heard of as having been done by others, hap¬
pened to.fee a pair of fpe&acles in the hands of a per-
fon who would pot explain them to him ; but that he
fucceeded in making a pair for.himfelf, and immedi¬
ately made the conftru&ion public, for the good of
others. It is alfo infcribed on the tomb of Salvinus
Armatus, a nobleman of Florence, who died 1317, that
^4 he was the inventor of fpeftacles.
Of concave The ufe of concave glaffes, to help thofe perfons
glafies. who are fhort fighted, was probably a difcovery that
followed not long after that of convex ones, for^the
relief of thofe whofe fight is defe&ive in the contrary
extreme, though we find no trace of this improve¬
ment. Whoever made this difcovery, it was probably
the refult of nothing more than a random experiment.
Perhaps a perfon who was fhort fighted, finding that
convex glaffes did him more harm than good, had the
curiofity to make trial of a contrary curvature of the
glafs.
Peicartes’s From this time, though both convex and concave
account of lenfes were fufficiently common, yet no attempt was
the inven- made to form a telefcope by a combination of them,
tion ef tele-^ enj 0f Century. Defcartes confiders
• “°FCS* James Metius, a perfon who was no mathematician,
though his father and brother had applied to thofe
fciences, as the firft conftruclor of a telefcope ; and
fays, that as he was amufing himfelf with making
mirrors and burning-glaffes, he cafually thought of
looking through two of his lenfes at a time ; and that
happening to take one that was convex and another
that was concave, and happening alfo to hit upon a
pretty good adjuftment of them, he found, that, by
looking through them, diftant objedts appeared very
large and diftinft. In fadi, without knowing it, he
had made a telefcope.
©th?r ac_ Other perfons fay, that this great difcovery was firft
counts. made by John Lipperfheim, a maker of fpedtacles at
Middleburgh, or rather by his children ; who, like
Metius, were diverting themfelves with looking thro’
two glaffes at a time, and placing them at different
diftances from one another. But Borellus, the author
of a book intitled, T)e vero telefcopii inventore, gives
this honour to Zacharias Joannides, i. e. Janfen, ano¬
ther maker of fpedtacles at the fame place, who made
the firft telefcope in 1590; and it feems now to be
the general opinion, that this account of Borellus is
77 the moft probable.
Uorellus’s Indeed, Borellus’s account of the difcovery of tele-
accouut fcopes is fo circumftantial, and fo well authenticated,
tKe'uue" t^at ^ c^0es not ^eem ts ca^ ‘t in (Iueft,'on* ^
one.' *s not trueJ be this great difcovery was made
by a perfon who was no philofopher : for Zacharias
Janfen was a diligent inquirer into nature ; and being
engaged in thefe purfuits, he was trying what ufes
could be made of lenfes for thofe purpofes, when he
fortunately hit upon the conftruftion.
This ingenious mechanic, or rather philofopher, had
no fooner found the arrangement of glaffes that pro¬
duced the effeft he defired, than he inclofed them in
a tube, and ran with his inftrument to prince Maurice ;
who, immediately conceiving that it might be of ufe
to him in his wars, defired the author to keep it a fe-
ciet. But this, though attempted for fome time, was
ICS* Hiftory.
found to be impoffible ; and feveral perfons in that
city immediately applied themfclves to the making
and felling of telefcopes. One of the moft diftin-
guifhed of thefe was Hans Laprey, called Lipperjheim
by Sirturus. By him fome perfon in Holland being
very early fupplied with a telefcope, he paffei with
many for the inventor; but both Metius above-men¬
tioned, and Cornelius Drebell of Alcmar, in Holland,
applied to the inventor himfelf in 1620 ; au alto did 7$
Galileo, and many others. The firft'telefcope made The firft
by Janfen did not exceed 15 or 16 inches in length ;
but Sirturus, who fays that he had feen it, and made^^xcc^
ufe of it, thought it the be ft that he had ever exa-
mined.
Janfen, having a philofophical turn, prefently ap¬
plied his iRftrument to fuch purpofes as he had in view
wdren he hit upon the conftruHion. DiredHng it to¬
wards celeftial ovje£ls, he diftiiuftly1 viewed the fpots
on the furface of the moon ; and di[covered many new
ftars, particularly feven pretty confiderable ones in the
Great Bear. His fon Joannes Zacharias, noted the
lucid circle near the limb of the moon, from whence
fcveralbright rays feem to dart in different direftions;
and he fays, that the full moon-, viewed through this
inftrument, did not appear flat, but was evidently s
fpherical, the middle part being prominent. Jupiter
alfo, he fays, appeared round, and rather fpherical ;
and fometimes he perceived two, fometimesthree, and
at the moft four fmall ftars, a little above or below
him ; and, as far as he could obferve, they performed
revolutions round him ; but this, he fays, he leaves to
the confideration of aftronomers. This, it is probable,
was the firft obfervation of the fatellites of Jupiter,
though the perfon who made it was not aware of the
importance of his difcovery. _ 79
One Francis Fontana, an Italian, alfo claims the Honour of
invention ; but as he did not pretend to have made it the inven-
before the year 1608, and as it is well known that the. ^by Fob-
inftruments were made and fold in Holland fome time ranai
before, his pretenfions to a fecond difcovery are not
much regarded.
There are fome who fay that Galileo was the inven- A tdefcop*
tor of telefcopes ; but he himfelf acknowledges, that made by
he firft heard of the inftrument from a German ; but Galileo
he fays, that being informed of nothing more than the
effedts of it, firft by common report, and a few days
after by a French nobleman, J. Badovere, at Paris, he
himfelf difeovered the conftrudion, by confidering the
nature of refraction: and thus he had much more real
merit than the inventor himfelf.
The account of what Galileo actually did in this bu-
finefs is fo circumftantially related by the author of
his life, prefixed to the quarto edition of his woiks,
printed at Venice in 1744? and it contains fo many par¬
ticulars, which cannot but be pleafing to every perfon
who is interefted in the hiftory of telefcopes, that we
[hall abridge a part of it, intermixing circumftances
coUe&ed from other accounts.
About April or May, in 1609, it was reported at Accountof
Venice, where Galileo (who was profeffor of mathe-his difeo-
matics in the univerfity of Padua) then happened to veries.
be, that a Dutchman had prefented to Count Maurice,
of Naffau, a certain optical inftrument, by means of
which, diftant objeds appeared as if they were near ;
but no farther account of the difcovery had reached *
HSftorf. OPT
that plate, though this was hear 20 years after the firft
difeovery. Struck, however, with this account, Ga¬
lileo initantly returned to Padua, confidering what
kind of an inttrument this muft be. The night fol¬
lowing, the conftruttion occurred to him ; and the
day after, putting the parts of the inftrument toge¬
ther, as he had previouily conceived of it, and not-
withftanding the imperfe&ion of the glaffes that he
could then procure, the effedf anfwered his expetta-
- tions, as he prefently acquainted his friends at Venice,
to which place he fix days afterwards carried another
and a better initrument that he had made, and where,
from feveral eminences, he fhowed to fome of the
principal fenators of that republic a variety of diftant
objedts, to their very great artonifhment. When he
had made faither improvements in the inftrument, he,
with his ufual generofity and franknefs in communi¬
cating his difeoveries, made a prefeut of one of' them
to the Doge, Leonardo Donati, and at the fame
time to all the fenate of Venice } giving along with
the inftrument a written paper, in which he explain¬
ed the ftrudlure and wonderful ufes that might be
made of it both by land and at fea. In return for fo
noble an entertainment, the republic, on the 25th of
Auguft, in the fame year, more than tripled his falary
as profeflbr.
Our philofopher, having amufed himfelf for fome
time with the view of terreftrial objects, at length di¬
rected his tube towards the heavens ; and, obferving
the moon, he found that the furface of it was diver-
fified with hills and valleys, like the earth. He found
that the via laflea and nebula confided of a collection
of fixed ftars, which, on account either of their vaft
diftance, or extreme fmallnefs, were invifible to the na¬
ked eye. He alfo difeovered innumerable fixed ftars
difperfed over the face of the heavens, which had been
unknown to all the ancients; and examining Jupiter,
with a better inftrument than any he had made before,
he found that he was accompanied by four ftars, which,
in certain fixed periods, performed revolutions round
him, and which, in honour of the houfe of Medici, he
called Medicean planets.
This difeovery he made in January 1610, new ftyle;
and continuing his obfervations the whole of Febru¬
ary following, in the beginning of March next he
publilhed an account of all his difeoveries, in his Nun-
cius Sidereus, printed at Venice, and dedicated to Cof-
mo great duke of Tufcany, who, by a letter which
he wrote to him on the 10th of July 1610, invited
him to quit Padua, and affigned him an ample fti-
pend, as primate and extraordinary profeffor at Pifa,
but without any obligation to read lectures, or to re-
fide.
The extraordinary difeoveries contained in the Nun-
cius Sidereus, which was immediately reprinted both
in Germany and France, were the caufe of much fpe-
culation and debate among the philofophers and aftro-
romers of that time ; many of whom could not be
brought to give any credit to Galileo’s account, while
others endeavoured to decry his difeoveries as being
nothing more than fictions or illufions. Some could
not be prevailed upon even to look through a tele-
fcope ; fo devoted were they to the fyltem t>£ Ariitotle,
f nd fo averfe to admit any other fource of knowledge
glides his writings. When it was found to be in vain
IC S. • 26?
to oppofe the evidence of fenfe, fome did not fcruple
to aflert that the invention was taken from Ariftotle ;
and producing a pafiage from his writings, in which
he attempts to give a reafon why ftars are feen in the
day-time from the bottom of a deep well, faid, that
the well correfponded to the tube of the telefcope, and
that the vapours which arofe from it gave the hint of
putting glafl’es into it; and laftly, that in both cafes
the fight .is ftrengthened by the tranfmiffion of the
rays threugh a thick and dark medium. Galileo him¬
felf tells this ftory with a great deal of humour ; com¬
paring fuch men to alchymifb, who imagine that the
art of making gold was known to the ancients, but
lay concealed under the fables of the poets.
In the beginning of July of the fame year, 1610,
Galileo being ftill at Padua, and getting an impeifeft
view of Saturn’s ring, imagined that that planet con-
fifted of three parts ; and therefore, in the account
which he gave of this difeovery to his friends, he calls
it planetam tergeminam.
Whilft he was ftill at Padua, which muft have been
either in the fame month of July, 01 the beginning of
Auguft following, he obferved fome fpots on the face
of the fun : but, contrary to his ufual cuftom, he did
not choofe, at that time, to publifti bis difeovery 5
partly for fear of incurring more of the hatred of
many obftinate peripatetics ; and partly in order to
make more exaft obfeivations on this remarkable phe¬
nomenon, and to form iome conjecture concerning the
probable caule of it. He therefore contented himfelf
with communicating his obfervations to fome of his
friends at Padua and Venice, among whom we find
the name of father Paul. This delay, however, was
the caufe of this difeovery being contefted with him
by the famous Scheieer, who likewife made the fame
obfervation in 06t. i6n, and we fuppofe had antici¬
pated Galileo in the publication of it.
About the end of Auguft, Galileo left Padua and
went to Horence 5 and in November following he w as
fatisfied, that, from the September preceding, Venus
had been continually increaftng in bulk, and that ihe
changed her phafes like the moan. About the end of
March 1611, Galileo went to Rome, where he grati¬
fied the cardinals, and all the principal nobility, with
a view of the new wonders he had difeovered in the
heavens, and among others the folar fpots.
from, thefe difeoveries Galileo obtained the name of Named
Lynceus, after one of the Argonauts, who was famous m'^yneeu^
antiquity for the acutenefs of his fight; and moreover,!rijmthcro’
the marquis of Monticelli inftituted an academy, with
the title of De Lincei, and made him a member of it.
Twenty-nine years Galileo enjoyed the ufe of his tele¬
fcope, continually enriching aftronomy with his obfer¬
vations: but by too clofe an application to that inftru¬
ment, and the detriment he received from the nofturnal
air, his eyes grewgradually weaker, till in 1639 he became
totally blind; a calamity which,however, neither broke
his fpirits, nor interrupted the courfe of his ftudies. 8
The firft telefcope that Galileo conftruaed magni- Account
fied only three times: but prefently after, he made of his t*.
another which magnified iStknes; and afterwards,iefcoPes*
with great trouble and expence, he conftru&ed one
that magnified 33 times ; and with this it was that he
difeovered the fatellites of Jupiter and the fpots of
the fun.
L 1 2
Notwith*
26$
84
The ratio¬
nale of the
Jnilrument
firft difeo-
vered by
Kepler.
85
General
reafon of
the effetffs
•f tele-
feopee.
OPT
Notwkhftanding Galileo muft be allowed to have
eonfiderable merit with refpeA to telefeopes, it was
peither that of the perfon who firfl hit upon the con-
ftruftion, nor that of him who thoroughly explained
the rationale of the inftrument. This important fer-
vice to faience was performed by John Kepler, whofe
name is famous on many accounts in the annals of phi-
lofophy, and cfpecially by his difeovery qf the great
law of motioi* refpe&ing the heavenly bodies ; which
is, that the fquares of their periodical times are as the
cubes of their diltances from the body about which they
involve; a propofition which, however, was notdemon-
Urated before Sir Ifaac Newton. Kepler was aftrono-
mer to feveral of the emperors of Germany; he was the
affociate of the celebrated aftrouomer Tycho Brahe,
and the maker of Defcartca.
Kepler made feveral difeoveries relating to the na¬
ture of vilion ; and not only explained the rationale of
the tdefcope which he found in ufe, but alfo pointed
out methods of conkrudting others of fuperioi powers
and more commodious application.
It was Kepler who firft gave a clear explication of
the effects of lenfes, in making the rays of a pencil of
light converge or diverge. He (bowed, that a plano¬
convex lens makes rays that were parallel to its axis,
to meet at the diftance of the diameter of the fphere
of convexity ; but that if both fides of the lens be
equally convex, the rays will have their focus at the
diftance of the radius of the circle, correfponding to
that degree of convexity. But he did not invefligate
any rule for the foci of lenfes unequally convex. He
only fays, in general, that they will Jail fomewhere in
the medium, between the foci belonging to the two
different degrees of convexity. It is to Cavallieri that
we owe this inveftigation. He laid down this rule:
As the fum of both the diameters is to one of them,
{b is the other to the diftance of the focus. All thefe
jHiles concerning convex lenfes are applicable to thofe
that are concave ; with this difference, that the focus
ic on the contraty fide of the glafs, as will be particu¬
larly ftiown in the fecond part of this treatife.
The principal effefts of tekfeopes depend upon thefe
plain maxims, viz. That objects appear larger in pro¬
portion to the angles which they fubtend at the eye j
and the effect is. the fame whether the pencils of lays,
by which obje&s are vifible to us, come diie&ly from
the obje&s fchemfelves, or from any place nearer to the
eye, where they may have been united fo as to form aa
image of the objedft; becaufe they iffue again from
thofe points where there is no real fubftance, in certain
dire&ions, in the fame manner as they did from the
Correfponding points in the objedts thunfelves.
In fa&, therefore, all that is cffe&ed by a telefcope
is, firft to make fuch an image of a diilant objeft, by
means of a lens or mirror; and then to give the eye
feme afiiftance for viewing that image as near as pof-
fible ; fo that the angle which it ftinll fubtend at the
eye, m y be very large compared with the angle which
the.objedt itfelf would fubtend in the fame fituation.
^ his is done by means of an eye-glafs, which fo re¬
fracts the pencils of rays, as that they may afterwards
be bi ought to their feveral foci by the natural humours
^f the eye. But if the eye was fo formed as to be able
fo fee the image with fufficient diftinanefs at the fame
diftance without any eye-glafs, it would appear to him
l C . S- . Hiftory,
as much magnified as it does to another per (bn who
makts ufe of a glafs for that pvrrpofe, though he would
not in all cafes have fo large a field of view.
if, inftead of an eye glafs, an objefl, or the image
of an object, be looked at through a fmall hole in a thin
plate or piece of paper, held clofe to the eye, it may be
viewed very near to the eye, and, at the fame diftance,
the apparent magnitude of the objed will be the fame
in both cafes. For if the hole be fo fmali as to admit
but a fingle ray from every diftind point of the object*
thefe rays will fall upon the retina in as many othef-
diftind points, and make a dillind image. They are
only pencils or cones of rays, which have a fenlibla
bale, as the breadth of the pupil, that are capable, by
their fpreading on the retina, of producing an indi-
ftind image. As very few rays, however, can be
admitted through a fmall hole, there will feldom be
light fuilicient to view any objed to advantage in thi*
manner.
If no image be adually formed by the foci of the
pencils without the eye, yet if, by the help of any eye-
glafs, the pencils of jays fnall enter the pupil, juft as
they would have done trom any place without the eye,
the vifual angle will be the fame as if an image had
adually been formed in that place. Objeds will not
appear inverted through this telefcope, becaufe the pen¬
cils which form the images of them, only crofs one an¬
other once, viz. at the objtd glafs, as in natural vi-
fion they do in the pupil of the eye.
Such is the telefcope that was firft: difeevered and GalleMr
ufed by philofophers; and it is remarkable that ittelefcope
fhould be of a much more difficult conftrudion than more
fome other kinds that have been invented fwice.
great inconvenience attending it is, that the field of than other*,
view is exceedingly fmall. For fince the pencils of
rays enter the eye very much diverging from one ano¬
ther, but few of them can be intercepted by the pu¬
pil, this inconvenience increafes with the magnifying
power of the telefcope; fo that philofophers at this
day cannot help wondering, that it was polfibie, with
fuch an inftrument, for Galileo and others to have mada
the difeoveries they did. It muft have required incre¬
dible patience and addrefs. No other telefcope, how¬
ever, than this, was fo much as thought of for many
years after the difeovery. Defcartes, who wrote 30
years after, mentions no others aaa&ually conftrudied,
though Kepler had fuggefted fome. ^
It is to this great man that we are indebted for the Telefcope*
conftru&ion of what we now call, the ajirommical tele- improved
fcopey being the beft adapted for the purpofe of viewing hy Kepler,
the heavenly bodies. The rationale of this inftrument is
explained, and the advantages of it ate clearly pointed
out, by this philofopher, in his Catoptrics ; but, what
is very furprifing, he never a&ually reduced his excel¬
lent theory into praftice. Montucla conje&ures, that,
the reafon why. he did not make trial of his new con-
ftru&ion was, his not being aware of the great increafe
of the field of view ; fo that being engaged in othen
purfuits, he might not think it of much confequcnee
to take any pains about the conftrucfion of an inftru*
ment, which could do little more than anfwer the fame
purpofe with thofe of which he was already poffeffed.
He muft alfo have forefeen, that the length of this te- ,
lefcope muft have been greater in proportion to it*
magnifying power; fo that it might appear to him ta
3 ba
rliftory. ^ ^ ^
be upon the whole not quite fo good a conftru£ion as
8g the former.
Hii method it was not long, however, before Kepler’s new
grft put iii fcheme of a tclefcope was executed } and the firft per-
iraaice by iQn wh<> a^UHny ma(le an inftrument of this conftruc*
»c euier was father §chetner, who has given a deicription
of it in his Ro/a Ur/ma, publiftied in <630. If, fays
he, you infcrt two fimijar lenfes (that is, both convex)
in a tube, and pla^e your eye at a convenient diftance,
you will fee all terreitrial objects inverted, indeed, but
magnified and very diftinf-t, with a confiderable extent
of view. He afterwards fubjoins an account of a te-
lefcope of a different conifruCtion, with two convex
eye-glafies, which again revet fes the images, and makes
them appear in their natural pofition. 1 his difpofition
of the lenfes had alfo been pointed out by Kepler, but
hxd not been reduced to pra&ice by him, any more
than the former. This conftrudtion, however, anfwer-
ed the end but very imperfectly ; and l ather Rheita
prefentiy after hit upon a better conflruCtion, ufing
three eye glaffes inftcad of two. This got the name
of the terrejlrial i(hJcopey being chiefly uied for terre-
firial objeCts.
The fir ft and laft of tbefe couftruCtions are thofe
which are now in common ufeT The proportion in
which the firft telefeope magnifies, is as the focal
length of the objeCt-glafs to that of the eye-glafs.—
The only difference between the Galilean telefcope
and the other is, that the pencils by which the extre¬
mities of any cbjeCt are feen in this cafe, enter the eye
diverging ; whereas, in the other, they enter it con¬
verging ; but if the fphere of concavity in the eye-
glafs of the Galilean telefcope be equal to the fphere
of convexity in the eye-glafs of another telefcope, their
magnifying power will be the fame. I he concave
eye glafsj however, being placed between the objeCt-
glafs and its focus, the Galilean telefcope will be
fhorter than the other, by twice the focal length of
the eyc-glafs. Confequently, if the length of the te-
lefcopes he the fame, the Galilean, will have the greater
magnifying power.
nUy cnsi -^ie invcnt*on t^ie telefcope and microfcope ha-
grtatly im-ving incited mathematicians to a more careful ftudyof
proves the dioptrics, and this having foon become almoft a per-
means of the difeovery of Snellius,
atiURheita niany different conftruAions were offered to the public.
Huygens was particularly eminent for his fyftenratic
knowledge of the fubjedt, and is the author of the
chief improvements which Lave been made on all the
dioptrical inflruments till the time of Mr Dollond’s
difeovery. He was well acquainted with the theory
Of aberration ariliug from the fpbcrical figure of the
glaffcs, and has fhowed fewral ingenious methods of
dimini(hing them by proper conftru&ions of the eye-
pieces. He firft (hewed the advantages of tv o eye¬
glaffes on the aftronomical tclcfcope and double mi¬
crofcope, and gave rules for this confirn&ion, which
both enlarges the field and fhortens the inftrument..
Mr Dollond adapted his conftru&ian to the terreftrial
telefcope of De Rheita ; and his five eye-glafl’es are no-
ibing but the Huygenian eye-piece doubled. This
conftrudtion has been too haftily given up by tht ar-
tifts of the prefent day for another, alfo of Mr Dol-
lond’s, of four glaffes*
Vifion is more diffind in the Galilean tele ft ope. than
a?
Huygens.
I c
in the other, owing perhaps in ptrt to the* being no 9°
intermediate image between the eye and the objed. dj
Befides the eye-glafs being very thin in the centre, theualilearj
the rays will be lefs liable to be diftorted by irregnla- telefcopea.
rities in the fuhftance of the glafs. Whatever be the
caufe, we can fometimes fee Jupiter’s fatellites very
clearly in a Galilean telefcope not more than twenty
inches or two feet long; when one of four or five feet,
of the common fort, will hardly make them vifible. 9,
The fame bather Rheita, to whom we are indebted Binocular
for the vrfeful conftru&ion of a telefeope for land-1elcrcoPe*
obje&s, invented a binocular telefcope, which Father
Cheruhin, of Orleans, endeavoured to bring into ufe
afterwards. It confifts of two telefcopcs faftened to¬
gether, and made to point to the fame objed. When
this inftrument is well fixed, the objeft appears larger,
and nearer to the eye, when it is feen through both
the telefcopes, than through one of them only, though
they have the very fame magnifying power. But this
is only an iliufion, occafioned by the ftronger impref-
fion that two equal images, equally illuminated, make
upon the eye. This advantage,' however, is counter¬
balanced by the inconvenience attending the ufe of it. 92
The firft who diftinguifhed themfelves in .grinding Tchfwpei^
telefcopic glares were two Italians, Euftachio Divini an(J
at Rome, and Campaui at Bologna, whofe fame was
much fuperior to that of Divini, or that of any other
perfon of his time ; though Divini himfelf pretended,
that, in all the trials that were made with their glaffes,
his, of a great focal diftance, performed better than
thofe of Campani, and that his rival was not willing
to try them fairly, viz. with equal eye-glaffes. It is
generally fuppofed, however, that Campani really ex¬
celled Divini, both in thegoodnds and the focal length
of his objed-glaffes. It was with telefcopes made by
Campani that Caffini difeovered the neareft fatellites of
Saturn. They were made by the expiefs order of
Louis XIV. and were of 86, 100, and 136 Pariiiaa
feet focal length*
Campani fold his lenfes for a great price, and took,
every pofiible method to keep his art of making them
a fecret. His laboratory was inacceffible to all the
world, till after his death; when it was purchafed by
Pope Benedift XIV* who made a prefent of it to the.
academy called the Injlitute, eftablilhed in that city
and by the account which M. Fougeroilx has given of
what he could difeover from it, we learn, that (except;
a machine, which M. Campani conftru&ed, to work
the bafons on which he ground his glaffes) the good—
nefs of his lenfes depended upon the clearnefs of hii
glafs, his Venetian tripoli, the paper with which he
polifhed his glades, and his great (kill and addrefs ar-
a workman. It was alfo the general opinion at Bo¬
logna, that he owed a great part of his reputation,
to the fecrecy and air of myftery which he affe&ed ;.
and that he- made a- great number of objeft-glaffea.
which he reje&ed, fhowing only thofe that were very
good. He made few lenfes of a very great focal di¬
ftance ; and having the misfortune to break one of
141 feet in two pieces, he took incredible pains to
join the two parts together, which he did at length
effe&ually, fo that it was ufed as if it had been entire j.
but it is not probable that he would have taken fo
much -pains about it, if, as he pretended, he couLL'
very eafily have made another as good-,
Stpr
^<9
93
Extraordi¬
nary objecft
glafs made
l>y Mr
Wiuzout,
, 94
Telefcopes
lifed with-
£ at tubes.
Plate
€CCL1V,
OPT
Sir Paul Nellie, Dr Hooke fays, made telefcopes
of 36 feet, pretty good, and one of 50, but not of
proportional goodnefs. Afterwards Mr Reive firft,
and then Mr Cox, who were the mcft celebrated in
England as grinders of optic glades, made feme good
ones of 50 and 60 feet focal diftance, and Mr Cox
made one ot 100; ;but how good, Dr Hooke could
net affert.
^ Borelh alfo, in I'ranee, made objeft-glafTes of a
great focal length, one of which he prefented to the
Royal Society ; but we do not find any particular ac¬
count of their goodnefs.
With refpedt to the focal length of telefcopes, thefe
and all others were far exceeded by M. Auzout, who
made one object-glafs of 600 feet focus} but he was
never able to manage it, fo as to make any ufe of it.
Hartfocker is even faid to have made fome of a ftill
greater focal length ; but this ingenious mechanic,
finding it impoffible to make ufe of objeft-glafies the
local diftance of which was much lefs than this, when
they were inclofed in a tube, contrived a method of
ufing them without a tube, by fixing them at the top
of a tree, a high wall, or the roof of a houfe.
Mr Huygens, who was alfo an excellent mechanic,
made confiderable improvements in the method of
ufing an objeft-glafs without a tube. He placed it
at the top of a very long pole, having previously in-
clofed it in a fhort tube, which was made to turn in
all directions, by means of a ball and focket. The
axis of this tube he could command with a fine filken
firing, fo as to bring it into a line with the axis of
another ftiort tube, which he held in his hand, and
which contained the eye-glafs. In this method he
could make ufe of object-glafles of the greateft magni-
fymg power, at whatever altitude his object was, and
even in the zenith, provided his pole u’as as long as
his telefcope ; and, to adapt It to the view of objects
of different altitudes, he had a contrivance, by which
he could raife or deprefs a ftage that fupported his ob¬
ject-glafs at pleafure.
M. De la Hire made fome improvement in this
method of managing the object-glafs, fixing it in the
centie of a board, and not in a tube ; but as it is not
probable that this method will ever be made ufe of,
once the difeovery of both reflecting and achromatic
telefcopes, which are now brought to great perfetion,
and have, even micrometers adapted to them, we fhall
not deferibe this apparatus minutely ; but lhall only
give a drawing of M. Huygens’s pole, which, with a
very fnort explanation^ will be fufficient for the pur»
P°fc- %• reprefents a pulley, by the help of
which a ftage c, </, e, (that fupports the objet-glafs
k, and the apparatus belonging to it), may be raifed
higher or lower at pleafure, the whole being counter-
poifed by the weight h, faftened to a ftring g. «, Is
a weight, by means of which the centre of gravity of
the apparatus belonging to the objeft-glafs is kept in
the baft and focket, fo that it may be eafily managed
y the ftnng /Uy and its axis brought into a line with
the eye-glafs at 0. When it was very dark, M. Huy.
^ Hiftary,
gens was obliged to make his obje&-glafs vifible by a
lantern y, fo conftruaed as to throw the rays of liiht
in a parallel direction up to it. °
The recollection of the incredible pains which phi-
lofophers of the laft age took in making obfervations,
and the great expences they were obliged to be at for
that purpofe, fhould make us fenfible of the obligations
we are under to fuch men as Gregory, Newton, and
Dollond, who have enabled us to get clearer and more
fatisfa&ory view's of the remote parts of our fyftem,
with much lefs labour and expence ; and Ihould like-
wife make us more diligent and felicitous to derive all
the advantages we poffibly can from fuch capital im¬
provements.
The reafon why it is neceffary to make the common Wh92- .
d ioptric telefcopes fo very long, is, that the length of trie Lk-
them mult be mcreafed in no lefs a proportion than fcopes muil
the duplicate of the inereafe of their magnifying,,e maJefo
power; fo that, in order to magnify twice as much as1™8’
before, with the fame light and diftinanefs, the tele¬
fcope mull be lengthened four times ; and to magnify
thrice as much, nine times; and fo on.
Before we mention the reflefting telefcope, it muft be 96
obferved, that M, Auzout, in a paper delivered to the of thea-
Royal Society, obferved, that the apertures which thefSh.e
objea glaflts of. refrading telefcopes can bear with telefcopes,
diilnicaiefs, are in about a fub-dupheate proportion to
their lengths; and upon this fuppofition he drew up a
table of the apertures proper for objed-glaffes of a
great variety of focal lengths, from 4 inches to 400
feet. Upon this occaflon, however, Dr Hooke ob-
feived, that the fame glafs will bear a greater or lefs
aperture, according to the lefs or greater light of the
object, if, for inflanee, he was viewing the fun, or
Venus, or any of the fixed liars, he ufed fmaller aper-
tyres : but if he wanted to view the moon by day¬
light; or Saturn, Jupiter, or Mars, by night, he ui«d
a larger aperture.
But the merit of all thefe improvements was in a
manner cancelled by the difeovery of the much more
commodious receding telefcope. For a refraefting tele-
fcope, even of 1000 feet focus, fuppofing it poffible to
be made ufe of, could not be made to magnify with
diftindnefs more than icoo times; whereas a refled-
ing telefcope, not exceeding 9 or 10 feet, will magnify
1200 times. 1
“ It mull be acknowledged (fay. Dr Smith in hi, Hift’.ly .(
Complete byjlem of Optics), that Mr James Gregory of the refke*
Aberdeen was the firft inventor of the refleding tele- tinE tele*
fcope; but his conftrudion is quite different from SirfcopC*
Ifaac Newton’s, and not nearly fo advantageous.”
But, according to Dr Pringle, Merfennus was the
man who entertained the firft thought of a fefledor.
A telefcope with fpecula he certainly propofed to the
celebrated Defcartes many years before Gregory’s in¬
vention, though indeed in a manner fo very unfatisfac-
tory, that Defcaites, who had given particular atten¬
tion to the improvement of the telefcope, was fo fa?
from approving the propofal, that he endeavoured to
convince Merfennus of its fallacy (b). Dr Smith,
it
learned and candid authors ^m! le pnnt^d ^ ia, ^ett- 29- and 32- See this point difeuffed by two
Mifl. des Mathem. tom. ii. p*. 644, °' m t lC 1''nc2c-°PedH> under the article Telefcope, and M. Montecula in
4
3iftory. ° . f.... ,
it appears, Tiad never perufed tlie two letters of Def-
cartes to Mtrfcnnus which briefly touch on that fub-
jedl.
Again, as to his aflertion, that Gregory’s conftruc-
tion was not nearly fo advantageous as Newton’s, it
may be accounted for from his having fet it down ear¬
ly in the compofition of his work, and forgetting to
qualify it afterwards, when, before the publication, he
had received pretty fure information to the contrary.
Or perhaps he was influenced by the example of Or
Bradley, who had been a moft fuccefsful obferver, and
yet had always preferred the Newtonian telefcope to
the other. But we mull certainly adjudge the fupe-
riority to the latter, as that is now, and has been for
leveral years pall, the only inllrument of the kind in
requeft.
Gregory, a young man of an uncommon genius,
was led to the invention, in feeking to correct two im-
perfedtions of the common telefcope : the fird was its
too great length, which made it lefs manageable ; the
fecond, the incorrednefs of the image. Mathemati¬
cians had demonitrated, that a pencil of rays could
not be colk&ed in a Angle point by a fpherical lens ;
and alfo, that the image tranfmitted by fuch a lens
would be in fome degree incurvated. Thefe incon¬
veniences he believed would be obviated by fubllituting
for the objed-glafs a metallic fpeculum, of a parabo¬
lic figure, to receive the image, and to refled it to¬
wards a fmall fpeculum of the fame metal : this again
was to return the image to an eye-glafs placed behind
the great fpeculum, which for that purpofe was to be
perforated in its centre. This conftrudion he publifh-
ed in 1663, in his Optica Prnmota. But as Gregory,
by his own account, was endowed with no mechani¬
cal dexterity, nor could find any workman capable of
realizing his invention, after fome fruitlefs attempts in
that way he was obliged to give up the purfuit: and
probably, had not fome new difeoveries been made in
light and colours, a refrading telefcope would never
more have been thought of, confidering the difficulty
of the execution, and the fmall advantages that could
accrue from it, deducible from the principles of optics
that w'ere then known.
But Newton, whofe genius for experimental know¬
ledge was equal to that for geometry, happily inter-
pofed, and faved this noble invention from well nigh
perifhing in.its mfant-ftate. He likewife at an early
period of life had applied himfelf to the improvement
of the telefcope ; but imagining that Gregory’s fpe-
cula were neither very neceflary, nor likely to be exe¬
cuted, he began with profecuting the views of Defcar-
tes, who aimed at making a more perfed image of an
objed, by grinding lenfes, not to the figure of a fphere,
but to that of one of the conic fedions. Now, whilft
he was thus employed, three years after Gregory’s
publication, he happened to take to the examination
of the colours formed by a prifm, and having by the
means of that Ample inftrnment difeovered the diffe¬
rent refrangibility of the rays of light, he then per¬
ceived that the errors of telefcopes, arifing from that
caufe alone, were fome hundred times greater than
fuch as were occafioned by the fpherical figure of
lenfes. This circumftance forced, as it were, Newton
to fall into Gregory’s track, and to turn his thoughts
to refledors. “ The different refrangibility of the
I c s.
rays of light (fays he, in a lettter to Mr Oldenburg,
fecretary to the Royal Society, dated in Feb. 1672)
made me take refledions into confideration ; and find¬
ing them regular, fo that the angle of refled ion of all
forts of rays was equal to the angle of incidence, I un-
derilood that by their mediation optic inllruments
might be brought to any degree of perfedion imagin¬
able, providing a refleding fubftance could be found
which would polifli as finely as glafs, and refled as
much light as glafs tranfmits, and the art of comrnu-
nicaung to it a parabolic figure be alio obtained. A-
miclft thefe thoughts I was forced from Cambridge by
the intervening plague, and it was more than two yeaiu
before I proceeded further.”
It appears, then, that if Newton avas not the Aril
inventor of the refleding tclefcope, he was the main
and effedual inventor. By the force of his admirable
genius, he fell upon this new property of light; and
thereby found, that all lenfes, of whatever figure, would'
be affeded more or lefs with fuch prifmatic aberrations
of the rays as would be an infuperable obftacle to the
perfediott of a dioptric telefcopc.
It was towards the end of 1668, or in the beginning
of the following year, when Newton, being thus obli¬
ged to have recourfe to refledors, and not relying on
any artificer for making his fpecula, fet about the work;
himfelf, and early in the year 1672 completed two
fmall refkding tclefcopes. In thefe he ground the
great fpeculum into a fpherical concave ; not but that
he approved of the parabolic form propofed by Gre¬
gory, though he found himfelf unable to accomplifli
it. In the letter that accompanied one of there in-
liniments which he prefented to the Society, he writes,
“ that though he then defpaired of performing that
work (to wit, the parabolic figure of the great fpecu-
lum) by geometrical rules, yet he doubted not but
that the thing might in fome meafure be accomplilhed
by meobanical devices.”
Not lefs did the difficulty appear to find a metallic
fubllance that would be of a proper hardnefs, have the
feweft pores, and receive the fmoocheft polilh : a dif¬
ficulty in truth which he deemed almoft unfurmount-
able, when he confidered, that every irregularity in a-
refleding furface would make the rays of light ftray
five or fix times more out of their due courfe, than the
like irregularities in a refrading one. In another let¬
ter, written foon after, he tells the fecretary, “ that
he was very fenfible that metal refleds lefs light than
glafs tranfmits ; but as he had found fome metallic
fubftances to be more llrongly refledlive than others,
to polifh better, and to be freer from tarniilring
than others, fo he hoped that there might in time
be found out fome fubllances much freer from thefe
inconveniences than any yet known.” Newton there¬
fore laboured till he found a compofition that anfwer-
ed in fome degree, and left it to thofe who Ihould-
come after him to find a better, and prefented a re¬
fleding telefcope to the Royal Society; from whom he
received fuch thanks as were due to fo curious and va¬
luable a prefent. And Huygens, one of the greateffi
geniufes of the age, and himielf a diffinguifhed impro¬
ver of the refrador, no fooner was informed by Mr.
Oldenburg of the difeovery, than he wrote in anfwer*
“ that it was an admirable telefcope ; and that Mr.
Newton had well conlidered the advantage which a
concave
■2
OPT
toncave fpecultim had above convex glades in colleft-
ing the parallel rays, which according to his own cal¬
culation was very great: Hence that Mr Newten
could give a for greater aperture to that fpeculum than
to an objeft-glafs of the fame diftance of focus, and
confequently much more magnify in his way than by
an ordinary telefcope : Befides, that by the refleftor
he avoided an inconvenience infeparable from obje&-
glafleSj which was the obliquity ©f both their fur-
faces, which vitiated the refraction of the rays that
pafs towards the lides of^the glafs, and did more hurt
than men were aware of: Again, that by the mere
•refleftion of the metalline fpeculum there were not fo
•many rays loft as in glaftes, which rtfleCfed a confide-
rable quantity by each of their furfaces, and befides in¬
tercepted many of them by the obfeurity of their mat*
ter: That the main bufinefs would be, to find a mat¬
ter for this fpeculum that would bear as good and even
a polilh as glafs. Laftly, he believed that Mr Newton
had not been without confidering the advantage which
a parabolic fpeculum would have over a fpherical one
in this conftru&ion ; but had defpaired, as he himfelf
had done, of woiking other furfaces than fpherical
ones with due exaftnefs.” Huygens was not fatisfied
with thus expreffing to the fociety his high approba¬
tion of the late invention ; but drew up a favourable
account of the new telefcope, which he caufed to
be publifhed in the 'Journal des S^avans for the year
1672, and by that channel it was foon known over
Europe.
But how excellent foever the contrivance was; how
well foever fupported and announced to the public ;
yet whether it was that the artifts were deterred by
the difficulty and labour of the work, or that the dif-
coveries even of a Newton were not to be exempted
from the general fatality attending great and ufeful in¬
ventions, the making a flow ami vexatious progrefs to the
authors ; the fad is, that, excepting an unfuccefsful
attempt which the fociety made, by employing an
artificer to imitate the Newtonian conftruftion, but
upon a larger fcale, and a difguifed Gregorian tele¬
fcope, fet up by Caflegrain abroad as a rival to New¬
ton's, and that in theory only (for it never was put in
execution by the author), no refleftor was heard of for
nearly half a century after. But when that period was
clapfed, a reflecting telefcope was at lift produced to
the world of the Newtonian conftruftion by Dr Had ¬
ley, which the author had the fatisfa&ion to find
executed in fuch a manner as left no room to fear
that the invention would any longer continue in ob¬
feurity.
This memorable event was owing to the genius,
dexterity, and application, of Mr Hadley the in¬
ventor of the refttdling quadrant, another moft va¬
luable inftrument. The two telefcopes which New¬
ton had made were but fix inches long, were held
in the hand for viewing objefts, and in power were
compared to a fix-feet refradlor; whereas Had¬
ley s was above five Feet Jong, was provided with a
well-contrived apparatus for managing it, and equalled
in performance tbe famous aerial tclefcope of Huy¬
gens of 123 feet in length. Excepting as to the man¬
ner of making the fpecula, we have, in the tranfaftions
*723* a complete deferiptiem, with a figure, of this
* toget^er 'with that of the machine for mo*
N°247.
ICS. Hiftory,
ving it; but, by a ftrange omiflion, Newton'» n»me«
not once mentioned in that paper, fo that any per-
fon not acquainted with the hiftory of the inven¬
tion, and reading that account only, might be apt
to conclude that Hadley had been the foie contriver
of it.
The fame celebrated artift, after finifhing two tcle-
fcopes of the Newtonian conftru&ion, accompliftied a
third in the Gregorian way ; but, it would feem, lef«
fuccefsfully, by Dr Smith’s declaring fo ftrongly in
favour of the other. Mr Hadley fpared no pains to
inllrudt Mr Molyneux and the reverend Dr Bradley ;
and when thofe gentlemen had made a fufficient pro¬
ficiency in the art, being defirous that thefe tclefcopeg
Ihould become more public, they liberally communica*
ted to fome of the principal inftrument-makers of Lon¬
don the knowledge they had acquired from. him. Now
fuch fcholars, as it is eafy to imagine, foon advanced
beyond their mailers, and completed refle&ors by
other aad better methods than what had been taught
them.
Certain it is, atleaft, that Mr James Short, as early
as the year 1734, had fignajifed himfelf at EdinburgJt
by his work of this kind. Mr Maclaurin wrote that
year to Dr Jut in, “ that Mr Short, who had be¬
gun with making glafs fpecula, was then applying
himfelf to improve the metallic ; and that, by taking
care of the figure, he was enabled to give them
larger apertures than others had done ; and that upon
the whole they furpafled in perfeftion all that he had
feen of other workmen.” He added, “ that Mr
Short’s telefcopts were all of the Gregorian conftruc-
tion ; and that he had much improved that excellent
invention.” This chara&er ef excellence Mr Short
maintained to the laft ; and with the more facility, as
he had been well grounded both in the geometrical
and philofophical principles of optics, and upon the
whole was a moft intelligent perfon in whatever rela¬
ted to his profeffion. It was fuppofed he had fallen
upon a method of giving the parabolic figure to hie
great fpeculum ; a point of perfe&ion that Gregory
and Newton had wiffied for, but defpaired of attain¬
ing ; and that Hadley had never, as far as we know,
attempted, either in his Newtonian or Gregorian te*
lefcope. Mr Short indeed faid he had acquired that
faculty, but never would tell by what peculiar means
he effe&ed it ; fo that the fecret of working that con¬
figuration, whatever it was, as far as it then appear*
ed, died with that ingenious artift. Mr Mudge, how¬
ever, hath lately realifed the expeddation of Sir Ifaac
Newton, who, above 100 years ago, prefaged that
the public would one day polfefs a parabolic fpeculum,
not accompliftied by matheimtical rules, but by me¬
chanical devices.
This was a deflderahim, but it was not the only
want fupplied by ibis gentleman : he has taught ua
likewife a better compnfition of metals for the fpecu¬
la, how to grind them better, and how to give them a
finer polifh ; and this laft; part, (namely, the polifh),
he remarks, was the moft difficult and effential of the
whole operation. ** In a word (fays Sir John Pringle),
I am of opinion, there is no optician in this great city
(which hath been fo long and fo juftly renowned for
ingenious and dexterous makers of every kind of ma¬
thematical inllruments) fo partial to^his own abilitiea
as
Hiftoiy.
9«
Mr Ed
OPT
as not to acknowledge, that, however fome parts of
the mechanical procefs now difclofed might have been
known before by individuals of the profeflion, yet
that Mr Mudge hath opened to them all fome new
and important lights, and upon the whole hath
greatly improved the art of making refleding tele*
fcopes.”
The late reverend and ingenious John Edwards de*
ward "s im-voted much of his time to the improvement of re-
j rovement? flg&ing telefcopes, and brought them to fuch per-
fie<ftinrte fe^‘on» ^>r Mafkelyne^ the aftronomer royal,
kfcope! e" found telefcopes conftru&ed by him to furpafs in
brightnefs, and other effentials, thofe of the fame fize
made by the be ft artifts in London. The chief ex¬
cellence of his telefcopes arifes from the compofition,
which, from various trials on metals and femimetals,
he difcovered for the fpecula, and from the true pa¬
rabolic figure, which, by long pra&fce, he had found
a method of giving them, preferable to any that was
known before him. His dircdtions for the compofition
of fpecula, and for cafting, grinding, and polifhing
them, were publiflied, by order of the commiflioners
of longitude, at the end of the Nautical Almanack
for the year 1787. To the fame almanack is alfo an¬
nexed his account of the Caufe and cure of the tre¬
mors which particularly affedt refledling telefcopes more
than refradling ones, together with remarks on the
faid tremors by Dr Mafkelyne. See Telescope.
But in conftru&ing reflecting telefcopes of extra¬
ordinary magnifying powers, Dr Herfchel has dif-
played (kill and ingenuity furpafling all his predeceflbrs
in this department of mechanics. He has made them
from 7, 10, 20, to even 40 feet in length ; and with
the inftrument of thefe latter dimenfions he is now em¬
ployed in making difcoveries in aftronomy. Of its
conftrudtion, magnifying powers, and the curious col¬
lection of machinery by which it is fupported and
moved from one part of the heavens to another, ac¬
counts will be given under the word Telescope.
The greateft improvement in refraBing telefcopes
hitherto made public (c) is that of Mr Dollbnd, of
which an account has already been given in a preced¬
ing feCtion, wherein his difcoveries in the fcience of
Optics were explained. But, befides the obligation
we are under to him for correcting the aberration of
the rays of light in the focus of objeCt-glaffes, arifing
from their different refrangibility, he made another
confiderable improvement in telefcopes, viz. by cor*
reCting, in a great meafure, both this kind of aber¬
ration, and alfo that which arifes from the fpherical
form of lenfes, by an expedient of a very different
nature; viz. increafing the number of eye-glaffes.
If any perfon, fays he, would have the vifual angle
of a telelcope to contain 20 degrees, the extreme pen¬
cils of the field muft be bent or refra&ed in an angle
S'rovemeiits0f IO degrees . which, if it be performed by one eye-
glafs, will caufe an aberration from the figure, in pro-
Vol. XIII. Part I.
99
Herfchel’s
improve¬
ments.
TOO
Account of
Mr Dol-
lond’s im-
I c s>
portion to the cube of that angle ; but if two glades
are fa proportioned and fituated, a$ that the refraClion
may be equally divided between them, they will each
of them produce a refraClion equal to half the required
angle ; and therefore, the aberration being in propor¬
tion to the cube of half the angle taken twice over,
will be but a fourth part of that which is in propor¬
tion to the cube of the whole angle ; becaufe twice
the cube 0P1 is but \ of the cube of 2 ; fo the aber¬
ration from the figure, where two eye-glaffes are
rightly proportioned, is but a fourth of what it muft
unavoidably be, where the whole is performed by a
fingle eye-glafs. By the fame way of reafoning, when
the refraClion is divided between three glaffes, the
aberration will be found to be but the ninth part of
what would be produced from a fmgle glafs ; becaufe
three times the cube of 1 is but one-ninth of the cube
of 3. Whence it appears, that by increafing the num¬
ber of eye-glaffes, the indiftinClnefs which is obfer-
ved near the borders of the field of a telefcope may
be very much diminifhed, though not entirely taken
away.
The method of correCling the errors arifing from
the different refrangibility of light is of a different con-
fideration from the former. For, whereas the errors
from the figure can only be diminiftied in a certain
proportion according to the number of glaffes, in this
they may be entirely correCled by the addition of only
one glafs; as we find in the aftronomical telefcope, that
two eye-glafles, rightly proportioned, will caufe the
edges of objeCls to appear free from colours, quite to
the borders of the field. Alfo in the day-telefcope,
where no more than two eye-glaffes are ahfolutely ne-
ceffary for ereCling the objeCt, we find, that by the
addition of a third, rightly fituated, the colours,
which would otherwlfe make the image confufed, are
entirely removed. This, however, is to be under-
ftood with fome limitation : for though the different
colours into which the extreme pencils muft neceffarily
be divided by the edges of the eye-glaffes, may in
this manner be brought to the eye in a direClion pa¬
rallel to each other, fo as, by the humours of the eye,
to be made to converge to a point on the retina ; yet,
if the glaffes exceed a certain length, the colours may
be fpread too wide to be capable of being admitted
through the pupil or aperture of the eye; which is the
reafon, that in long telefcopes, conftrudled in the
common manner, with three eye-glaffes, the field is al¬
ways very much c@ntra6led.
Thefe confiderations firft fetMr Dollond on contri¬
ving how to enlarge the field, by increafing the num¬
ber of eye-glaffes without any hinderaace to the diftinil-
nefs or brightnefs of the image ; and though others
had been about the fame work before, yet, ohferving
that fome five-glafs telefcopes which were then made
would admit of farther improvement, he endeavoured
to conltrudl one with the fame number of glaffes in a
M m better
(c) Dr Blair’s difeovery, mentioned n° 19, will undoubtedly lead to improvements fuperior to thofe of
Dollond; but as his memoir on the fuhjecl is not yet publiflied, we feel not ourfelves at liberty to make longer
extra&s from it. The reader will fee the whole in the Philafophical Tranfaftions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, whenever that body {hall be pleafed to favour the public with a third volume ef its learned
labours.
273
274
OPT
better manner; which fo far anfvvered his expe&ations,
as to be allowed by the beft judges to be a confider-
able improvement on the former.
> Encouraged by this fuccefs, he refolved to try if he
could not make fome farther enlargement of the field,
by the addition of another glafs, and by placing and
proportioning the glafies in fuch a manner as to cor¬
rect the aberrations as much as poffible, without any
detriment to the diftinitnefs ; and at laft he obtained
as large a field as is convenient or neceffary, and that
even in the longed telefcopes that can be made.
Thefe telefcopes with fix glafies having been well
received, and fome of them being gone into foreign
parts, it feemed a proper time to the author to fettle
the date of his invention ; on which account he drew
up a letter, which he addreffed to Mr Short, and which
rot was rea^ at t^e R°yal Society, March I. 1753 (d).
Mr Smith’s Various other attempts were made about this time
propofal to to fhorten and otherwife improve telefcopes. A-
Icfccrei C mon£ we muh juft mention that of Mr Caleb
1 ‘ Smith, who, after giving much attention to the fubjedf,
thought that he had found it pofilble to redfify the
errors which arife from the different degrees of refran-
gibility, on the principle that the fines of refraction,
or rays differently refrangible, are to one another in a
given proportion, when their fines of incidence are
equal; and the method which he propofed for this
purpofe was to make the fpeculums of glafs inftead of
metal, the two furfaecs having different degrees of con¬
cavity. But we do not find that his fcheme was ever
executed; nor is it probable,for reafons which have been
mentioned, that any advantage could be made of it.
To Mr Short we are indebted for the excellent con¬
trivance of an equatorial telefcope, or, as he likewife
or portable, called it, a portable olfervatory ; for with it pi-etty ac-
obferva- curate obft nations maybe made with very little trouble,
by thofe who have no building adapted to the purpofe.
The inftrament confifts of an ingenious piece of ma¬
chinery, by the help of which a telefcope mounted
upon it may be diredled to any degree of right afeen-
fion or decimation, fo that the place of any of the
heavenly bodies being known1; they may be found
without any trouble, even in the day-time. Alfo,
being made to turn parallel to the equator, any objedt
is eafily kept in view, or recovered, without moving
the eye from its fituation. By this inftrument, Mr
Short informs us, that mofl of the ftars of the firfl
and fecond magnitude have been feen even at mid¬
day, and the fun fhining bright; as alfo Mercury,
Venus, and Jupiter. Saturn and Mars are not fo eafy
to be feen, on account of the faintnefs of their light,
except when the fun is but a few hours above the ho¬
rizon. This particular effeft depends upon the tele¬
fcope excluding almoft all the light, except what
comes from the objedf itfelf, and which might other-
wife efface the impreffion made by its weaker light
upon the eye. Any telefcope of the fame magnifying
power would have the fame effedt, could we be fure of
pointing it right. For the fame reafon, alfo, it is that
Itars are vifible in the day-time from the bottom of a
deep pit. Mr Ramfden has lately invented a portable
observatory or equatorial telefcope, which may perhaps
102
Equatorial
tory.
fuperfede the ufe of Mr Short’s. See Astronomy,
llO504* IO,
In order to enable us to fee the fixed Bars in the How to ob-
day-time, it is necefiary to exclude the extraneous ferve the
light as much as pofifible. For this reafon the greater itars '.n the
magnifying power of any telefcope is ufed, the more <iay Ume*
eafily a fixed liar will be diftinguifhed in the day-time;
the light of the Itar remaining the fame in all magni-
fying powers of the fame telefcope, but the ground
upon which it is feen becoming darker by increafing
the magnifying power ; and the vifibility of a ftar de¬
pends very much upon the difference between its own
light and that of the ground upon which it is feen. A
fixed liar will be very nearly equally vifible with tele¬
fcopes of very different apertures, provided the magni¬
fying power remains the fame.
If a comet, or any other heavenly body, be viewed
through this equatorial telefcope, properly re&ified, it
is feen immediately by the help of the fame machinery
what is its true place in the heavens. Other aftrono-
mical problem's may alfo be folved by it, with great
eafe and certainty.
M. JFpinus propofes to bend the tubes of long te-
lefcopes at right angles, fixing a plane mirror in the Mr)EP,‘
angle, in order to make them more commodious for p0fa] f
viewing objefts-near the zenith of the obferver ; a;/J bending the
he gives particular inftruftions how to make them in tubes of te-
this form, efpecially when they are furnifhed with mi- lefC0Pes-
crometers. We are alfo informed that a little plane
fpeeulum is fometimes placed betwixt the laft eye-glafs
and the eye in the refledting teiefcopes, at an angle of
45 for the fame purpofe.
The invention of Microscopes was not much later ^
than that of telefcopes ; and, according to Borellus, rnicrofc0pe3.
whofe account we do not find to have been called in
queftion by any perfon, we are indebted for them to
the fame author, at leaft to Z. Janfen, in conjunc¬
tion with his fon ; and for this latter favour we may,
perhaps, be confidered as under more obligation to
them than for the former, the microfcope having more
various and extenfive ufes, with refpedt to philofophy,
than the telefcope. ~In our ideas, however, it ap¬
pears fomething greater, and more extraordinary, to
be able to fee objedls too diftant to be perceived by
the naked eye, than thofe that are too near to be feen
by us; and therefore there is more of the fublime in
the telefcope than the microfcope. Thefe two inftru-
ments, though different in their application, are not-
withflanding very limilar ; as both of them affift us
in the difeovery of objedts that we muft otherwife have
remained unacquainted with, by enlarging the angle
which they fubtend at the eye.
The Janfens, however, have not always enjoyed,
undifturbed, that fhare of reputation to which they
ftem to be intitled, with refpedl either to the telefcope
or the microfcope. The difeovery of the latter, in par~
ticular, has generally been confidered as more uncer¬
tain than that of the former. All that many writers,
fay we can depend upon is, that microfcopes were firft
ufed in Germany about the year 1621. Others fay
pofitivcly, that this inftrument was the contrivance of
Cor-
(d) 1 hisparagraph is extra&ed from this paper in the Tranfadlions; but Dollond’s improvement, there deferibed,
is not accompanied by any diagram. For a minute account of ita and of eye-pieces in general, fee Ludlam's F-jfay?*
Hiftory. OPT
Cornelius Drebell, no pKilofopker, but a manof curlo»
fity and ingenuity, who alfo invented the thermometer.
According to Borellus, Zacharias Janfen and his
fon prefented the firft microfcopes they hai conltrued-
ed to prince Maurice, and Albert archduke of Au-
flria. William Borell, who gives this account in a
letter to his brother Peter, fays, that when he was am-
baffador in England, in 1619, Cornelius Drebell, with
whom he was intimately acquainted, {bowed him a mi-
crofcope, which he faid was the fame the archduke
had given him, and had been made by Janfen himftlf.
This inftrument was not fo fhort as they are generally
made at prefent, but was fix feet long, confiding of a
tube of gilt copper, an in^h in diameter, fupported by
three brafs pillars in the lhape of dolphins, on a bafe
of ebony, on which the fmall objefts were placed.
Microfcope - bis microfcope was evidently a compound one, or
made by rather fomething betwixt a telefcope and a micro-
Janfen. fcope, what we fiiould now, perhaps, choofe to call
a megalafape ; fo that it is poffible that fingle micro¬
fcopes might have been known, and in ufe, fome
time before : but perhaps nobody thought of giving
that name to fingle lenfes; though, from the firft ufe of
lenfes, they could not but have been ufed for the pur-
pofe of magnifying fmall objefts. In this fenfe we
have feen, that even the ancients were in pofleffion of
microfcopes ; and it appears from Jamblicus and Plu¬
tarch, quoted by Dr Rogers, that they gave fuch in
ftruments as they ufed for this purpofe the name of
dioptra. As fpedlaeles were certainly in ufe long be¬
fore the invention of telefcopes, one can hardly help
concluding, that lenfes muft have been made fmaller,
and more convex, for the purpofe of magnifying
minute objefts efpecially as the application of this
kind of microfcope was nearly the fame with chat of a
fpedlacle-glafs, both of them being held clofe to the
eye. At what time lenfes were made fo fmall as we
now generally ufe them for magnifying in fingle
microfcopes, we have not found. But as this muft ne
cefiarily have been done gradually, the only proper ob-
jeft of inquiry is the invention of the double or com¬
pound microfcope ; and this is clearly given, by the
evidence of Borelhis above-mentioned, to Zacharias
Janfen, the inventor of the telefcope, or his fon.
The invention of compound microfcopes is claimed
by the fame Fontana who claimed the difcovery of te¬
lefcopes ; and though he did not publifti any account
of this invention till the year 1646 (notvvithftand-
ing he pretended to have made the difcovery in 1618),
Montucla, not having attended perhaps to the tefti-
mony of Borellus, is willing to allow his claim, as he
thought there was no other perfon who feemed to have
any better right to it.
j 107 . Euftachio Divini made microfcopes with two com-
? y Divini. ^on objedb-glaffes, and two plano-convex eye-glaffes
joined together on their convex fides fo as to meet in
a point. The tube in which they were inclofed was
as big as a man’s leg, and the eye-glaftes alm-oft as
btoad as the palm of a man’s hand. Mr Oldenburg,
Secretary to the royxl fociety, received an account of
this inftrument from Rome, and read it at one of their
meetings, Auguft 6. 1668.
By Hart- It vvas in this period that Hartfocker improved
fotker. fingle microfcopes, by’ uling fmall globules of glafs,
made by melting them in the flame of a candle, in-
ICS.
Head of the lenfes which had before been made ufe of
for that purpofe. By this means he firft difcovered the
anitnalcula in femine mafculino, which gave rife to a
newfyftem of generation. A microfeope of this kind,
confifting of a globule of of an inch in diameter,
M, Huygens demonftrated to magnify 100 times ; and
fince it is eafy to make them of lefs than half a line in
diameter, they may be made to magnify 300 times.
Were it not for the difficulty of applying objefts to
thefe magnifiers, the want of light, and the fmall field
of diftindt vifion, they would certainly have been the
moft perfect of all microfcopes.
But no man diftinguifhed himfelffo much by micro-c r
fcopical difcoveries as the famous M. Leeuwenhoek, Wenhock!
though he ufed only fingle lenfes with fhort foci, pre¬
ferring diftindtnefs of vifion to a large magnifying
power.
M. Leeuwenhoek’s microfcopes were all fingle ones,
each of them confifting of a fmall double convex-glafs,
fet in a focket between two filver plates rivetted toge¬
ther, and pierced with a fmall hole ; and the objedt
was placed on the point of a needle, fo contrived as
to be placed at any diftance from the lens. If the ob~
jedts were folid, he fattened them with glue ; and if
they were fluid, or on other accounts required to be
fpjead upon glafs, he placed them on a fmall piece of
Mufcovy talc, or glafs blown very thin ; which he af¬
terwards glued to his needle. He had, however, a dif¬
ferent apparatus for viewing the circulation of the blood,
which he could fix to the fame microfcopts.
.' he greateft part of his microfcopes M. Leeuwen¬
hoek bequeathed to the Royal Society. They were con¬
tained in a fmall Indian cabinet, in the drawers of
which were 13 little boxes, or cafes, in each of which
were two microfcopes, neatly fitted up in filver; and.
both the glafs and the apparatus were made with his
own hands.
The glafs of all thefe lenfes is exceedingly clear, but
none of them magnifies fo much as thofe globules
which are frequently ufeft in other microfcopes; but
Mr Folkes, who examined them, thought that they
fhowed objedls with much greater diftindtnefs, which
M. Leeuwenhoek principally valued. His difcoveries,
however, are to be afcribed not fo much to the good-
nefs of his glafles, as to his great judgment, acquired
by long experience, in ufing them. He alfo particu¬
larly excelled in his manner of preparing objedts for
being viewed to the moft advantage.
Mr Baker, who alfo examined M. Leeuwenhoek’s
microfcopes, and made a report concerning them to
the Royal Society, found that the greateft magnifier
among them enlarged the diameter of an objedt about
160 times, but that all the reft fell much ftiort of that
power ; fo he concluded that M. Leeuwenhoek muft
have had other microfcopes of a much greater magni¬
fying power for many of his difcoveries. And it ap¬
pears, he fays, by many circmnftances, that he had
fuch microfcopes
It appears from M. Leeuwenhoek’s writings, that
he was not unacquainted with the method of viewing
opaque obje&s by means of a fmall concave refledling
mirror, which was afterwards improved by M. Lie-
berkhun. For, after defcribing his apparatus for view¬
ing eels in glafs tubes, he adds, that he had an inftru¬
ment to which he (crewed a microfcope fet in brafs,
Mm2 upon
37(1 O P T
upon which micrcfcope he faftened a little dHh of
brafs, probably that his eye might be thereby affifted
to fee obje&s better; for he fays he had filed the brafs
which was round his mictofcope as bright as he could,
that the light, while he was viewing obje&s, might
be refle&ed from it as much as pofiibie. This micro-
fcope, with its difh, is conflrufted upon principles fo
fimilar to thofe which are the foundation of our tingle
microfcope by reflection (fee Microscope), that it
may well be fuppofed td have given the hint to the
ingenious inventor of it, provided he ever attended
to it. ...
no jn 1702, Mr Wilfon made feveral ingenious im-
provements in the method of ufing Angle magnifiers,
!DUC ^ for the purpofe of viewing tranfparent obje&s ; and
bis microfcope, which is alfo a necefiary part of the
folar microfcope, is in very general ufe at this day.
TlI (See Microscope, fe&. 1.)
Adams’s In 17 10, Mr Adams gave to the Royal Society the
method «f following account of his method of making fmall glo-
makingglo-bules fa jarge magnifiers. He took, a piece of fine
k-ge marr- window-glal"s> and cut it with a diamond into as many
Bifkrs. ° lengths as he thought proper, not exceeding of an
inch in breadth ; then, holding one of them between
the fore finger and thumb of each hand over a very
fine flime, till the glafs began to foften, he drew it
out till it was as fine as a hair, and broke ; then put¬
ting each of the ends into the purelt part of the flame,
he had two globules prefently, which he could make
larger or lefs at pleafure. If they were held a long
time in the flame, they would have fpots in them, fo
that he drew them out prefently after they became
round. The ftem he broke off as near to the globule
as he could, and lodging the remainder between the
plates, in which holes were drilled exa&ly round, the
microfcope, he fays, performed to admiration. T. hro
thefe magnifiers, he fays, that the fame thread of very
fine muflin appeared three or four times bigger than it
slid in the largeff. of Mr Wilfon’a magnifiers.
Terv'orar The ingenious Mr Grey hit upon a very eafy expe-
nlicrofcoptr- dient to make very good temporary microfcopes, at a
by Mr very little expence. They confiit of nothing but very
GreJ’* fmall drops of water, taken up with a point of a pin,
and put into a fmall hole made in a piece of metal.
Thofe globules of water do not, indeed, magnify fo
much as thofe which are made of glafs of the fame
fize, becaufe the refra&ive power of water is not fo
great ; but the fame purpofe will be aafwered nearly
as well by making them fomewhat fmaller.
The fame ingenious perfon, obferving that fmall he¬
terogeneous particles inclofed in the glafs of which mi¬
crofcopes are made, were much magnified when thofe
glaffes were looked through, thought of making his
microfcopes of water that contained living animalcula,
to fee how they would look in this new fituation ; and
he found his fcheme to anfwer even beyond his utmoft
( expe&ation, fo that he could not eten account for
their being magnified fa. much as they were : for it
was much more than they would have been magnified
if they had been placed beyond the globule, in the pro¬
per place for viewing obje&&. But Montucla obferves,
that, when any obje& is inclofed within this fmall
tranfparent globule, the hinder part of it a&s like a
concave mirror, provided they be fituated between that
furface and the focus i and that, by this means, they
I C S. Hiftcry,
are magnified above times more than they would
have been in the ufuahway. ^
After the happy execution of the refle&ing tele-nr Bicker#
fcope, it was natural to expe& that attempts wouldieflt&mg
alfo be made to render a fimilar fervice to microfcopes.
Accordingly we find two plans of this kind. The
firft was that of Dr Robert Barker. His imlrument
differs in nothing from the refle&ing telefcope, ex¬
cepting the diftance of the two fpeculums, in order to
adapt it to thofe pencils of rays which enter the mi¬
crofcope diverging; whereas they come to the tele¬
fcope from very diftant objedts nearly parallel to each
other. »
This microfaope is not fo eafy to manage as the
common fort. For vifion by refte&ion, as it is much
more perfe&, fo it is far more difficult than that by
refra&ion. Nor is this microfcope fo ufeful for any
but very fmall or tranfparent obje&s. For the obje&,
being between the fpeculum and image, would, if it
were large and opaque, prevent a due refle&ion. rr^
Dr Smith invented a double refle&ing microfcope, Dr Smith’s
of which a theoretical and pra&ical account is given reileet ng
in the remarks on the fecond volume of his Syltem of |n‘cro^colJ4:
Optics. Through fome of thofe incidents to which ^[^rhers.0
the condu&ing of a work fo multifarious as ours is
always liable, this inftrument was omitted under the
article Microscope. As it is conftru&ed on prin¬
ciples effentially different from all others, and, in the
opinion of the ablefl: judges whom we have confulted,
incomparably fuperior to them all, the reader will not
be ill pleafed with the following pra&ical defeription,
though it appears not perhaps in its moll proper place.
Fig. 2. is a fe&ion of this microfcope, where ABC pqqj ^
and abc are two fpecula, the former concave, and the
latter convex, inclofed within the tube DEFG. The
fpeculum ABC, is perforated like, the fpeculum of a
Gregorian telefcope; and the obje& to be magnifiedis fo
placed between the centre and principal focus ot thac
ipeculum, that the rays flowing from it to ABC are
refle&ed towards an image pq. But before they are
united in that image they are received by the convex
fpeculum abey and thence refle&ed through the hole
BC in the vertex of the concave to a fecond image
’I"*, to be viewed through an eye glafs /. The obje&
may either be fituated between the two fpecula, or,
which is perhaps better, between the principal focus
and vertex c of the convex fpeculum abc, a fmall hole
being made in its vertex for the incident rays to pafc
through. When the microfcope is ufed, let the ob-
je& be included between two little round plates of
Mofcevy-glafs, fixed in a hole of an oblong brafs plate
mn, intended to Aide clofe to the back fide of the con¬
vex fpeculum; which muff therefore be ground flat on
that fide, and fo thin that the obje& may come pre-
cifely to its computed diftance from the vertex of the
fpeculum. The Aider muft be kept tight to the back
of the metal by a gentle fpring. The diftance of the
obje& being thus determined once for all, diftin& vi¬
fion to different eyes, and through different eye-glaffes,
mult be procured by a gentle motion of the little
tubes that contain thefe glaffes. Thefe tubes muft be
made in the ufual form of thofe that belong to Sir
Ifaac Newton’s refle&ing telefcope, (fee .Telescope),
having a fmall-hole in the middle of eacn plate, at the
ends of the tube, fituated exa&ly in each locus of the
6 gk&i
/
Hiftory. O ^ ^
glaft : the life of thefe holes and plates is to limit the
vifible area, and hinder any ftragglhg rays from enter¬
ing the eye. To the tube of the eye-glafs is failened
the arm g, on which the adjafting fcrew turns. A
fimilar arm u is attached to the fixed tube X, in which
the neck of the fcrew turns ; and by turning the but¬
ton v, the eye tube is moved farther from or nearer to
the objedt, by which means different forts of eyes ob¬
tain difiindl vifion.
The rays which flow from the obje& dire&ly thro’
the hole in the concave fpeculum and through the
eye-glafs, by mixing with the refle&ed rays, would
dilute the image on the retina, and therefore muff be
intercepted. This is done by a very fimple contri¬
vance. The little hole in the convex fpeculum is
ground conical as in the figure ; and a conical folid P,
of which the bafe is larger than the orifice in the back
of the convex fpeculum, fupported on the {lender pil¬
lar PQ, is fo placed as to intercept all the direfi rays
from tfie eyc-glafs. All the tubes are ftrongfy black¬
ed on their infides, and fo is the conical folid, to hin¬
der all rtfk&ion of rays from thefe obje&s upon the
convex fpeculum. The little bafe, too, of the folid
Ihould be made concave, that whatever light it may
{fill refleft, may he thrown back upon the objed ; and
its back-fide being conical and blacked all over, will
either abforb or laterally difperfe any ftraggling rays
which the concave fpeculum may fcatter upon it, and
fo prevent their coining to the eye glafs.
NotwithHanding the interpolition of this conical
folid, yet when the eye-glafs is taken out, diftant ob-
je&s may be diftin&ly feen through the microfcope,
by rays refle&ed from the metals, and diverging upon
the eye from an image behind the convex fpeculum,
13ut this mixture of foreign rays with thofe of the ob-
jed, which is common to all kinds of microfcopes in
viewing tranfparent objeds, is ufually prevented by
placing before the objjed a thick double convex lens L,
to colled the fky-light exadly upon the objed. This
lens fhould be juft fo broad as to fubtend the oppofite
angle to that which the concave fpeculum fubteads at
the objed. The annular frame of the lens muft: be
very narrow, and conneded to the microfcope by two
or three flender wires or blades, whofe planes produced
may pafs through the objed, and intercept from it as
little fky-light as poflible.
This is not the place for explaining the principles
of this microfcope, or demoftrating its fuperiority over
moft others ; nor are fuch explanation and demonftra-
tion neceffary. Its excellence, as well as the princi¬
ples upon which it is conftruded, will be perceived by
the reader, w'hen he has made himfelf mafter of the
laws of refradion and refledion as laid down in the
enfuingpart of this article.
In 1738 or 1739, Lieberkuhn made two capi-
Sohr mi- improvements in microfcopes, by the invention of
crofeope, the folar microfcope^ and the micro/cops for opaque objetls.
and rhat fo; Wfie„ he was in England in the winter of 1739, he
opaque °b- an apparatus of his own making, for each of
thefe purpofes, to feveral gentlemen of the Royal So¬
ciety, as well as to feme opticians, particularly Mr
Cuff in Eleet-flreet, who took great pains to improve
them.
The microfcope for opaque objeds remedies the in¬
convenience of having the dark fide of an objed next
ICS. 277
the eye. For by means of a concave fpeculum of fil-
ver, highly polifhed, in the centre of which a magni¬
fying lens is placed, the objed is fo ftrongly illumi¬
nated that it may be examined with all imaginable
eafe and pleafure. A convenient apparatus of this
kind, with four different fpeculums and magnifiers of
different powers, was brought to perfedion by Mr
Cuff.
M. Lieberkuhn made confiderable improvements in
his folar microfcope, particularly in adapting it to the
view of opaque objeds; but in what manner this end
was effeded, M. vEpinus, who was highly entertained
with the performance, and who mentions the fad, was
not able to recoiled ; and the death of the ingenious
inventor prevented his publiihing any account of it
himfelf. M. iEpinus invites thofe perfons who came
into the poffeffion of M. Lieberkuhifs apparatus to
publiih an account of this inftrument ; but it doth not
appear that his method was ever publiftied.
This improvement of M. Lieberkuhn’s induced M»
iEpinus himfelf to attend to the fubjed ; and by this
means he produced a very valuable improvement in this
inftrument. For by throwing the light upon the fore-
fide of any objed by means of a mirror, before it is
tranfmitted through the objed-lens, all kmds of objeds
are equally well reprefented by it. v II(j
M. Euler propofed a fcheme to introduce vifion byRefledted
refleded light into the magic lantern and folar micro-lit-ht intro-
fcope, by which many inconveniences to which thofed^^.'^®
inftruments are fubjed might be avoided. For this j-cope lan^
purpofe, he fays, that nothing is necefiary but a large magic laa-*
concave mirror, perforated as for a telefeope; and that tern,
the light be fo fituated, that none of it may pafs di¬
rectly through the perforation, fo as to fall on the
images of the objeds upon the fereen. He propofes
to have four different machines, for objeds of different
fixes ; the firft for thofe of fix feet long, the fecorfd for
thofe of one foot, the third for thofe of two inches,
and the fourth for thofe of two lines ; but it is need-
lefs to be particular in the defeription of thefe, as more-
perfed inftruments are deferibed under the article
M ICRORCOPE.
Several improvements were made in the apparatus
to the folar microfcope, as adapted to view opaque
objeds, by M. Zeiher, who made one conftrudion
for the larger kind of objeds, and another for the
fmall ones. wj
Mr Martin having conftruded a folar microfeope of Mr Mar-
a larger fize than common, for his own ufe, the illu-tul s irn'
minating lens being 44- inches in diameter, and all ^[a^Molar
other parts of the inftrument in proportion, found, that microfcops»
by the help of an additional part, which be does not
deferibe, he could fee even opaque objeds very well.
If he had made the lens any larger, he was aware that
the heat produced at the focus would have been too
great for the generality of objeds to bear. The expence
®f this inftrument, he fays, does not much exceed the
price of the common folar microfcope.
The fmaileft globules, and confequently the greateft DrTomd»
magnifiers, for microfcopes, that have yet been execu-enraordi-
ted, were made by T. Di Torre of Naples, who, ia narryi
1765, fent four of them to the Royal Society. The cnLope! ^
largeft of them was only two Paris points in diameter,
and it was faid to magnify the diameter of an objed
640 times. The feccnd was the fize of one Paris point,.
aci
27S OPT
and die third was no more than half of a pari<! point,
or the i 14th part of an inch in diameter, an i was faid
CouM^ or to m^nify the diameter of an ohjeft 2560 times. One
be uf d b ‘°^ thefe globules was wanting when they came into
Mr Bake the hands of Mr Baker, to whofe examination they
were referred by the Royal Society. This gentleman,
To famous for his fitili in microfcopes, and his extraor¬
dinary expertnefs in managing them, was not able to
.make any ufe of thefe. With that which magnifies
.the leaf!, he was not able to fee any objed with fatis-
fadtion ; and he concludes his account with exprefling
his hopes only, that, as his eyes had keen much
ufed to micrefcopes, they were not injured by the
attention he had given to them, though he believed
there were few perfons who would not have been blind¬
ed by it.
The conftruclian of a telefcope with fix eye-glafles
Jed M. Euler to a fimilar conftrudfion of microfcopes,
by introducing into them fix lenfes, one of which ad¬
mits ot. fo fmali an aperture, as to ferve, inltead of a
I C S. par{- ^
diaphragm, to exclude all foreign light, though, as he
fays, it neither leflens the field of view, nor the bright-
nefs of obje&s.
The improvement of all dioptric inftruments is ,2°.
greatly impeded by inequalities in the fubftance of the
glafs of which they are made ; but though many at- the^on^
tempts have been made to make glafs without thatftrudbon of
imperfedlion, none of them have been hitherto quitedu,Ptric‘n-
effedtual. M. A. D. Merklein, having found fome 1':iUnlt:n£!l•
glafs which had been melted when a building was on
fire, and which proved to make excellent objecl glaf-
fes for telefcopes, concluded that its peculiar good-
nefs arofe from its not having been diiturbed when it
was in a fluid ftate ; and therefore he propofed to take
the mecal out of the furnace in iron veflels, of the
fame form that was wanted for the glafs ; and after it
had been perfe&ly fluid in thofe veflels, to let it ftand
to cool, without any difturbance. But this is not al-
ways found to anfvver.
PartI. THEORY of OPTICS.
THIS part of the feience contains all that hath
been difeovered concerning the various motions
of the rays of light, cither through different mediums,
or when refle&ed from different fubflances in the fame
medium. It contains alfo the rationale of every thing
which hath been difeovered with regard to vifion ; the
optical deceptions to which we are liable^ and, in fhort,
ought to give the reafon of all the known optical phe¬
nomena.—The fcience is commonly divided into three
parts, dioptrics, which contains the la vs of re¬
fraction, and the phenomena depending upon them ;
catoptrics, which contains the laws of refledlion, and
the phenomena which depend on them ; and, laftly,
chromatics, which treat of the phenomena of colour.
But this definition is of no ufe in a treatife of Optics,
ns moft of the phenomena depend both on refradlion
and reflection, colour itfelf not excepted. For this
reafon, though we have given detached articles under
the words Dioprarcs, Catoptrics, and Chroma¬
tics ; we have referved to this place the explana¬
tion of the laws of refle&ion and refraftion, by which
all optical phenomena may be accounted for.
Sect. I. Of the properties of Light in genera!.
iai
Different
.opinions
concc n;ug
the nature
light.
Under the article Light we have given fome ac¬
count of the controverfies concerning its nature. The
.opinions of philofophersm.iy,m general,he arranged un¬
der thefe two : 1. l.hat the phenomena of vifion and il¬
lumination are produced by the undulations of an ela-
fiic fluid, much in the fame manner as found is produ¬
ced by the undulations of air. This opinion was firfl
offered to the public by Des Cartes, and afterwards
b\ Mr Huyghens, and has lately been revived by Mr
Liner, who has endeavoured.to explain the phenomena
upon mechanical principles.-2d, That the phenome¬
na of vifion are produced by the motion and aftion of
m:itter emitted from.the fhining body with immenfe
velocity, moving uniformly in ftraight lines, and afted
on by other bodies; fo as to be reflefted, re haded,
or mfieited, in various ways, by means of forces which
5
aft on it in the fame manner as on other inert matter.
Sir Ifaac Newton has fhown, in the moft incontrover¬
tible manner, the total diflimilarity between the phe-
nomena of vifion and the legitimate confequences of
the undulations of an elaffic fluid. All Mr Euler’s
ingenious and laborious difeuflions have not removed
Newton’s objeftions in the fmalleft degree. Sir Ifaac
adopts the vulgar opinion, therefore, making light of
the difficulties objefted to it, becaufe none of them
are inconfiftent with the eftablifhed principles of me-
chanics, and are merely difficulties of conception to
limited faculties like ours. We need not defpair of
being able to decide, by experiment, which of thefe
opinions is nearefl to the truth; becaufe there are phe¬
nomena where the refult fliould be fenfibly different in
the two hypothefes. At prefent, we fhall content our-
felves with giving ibme account of the legitimate con¬
fequences of the vulgar opinion as modified by Sir
Ifaac Newton, viz. that light confifts of fmall particles
emitted woth v5ry great velocity, and attrafted or re¬
pelled by other bodies at very fmall diftances.
Every vifible body emits or reflefts inconceivably - -
fmall particles of matter from each point of its furface, m ft.aifht*
which iffue from it continually (not unlike fparks from lines from ’
a coal) in ftraight lines and in all direftions. Thefe ?ach Point
particles entering the eye, and linking upon the retina,n a iumi‘
( a nerve expanded on the back part of the eye to re-^ fur‘>
ceive their impulfes), excite in our minds the idea of
light. And as they differ in fubftance, denfity, velo¬
city, or magnitude, they produce in us the ideas of
different colours; as will be explained in its proper
place.
That the particles which conftltute light are ex¬
ceedingly fmall, appears from hence, viz. that if a hole
be made through a piece of paper with a needle, rays
of light from every objeft on the farther fide of it are
capable of palling through it at once without the lea ft:
confufion ; for any one of thofe objefts may as clearly
be feen through it, as if no rays paffed through it from
any of the reft. Further, if a candle is lighted, and
there be no obftacle in the way to obftruft the pro-
grefg
Parti. OPT
Rtfraiflion. grefs of its rays, it will fill all the fpace within two
w—V—" miles of it every way with luminous particles, before
it has lolt the lead fenlible part of its fubftance there¬
by.
That thefe particles proceed from every point of the
flirface of a vilible body, and in all directions, is clear
from hence, viz. becaufe wherever a fpedtator is pla¬
ced with regard to the body, every point of that part
of the furface which is turned towards him is vifible
to him. That they proceed from the body in right
lines, we are affured, becaufe juft fo many and no more
will be intercepted in their pafl’age to any place by an
interpofed objeCt, as that objeCt ought to intercept,
fuppofing them to come in fuch lines.
The velocity with which they proceed from the fur-
face of the vifible body is no lefs furprifing than their
minutenefs: the method whereby philofophers eftimate
their fwiftnefs, is by obfervations made on the eclipfes
of Jupiter’s fatcllites; which eclipfes to us appear about
feven minutes fooner than they ought to do by calcu¬
lation, when the earth is placed between the fun and
him, that is, when we are neareft to him; and as much
later, when the fun is between him and us, at which
time we are fartheft from him; from whence it is con¬
cluded, that they require about feven minutes to pafs
over a fpace equal to the diftance between the fun and
us, which is about 95,000,000 of miles.
A ftream of thefe particles iffuing from the furface
of a vifible body in one and the fame dire&ion, is call¬
ed a ray of light.
As rays proceed from a vifible body in all direftions,
they necefiarily become thinner and thinner, continu¬
ally fpreading themfelves as they pafs along into a lar¬
ger fpace, and that in proportion to thefquares of their
diftances from the body ; that is, at the diftance of
two fpaces, they are four times thinner chan they are
at one; at the diftance of three fpaces, nine times thin¬
ner, and fo on : the reafon of which is, becaufe they
fpread themfelves in a twofold manner, viz. upwards
and downwards, as well as fidewife.
The particles of light are fubjedft to the laws of at¬
traction of cohefion, like other fmall bodies; for if a
ray of light be made to pafs by the edge of a knife,
it. will be diverted from its natural courfe, and be in-
fle&ed towards the edge of the knife. The like in¬
flection happens to a ray when it enters obliquely in¬
to a denfer or rarer fubftance than that in which it was
before, in which cafe it is faid to be refracted; the laws
of which refiaCtion are the fubjtCl of the following
feClion.
Sect. II. Of Refraftion.
Refradtion Light, when proceeding from a luminous body,
defined. without being reflected from any opaque fubflance, or
infleCted by paffing very near one, is invariably found
to proceed in ftraight lines, without the leaft deviation.
But if it happens to pafs obliquely from one medium
to another, it always leaves the direction it had before,
and affumes a new one ; and this change of courfe is
called its refradion. After having taken this new di¬
rection, it then proceeds invariably in a ftraight line
till it meets with a different medium, when it is again
turned out of its courfe. It muft be obferved, how¬
ever, that though by this means we may caufe the rays
ICS. 279
of light make any number of angles in their courfe, it Oaufe of
is impoffible for us to make them dtferibe a curve, ex-W‘e^ra<^'on;
cept in one Angle cafe, namely, where they pafs through ” v ”T
a medium, the denfity of which uniformly either in-
creafes or decreafes. This is the cafe with the light ofin what
the celeftial bodies, which pafles dowrfwards through cafe the
our atmofphere, and likewife with that which is re
fleCted upwards through it by terreftrial objeCls. In rc|.;i,e
both thefe cafes, it deferibes a curve of the hyperbolic curve,
kind ; but at all other times it proceeds in ftraight
lines, or in what may be taken for ftraight lines with¬
out any fenfible error.
§ I. The caufe of RefraBion, and the lava by which it
is performed.
The phenomena of refraCtion are explained by an Phenomena
attractive power in the medium through which lightfi^ rejfac*^
paffes, in the following manner : All bodies being en-^y an°at>
dowed with an attractive force, which is extended tora&ive
fome diftance beyond their furfaces ; when a ray of power in
light pafies out of a rarer into a denfer medium (if thist^eine^
latter has a greater attractive force than the former, asum‘
is commonly the c.rfe), the ray, juft before its entrance,
will begin to be attracted towards the denfer medium;
and this attraction will continue to aCt upon it, till
fome time after it has entered the medium; and there¬
fore, if a ray approaches a denfer medium in a direc**
tion perpendicular to its furface, its velocity will be
continually accelerated during its paft’age through the
fpace in which that attraction exerts itielf; and there¬
fore, after it has palfed that fpace, it will move on,
till it arrives at the oppofite fide of the medium, withe
a greater degree of velocity than it had before it en¬
tered. So that in this cafe its velocity only will be al¬
tered. Whereas, if a ray enters a denfer ntedium
obliquely, it will not only have its velocity augment¬
ed thereby, but its direction will become lefs oblique
to the furface. Juft as when a ftone is thrown down¬
wards obliquely from a precipice, it falls to the furface
of the ground in a direction nearer to a perpendicular
one, than that with which it was thrown from the -
hand. From hence we fee a ray of light, in palling,
out of a rarer into a denfer medium, is refraCted to¬
wards the perpendicular; that is, fuppofing a line
drawn perpendicularly to the furface of the medium,
through the point where the ray enters, and extended
both ways, the ray in palling through the furface is
refraCted or bent towards the perpendicular line ; or,
which is the lame thing, the line which it deferibes by
its motion after it has palfed through the furface, ..
makes a Itfs angle with the perpendicular, than the
line it deferibed before. All which may be illuftrated
in the following manner.
Let us fuppofe fir ft, that the ray palfes out of a va- p]it,
cuum into the denfer medium A13CD (figi 3.), and CCCLIVi
that the attractive force of each particle in the medium
is extended from its refpeCtive centre to a diftance
equal to that which is between the lines AB and EF,
or AB and GH ; and let KL be the path deferibed
by a- ray of light ii> its progrefs towards the denfer
medium. This ray, when it arrives at L, will enter the
attractive forces of thofe particles which lie in AB the
furface of the denfer medium, and will therefore ceafe
to proceed any longer in the right line KLM, but will*
be diverted from its courfe by being attracted toward*
$he c
c8o
OPTICS.
Part X,
Caufe of the line AB, and will begin to defcribe the curve LN,
JRefradion. pafling through the furface A13 in fome new direftion,
as OQj thereby making a lefs angle with a line, as
PR, drawn perpendicularly through the point h, than
it would have done had it proceeded in its firil direc¬
tion KLM.
Farther : Whereas, we have fuppofed the attraftive
force of each particle to be extended through a fpace
equal to the diftance between AB and EF, it is evi¬
dent that the ray, after it has entered the furface, will
Itill be attracted downwards, till it has arrived at the
line EF; for, till that time, there will not be fo many
particles above it which will attradl it upwards, as be¬
low, that will attract it downwards. So that after it
'has entered the furfacc at N, in the diredlion OQ^, it
will not proceed in that dire&ion, but will continue
to defcribe a curve, as NB; after which it will proceed
fhaigbt on towards the oppofite fide of the medium,
being attrafted equally every way; and therefore will
at lad proceed in the dire&ion XST, {till nearer the
perpendicular PR than before.
Now if we fuppofe ABZ Y not to be a vacuum, but
a rarer medium than the other, the cafe will Hill be
the fame ; but the i ay will not he fo much refra&ed
from -its reftilineal courfe, becaufe the attra&ion of the
particles of the upper medium being in a contrary di-
reftion to that of the attra&ion of thofe in the lower
one, the attra&ion of the denfer medium will in fome
meafure be deftroyed by that of the rarer.
On the contrary, when a ray paffes out of a denfer
into a rarer medium, if its direction be perpendicular
to the furface of the medium, it will only lofe fome-
what of its velocity, in palling through the fpaces of
attra&ion of that medium (that is, the fpace wherein
it is attracted more one way than it is another). If its
diredtion be oblique, it will continually recede from
the perpendicular during its pafiage, and by that
.means have its obliquity increafed, juft as a ft one
thrown up obliquely from the furface of the earth in-
creafes its obliquity all the time it rifes. Thus, fup-
pofing the ray TS palling out of the denfer medium
ABED into the rarer ABZY, when it arrives at S it
will begin to be attra&ed downwards, and fo will de¬
fcribe the curve SNL, and then proceed in the right
line LK; making a larger angle with the perpendicular
PR, than the line TSX in which it proceeded during
its paffagc through the other medium.
We may here make a general obfervation on the
forces which produce this deviation of the rays of
light from their original path. They arife from the
joint aftion of all the particles of the body which are
fufficiently near the particle of light; that is, whofe
diftance from it is not greater than the line AE or
GA; and therefore the whole force which adts on a
particle in its different fituations between the planes
GH and EF, follows a very different law from the
force exerted by one particle of the medium.
The fpace through which the attradfion ofcohefion
of the panicles of matter is extended is fo very fmall,
that in confidering the progrefs of a ray of light out
of one medium into another, the curvature it deferibes
jn paffing through the Ipace of attradlion is generally
ncgledted ; and its path is fuppofed to be bent, or, in
the ufual terms, the ray is fuppofed to be refradled
only in the point where it enters the denfer medium.
247.
Now the line which a ray deferibes before it enters Caufe of
a denfer or a rarer medium, is called the incident ray . Refraction.
that which it deferibes after it has entered, is the re- ^ ' "J
fraided ray.
The angle comprehended between the incident ray
and the perpendicular, is the angle of incidence; and
that between the refradled ray and the perpendicular,
is the angle of refraflhn.
There is a certain and immutable law or rule, by
which refradlion is always performed; and that is this:
Whatever inclination a ray of light has to the furface
of any medium before it enters it, the degree of ie-
fradtion will always be fuch, that the proportion be¬
tween the fine of the angle of its incidence, and that
of the angle of its refradlion, will always be the fame
in that medium. pjate
To illuftrate this: Let us fuppofe ABCD (fig. 4.) CCCLIV*
to reprefent a rarer, and ABEF a denfer medium: let
GH be a ray of light palling through the firft and en¬
tering the fecond at H, and let HI be the refradled
ray: then fuppofing the perpendicular PR drawn thro’
the point H, on the centre H, and with any radius,
defcribe the circle APBR ; and from G and I, where
the incident and.refradled rays cut the circle, let fall
the lines GK arid XL perpendicularly upon the line
PR; the former of thefe will be the fine of the angle
of incidence, the latter of refradlion. Now if in this
cafe the ray GH is fo refradled at H, that GK is
double or triple, &c. of IL, then, whatever other in¬
clination the ray GH might have had, the fine of its
angle of incidence would have been double or triple,
&c. to that of its angle of refradlion. For inftance,
had the ray^paffed in the line MH before refradlion,
it would have puffed in fome line as HN afterwards, fo
fituated that MO ftiould have been double or triple,
&c. of NQ^
When a ray pafles out of a vacuum into air, the fine
of the angle of incidence is found to be to that of re¬
fradlion as 100036 to 100000.
When it pafies out of air into water, as about 4
to 3.
When out of ainjnto glafs, as about 17 to it.
When out of air into a diamond, as about 5 to 2.
This relation of the fine of the angle of incidence
to that of refradlion, which is a propofition of the
moft extenlive ufe in explaining the optical phenome¬
na on phyfical or mechanical principles, may be de-
monftrated in the following eafy and familiar man¬
ner.
Lemma I. The augmentations or diminutions of
the fquares of the velocities produced by the uniform
adlion of accelerating or retarding forces, are propor¬
tional to the forces, and to the fpaces along which
they adl, jointly, or are proportional to the produdta
of the forces multiplied by the fpaces.
Let two bodies be uniformly accelerated from a
ftate of reft in the points A <3, along the fpaces AB,
ab, fig. 5. by the accelerating forces Fjf, and let
AC, a c, be fpaces deferibed in equal times ; it is
evident, from what has been faid under the articles
Gravit* and Acceleration, that becaufe thefe
fpaces are deferibed with motions uniformly accelerated,
AC and ac are refpedtively the halves of the ipaces
which would he uniformly deferibed during the fame
time with the velocities acquired at C and r, and are
therefore
I
-art I. OPT
Caufeof therefore meafures of thefe velocities. And as thefe
iiefrai3i|in* yclocltiee are uniformly acquired in equal times, they
v  are meafures of the accelerating forces. Therefore
AC . ac~Y :/. Alfo, from the nature of uniformly
accelerated motion, the fpaces are proportional to the
fquares of the acquired velocities. fherefore, (uting
the fymbols a/* C, a/jO &c- to exprefs. the fquares
of the velocities at C c, &c.) we have
V/1 B : C=e AB : AC
a/2 C : i/'t ~ AC1 : tre*
a/2 £ : \/1 b — ac : ob
Therefore, by equality of compound ratios
a/2 B : a/2 b— ABXAC : = ABxF : alXf.
And in like manner : v^2 £/= ADxb : adYf;
and v/1 B—a^2 D : \/2 d=VDXF‘-bd'Xf,
O. E. D. r . ,
Coral. If the forces are as the fpaces inverfdy, the
augmentations or diminutions of the fquares of the ve¬
locities are equal.
Remark. If DB, db, be taken extremely fmall,
the produds BDXF and b dYf may be called the
momentary aftions of the forces, or the momentary
increments of the fquares of the velocities.^ It is u-
fually exprefled, by the writers on the higher me¬
chanics, by the fymbol/r, or fds, where / means the
accelerating force, and s or ds means the indefinitely
fmall fpace along which it is uniformly exerted. -And
the propofition is expreffed by the fluxionary equa¬
tion f s~v v, becaufe v v is half the increment of -a >
as is well known. . r i. r n-
Plate I.emmai. (being the 39th propofition of the 11 rIt
<CCCL1V. book of Newton’s Principia.) If a particle of mat-
hg* 6. ter) moving with any velocity along the line AC, be
impelled by an accelerating or retarding force, acting
in the fame or in the oppofite direftion, and if the
iiitenfity of the force in the different points B,F, rI, C,
&c. be as the ordinates BD, FG, &c. to the line
DGE, the areas BFGD, BHKD, &c will be as
the changes made on the fquare of the velocity at B,
when the particle arrives at the points F, H, &c.
For let BC lie divided into innumerable fmall por¬
tions, of which let I'H be one, and let the force be
fuppofed to aft uniformly, or to be of invariable in-
teniity during the motion along FPI ; draw GI per¬
pendicular to HK : It is evident that the reftangle
FHIG will be as the produft of the accelerating
force by the fpace along which it afts, and will there¬
fore exprefs the momentary increment of the fquare
of the velocity. (Lemma 1.) The fame may be faid
of every fuch reftangle. And if the number of the
portions, fuch as FH, be increafed, and their magni¬
tude diminifhed without end, the redangles will ulti-
Tuatcly occupy the whole curvilineal area, and the
force will be continually varying in its intenfity. T he
curvilineal areas will therefore be as the finite changes
made on the fquare of the velocity, and the propo¬
fition is demonftrated.
Carol. The whole change made on the fquare of
the velocity, is equal to the fquare of that velocity
which the accelerating force would communicate to
the particle by impelling it along BC from a Hate of
reft ‘in B. For the area BCED will ftill exprefs the
fquare of this velocity, and it equally expreffes the
change made on the fquare of any velocity wherewith
Vol. XIII. Part I.
ICS. 281
the particle may pafs through the point B, and is in-
dependent on the magnitude of that velocity. . ^..
Remark. The figure is adapted to the cafe where
the forces all confpire with the initial motion of the
particle, or all oppofe it, and the area expreffes an
augmentation or a diminution of the fquare of the ini¬
tial velocity. But the reafoning would have been the
fame, although, in fame parts of the line BC, the
forces had confpired with the initial motion, and in
other parts had oppofed it. In fuch a cafe, the or¬
dinates which exprefs the intenfity of the forces mult
lie on different fides of the abfcifl'a BC, and that part
of the area which lies on one fide muft be confidered
as negative with refpect to the other, and be fubtraff-
ed from it. Thus, if the forces are reprefented by
the ordinates of the dotted curve line DHr, which
croffes the abfeiffa in H, the figure will correfpond
to the motion of a particle, which, after moving uni¬
formly along AB, is fubje&ed to the aftion of a va¬
riable accelerating force during its motion along BH,
and the fquare of its initial velocity is increafed by
the quantity BHD; after which it is retarded during
its motion along PIC, and the fquare of its velocity
in H is diminiflied by a quantity HG?. Therefore
the fquare of the initial velocity is changed by a quan¬
tity BHD—HG, or HG—BHD.
This propofition is perhaps the moft important in
the whole fcience of mechanics, being the founda¬
tion of every application of mechanical theory to the
explanation of natural phenomena. No traces of it
are to be found in the writings of philofophers before
the publication of Newton’s Principia, although it is
affumed by John Bernoulli and other detradors from
Newton’s geatnefs as an elementary truth, without
any acknowledgment of their obligations to its au¬
thor. Is is ufually expreffed by the equation/r = <11 v
and f fs — ’v1-, i.e. the fum of the momentary adions
is equal to the whole or finite increment of the fquare
of the velocity.
PROPOSITION.
When light paffes obliquely into or out of a tranf-^he m.^o
parent fubftance, it is refraded fo that the fine of^( ;ncidenc8
the angle of incidence is to the fine of the angle ofto the fine
refradion in the conftant ratio of the velocity of the of refrac-
refraded light to that of the incident light. uon*
Let ST, KR (fig-7-), reprefent two planes (pa¬
rallel to, and equidiftant from, the refrading furface
XY) which bound the fpace in which the light, du¬
ring its paffage, is aded on by the refrading forces,
as explained in n° 125. The intenfity of the refrading
forces being fuppofed equal at equal diftances from the
bounding planes, though any how different at diffe¬
rent diftances from them, may be reprefented by the
ordinates Ta, nq.p r, c R, &c. of the curve abnpc,
of which the form muft be determined from obfer-
vation, and may remain for ever unknown. The
phenomena of infleded light fhow us that it is at-
traded by the refrading fubftance at fome diftanccs,
and repelled at others..
Let the light, moving uniformly in the diredion
AB, enter the refrading ftratum at B. It will not
proceed in that diredion, but its path will be incur-
vated upwards, while aded on by a repulfive force,
N n and .
\
202
o
« an<i downwards, while impelled by an attra£Hve force.
‘^ will defcribe forr.e curvilineal path BA CDE,
which AB touches in B, and will finally emerge from
the refra&ing ftratum at E, and move uniformly in a
ftraight line EF, which touches the curve in E. If,
through b, the interfe&fon of the curve of forces
with its abfcilTa, we draw £o, cutting the path of the
light in o, it is evident that this path will be concave
upwards between B and o, and concave downwards
between o and E. Aifo, if the initial velocity of the
light has been fufficiently fmall, its path may be fo
much bent upwards, that in fome point d its direc¬
tion may be parallel to the bounding planes. In this
cafe it is evident, that being under the influence of a
repulfive force, it will be more bent upwards, and it
will defcribe df^ equal and fimilar to r/B, and emerge
in an angle gfs equal to ABG. In this cafe it is re-
fledfed, making the angle of refle£h"on equal to that
©f incidence. By which it appears how refleftion,
refra&ion, and infle&ion, are produced by the fame
forces and performed by the fame laws.
But let the velocity be fuppofed fufliciently great
to enable the light to penetrate through the refraA-
ing ftratum, and emerge from it in the dire&ion EF;
Ft AB and EF be fuppofed to be defcribed in equal
times : They will be proportional to the initial and
final velocities of the light. Now, becaufc the re-
fiacting forces mujl a£t in a direction perpendicular to
tfie refracting furface (fince they arife from the joint
a Aion of all the particles of a homogeneous fubftance
which are within the fphere of mutual a&ion), they
cannot aftedt the motion of the light eflimated in the
dire A ion of the refraAing furface. If, therefore, AG
le drai* n perpendicular to ST, and FK to KR, the
lines GB, EK, mufl; be equal, becaufe they are the
motions AB, EF, eftimated in the direAion of the
planes. Draw now EL parallel to AB. It is alfo
equal to it Therefore EL, EF, are as the initial
and final velocities of the light. But EF is to EL as
^‘5, ^.ne °/ t^e angle ELK to the fine of the angle
Lrlv : that is, as the fine of the angle A Bid to the
fine of the angle FEI; that is, as the fine of the angle
ot incidence to the fine of the angle of refraAion.
By the fame reafoning it will appear that light,
moving in the direAion and with the velocity FE, will
defcribe the path EDB, and will emerge in the di-
reAion and with the velocity BA.
Let another ray enter the refraAing ftratum per¬
pendicularly at B, and emerge at Take two points
o*, I, in tne line BQ^ extremely near to each other,
° t!lat t“e refraAing forces may be fuppofed to aA
uniformly along the fpace NP; draw NC, PD pa¬
rallel to ST, CM perpendicular to DP, and MO
perpendicular to CD, which may be taken for a
-traight line. Then, becaufe the forces at C and N
Ere equal, by fuppo'fition they may be reprefented
by the equa lines CM and NP. The force NP is
wholly employed m accelerating the light along NP;
but the force CM being tranfverfe ?o the motion
, is ju partly o employed, and may be conceived
of w'fnVb I1" ^,nt a,a;on Gf the frrees CO, OM,
in of the® ;h f “ff o7M i: accciiri,t7-,he m°-
CitySofSthe‘t : ^
^nty Of the triangles DCM, MCO, that DC ; CM
1 c S. PartT
=CM:CO, and that DCxCO~CMxCM=NPX Caufeof
Nl . But DCxCO and N* XNP are as the produAs Refr2<ftioD,1
of the fpaces by the accelerating forces, and exprefs
tae momentary increments of the fquares of the ve¬
locities at C and N. (Lemma i.) Thefe increments,
therefore, are equal. And as this muft be faid of
every portion of the paths BCE and BNQ, it follows
that the whole increment of the fquare of the initial
velocity produced in the motion along BCE, is equal
to the increment produced in the motion along BNQ.
And, becaufe the initial velocities were equal in both
paths, their fquares were equal. Therefore the fquares
of the final velocities are alfo equal in both paths, and
the final velocities themfelves are equal. The initial
and final velocities^ are_ therefore in a conftant ratio,
W- ctever aie the direftions; and the ratio cf the fines
of the angles of incidence and refraAion being the
ratio of the velocities of the refraAed and incident
fight, by the former cafe of prop. i. is alfo conftant.
. Remark. The augmentation of the fquare of the
initial velocity is equal to the fquare of the velocity
which a particle of light would have acquired, if im.
pelled from a ftate of reft at B along the line BQ,
(Corol. of the Lemma 2. ), and is therefore indepen^
. ent on initial velocity. As this augmentation
is exprefled by the curvilineal area aT b n p c R, it de¬
pends both on the intenfity of the refraAing forces,
exprefled by the ordinates, and on the fpace through
which they aA, viz. TR. Thefe circumftances arife
from the nature of the tranfparent fubftance, and are
charaAeriftic of that fubftance. Therefore, to ab¬
breviate language, we {hall call this the Jpecific velocity.
I his fpecific velocity is eafily determined for any
fubftance in which the refraAion is obferved, by draw-
T? ^ 1 PerPen<^lcu^ar to EL, meeting in i the circle
efenbed with the radius EF. For Ei being equal
to EF, will reprefent the velocity of the refraAed
light, and EL reprefent the velocity of the incident
light, and E/l= ELM-LP, and therefore Li1 is the
augmentation of the fquare of the initial velocity, and
L i is the fpecific velocity.
It will now be proper to deduce fome corollaries
rom thefe propofitions, tending to explain the chief
phenomena of refraAion.
larVoTT” rr'fr?a<!d — ardS the PerPend>cu- The mJtim
Jar to the refraAing furface, it is accelerated ; and it°f light ac-
is retarded when it is refraAed from the perpendicular celerate-1
In the firft cafe, therefore, it muft be confidered ty
having been aAed on by forces confpiring (in part at- *
leaft) with its motion, and viceverfa. Therefore, be¬
caufe we fee that it is always refraAed towards the
perpendicular, when palling from a void into any tranf¬
parent fubftance, we muft conclude that it is, on the
whoL, attraAed by that fubftance. We muft draw
the fame conclufion from obferving, that it is refraAed
from the perpendicular in its paflage out of any tranf¬
parent fubftance whatever into a void. It has been
attraAed backwards by that fubftance.
I his acceleration of light in refraAion is contrary
to the opinion of thofe philofophers who maintain,
t at illumination is produced by the undulation of an
elaftic medium. Euler attempts to prove, by mecha¬
nical laws, that the velocities of the incident and re¬
fraAed light are proportional to the fines of incidence
and refraAion, while our principles make them in this.
8 ratio.
—
,rtT OPT
»(' rat!o inverfely. T5ofcoviclt propofed a fine experiment
ifridion for deciding this queilion. The aberration of the hxed
ftarsarifes from the combination of the motion o
liaht with the motion of the tclefcope by which it is
obferved. Therefore this aberration ihou d be greater
or lefs when obferved by means of a telefcope tide
with water, according as light moves flower or fwifter
through water than through air. He was mifWen
in the manner in which the conclufion (houlcl be arawn
from the obfervation made in the form prefenbed by
him : and the experiment has not yet been made m a
convincing manner ; becaufe no fluid has been found
of fufficienc tranfparency to admit of the neceflary
. magnifying power. It is an experiment o. the great-
eft importance to optical fcience. .
2. If the light be moving within the tranfparent
Cub fiance, and if its velocity (eftimated in a dire&ion
perpendicular to the furface) do not exceed the fpeci-
5k velocity of that fubftance, it will not emerge from
it, but will be reflefted backwards in an angle equal
to that of Its incidence. For it mufi be obferved, that
in the figure of laft propofition, the excefs of the
fquare of EF above the fquare of EL, is the fame
with the excefs of the fquare of KF above the fquare
of KL. Therefore the fquare of the fpecific velocity
is equal to the augmentation or diminution of the
fquare of the perpendicular velocity. If therefore the
rrrMV mit1"1 perpendicular velocity FK (% 80 Je.P^eclfe J
CCCL1V. ^ ^ the fpecific velocity, the light will juft reach
the farther fide of the attraaing ttratum, as at r>,
where its perpendicular velocity will be completely ex-
tinguifhed, and its motion will be in the direkionb I.
But it is here under the influence of forces tending
towards the plane KR, and its motion will therefore
be flill incurvated towards it; and it will oeicnbe a
curve BD equal and fimilar to EB, and finally emerge
back from the refrafting ftratum into the tranfparent
fubftance in an angle RD A equal to KEF
If the direaion of the light be ftdl more oblique, to
that its perpendicular velocity is lefs than the fpecific
Velocity, it will not reach the plane S I, but be re-
flefted as foon as it has penetrated fo far that the
fpecific velocity of the part penetrated (eftimated by
the compounding part of the area of forces) is equal
to its perpendicular velocity. Ihus the ray E wi
deferibe the path EJDa penetrating to Id, fo that the
correfponding area of forces is equal to the fquare
of fk, its perpendicular velocity.
The extreme brilliancy of dew drops and of jewels
had often excited the attention of philofophers, and it
always appeared a difficulty how light was refleded at
all from the pofterior furface of tranfparent bodies. It
afforded Sir Ifaac Newton his flrongeft argument
again ft the ufual theory of refledion, viz. that it was
produced by impad on folid elaftic matter. He was
the firft who took notice of the totalTcfledion in great
obliquities; and very properly afked how it can lie laid
that there is any impad in this cafe, or that the re-
fkding impad fhould ceafe at a particular obli-
rt8 quity ? ...
Rays at a It mu ft be acknowledged that it is a very curious
cert tin ob- circumftance, that a body which is perfectly tranfpa-
liquity are ceafe t0 be fo at a certain obliquity ; that
SaX a great obliquity fltould not hinder light from paffing
tranfparent from a void into a piece of gEfs j tm. that the fame
vbftantts.
ICS. 383
obliquity fhould prevent it from paffing from the glafs Caufe of
into a void. The fineft experiment for illultrating the Kara~tK,n’.
fad is, to take two pieces of mirror-glafs, not filvered,
and put them together with a piece of paper between
them, forming a narrow margin all round to keep
them apart. Plunge this apparatus into water. When
it is held nearly parallel to the furface of the water,
every thing at the bottom of the veffel will be feen
clearly through the glaffcs ; but when they are turn.
ed fo as to he inclined about 50 degrees, they will in-
tercept the light as much as if they were plates of iron.
It will be proper to foak the paper in varnifh, to pre¬
vent water from getting between the glaffes. 119
What is called the brilliant cut in diamonds, is fuch The bril-
a difpolition of the pofterior facets of the diamond, 11 ant cut ia
that the light is made to fall upon them fo obliquely
that none of it can go through, but all is refleded. Je{k(>
To produce this effed in the greateit poffible degree, ;ioa,
is a matter of calculation, and merits the attention of
the lapidary. When diamonds are too thin to admit
of this form, they are cut in what is called the rofe-
fafhion. This has a plain back, and the facets are all
on the front, and fo difpofed as to refract the rays in¬
to Efficient obliquities, to he ftrongly refleded from
the pofterior plane. Doublets are made by cutting
one thin diamond rofe-faftiion, and another fimilar one
is put behind it, with their plane furfaces joined. Or,
more frequently, the outfide diamond has the anterior
facets of the brilliant, and the inner has the form of
the inner part of a brilliant. If they be joined with
very pure and ftrongly refradmg varnifh, little light
is refleded from the feparating plane, and their bril¬
liancy is very confiderable, though . ftill inferior to a
true and deep brilliant. If no varnifti oe ufed, much
of the light is refleded from the flat fide, and the ef-
fsd of the pofterior facets is much diminiihed. But
doublets might be conftruded, by making the touch¬
ing furfaces of a fpherical form (ot which the curvature
fhould have a due proportion to the fize of the ilone),
that would produce an effed nearly equal to that of
the mo ft perfect brilliant. ^
3. Since the change made on the fquare of the velo- Refrafti0ft
city of the incident hyht is a conitant quantity, itdimmifhes
follows, that the refraction win diminifh a* the velo-as the inci-
city ot the incident light increafes For if Lr (n ^ i^eLiesL
fig. 7. be a conftant quantity, and EE be increafed, it
is evident that the ratio of E , or its equal EF, to
EL will be diminiihed, and the angle EEF, which
conftitutes the refradien, will be dtminiihed. The
phyfical caufe of tins is eaiily feen : When the velocity
of the incident light is increafed, it employs lefs time in
paffing through v the refracting ftratum or fpace be¬
tween the planes S i and KR, and is therefore lefs in¬
fluenced by the refracting forces. A iimilar effed
would follow if the trafiiparent body were moving
with great velocity towards the luminous body.
Some naturalifts have accounted for the different
refrangibility of the differently coloured rays, by fup-
pofing that the red rays move v.ith the greateft rapi¬
dity, and they have determined the difference of ori¬
ginal velocity which would produce the obferved dif¬
ference of refradion. But this difference would be
obferved in the eclipfes of Jupiter's fatellites. They
Ihould be ruddy at their emerfions, and be lome fe-
conds before they attain their pure whitenefs; and
N n Z theF
284. OPT
Caufe of they fliould become blailb immediately before they
Rciradtipn.yan^ ;n immerflon9> This is not obferved. Bendes,
the difference in refrangibility is much greater in flint-
glafs than in crown-glafs, and this would require a
proportion liy greater difference in the original velo¬
cities. This explanation therefore mull be given
13*
The refrac
:ion of a
ftar greater
in the even¬
ing than in
the morn-
ing.
up.
13 »
All light
fubjeit to
the fame
kws.
It fliould follow, that the refradtion of a ftar which
is in our meridian at fix o'clock in the evening Ihould
be greater than that of a ftar which comes on the me¬
ridian at fix in the morning; becaufe we are moving
. away from the firft, and approaching to the laft. But
the difference is but of the whole, and cannot be
obierved with fufficient accuracy in any way yet prac-
tifed. A form of obfervation has been propofed by
Dr Blair profeffor of practical aftronomy in the uni-
verlity of Edinburgh, which promifes a very fenfible
difference of refraction. It is alfo to be expedted,
that a difference will be obferved in the refradtion of
the light from the eaft and v/eftern ends of Saturn's
ring. Its diameter is about 26 times that of the earth,
and it revolves in roll. 32'; fo that the velocity of its
edge is about -ros-cnr of the velocity of the fun’s light.
If therefore the light be refledted from it according
to the laws of perfedl elafticity, or in the manner here
explained, that which comes to us from the weftern
extremity will move more fiowly than that which
comes from the eaftern extremity in the proportion of
2joo to 2501. And if Saturn can be feen cliftindlly
after a refradtion of 30° through a prifm, the diame¬
ter of the ring will be encreafed one half in one pofi-
tion of the telefcope, and will be as much diminifhed
by turning the telefcope half round its axis ; and an
intermediate poiition will exhibit the ring of a di-
ftorted Ihape. This experiment is one of the mo ft in-
terefting to optical fcience, as its refult will be a fe-
vere touchftone of the theories which have been at¬
tempted for explaining tKe phenomena on mechanical
principles.
If the tad of a comet be impelled by the rays of
the fun, as is with great probability fuppofed by Eu¬
ler and others, the light by which its extreme parts
are feen by us muff have its velocity greatly dimi-
niftted, being reftedled by particles which are moving
away from the fun with immenfe rapidity. This may
perhaps be difcovered by its greater aberration and re-
frangibility.
As common day-light is nothing but tbe fun’s light
refledted from terreftrial bodies, it is reafonable to ex¬
pert that it will fuffer the fame refradlion. But no¬
thing but obfervation could affure us that this would
be the cafe with the light of the ftars; and it is rather
furprifing that the velocity of their light is the fame
with that of the fun’s light. It is a circumftance of
connexion between the folar fyftem and the reft of the
univerfe. It was as link to be looked for on the light
of terreftrial luminaries. If light be conceived as fmall
particles of matter emitted from bodies by the action
of accelerating forces of any kind, the vaft diverfity
which we obferve in the eonftitution of fublunary bo¬
dies (horild make us expedt differences in this particu¬
lar. Yet it is found, that the light of a candle, of a
gloworm, &c fullers the fame refradtion, and confifts
of the fame colours. Phis circumltance is adduced as
an argument againft the theory of enulfton. It is
I C S, parj.
thought more probable that this famenefs of velocity Caufe ef
is owing to the nature of the medium, which deter- JUfraftum,
mines the frequency of its undulations and the velocity ■“~v—
of their propagation.
4. When two tranfparent bodies are contiguous, the LaWof3
light in its paffage out of the one into the other will fradfion
be refradted towards or fr om the perpendicular, accord- when light
ing as the refradfing forces of the fecond are greater P^es out
o* kfs than thofe of the firft, or rather according as p^m^K*
the area exprefling the fquare of the fpecific velocity is dy intoa-
grcater or lefs. And as the difference of thefe areas nother cnn.
is a determined quantity, the difference between the p^uous t(>
velocity in the medium of incidence and the velocity lt'
in the medium of refradlion, will alfo be a determined
quantity. Therefore the fine of the angle of incidence
will be in a conftant ratio to the fine of the angle of
refradlion ; and this ratio will be compounded of the
ratio of the fine of incidence in the firft medium to
the fine of refradlion in a void; and the ratio of the
fine of incidence in a void to the fine of refradlion in
the fecond medium. If therefore a ray of light, mo¬
ving through a void in any diredlion, fhallpafs through
any number of media bounded by parallel planes, ita
diredlion in the laft medium will be the fame as if it.
had come into it from a void.
5. it alfo follows from thefe propofitions, that if
the obliquity of incidence on the pofterior furface of
a tranfparent body be fuch, that the light fhould be.
refledled back again, the placing a mafs of the fame
or of another medium in contadl with this furface,
will caufe it to be tranfmitted, and this the more com¬
pletely, as the added medium is more denfe or more
refraftive ; and the refledtion from the feparating
furface will be the more vivid in proportion as the po¬
fterior fubftance is lefs denfe or of a fmaller refradlive
power. It is not even neccffary that the other body
be in contadl; it is enough if it be fo near that thole
parts of the refradling ftrata which are beyond the
bodies interfere with or coincide with each other.
All thefe confequences are agreeable to experience.
The brilliant refledlion from a dew-drop ceafes when
it touches the leaf on which it refts : The brilliancy
of a diamond is greatly damaged by moifture getting
behind it: The opacity of the combined mirror plates*
mentioned in the fecond corollary, is removed by let¬
ting water get between them : A piece of glafs is
diftindlly or clearly feen in air, more faintly when im-
merfed in water, ftill more faintly amidil oil of olives,
and it is hardly perceived in fpirits of turpentine.
Thefe phenomena are incompatible with the notion
that refledlion is occafioned by impadl on folid matter,
whether of th<« tranfparent body, or of any aether or
other fancied fluid behind it; and their perfect coin¬
cidence with the legitimate confequences of the affir¬
med principles, is a ftrwng argument in favour of the
truth of thofe principles 154'
It is worth while to mention here a fadt taken no- objeo
tice of by Mr Beguelin, and propofed as a great dif- ^,on t0 the
ficulty in the Newtonian theory of refraction. In °
order to get the greatell poflible refradlion, and the relradtjou.
fimpleft meafure of the re/radting power at the ante¬
rior furface of any tranfparent fubftance, Sir Ifaac
Newton enjoins us to employ a ray of light falling on
the furface quam obliqmjftme. But Mr Beguelin found,
that when the obliquity of incidence in glafs was about
Part f.
O
Caufe of
Re'radtion
*35
Shown to
bo the ne-
veffary con
fequence
of that
tion of it.
no light was refra61etl, but that it was wholly
refle&ed. He alfo obferved, that when he gradually
increafed the obliquity of incidence on the pofterior
furface of the glafs, the light which emerged laft of
all did not fkim along the furface, making an angle of
90° with the perpendicular, as it fhouid do by the
Newtonian theory, but made an angle of more than
ten minutes with the poflerior furface. Alfo, when he
began with very great obliquities, fo that all the light
was reflefted back into the glafs, and gradually dimi¬
nished the obliquity of incidence, the firfl ray of light
which emerged did not Heim along the furface, but
was raifed about ic or 15 minutes.
But all thefe phenomena are neceflary confequences
of our principles, combined with what obfervation
teaches us concerning the forces which bodies exert
Ulic on t^ie r;,ys of light. It is evident, from the experi-
theory, and of Crnmaldi and Newton, that light is both at-
* f courfe a trailed and repelled by foil'd bodies. Newton’s fa-
confirma- gacious analyfis of thefe experiments difeovered feve-
ral alternations of aAual infleftion and defleftion ; and
he gives us the precife didance from the body when
fome of thefe attractions end and repuHion commences;
and the moft remote action to be obferved in his ex¬
periments is repulfion. Let us fuppofe this to be the
cafe, although it be not abfolutely necefTary. Let ns
fnppofe that the forces are reprefented by the ordi¬
nates of a curve abnpc (tez fig. 7.) which crolfes the
CCCL1V. abfeifla in b. Draw bo parallel to the refracting fur¬
face. Wiien the obliquity of incidence of the ray AB
has become fo great, that its path in the glafs, or in
the refracting Itiatiim, does not cut, but only touches
the line 0 b> it can penetrate no further, but is to¬
tally reflected ; and this muft happen in all greater
obliquities. On the other hand, when the ray LE,
moving within the glafs, has but a very fmall perpen¬
dicular velocity, it will penetrate the refraAing ftra-
tum no further than till this perpendicular velocity is
extinguilhed, and its path becomes parallel to the fur¬
face, and it will be refleAed back. As the perpendi¬
cular velocity increafes by diminifhing the obliquity
of incidence, it will penetrate farther; and the laft
refleAion will happen when it penetrates fo far that its
path touches the line o b. Now dimrnilh the oblrquity
by a fingle iecond ; the light will get over the line
c b, will deferibe an arch b r/B concave upwards, and
will emerge m a direAion BA, which does not fkim
the furface, hut is fenfibly raifed above it. And thus
the fa As obferved by M. Beguelin, inftead of being an
objeAion again!! this theory, afford an argument in its
favour.
7. Thofe philofophers who maintain the theory of
Plate
I c s.
28
136
tj Euler s .... . —-   ****.*,,,
: theory of undulation,are under the neceffity of conneAing the di-
undulation fperfive powers of bodies with their mean refraAive
| contrary to pOWers. Mr Euler has attempted to deduce a necef-
fary difference in the velocity of the rays of different
colours from the different frequency of the undula¬
tions, which he affigns as the caufe of their different
colorific powers. His reafoning on this fubjeA is of
the moft delicate nature, and unintelligible to fuch as
are not completely mafter of the infinitefimal calculug
of partial differences, and is unfatisfadory to fuch as
are able to go through its intricacies. It is contra.
dfAed by faA. He fays, and indeed to be confiftent
he muft fay it, that mufical founds which difler great-
ly m acutenefs are propagated through the air with Caufe of
different velocities; but one of the fmalleft bells in Rtfla‘5lion'
the chimes of St Giles’s church in Edinburgh was v
ftruck againft the rim of the very deep-toned bell on
which the hours are ftruck. When the found was
liftened to by a nice obferver at the diftance of more
than two miles, no interval whatever could be obfer¬
ved. A fimilar experiment was exhibited to Mr Eu¬
ler himfelf, by means of a curious mufical inftrument
(if it can be fo called) ufed at St Peterfburgh, and
which may be heard at three or four miles diftance.
But the experiment with the bells is unexceptionable,
as the two founds were produced in the very fame
inftant.. This connection between the refrangibility
in general and the velocity muft be admitted, in its
full extent, in every attempt to explain refraction by
undulation; and Euler was forced by it to adopt a
certain confequence which made a neceflary connec¬
tion between the mean refraAion and the difperiion
of heterogeneous rays. Confident of his analyfis, he
gave a deaf ear to all that was told him of Mr Doi-
lond’s improvements on telefcopes, and afierted, that
they could not be fuch as were related ; for an in-
creafe of mean refraAion muft always be accompanied
with a determined increafe of difperfion. Newton had
faid the fame thing, being milled by a limited view.of
his own principles; but the difperfion alfigned by him
was different from that affigned by Euler. The dif-
pute between Euler and Dollond was confined to the
decifion of this queftion only ; and when fome glaffes-
made by a German chemift at St Peterfburgh con¬
vinced Euler that his determination was erroneous, he
had not the candour to give up the principle which
had forced him to this determination of the difper¬
fion, but immediately introduced a new theory of the
achromatic telefcopes of Dollond ; a theory which
took the artifts out of the track marked out by ma¬
thematicians, and in which they had made confider-
a-ble advances, and led them into another path, pro-
pofing maxims’oi conftruAion hitherto untried, and
inconfiftent with real improvements which they had 137-
already made. The leading principle in this theory And mir»
is to arrange the different ultimate images of a point leadsiil'tlil8*-
which arife either from the errors of a fpherical figure
or different refrangibility, in a ftraight line palling
through the centre of the eye. The theory itfelf is
fpecious; and it requires great mathematical flcill to
accomphfh this point, and hardly lefs to decide on
the propriety of the conftruAion which it recom-
mends. It is therefore but little known. But that it
is a falfe theory, is evident from one fimple confidera-
tion. In the moft indiftinA vifion ariiing from the
worft conftruAion, this reAiiineal arrangement of the
images obtains completely in that pencil whiefi is fi-
tuated in the axis, and yet the vifion is indiftinA-
But, what is to our prefent purpofe, this new theory
is purely mathematical^ fuitiug any obferved difper-
five power, and has no conneAion with the phyfical
theory of undulations, or indeed with any mechanical
principles whatever. But, by admitting any difper-
five power, whatever may be the mean refraAion
all the phyfical doArines in his Nova Theoria Lucis et
Co/orum are overlooked, and therefore never once men¬
tioned, although the effeAs of Mr Zeiher’s glafs are
taken notice of as inconllftent with that mechanica
propo-^
236
0
Caufe of proportion of Newton’s winch oceafioned the whole
Re fra# ion. ^jfpUte between Euler and Dollond.
w—••pbey are indeed inconfiftent with the uniyerfality
of that propofition. Newton advances it in his optics
inerely as a mathematical proportion highly pro¬
bable, but fays that it will be corrected if hejhalljind
it falfe. The ground on which he feems (for he does
not exprefsly fay fo) to reft its probability is a limited
view ©f his own principle, the action of bodies on
light. He (not knowing any caufe to the contrary)
fuppofed that the aftion of all bodies was fimilar on
the different kinds of light, that is, that the fpecific
velocities of the differently coloured rays had a deter¬
mined proportion to each other. This was. gratui¬
tous ; and it might have been doubted by him who
had obferved the analogy between the chemical ac¬
tions of bodies by ele&ive attra&ions and repuifions,
and the fimilar a&ions on light. Not only have dif¬
ferent menftrua unequal aftions on their folids, but
the order of their affinities is alfo different. In like
manner, we might expe& not only that fome bodies
would attraft light in general more than , others, but
alfo might differ in the proportion of their a&ions on
the different kinds of light, and this fo much, that
fome might even attraft the red more than the violet.
The late'difcoveries in chemiftry fhow us fome very
diftinft proofs, that light is not exempted from the
laws of chemical atfion, and that it is fufceptible of
chemical combination. The changes produced by
the fun’s light on vegetable colours, fhows the neceffity
of illumination to produce the green fecula ; and the
aromatic oils of plants, the irritability of their leaves
by the a&ion of light, the curious effedts of it on the
mineral acids, on manganefe, and the calces of bif-
muth and lead, and the imbibition and fubfequent
emiffion of it by phofphorefcent bodies, aie flrong
proofs of its chemical affinities, and are quite inex¬
plicable en the theory of undulations.
All thefe confiderations taken together, had they
been known to Sir Ifaac Newton, would have made
him expedl differences quite anomalous, in the difper-
five powers of different tranfparent bodies;, at the fame
time that they would have afforded to his fagacious
mind the ftrongeft arguments for the adtual emiffion
of light from the luminous body.
Having in this manner eftablifhed the obferved
law of refraftion on mechanical principles, (bowing it to
be a neceffary confequence of the known adtion of bo¬
dies on light, we proceed to trace its mathematical con-
fequences through -the various cafes in which it may
be exhibited to our obfervation. I hefe conftitute
that part of the mathematical branch of optical fcience
138 which is called dioptrics.
The vana- We are quite Unacquainted with the law of adfion
tion of the of bod;es on light> t}iat. js> with the variation of the
attractions intenfity of the attraduons and repuifions exerted at
and repul- different diftances. All that we can fay is, that from
fions un- the experiments and obfervations of Grimaldi, New-
known. and others, light is defledled towards a body or
is attradkd by it, at fome diftancea, and repelled at
others, and this with a variable intenfity. The ac¬
tion may be extremely different, both in extent and
force, in different bodies, and change by a very dif¬
ferent law with the fame change of dillance. But,
ICS. Part T.
a mid ft all this variety, there is a certain fimilarity ari- Cau^.of
fing from the joint adlion of many particles, which a,-iraa'0",i
ffiould be noticed, becaufe it tends both to explain j39
the fimilarity obferved in the refra&ions of light, and The law of
alfo its connexion with the phenomena of reflexion, variation in
The law of variation in the joint aftion of many
particles adjoining to the furface of a refra&ing me-particl/s
dium, is extremely different from that of a Angle par-different
tide ; but when this laft is known, the other may be from that
found out. ^ We (hall iiluftrate this matter by a very done^, but
fimple cafe. Let DE (fig-9.) be the furface of a kJwn if
medium, and let us fuppofe that the adtion of a par-he known,
tide of the medium on a particle of light extends Plate
to the diftance EA, and that it is proportional to the CCCLIV,
ordinates ED, F/, Gg? H^, &c. of the line A A Cj'/D;
that is, that the a&ion of the particle E of the me¬
dium on a particle of light in 1‘, is to its a&ion on a
particle in H as F/to HA, and that it is attra&ed at
F but repelled at H, as expreffed by the fituation.of
the ordinates with refpeft to the abfeiffa. In the line
AE produced to B, make EB, E^, EK, Ey, E?, &c.
refpedtively equal to EA, EH, EC, EG, EF, &c..
It is evident that a pa: tide of the medium at B will
exert no a&ion on the particle of light in E, and that
the particles of the medium in * r P £, will exert on
it a&ions proportional to HA, Gg, F/j ED. There¬
fore, fuppofing the matter of the medium continuous,
the whole a&ion exerted by the row of particles EB
will be reprefented by the area AACDE; and the
a&ion of the particles between B and ® will be repre-
fented by the area AAC/F, and that of the particle*
between E and by the area F^DE.
Now let the particle of light be in F, and take
F»=AE. It is no lefs evident that the particle of
light in F will be a&ed on by the particles in Eo alone,
and that it will be a&ed on in the fame manner as a
particle in E is a&ed on by the particles in B. There¬
fore the a&ion of the whole row of particles EB on a
particle in F will be reprefented by the area AAC/F,
And thus the a&ion on a particle of light in any point
of AE will be reprefented by the area which lies be¬
yond it.
But let us fuppofe the particles oflight to .be with¬
in the medium, as at <p, and make ^=AE. It is
again evident that it is a&ed on by the particles
of the medium between ? and d with a force repre¬
fented by the area AACDE, and in the oppofite
dire&ion by the particles in E? with a force re¬
prefented by the area Ff DE. 1 his balances an
equal quantity of a&ion, and there remains an a&ion
expreffed by the area AAC/F. Therefore, if an equal
and fimilar line to AACDE be deferibed on the abfeiffa
EB, the a&ion of the medium on a particle of light
in ?> will be re prefer, ted *by the area /*AB, lying be¬
yond it.
If we now draw a line AKLMRNPB whofe ordi¬
nates CK, FC/j fR, &c. are as the .ireas ot the other
curve, eftimated from A and B ; thefe ordinates will
reprefent the whole forces which are exerted by the
particles in EB, on a particle of light moving from A
to B. This curve will cut the axis in points L, N
fuch, that the ordinates drawn through them inter¬
cept areas of the firft curve, which are equal on each
fide of the axis; and in thefe points the particle of ught
fuftains no a&ion from the medium. Thefe points are
very
■ 'T'T™* * a
i
Parti. OPT
Caufe «f very different from the fimilar points of the curve ex-
Rt-fra&mn. preffing the aftion of a fingle particle. Thefe laft are
u » " in the very places where the light fuftaina the great-
eft repulfive aftion of the whole row of particles. In
the fame manner may a curve be conftrufted, whofe or¬
dinates exprefsthe united a&ion of the whole medium.
From thefe obfervations we learn in general, that a
particle of light wichin the fpace of attion is a&ed on
with equal f .-ces, and in the fame direction, when at
equaf diitances on each fide of the furface of the me¬
dium.
Cf the focal dijlance of rap refraSecl ly pojfwg out of one
medium into another of different denjity and through a
plane furface.
Plate
CCCl-lV.
140
Law» of re-
fr;t<ftion in
plane fur.
feces.
Lemma. The indefinitely fmall variation of the angle
of incidence is to the fimultaneous variation of the
angle of refra&ion as the tangent of incidence is to
the tangent of refradion; or, the cotemporaneous
variations of the angles of incidence and refradion are
proportional to the tangents of thefe angles.
Let RVF, '•’'//'(fig. 10.) be the progrefs of the rays
reftaded at V (the angle rVR being confidered in its
nafeent or evanefeent ftatc), and VC perpendicular to
the refrading furface VA. From C draw CD, CB
perpendicular to the incident and refraded rays RV,
VF, cutting rV, V/'in and and let Cd, C^> be per¬
pendicular to rV, Vf.
Becaufe the fines of incidence and refradion are in
a conftant ratio, their fimultaneous variations are in
the fame conftant ratio. Now the angle RVV is to the
* . , . B/3 D<r . BC
angle FV/'m the ratio of t^iat 1S* 0^13V
DC . . . fin. incid. fin. refr.
to
DV
; that is, of
cof. incid.cof. rtfrd
that is, of
tan. incid. to fan. refr.
Corollary. The difference of thefe variations is to
the greateft or leaft of them as the difference of the
tangents to the greateft or leaft tangent.
PROBLEM.
p?»te two rays RV, RP diverge from, or converge
CC'CLV. to, a point R (figs. 1, 2, 3,, 4^), and pafs through the
plane furface PV feparating two refrading mediums
AB, of which let B be the moft refradmg, and let
RV be perpendicular to the furface. It is required to
determine the point of difperfion or convergence, F,
cf the refradrd rays VD, PE.
Make VR to \ G as the fine of refradion to the
fince of incidence, and draw GIK parallel to the fur¬
face, cutting the incident ray in L About the centre
P, with the radius PI, deferibe an arch of a circle IF,
cutting VR in F; draw PE tending from or towards
F. We lay PE is the refraded ray, and F the point
of difptrfion or convergence of the rays RV, RP, or
the conjugate foeus to R.
For fince G1 and PV are parallel and PF equal to
I C S 287
PI, we have PF : PRrrPI : PR,=VG : VR,=fin. Caufcof
incid. : fin. refr. But PF : PR=fm. PRV : fin. RJfrafet,n:
PFV, and RRV is equal to the angle of incidence
at P; therefore PFV is the correfponding angle of re¬
fradion, FPE is the refraded ray, and F the conju¬
gate focus to R.
Cord, 1. If diverging or converging rays fall an<
the lurface of a more refrading medium, they will
diverge or converge lefs after refradion, I being far¬
ther from the furface than R. The contrary mutt hap¬
pen when the diverging or converging rays fall on the
furface of a lefs refrading medium, becaufe, in this
cafe, F is nearer to the furface than R.
Cord. 2. Let Kp be another ray, more oblique
than RP, the refrading point p being farther from V,
and let fpe be the refraded ray, determined by the
fame conftrudion. Becaufe the arches Yl.fi, are per¬
pendicular to their radii, it is evident that they will
converge to fome point within the angle RIK, and
therefore will not crofs each other between F and I tr.
therefore Ryr will be greater than RF, as RF is
greater than RG, for fimilar reafons. Hence it fol¬
lows. that all the rays which tended from or towards R»
and were incident on the whole of VP/>, will not di¬
verge from or converge to F, but will be diffufed over
the line GYf. This diffufion is called aberration from
the focus, and is fo much greater as the rays are more
oblique. No rays flowing from or towards R will
have point of concourfe with RV nearer to R than F
is : But if the obliquity be inconfiderable, fo that the
ratio of RP to FP does not differ fenfibly from that
of RV to FV, the point of concourfe will not be fen¬
fibly removed from G. G is therefore ufually called
the conjugate focus to R. It is. the conjugate focus
of an indefinitely Bender pencil of rays falling perpen¬
dicularly on the furface. The conjugate focus of an
oblique pencil, or even of two oblique rays, whofe dif¬
perfion on the furface is confiderable, is of more dif¬
ficult invefligatiun. See Gravcfande’s Natural Philofo-
phy for a very neat and elementaly determination (e).
in a work of this kind, it is enough to have pointed
our, in an eafy and familiar manner, the nature of op¬
tical aberration. But as this is the chief caufe of the
imperfeftion of optical inftruments, and as the only-
method of removing this imperfe&ion is to diminifh
this aberration, or correct it by a fubfequent aberration
in the oppofite direction, we fhall here give a funda¬
mental and very fimple propofition, which will (with
obvious alterations) apply to all important cafes. This
is the determination of the foeus of an infinitely {len¬
der pencil of oblique rays RP, Kp.
“ Retaining the former conftru&ion for the ray PF,
(fig. 1.) fuppofe the other ray Kp infinitely near to RP.
Draw PS perpendicular to PV, and Rr perpendicular
to RP, and make Pr : FS=VR : VF. On Pr deferibe
the ftmicircle rRP, and on PS the femicircle S^P, cut¬
ting the refraded ray PF in p, draw Is
follows »
(p) We refer to Gravefande, becaufe we confider it as of importance to make fuch a work as cure ferve
ts a general index to fcience and literature. At the fame time we take the liberty to ob rve that the fo-
cua in qutftion is virtually determined by the conftru&ion which we have given : for the points P F of
If ^nC JF.are/£ter™fted> rand therefore its pofition is alfo determined. The fame is true of the pofidoa
ori7» therefore the mterkOioa of the two line* ia likewife determined.
28!? OPT
Refraction follows from tbt lemma, that if be the focus of
g^!^rlcal refra&ed rays, the variation Ftp of the angle of re-
. fra£lion is tp the correfponding variation PR^> of the
angle of incidence as the tangent of the angle of re-
fraftion VFP to the tangent of the angle of incidence
VRP. Now Fp may be confidered as coinciding with
the arch of the femicircles. Therefore the angles.
FR/\ Pr^ are equal, as alfo the angles Frp, PS/».
But PS/> is to Frp as Pr to PS; that is, as VR to VI ;
that is, as the cotangent of the angle of incidence to
the cotangent of the angle of refraction ; that is, as
the tangent of the angle of refraftion to the tangent
of the angle of incidence. Therefore the point i> is
the focus.
Of Rfradian ly Spherical Surfaces.
General Problem.
To find the focus of refracted rays, the focus of in¬
cident rays being given.
Plate Let PV* (tigs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, io, n, 12, 13, 14,)
CCCLV. ke a fphevical furface whofe centre is C, and let the
incident light diverge from or converge to R.
Solution. Draw the ray RC through the centre,
cutting the furface in the point V, which we {hall de¬
nominate the •vertex, while RC is called the axis.
This ray pafles on without refra&ion, becaufe it co¬
incides with the perpendicular to the furface. Let
t4t RP be another incident ray, which is refrafted at P,
The focus draw the radius PC. In RP make RE to RP as the
re* fine of incidence m to the fine of refraftion n ; and
fpherlcal^ about the centre R, with the diftance RE, defenbe
•furfaces the circle EK, cutting PC in K ; draw RK and PF
afeertained.,parallel to it, cutting the axis in F. PF is the re-
frafted ray, and F is the focus.
For the triangles PCF, KCR are fimilar, and the
angles at P and K are equal. Alfo RK is equal to
RE, and RPD is the angle of incidence. Now
♦n : n=RK : RP, = fin.DPR t fin. RKP,=fin.DPR :
fin. CPF. Therefore CPF is the angle of refra&ion
correfponding to the angle of incidence RPD, and
PF is the refra&ed ray, and F the focus. Q. E. D.
CPxCR
Cor. 1. CK : CP = CR : CF, and CF=-^—
Now CPXCR is a conftant quantity; and therefore CF
is reciprocally as CK, which evidently varies with a va¬
riation of the arch VP. Hence it follows, that all the
rays flowing from R are not collected at the conju¬
gate focus F. The ultimate fituation of the point F,
as the point P gradually approaches to, and at laft
coincides with, V, is called the conjugate focus of cen¬
tral rays, and the didance between this focus and the
focus of a lateral ray is called the aberration of that ray,
arifing from the fphetical figure.
There are, however, two fituations of the point R
fuch, that all the rays which flow from it are made to
diverge from one point. One of thofe is C (fig. 5.),
becaufe they all pafs thro’ without refraftion, and there¬
fore flill diverge from C ; the other is when rays in
the rare medium with a convex furface flow from a
point R, fo fituated beyond the centre that CV is to
CR as the fine of incidence in the rare medium is to
the fine of refraftion in the denier, or when rays in
the rare medium fall on the convex furface of the dea¬
fer, converging to F, fo fituated that CF : CV =
%
IC S. Parti;
m’.n. In this cafe they will all be difperfed from Refraction
F, fo fituated that CV : CF =: n : m zz CR : CV^>sPher,caI
for fine RPC : fine RKC = 72 : ttj, = CR : CP, -Surta"£i- ;
fine RPC: fine PRC. Therefore thr angle PRC is
equal to RKC, or to FPC (by conftruftion of the
problem), and the angle C is common to the trian¬
gles PRC. FPC ; they are therefore fimilar, and the
angles PRC, tPC are equal, and n\m zz CP: CF,
= CK : CR. = CR : CP ; therefore CP : CK=
CP* : CR1 : but CP and CR are conftant quantities,
and therefore CK is a conftant quantity, and (by the
corollary) CF is a conftant quantity, and all the rays
flowing from R are dftperfed from F by refraftion.
In like manner rays converging to F will by refrac¬
tion converge to R. This was firft obferved by Huy¬
gens.
2. If the incident ray R’P (fig. 5.) is parallel to
the axis RC, we have PO to CO as the fine of inci¬
dence to the fine of refraftion. For the triangles
R’PK’ PCO are fimilar, and PO : CO = R’K’ : R’P,
zz m : n. ■
3. In this cafe, too, w^have the focal diftance of
central parallel rays reckoned from the vertex ==
Til
•  X VC. For fince PO is ultimately VO, we
vi—n
have m'.nzz VO : CO, and m—n : m zz VO—CO :
772
VO, = VC : VO, and VO = X VC. This is
called the principal focal diftance, or focal diftance of
parallel rays. Alfo CO, the principal focal diftance
reckoned from the centre, zz  X VC.
772 — 72
N. B. When 772 is lefs than n, m—n is a negative
quantity.—Alfo obferve, that in applying fymbois to
this computation of the focal diftances, thofe lines are
to be accounted pofitive which lie from their begin¬
nings, that is, from the vertex, or the centre, or the
radiant point, in the direction of the incident rays.
Thus when rays diverge from R on the convex fur¬
face of a medium, VR is accounted negative and VC
pofitive. If the light pafles out of air into glals, m
is greater than 72 ,• but if it pafles out of glals into air, j
tn is lefs than 72. If, therefore, parallel rays fall
on the convex furface of glafs out of air, in which
cafe 722:72 = 3:2 very nearly, we have for the prin-
pal Focal diftance —VC, or-k3VC. But if it pafs
out of glafs into the convex furface of air, we have
VO = —-— VC. or —2 VC ; that is, the focus O will
2—-3 > . .
be in the fame fide of the furface with the incident
light. In like manner, we fhall have for thefe two
cafes CO = + 2VC and —
4. By conftruftion we have RK : RP = t?2 : n
by fimilarity of triangles PF : RK = CF : CR
therefore PF :PR= 772CF : «CR
and 772PRXCF=«CRXPF
therefore nzPR : 72CR=PF : CF,
and ttiPR—nCR : ?kPR= PF—CF : PF
ultimately trVR—tiCR : 7«VR=: VC : VF
This is a very general optical theorem, and affords!
an eafy method for computing the focal diftance of
refrafted rays.
For this purpofe let VR, the diftance of the radiant
4 point,
4
'art I.
Iffm&in
>y Spberi-
al Suria-
Plate
CCCLV.
OPT
point, be exprefled bp tbe Tymbcrl r, tbe diftance of
the focus of refracted rays by the fymbol f, and the
radius of the fpherical furface by a ; we have
mr - nr—a : mrzza : f, and
mar mar 
mr—n r—a m—nr+nd
In its application due attention muft be paid to the
qualities of r and a, whether they be pofitive or ne¬
gative, according to the conditions of lafl corollary.
5. IfQjfig. 8. ) be the focus of parallel rays coming
from the oppofite fide, we fhall have RQ__- QC — RV :
VF. For draw Cq parallel to PF, cutting RP in q ;
then Ry : yC-RP : PF. Now y is the focus of the
parallel rays FP, Cy. And when the point P ulti¬
mately coincides with the point V, q muft coincide
with and we have RQj QC = RV : VF.
This is the mod general optical theorem, and is
equally applicable to lenfes, or even to a combination
, of them, as to fimple furfaces. It is alfo applicable
to refledtions, with this difference, that Q^is to be
afiumed the focus of parallel rays coming xht fame wTay
with the incident rays. It affords us the moft com¬
pendious methods of computing fymbolieally and arith¬
metically the focal diftances in all cafes.
6. We have alfo Ry : RP= RV : RF, and ultimate¬
ly fo central rays RQj RV—RV : RF, and RF =
RVT
RO *
7T Alfo Ry : RCcczRP : RF, and ultimately RQj
RVXRC r
RV=RC : RF, and RF=—rq^ • N- B' Thefe
four points V, C, F, either lie all one way from
R, or two of them forward and two backward.
.8. Alfo, making O the principal focus of rays
coming the fame way, we have Ry : yC==C(?: oF, and
qcxco;
ultimately RQj Q£=cO t OF, and OF*= RQ^
and therefore reciprocally proportional to RQ^ becaufe
QCXro is a conftant quantity.
1 hefe corollaries or theorems give ns a variety of
methods for finding the focus of refrafted rays, or
the other points related to them ; and each formula
contains four points, of which any three being given
the fourth may be found. Perhaps the laft is the moft
fimple, as the quantity tfeXcQjs always negative, be¬
caufe 0 and Qjire on different Tides.
9. From this conftru&ion we may alfo derive a very
eafy and expeditious method of drawing many refract¬
ed rays. Draw through the centre C (fig. 15* 16-)
a line to the point of incidence P, and a line CA pa¬
rallel to the incident ray RP. Take VO to VC as
the fine of incidence to the fine of refradtion, and
about A, with the radius VO, deferibe an arch of a
circle cutting PC produced in B. Join AB; and Pb
parallel to AB is the refradted ray. When the in¬
cident light is parallel to RC, the point A coincides
with V, and a circle deferibed round V with the dx-
ftance VO will cut the lines PC, pC, &c. in the points
B£. The demonftration is evident.
Having thus determined the focal diftance of re-
frafted rays, it will be proper to point out a little
more particularly its relation to its conjugate focus
of incident rays. We flxall confider the four cafes of
You XIII. Part I.
ICS. sS<)
light incident on the convex or concave furface of aRefra^hon
denferora rarer medium. cTlSuifa-
1. Let light moving in air fall on the convex furface ce3<
of glafs (fig. 5. to fig. 14.). Let us fuppofe it tend- —' v,
ing to a point beyond the glafs infinitely diftant. It
will be colledted to its principal focus 0 beyond the
vertex V. Now let the incident light converge a
little, fo that R is at a great diftance beyond the fur¬
face. The focus of refradled rays F will be a little
within O or nearer to V. As the incident rays are
made to converge more and more, the point R comes
nearer to V, and the point F alfo approaches it, but
with a much flower motion, being always fituated be¬
tween O and C till it is overtaken by R at the centre
C, when the incident light is perpendicular to the fur¬
face in every point, and therefore fuffers no refradtion.
As R has overtaken F at C, it now paffes it, and is
again overtaken by it at V. Now the point R is on
the fide from which the light comes, that is, the rays
diverge from R. After refra&ion they wdll diverge
from F a little without R ; and as R recedes farther
from V, F recedes ft ill farther, and with an accelerated
motion, till, when R comes to Cf, F has gone to an
infinite diftance, or the refra&ed rays are parallel.
When R ftill recedes, F now appears on the other
fide, or beyond V ; and as R recedes back to an in¬
finite diflance, F has come to O : and this complete*
the feries of variations, the motion of F during the
whole changes of fituation being in the fame direttioa
with the motion of R.
2. Let the light moving in air fail on the concave
furface of glafs ; and let us begin with parallel ixiei-
dent rays, conceiving, as before, R to lie beyond the
glafs at an infinite diftance. The rsfra&ed rays will
move as if they came from the principal focus O, lying
on that fide of the glafs from which the light comes.
As the incident rays are made gradually more conver¬
ging, and the point of convergence R comes toward
the glafs, the conjugate focus F moves backward
from O ; the refrafted rays growing lefs and lefs di¬
verging, till the point R comes to the principal
focus on the other fide. The refra&ed rays are now
parallel, or F has retreated to an infinite diftance.
The incident light converging ftill more, or R coming
beween Qjmd V, F will appear on the other fide, or
beyond the furface, or within the glafs, and will ap¬
proach it with a retarded motion, and finally overtake
R at the furfacc of the glafs. Let R continue its mo¬
tion backwards (for it has all the while been moving
backwards, or in a direction contrary to that of the
light) ; that is, let R now be a radiant point, moving
backwards from the furface of the glafs. F will at
firft he without it, but will be overtaken by it at the
centre C, when the rays will fuffer no refradfion. R
ftill receding, will get without F; and while R re¬
cedes to an infinite diftance, F will recede to O, and
the feries will be completed.
2. J^et the light moving in glafs fall on the convex
furface of air ; that is, let it come out of the concave
fat face of glafs, and lei the incident rays he parallel,
or tending to R, infinitely diftant : they will be dif-
perfed by reflation from the principal focus O with¬
in the glafs. As they are made more converging, R,
comes nearer, and F retreats backward, till R comes
O o - to
290 OPT
Of Glaffet. toQj the principal focus without the glafs ; when F
* is now at an infinite diilance within the glafs, and the
refracted rays are parallel. R ftill coming nearer, F
now appears before the glafs, overtakes R at the centre
C, and is again overtaken by it at V. R now beco¬
ming a radiant point within the glafs, F follows it
backwards, and arrives at O, when R has receded to
an infinite diftance, -and the feries is completed.
4. Let the incident light, moving'in glafs-, fall on
the concave furface of air, or come out of the convex
furface of glafs. Let it tend to a point R at an infi¬
nite diftance without the glafs. rI he refra&ed rays
will converge to O, the principal focus without the
glafs. As the incident light is mar'e more converging,
R comes towards the glafs, while F, fetting out from
v, alfo approaches the glafs, and R overtakes it at
the furface V. R now becomes a radiant point with¬
in the glafs, receding backwards from the furface. F
recedes flower at firft, but overtakes R at the centre
C, and pafles it with an accelerated motion to an infi¬
nite diftance; while R letreats to the principal
focus within the glafs. R ftill retreating, F appears
before the glafs ; and while R retreats to an infinite
diftance, F comes to V, and the feries is completed.
§ 2. Of Glaffes.
*41 Glass for optical purpsfes maybe ground into
Lenfes, nine different fhapes. Glafles cut into five of thofe
how many, fhapes are called knfes, which together with their axes
are defcribed in vol. 6. page 33. (See Dioptrics).
The_other four are,
1. A plcme-glafs, which is flat on both fides, and of
r’Pf316 fclual thicknefs in all its parts, as EF, fig. 1.
’ 2. A. flat piano-convex) wbofe convex fide is ground
into feveral little flat furfaces, as A. fig. 2.
_ 3. A prijm, which has three flat fides, and when
viewed endwife appears like an equilateral triangle,
as B.
4.. A concavo-convex glafs, as C, which has hitherto
received no name, and is feldora, if ever, made ufe of
in optical inftruments.
A ray of light Gb (fig. 1.) falling perpendicularly
•n a plane glafs El, will pafs through the glafs in the
fame dii e&ion hi, and go out of it into the air in the
fame flraight line in.
A ray of light AB falling obliquely on a plane
•glafs, will go out of the glafs in the fame dire£lion,
but not in the fame flraight line : for in touching the
glafs, it will be refra&ed in the line BC ; and in lea¬
ving the glafs, it will be refra&ed in the line CD.
Eg. 3>to6. Lemma. There is a certain point E within every
double convex or double concave lens, through which
every ray that paffes will have its incident and emer¬
gent parts QA, aq parallel to each other : but in a
plano-convex cr plano-concave lens, that point E is re¬
moved to the vertex of the concave or convex furface;
and in a. menifcus, and in that other concavo-convex
lens, it is removed a little way out of them, and lies
next to the furface which has the greateft curvature.
for let RErbe the axis of the lens joining the cen-
tres R, r of its furfaces A, a. Draw any two of their.
Lmidiameters RA, ra parallel to each other, and join
the points A., a, and the line Aa will cut the axis in
the point E above defcribed. For the triangles REA,
being equiangular, RE will be to Er in the given
I C S. Parti.
ratio of the femidiameters RA, ra; and confequently OfGUfle*.
the point E is invariable in the fame lens. Now fup- V“—J
pofing a ray to pafs both ways along the line Aa, it
being equally inclined to the perpendiculars to the
furfaces, will be equally bent, and contrarywife in go¬
ing out of the lens ; fo that its emergent parts AQ^,
aq will be parallel. Now any of thefe lenfes will be¬
come plano convex or piano concave, by conceiving
one of the femidiameters RA, r<? to become infinite,
and confcquently to become parallel to the axis of the
lens, and then the other femidiameter will coincicfe
with the axis ; and fo the points A, E or a, E will
coincide. Q^E. D.
Carol. Hence when a pencil of rays falls almoft per¬
pendicularly upon any lens, whofe thicknefs is incon-
fiderable, the courfe of the ray which pafles through
E, above defcribed, may be taken for a ftraight line
pafiing through the centre of the lens, without fen-
lible error in fenfible things. For it is manifeft from
the length of Aa and from the quantity of the refrac¬
tions at its extremities, that the perpendicular didance
of AQ_j aq when produced, will be diminiftied both
as the thicknefs of the lens and the obliquity of the
ray is diminilhed.
PROPOSITION I.
To find the focus of parallel rays falling almoft per¬
pendicularly upon any given lens.
Let E be the centre of the lens, R and r the cen- p. I
tres of its furfaces, Rr its axis, ^EG a line parallel to ^7 7' I
the incident rays upon the furface B, whofe centre is 143 "
R. Parallel to ^E draw a femiriiameter BR, in which The t'ocu*
produced let V be the focus of the rays after theirof
firft refra&ion at the furface B, and joining Vr, let itperJendS
cut jE produced in G, and G will be the focus of thelarly upon
rays that emerge from the lens. any lens.
For fince V is alfo the focus of the rays incident
upon the fecond furtace A, the emergent rays mull
have their focus in fome point of that ray which paifes
ftraight through this furface ; that is, in the line Vr,
drawn through its centre r: and fince the whole courfe
of another ray is reckoned a ftraight line ^EG *, its* Corel,
interfe&ion G with Vr determines the focus of them *rom
all. Q^E. D. ma-
Carol. 1. When the incident rays are parallel to the
axis rR, the focal dillance EF is equal to EG. For
let the incident rays that were parallel to ^E be gra¬
dually more inclined to the axis till they become pa¬
rallel to it; and their firft and fecond foeufes V and
G will deferibe circular arches VT and GF whofe
centres are R and E. For the line RV is invariable ;
being in proportion to RB in a given ratio of the lef-
ier of the lines of incidence and refra&ion to their
difference* ; confequently the line EG is alfo invari-^
able, being in proportion to the given line RV in the °r*
given ratio of rE to rR, becaufe the triangles EGr, ne‘ 41
RVr are equiangular.
Carol. 2. The laft proportion gives the following
rule for finding the focal diftance of any thin lens. As
Rr, the interval between the centres of the furfaces,
is to rE, the femidiameter of the fecond furface, fo is
RV or RT, the continuation of the firft femidiameter
to the firft focus, to EG or EF, the focal diftance of
the lens ; which, according as the lens is thicker or .
thinner in the middle than at its edges, muft lie on
the,
art I.
O
Of Glaffes. the fame fide as the emergent rays, or on the oppofite
'fide.
Carol. 3. Hence when rays fall parallel on both
fides of any lens, the focal diftances EF, Ey are equal.
For let rt be the continuation of the femidiameter Er
to the firft focus t of rays falling parallel upon the
furface A ; and the fame rule that gave rR to rE as
RT to EF, gives alfo rR to RE as rt to E/. Whence
E/"and EF are equal, becaufe the rectangles under rE,
RT and alfo under RE, rt are equal. For rE is to
rt and alfo RE to R.T in the fame given ratio.
Coral. 4. Hence in particular in a double-convex
or double-concave lens made of glafs, it is as the fum
of their femidiameters (or in a menifcus as their dif¬
ference) to either of them, fo is double the other, to
the focal diftance of the glafs. For the continuations
RT, rt are feverally double their femidiameters: be¬
caufe in glafs ET is to TR and alfo E/ to tr as
3 to 2.
Carol. 5. Hence if the femidiameters of the fur-
faces of the glafs be equal, its focal diftance is equal
to one of them ; and is equal to the focal diftance of
a piano-convex or plano-concave glafs wbofe femidia¬
meter is as fhort again. For confidering the plane
furface as having an infinite femidiameter, the firft ra¬
tio of the laft mentioned proportion may be reckoned
a ratio of equality.
PROPOSITION II.
144
The focus
* By Co-
j roi. from
former
Prop.
The focus of incident rays upon a fingle furface,
of emergent fphere, or lens being given, it is required to find the
rayb found. focus Qf tjie emergent rays.
Plate Let any point Q^be the focus of incident rays up-
gCCLVH. otl a fpherjcai furface, lens,-or fphere, whofe centre is
k’ ’ ‘ E; and let other rays come parallel to the line QEf
the contrary way to the given rays, and after refradfion
let them belong to a focus F; then taking E/" equal
to EF in the lens or fphere, but equal to FC in the fingle
furface, fay as QF to EE fo E/to fq ; and placing
fq the contrary way from f to that of FQ__from F,
the point q will be the focus of the refradted rays,
without fenfible error; provided the point Q^be not
fo remote from the axis, nor the furfaces fo broad, as to
caufe any of the rays to fall too obliquely upon them.
For with the centre E and femidiameters EF and
E/deferibe two arches FG,/r cutting any ray, QAaq
in G and^, and draw EG and E^. Then fuppofing
G to be a focus of incident rays (as GA), the emer¬
gent rays (as agq) will be parallel to GE*; and on the
other hand fuj^pofingj- another focus of incident rays
(as^tf), the emergent rays (as AGQ) will be pa¬
rallel to ^E. Therefore the triangles QGE, Egq are
equiangular, and confequently QjG is to GE as Eo-
to gq; that is, when the ray QArfy is the neareft to
QEq, QF is to FE as E/~ tofg. Now when Q^ ac¬
cedes to F and coincides with it, the emergent rays
become parallel, that is q recedes to an infinite di¬
ftance ; and confequently when Q^pafles to the other
fide of F, the focus q will alfo pafs through an infi¬
nite fpace from one fide of/ to the other fide of it.
Q. E. D.
Carol. 1. In a fphere or lens the focus q may be
found by this rule : As QF to QE fo QE to Qy, to
be placed the fame way trom Q__as QF lies from Q^
For let the incident and emergent ray QA,ya fee pro.
ICS. 2Qt
duced till they meet ine; and the triangles QGE, OfGlafle*.
Q_£7 being equiangular, we have QG to QE as Qeto L ^
Q_j7; and when the angles of thefe triangles are va-
nilhing, the point £ will coincide with E ; becaufe in
the fphere the triangle Aea is equiangular at the bafe
Aa, and confequently Ae and ae will at laft become fe¬
midiameters of the fphere. In a lens the thfcknef*
Aa is inconfiderable.
The focus may alfo be found by this rule,
QF : FE : : QE : E?, for QG : GE : : QA : Aq.
And then the rule formerly demonftrated for fingle
furfaces holds good for the lenfes.
Coral. 2. In all cafes the dxftance fq varies recipro¬
cally as FQ^does ; and they lie contrarywife from
f and F ; becaufe the redtangle or the fquare under
EF and E/, the middle terms in the foregoing propor¬
tions, is invariable. •
The principal focal diftance of a lens may not only
be found by collecting the rays coming from the fun,
confidered as parallel, but alfo (by means of this pro-
pofition) it may be found by the light of a candle or
window. For, becaufe Qjy : qA : : QE : EG, we
have (when A coincides with E) Q^y ; ^E = QE :
EF; that is, the diftance obferved between the ra¬
diant objeft and its picture in the focus is to the di¬
ftance of the lens from the focus as the diftance of
the lens from the radiant is to its principal focal
diftance. Multiply tlferefore the diftances of the lens
from the radiant and focus, and divide the produdt
by their fum.
Carol. 3. Convex lenfes of different ihapes that
have equal focal diftances, when put into each others
places, have equal powers upon any pencil of rays to
refract them to the fame focus. Becaufe the rules
above-mentioned depend only upon the focal diftance
of the lens, and not upon the proportion of the fe¬
midiameters of its furfaces.
Carol. 4. The rule that was given for a fphere of ai»
uniform denfity, will ferve alfo for finding the focus of
a pencil of rays refrafted through any number of con¬
centric furfaces, which intercede uniform mediums of
any different denfities. For when rays come parallel
to any line drawn through the common centre of thefe
mediums, and are refradted through them all, the di¬
ftance of their focus from that centre is invariable, a*
in an uniform fphere.
Coral. 5. When the focufes Q^ q lie on the fame
fide of the refradting furfaces, if the incident rays
flow from Q^the refradted rays will alfo flow from y;
and if the incident rays flow towards Q^the refradted
will alfo flow towards q : and the contrary will hap¬
pen when Qjmd q are on contrary fides of the re¬
fraining furfaces. Becaufe the rays are continually-
going forwards.
From this propofition we alfo derive an eafy me¬
thod of drawing the progrefs of rays through any
number of lenfes ranged on a common axis.
Let A, B, C, (fig. 7.) be the lenfes, and RA a
ray incident on the firft of them. Let a>/b * be their
foci for parallel rays coming in the oppofite direc¬
tion ; draw the perpendicular ad, cutting the incident
ray in d, and draw da through the centre of the
lens: AB parallel to da will be the ray refiadted
by the fnft lens. Fhrough the focus of the fc-
condlens draw the perpendicular ,2e, cutting AB in
O o 2 e ■
2Q2 OPT
Of Vifion. e ; and draw eb through the centre of the fecond lens.
 ' BD parallel to ^ e will be the next refra&ed ray.
Through the focus * of the third lens draw the per¬
pendicular yf, cutting BD in f and draw fc through
the centre of the third lens. CE parallel to/c will
be the refradled ray } and fo on.
§3- Of Vifion.
Having deferibed how the rays of light, flowing
from objefts, and palling through convex glafles, are
colle&ed into points, and form the images of the ob-
jedls ; it will be eafy to underfland how the rays are
nffe&ed by palling through the humours of the eye,
and are thereby colledted into innumerable points on
the bottom of the eye, and thereon form the images
of the objects which they flow from. For, the differ¬
ent humours of the eye, and particularly the cryltal-
line humour, ate to be confidered as a convex glafs ;
and the rays in palling through them to be affedfed in
the fame manner as in palfing through a convex glafs.
A defeription of the coats and humours, &c. has been
given at large in Anatomy: but for the reader’s con¬
venience iu this place, we lhall repeat in a few words
as much of the defeription as will be fufficient for our
prefent purpofe.
The eye is nearly globular. It confiils of three
"Plate coats and three humours. The part DHHG of the
CCCLV11. outer coat, is called thefclerot'icci; the reft, DEFG, the
8‘ cornea* Next within this coat is that called the cho-
Pefcnption rou^esi which ferves as it were for a lining to the
•f the eye. other, and joins with the iris, mn> mn. The iris is
compofed of two fets of mufcular fibres; the one of a
circular form, which contrails the hole in the middle
called the pupil, when the light would otherwife be
too ftrong for the eye ; and the other of radical fibres,
tending everywhere from the circumference of the iris
towards the middle of the pupil ; which fibres, by
their contradlion, dilate and enlarge the pupil when
the light is weak, in order to let in the more of its
rays. The third coat is only a fine expanfion of the
optic nerve L, which fpreads like net-work all over
the infide of tfie choroides, and is therefore called the
retina ; upon which are painted (as it were) the ima¬
ges of all vifible objedls, by the rays of light which
either flow or are reflected from them.
Under the cornea is a fine tranfparent fluid like wa¬
ter, which is therefore called the aqueous humour. It
gives a protuberant figure to the cornea, fills the tw©
cavities mm and ««, which communicate by the pu¬
pil P; and has the fame limpidity, fpecific gravity, and
refraftive power, as water. At the back of this lies
the cryftalline humour II, which is lhaped like a
double convex glafs; and is a little more convex on
the back than the fore-part. It converges the rays,
which pafs through it from every vifible objeft to its
focus at the bottom of the eye. This humour is tranf¬
parent like cryftal, is much of the confiftence of hard
jelly, and exceeds the fpecific gravity of water in the
proportion of 11 to 10. It is inclofed in a fine tranf¬
parent membrane, from which proceed radial fibres
o o, called the ligamentum ciliare, all around its edge j
and join to the circumference of the iris.
At the back of the cryftalline, lies the vitreous hu-
*iour KK, which is tranfparent like glafs, and is
^argeft of all in quantity, filling the whole orb of the
ICS. Part F,
eye, and giving it a globular ftiape. It is much of Of Vifion.
a confiftence with the white of an egg, and very '
little exceeds the fpeeific gravity and rdra&ive power
of water. _ _ I46
As every point of an objedt ABC, (ibid.) fends The objedi
out rays in ail diredtions, feme rays, from every point"11 th<>refi-
on the fide next the eye, will fall upon the cornea be-11* ot the
tween E and F; and by paffing on through the hu-yg'^111*
mours and pupil of the eye, they will be converged
to a« many points on the retina or bottom of the eye,
and will thereon form a diflindt inverted pidture cb a
of the object. Thus, the pencil of rays q r s that
flows from the point A of the objebt, will be con¬
verged to the point a on the retina ; thofe from th«
point B will be converged to the point b ; thofe from
the point C will be converged to the point c ; mid fo
of all the intermediate points : by which means the
whole image a be is formed, and the objedt made vi-
fihle. Although it mult be owned, that the method
by which this fenfation is carried from the eye by
the optic nerve to the common fenfory in the brain,
and there dilcerned, is above the reach of our com*
prehenfion.
But that vifion is effedted in this manner, may be
demonftrated experimentally. Take a bullock’s eye
whilft it is frelh ; and having cut off the three coats
from the back-part, quite to the vitreous humour,
put a piece of white paper over that part, and hold
the eye towards any bright objedf, and you wid fee
an inverted piAure of the objedi upon the paper.
Since the image is inverted, many have wondered vvhy^they
why the objedt appears upright. But we are to con-are feen uf
fidtr, i. That inverted is only a relative term: and,r‘ghc.
2. That there is a very great difference between the
real objedt and the means or image by which we per¬
ceive it. When all the parts of a diftant profpedt arc
painted upon the retina, they are all right with re-
fpedt to one another, as well as the parts of the pro-
fpedt itfelf; and we can only judge of an objedt’a be¬
ing inverted, when it is turned reverfe to its natural
pofition with icfpedt to other objtdts which we fee
and compare it with.—If we lay hold of an upright
ftick in the dark, we can tell which is the upper or
lower part of it, by moving our hand downward or
upward ; and know very well that we cannot feel the
upper end by moving our hand downward. Juft fo
we find by experience, that upon diredfing our eyes
towards a tall objedi, we cannot fee its top by turning
our eyes downward, nor its foot by turning our eyes
upward ; but muft trace the objedi the fame way by
the eye to fee it from head to foot, as we do by the
hand to feel it; and as the judgment is informed by
the motion of the hand in one cafe, fo it is alfo by the
motion of the eye in the other.
In fig. 9. is exhibited the manner of feeing the
fame objedi ABC, by both the eyes D and E at
once. J jf
When any part of the image c b a falls upon the op-^n
tic nerve L, the correfponding part of the objedi be-when view-
comes invifible. On which account, nature has wife-cd with
ly placed the optic nerve of each eye, not in the
middle of the bottom of the eye, but towards the fide pearlj0Ublt|
next the nofe; fo that whatever part of the image falls becaufe the
upon the optic nerve of one eye, may not fall uponBerrV,e
the optic uerve of the other. Thus the point a of the J
image ° ®
Part I. ^
O/Vifion. image eh a fall* upon the optic nerve of the eye X),
but not of the eye E; and the point c falls upon the
optic nerve of the eye E, hut not of the eye 1) : and
therefore, to both eyes taken together, the whole oh-
A BC is vilible<
The nearer that any obje£l is to the eye, the larger
is the angle under which it is feen, and the magni¬
tude under which it appears. Thus to the eye i),
Plate (fig. i.) the objea ABC is feen under the angle
CCCLVIH A PC; and its image cba is very large upon the re¬
tina : but to the eye E, at a double diftance, the fame
objeft is feen under the angle ApC, which is equal
only to half the angle A PC, as is evident by tne
figure. The image cba is likewife twice as large in
the eye D, as the other image cba is in the eye E.
In both thefe reprefentations, a part of the image falls
on the optic nerve, and the objedl in the corrtfpond-
ing part is inviiible.
As the fenfe of feeing is allowed to be occaiioned
by the impulfe of the rays from the vifible object up¬
on the retina of the eye, and forming the image of
the objedf thereon, and that the retina is only the ex-
par.fion of the optic nerve all over the choroides ; it
fhould feem furpriling, that the part of the image
which falls on the optic nerve fhould render the like
part of the objeft invifible ; efpecially as that nerve
is allowed to be the inftrument by which the impulfe
and image are conveyed to the common fenfory in the
brain.
That the part of the image which falls upon the
middle of the optic nerve is loft, and confequently the
correfponding part of the objedl is rendered invifible,
i-s plain by experiment. For if a perfon fixes three
patches, A, B, C, (fig- 2.) upon a white wall, at the
height of the eye, and at the diftance of about a foot
from each other, and places himfelt before them, (hut¬
ting the right eye, and directing the left towards the
patch C, he will fee the patches A and C, but the
middle patch B will difappear. Or, if he (huts his
left eye, and direfts the right towards A, he will fee
both A and C, but B will difappear; and if he di-
redbs his eye towards B, he will fee both B and A,
but not C. For whatever patch is direcftly oppo-
fite to the optic nerve N, vanifhes. This requires a
Itlfle praftice; after which he will find it eafy to direct
his eye fo as to lofe the fight of whichever patch he
pleafes.
This experiment, firft tried by M. Marriotte, occa-
conccrmng /Jone,J a new hypothefis concerning the feat of vifion,
the feat of he fUpp0fed not to be in the retina, but in the
choroides. An improvement was afterwards made
upon it by M. Picard, who contrived that an object
fhould difappear when both the eyes were kept open.
He faftened upon a wall a round white paper, an inch
or two in diameter; and by the fide of it he fixed two
marks, one on the right hand, and the other on the
left, each at about 2 feet diftance from the paper, and
fomewhat higher. He then placed himfelf dire&ly
before the paper, at the diftance of 9 or 10 feet, and
putting the end of his finger over againft both his
eyes, fo that the left-hand mark might be hid from
the right eye, and the right-hand mark from the left
eye. Remaining firm in this pofture, and looking
fteadily, with both eyes, on the end of his finger, the
paper which was not at all covered by it would total¬
ly difappear. This, he fays, is the more furprifing*
T49
Proved by
experi-
Micnt.
T50
Difi ute
vslioc.
TICS.
becaufe, without this particular encounter of the op¬
tic nerves, where no vifion is made, the paper will
appear double, as is the cafe when the finger is not
rightly placed.
M. Marriotte obferves, that this improvement on
his experiment, by M. Picard, is ingenious, but dif¬
ficult to execute, fince the eyes muft be confiderably
drained in looking at any object fo near to them as four
inches ; and propoles another not lefs furprifing, and
more eafy. Place, fays he, on a dark ground, two
round pieces of white paper, at the fame height, and
three feet from one another ; then place yourfelf op-
pcfite to them, at the diiiance of 12 or 13 feet, and
hold your thumb before your eyes, at the diftance of
about eight inches, fo that it may conceal from the
right eye the paper that is to the left hand, and from
the left eye the paper to the right hand. Then, if you
look at your thumb fteadily with both eyes, you will
lofe fight of both the papers ; the eyes being fo difpo-
fed, that each of them receives the image of one of the
papers upon the bale of the optic nerve, while the
other is intercepted by the thumb.
M. Le Cat purfued this curious experiment a little
farther than M. Marriotte had done. In the place of
the fecond paper, he fixed a large white board, and
obferved, that at a proper diftance he loft fight of a
circular fpace in the centre of it. He alfo obferved
the Ir/.e of the paper which is thus concealed from the
fight, correfponding to feveral diftances, which enabled
him to afeertain feveral circumftances relating to this
part of the ftru&ure of the eye more exa&ly than had'
been done before.
The manner in which this curious experiment is
now generally made, and which is both the eafieft with
refpeft to the eye, and the moll indifputafele with re-
fpeft to the faft, is the following. Let three pieces of
paper be faftened upon the fide of a room, about two
feet afunder ; and let a perfon place himfelt oppofite
to the middle paper, and, beginning near to it, retire
gradually backwards, all the while keeping one of his
eyes fhut, and the other turned obliquely towards that
outfide paper which is towards the cohered eye, and
he will find a fituation (which is generally at about
five times the diftance at which the papers are placed
from one another), where the middle paper will entire¬
ly difappear, while the two outermoft continue plainly
vifible ; becaufe the rays which come from the middle
paper will fall upon the retina where the optic nerve
is inferted.
It will not furprixe any perfon, even thofe who are
the ftrongeft advocates for the retina being the place
at which the pencils of rays are terminated, and con¬
fequently the proper feat of vifion, that M. Marriotte
was led by this remarkable obfervation to fufpeeb the
contrary. He not only did fo 5 but, in confequence
of attentively confidering the fubjeft, a variety of
other arguments in favour of the choroides occurred
to him, particularly kis obfervation, that the retina is
traafparent, as well as the cryftalline and other hu¬
mours of the eye, which he thought could only enable
it to tranfmit the rays farther; and he could not per-
fuade himfelf that any fubftance could be confidered as
being the termination of the pencils, and the proper
feat of vifion, at which the rays are not flopped in
their progrefs.
Jie was farther gonfirmed ia his opinion of the fmalF
degree
293
Of Vifion.
294 OPT
Of Villon, degree of fenfibility in the retina, and of the greater
fenfibility of the choroides, by obferving that the pu¬
pil dilates itfelf in the fliade, and contra&s itfelf in a
great light; which involuntary motion, bethought,
was a clear proof that the fibres of the iris are ex¬
tremely fenfible to the a&ion of light; and this part
of the eye is only a continuation of the choroides.
He alf® thought that the dark colour of the choroides
was intended to make it more fufceptible of the impref-
fion of light.
M. Pecquet, in anfwer to M. Marriottc’s’obfervation
■concerning the tranfparency of the retina, fays, that
it is very imperfe&ly fo, refembling only oiled paper,
or the horn that is ufed for lanterns ; and beiides, that
its whitenefs demonfirates it to be fuificiently opaque
for flopping the rays of light, as much as is neceffary
for the purpofe of vifion ; whereas, if vifion be per¬
formed by means of thofe rays which are tranfmitted
through fiich a fubftance as the retina, it mufl be very
indxftindl.
As to the blacknefs of the choroides, which M. Mar-
riotte thought to he neceffary for the purpofe of vi-
•fion, M. Pecquet obferves, that it is not the fame in
all eyes,- and that there are very different fhades of it
among the individuals of mankind, as alfo among birds,
and fome other animals, whofe choroides is generally
black ; and that in the eyes of lions, camels, bears,
oxen, flags, fheep, dogs, cats, and many other ani¬
mals, that part of the choroides which is the moll ex-
pofed to light, very often exhibits colours as vivid as
thofe of mother-of-pearl, or of the iris(F). He
admits that there is a dcfedl of vifi@n at the infer-
tion of the optic nerve ; but he thought that it was
owing to the blooi-veflels of the retina, the trunks
-of which are fo large in that place as to obfhuct all
vifion.
To M. Pecquet’s objeftion, founded on the opacity
of the retina, M. Marriotte obferves, that there mufl
be a great difference betwixt the flate of that fubftance
in living and dead fubjedts ; and as a farther proof of
the tranfparency of the retina, and the power of the
choroides beyond it to refledt light, he fays, that if a
lighted candle be held near to a perfon’s eyes, and a
dog, at the diftanetf of eight or ten fteps, be made to
look at him, he wonld fee a bright light in the dog’s
eyes, which he thought to proceed from the reflection
of the light of the candle from the choroides of the
dog, fince the fame appearance cannot be produced in
the eyes of men, or other animals, whofe choroides is
black.
To M. Pecquet’s remark concerning the blood vef-
fels of the retina, M. Marriotte obferves, that they are
not large enough to prevent vifion in every part of the
bafe of the nerve, fince the diameter of each of the two
veflels occupy no more than ^th part of it. Befides, if
this were the caufe of thi* want of vifion, it would
vanifn gradually,* and the fpace to which it is confined
would not be fo exadtly terminated as it appears to
^ ^ Parc I.
We mufl add, that M. Pecquet alfo obferved, that Of Vifion.
notwithflanding the infenfibility of the retina at the k——y—
infertion of the optic nerve when the light is only mo¬
derate ; yet that luminous objects, fuch as a bright
candle placed at the diftance oi four or five paces, do
not abfolutely difappear, in the fame circumflances In
which a white paper would ; for that this flrong light
may be perceived though the picture fall on the bafe
of the nerve. “ I cannot help fufpecting, however,
(fays Dr Prieflley), that M. Pecquet did not make
this obfervatioa with fufficient care. A large candle
makes no impreffion on that part of my eye, though
it is by no means able to bear a ftrong light.”
The common opinion was alfo favoured by the ana¬
tomical defcription of feveral animals by the members
of the French academy, and particularly their account
of the fea-calf and porcupine; in both of which the
optic nerve is inferted in the very axis of the eye, ex¬
actly oppofite to the pupil, wnich was thought to
leave no room to doubt, but that in thefe animals the
retina is perfeftly fenfible to the impreffion of light at
the infertion of the nerve. But this obfervation may
deferve to be reconfidered.
M. De la Hire took part with M. Pecquet, arguing
in favour of the retina from the analogy of the fenfes^
in all of which the nerves are the proper feat of fenfa-
tion. . This philofopher, however, fuppofed that the
ohoroides receives the impreffions of images, in order
to tranfmit them to the retina.
M. Perrault alfo took the part of M. Pecquet againfl
M. Marriotte, and in M. Perrault’s works we have fe¬
veral letters that palled between thefe two gentlemen
upon this fubjedl.
This difpute about the immediate inflrument of vi¬
fion was revived upon the occafion of an odd experi¬
ment of M. Mery, recorded in the memoirs of the
French academy for 1704. He plunged a cat in wa¬
ter, and expofing her eye to the flrong light of the fun,
obferved that the pupil was not at all contra&ed by it;
from which he concluded, that the contra&ion of the
iris is not produced by the a&ion of the light, but by
fome other circumflance. For he contended that the
eye receives more light in this fituation than in the
open air. At the fame time he thought he obftrvtd
that the retina of the cat’s eye was tranfparent, and
that he could fee the opaque choroides beyond it :
from which he concludes, that the choroides is the
fufeflance intended to receive the rays of light, and to
be the chief inflrument of vifion. But M. De la
Hire replies to this argument of M. Mery, in a me¬
moir for the year 1709, p. J19; in which he en¬
deavours to ffiow that fewer rays enter the eye under
water, and that in thofe circumftances it is not fo
liable to be affecled by them. Befidts, it is obvious
to be remarked, that the cat mufl be in great ter¬
ror in this fituation ; and being an animal that has
a very great voluntary power over the mufcles of the
iris, and being now extremely attentive to every thing
about her, fhe might keep her eye open notwith-
ftanding
(r , M. MufTchenbroeck fays, that in many animals, as the lion, camel, bear, ox, flag, fheep, dog, cat,
Voi nanp e C 10reides 13 not kIack> but blue, green, yellow, or fome other colour. Introduliio,
Parti. OPTICS.
Of Vifion. ftanding the action of the light upon it, and though fion is effedled, it is the fame in the eyes of all ani-
c’"—it might be very painful to her. We are informed, mals.
that when a cat is placed in a window through which If the feat of vifion be at the farther furface of the
the fun is fhining, and confequently her iris nearly retina, and it be performed by diredt rays, a white
clofed, if (he hear a ruftling, like that which is choroides could be of no ufe; and if it were by refiec-
made by a moufe, on the outfide of the window, fhe ted rays, a black one could not anfwer the purpofe.
will immediately open her eyes to their greateft ex- It is likewife an argument in favour of the choroides
tent, without in the lead turning her face from the being the organ of vilion, that it is a fubftance which
light. receives a more diftindt impreflion from the rays of
M. Le Cat took part with M. Marriotte in this con- light than any other menjbrane in any part of the ani-
troverfy, it being peculiarly agreeable to his general mal fyftem, excepting (and perhaps not excepting)
hypothefis, viz. that the pia mater, of which the cho- that white cuticle which lies under thefcaksof fifhes;
roides is a production, and not the nerves themfelves, whereas the retina is a fubflance on which the light
is the,proper indrumentof fenfation. He thought that makes an exceedingly faint impreffion, and peihaps no
the change which takes place in the eyes of old people impreflion at all ; fince light, in palling owt of one
(the choroides growing lefs black with age) favoured tranfparent medium into another immediately conti-
his hypothefis, as they do not fee with that diftindl- guous to it, differs no refradlion or refle&ion, nor are
nefs with which young perfons do. M. Le Cat fup- any of the rays abforbed, unlefs there is feme differ-
pofed that the retina anfwers a purpofe fimihr to that ence in the refrafting power of the two media, which
of the fcarf-lk'n, covering the papilla? pyramidales, proliably is not the cafe between the retina and the vi-
which are the immediate organ of feeling, or that of treous humour, which is in contaft with it. And
the porous membrane which covers the glandulous pa- wherever the light is not affe&ed by the medium it
pillae of the tongue. The retina, he fays, receives the falls upon, we can hardly fuppofe the medium to re-
impreflion of light, moderates it, and prepares it for its ceive any impreflion from the light, the a&ion being
proper organ, but is not itfelf fenfible of it. probably always mutual and reciprocal.
It muff be obferved, that M. Le Cat had difeover- Befides, the retina is fo fituated, as to be expofed to
ed that the pia mater, after clofely embracing and con- many rays belides thofe which terminate in it, and
ftringing the optic nerve at its entrance into the eye, which, therefore, cannot be fuhfervient to vifion, if it
divides into two branches, one of which clofely lines the be performed there. Now this is not the cafe with the
cornea, and at length is loft in it, while the fecond choroides, which is in no fliape tranfparent, and has no
branch makes what is called the choroicfes, ox uvea. He reflecting fubftance beyond it.
alio fliowed that the fclerotica is an expanfion of the du- It is, moreover, peculiarly favourable to the hypo-
ra mater; and he fent diffedlions of the eye to the thtfis of the feat of vifion being in the choroides, that
royal Academy of Sciences in 1739, to prove thefe we can then fee a fufiicient reafon for the diverfity of
affertions, and feveral others which he had advanced its colour in different animals, according as they are
in his Trahe de Sens, that were contrary to the opi- circumftanced with refpedft to vifion. In all terreftrial
nions of the celebrated Window. animals, which have occafion to make ufe of their eyes
To thefe arguments in favour of the choroides, al- by night, the choroides is either of a bright white, or
leged by thofe gentlemen among whom the fubjedl was of fome very vivid colour, which refledis the light very
firil difeuffed, I)r Ptieftley in his hitlory adds the fol- itrongly. On this account vifion may be performed
lowing that had efcaped their notice, but which were w ith lefs light, but it cannot be with great diftind-
ibggeited to him by his friend Mr Michell. nefs, the refkdion of the rays doubling their effed.
In order that vifion he diftind, the pencils of rays fince it muff extend over fome fpace, all refledion be-
which iffue from the feveral points of any objed, mult ing made at a diftance from the refleding body. Be-
be collefted either accurately, or at leaft very nearly, fides, the choroides in brutes is not in general perfed-
to correfponding points in the eye, which can only be ly white, but a little inclined to blue; .and is therefore,
done upon fome uniform furface. But the retina being probably, better adapted to fee by the fainter coloured
of a confiderable thicknefs, and the whole of it being light, which chiefly prevails in the night; and we
uniformly nervous, and at leaft nearly, if not perfectly, would add, is on the fame account more liable to be
tranfparent, prefents no particular furface ; fo that, in ftrongly impreffed by the colours to which they are
whatever part of it the pencils be fuppofed to have chiefly expofed.
their foci, the rays belonging to them will be fepara- On the other hand, the choroides of birds in gene-
ted from one another, either before or after they arrive ral, efpecially eagles, hawks, and other birds of prey, ,
there, and confequently vifion would be confufed. is black ; by which means they are able to fee with
If we fuppofe the feat of vifion to be at the nearer the greateft diftindnefs, but only in bright day-light,
furface of the retina, and the images of objeds to be The owl, however, feeking her food by night, has the.
formed by dired rays, a confiderable degree of confu- choroides white, like that of a cat. Laftly, in the eves
fion could not but ante from the light refleded by the of man, which are adapted to various ufes, the cho-
choroides, in thofe animals in which it is white, or co- roides is neither fo black as that of birds, nor fo white
loured. On the other hand, it would be impoflible that as that of thofe animals who make the greateft ufe of
vifion fhould be performed at this place by light me- their eyes in the night.
fleded from the ehoroides, becaufe in many animals it As to a third hypothefis, which is in effed that of
is perfedly black, and refleds no light at all; and yet M. De la Hire, which makes both the retina and the
fuch animals fee even more diftindly than others. And choroides equally neceffary to vifion, and fuppofes it to
cannot but fuppofe that, in whatever manner vi- be performed by the impreffion 0f light on the choroidea
295
Of Vifion.
com-
296 OPT
Of Vlfion. communicated to the retina; Mr Michel! obferves, tliat
n.v in’ j.}ie perceptions can hardly be fuppofed to be fo acute,
when the nerves, which are the chief inftruments of
fenfation, do not receive the impreffions immediately,
but only after they have been communicated to ano¬
ther fubfiance. Befides, it mud be more natural to
fuppofe, that, when the principal impreffion is made
upon the choroides, it is communicated to the brain
by its own proper nerves, which are abundantly fuffi-
ii;t cient for the purpofe.
Dimenfiom The dimenfions and precife form of the fpot in the
of chc ipot which there is no vihon, were more accurately
wherecalculated by Daniel Bernouilli, in the following many
there is no ner. He placed a piece of money O (fig. 3.) upon
vifion. the floor ; and then (hutting one of his eyes, and ma-
ate king a pendulum to fwing, fo that the extremity of it
might be nearly in the line AO, he obferved at what
place C it began to be invifible, and where it again
emerged into view at A. Raifing the pendulum higher
and lower, he found other points, as H, N, P, G, B,
at which it began to be invifible; and others, as M, L,
E, A, at which it began to be vifible again; and draw¬
ing a curve through them, he found that it was ellip¬
tical; and, with refpedl to his own eye, the dimenfions
of it were as follows; OC was 23, AC to, BD 3,
DH 13, and EG 14; fo that the centre being at F,
the greater axis was to the lefs as 8 to 7.
From thefe data, the plane on which the figure was
drawn being obliquely fituated with refpeft to the eye,
he found, chat the place in the eye that correfponded
to it was a circle, the diameter of which was a feventh
part of the diameter of the eye, the centre of it being
27 parts of the diameter from the point oppofite to
the pupil, a little above the middle. He concludes
with obferving, that, in order that this fpace in which
there is no vifion may be as fmall as pofiible, it is ne-
ceflary that the nerve fhould enter the eye perpendicu¬
larly, and that both this end, and alfo its entering the
stye at a diftance from its axis, are gained by the par¬
ticular manner in which the two optic nerves unite and
Become feparate again, by croffing one another.
In favour of one of the obfervations of Mr Michell,
concerning the ufe of the choroides in vifion, Dr
Prieftley obftrves, that Aquapendente mentions the
cafe of a perfon . at Pifa, who could fee very well in
the night, but very little or none at all in the day¬
time. This is alfo faid to be the cafe with thofe
white people among the blacks of Africa, and the in¬
habitants of the ifthmus of America, who, from this
circumftance, are called moen-eyed. Our author thinks
it probable that their choroides is not of a dark co¬
lour, as it is in others of the human fpecies; but white
or light-coloured, as in thofe animals which have moil
occafion for their eyes in the night. See Albinos.
The following confiJerations in favour of the re¬
tina being the proper feat of vifion, are worthy of
remark.
Arguments Dr Porterfield obferves, that the reafoa why there
for thercti is no vifion at the entrance of the optic nerve into the
«a*s being eye, may be, that it wants that foftnefs and delicacy
the feat of which it has when it is expanded upon the choroides;
V11011 md that, in thofe animals in which that nerve is in-
ferted in the axis of the eye, it is obferved to be
equally delicate, and therefore probably equally fen-
fible, in that place as in any other part of the retina.
NJ 248,
ICS, Parti,
In general, the nerves, when conftringed by their coats, Of Vifion,
have but little fenlibility in companion of what they "■—-\r—^
are endued with when they are diveiled of them, and
unfolded in a foft and pulpy fubflance.
Haller obferves, that the choroides cannot be the
univerfal inilrument of vifion, becaufe that fometimes
in men and birds, but efpecially in fiihes, it is covered
internally with a black mucus, through which the rays
cannot penetrate. This writer ipeaks of a fibrous
membrane in the retina diftinft from its pulpy fub-
ftance. On thefe fibres, he conje&ures, that the imagas
of obje&s are painted.
M. De la Hire’s argument in favour of the retina,
from the analogy of the fenfes, is much flrengthened.
by confidering that the retina is a large nervous ap¬
paratus, immediately expofed to the imprefiion of
light; whereas the choroides receives bur a flendec
fupply of nerves, in common with the fclerotica, the
canjun&iva, and the eyelids, and that its nerves are
much lefs expofed to the light than the naked fibres of
the optic nerve. Indeed, from anatomical confidera-
tions, one might imagine that any other part of the
body was as fenfible of the impreffion of light as the
choroides.
That the optic nerve is of principal ufe in vifion, it
farther probable from feveral phenomena attending
fome of the difeafes in which the fight is affefted.
When an amaurofis has affefted one eye only, the
optic nerve of that eye has been found manifellly al¬
tered from its found Hate. Dr Prieftley was prefent
when Mr Hey examined the brain of a young girl,
who had been blind of one eye, and faw that the optic
nerve belonging to it was confiderably fmaller than
the other ; and he informed him, that upon cutting
into it, he found it to he much harder, and cineri-
tious. Morgagni, indeed, mentions two cafes, in one
of which he found the optic nerves fmaller than ufual,
and of a cineritious colour, when, upon inquiry, he
was informed that the perfon had not been blind,
though there might have been fome defed in the fight
of one of the eyes. In the other cafe, only one of
the optic nerves was affeded in that manner, and the
eye itfelf was in other refpeds very perfed. Here,
alfo, he was exprefsly told, that the perfon was not
blind of that eye: but it appears that he himfelf had
not been acquainted with the perfons whom he diflec-
ted ; and there have been many cafes of perfons being
blind of one eye, without knowing it themfelves, fora
confiderable time.
Moreover, as the optic nerve is folely fpent in form¬
ing the retina, fo no fundion of the eye, not immedi¬
ately fubfervient to vilion, is affeded by an amaurofis.
On the contrary, thofe nerves which go to the cho¬
roides are found to retain, in this difeafe, their natu¬
ral influence. The iris will contrad in a recent gutta
ferena of one eye, - if the other remains found, and i#
fuddenly expofed to a ftrong light. The fclerotis,
conjundiva, and eyelids, which receive their nerve*
* from the fame branches as the choroides, retain their
fenfibility in this diforder.
The manner in which perfons recover from an
amaurofis, favours the fuppofition of the feat of vifion
being in the retina ; fince thofe parts which are the
moil diilant from the infertion of the nerve recover
their fenfiWlity the fooneft, being in thofe places the
! moft
Parti.
Of VififiP-
*53
Of blight
and obfcur
vifion.
*54
Of diffindl
Vifion at
different
dtfUnces.
OPT
moll pulpy and fofteft ; whereas there Is no renfon to
think that there is any difference in this refpe&in the
different parts of the choroides. Mr Hey has been
repeatedly informed, by perfons labouring under an
itnperfe£t amaurofis, or gutta ferena, that they could
rot, when looking at any objedt with one eye, fee it
fo diftinftly when it was placed diredtly oppofite to
the pupil, as when it was utuated fomewhat obliquely.
And thofe ptrfons whom he had known to recover
from a perfetl amaurofis, firff difcovered the objects
whole images fell upon that part of the retina which is
at the greateff diftance from the optic nerve.
We flrall conclude thefe remarks with obfcrving,
that if the retina be as tranfparent as it is generally
reprefented to be, fo that the termination of the pen¬
cils muff neceffarily be either upon the choroides, of
fome other opaque fubftanee interpofed between it and
the retina, the action and rea&ion occafioned by the
rays of light being at the common furface of this body
and the retina, both thefe mediums (fuppofmg them
to be equally fenfible to the impreflion of light) may
be equally affe&ed ; but the retina, being naturally
much more fenfible to this kind of impreffion, may he
the only inftrument by which the fenfation is conveyed
to the brain, though the choroides, or the black fub-
flance with which it is fometimes lined, may alfo be
abfolutely neceffary for the purpofe of vifion. Indeed,
when the reflexion of the light is made at the common
boundary of any two mediums, it is with no propriety
that this effedt is afcribed to one of them rather than
the other; and the ftrongeft refledtions are often made
back into the denfeft mediums, when they have been
contiguous to the rareff, or even to a vacuum. This
is not far from the liypothefis of M. de la Hire, and
will completely account for the entire defedt of vifion
at the infer! ion of the optic nerve.
Viiion is diflinguifhed into bright and olfcure, di-
-Jl'nd and coufufecl.—It is faid to be bright, when a
fufficient number of rays enter the pupil at the fame
time ; cbfcure, when too few. It is diftindt when
each pencil of rays is colic died into a focus exadtly
upon the retina; corfufed, when they meet before they
come at it, or when they would pafs it before they
meet; for, in either of thefe laft cafes, the rays
flowing from different parts of the objedt will fall up¬
on the fame part of the retina, which mull neceffarily
render the image confufed and indiilindt.—Now, that
ohjedls may appear with a due brightnefs, whether
more or fewer rays proceed from them, we have a
power of contradting or dilating the pupil, by means
of the mufcular fibres of the iris, in order to take in
more or few^er rays as occafion requires. But this
power has its limits. In fome animals it is much
greater than in others; particularly in fuch as are
obliged to fetk their food by night as well as by day,
as in cats, &c.
That the rays may be cclledted into points exadlly
upon the retina, that is, that objedls may appear di-
ftndl, whether they be nearer or farther off, i. e. whe-
Vol.XIII. Part I.
ICS. _ 497
ther the rays proceeding from them diverge more or Of Vifion.
lefs, we have a power of contradling or relaxing the ■—“"N ””i
/igametita ciliaria, and thereby altering the form of
the cryftalline humour, and with it the focal dillance
of the rays. Thus, when the objedt we view is far
off, and the rays fall upon the pupil with a very i'mall
degree of divergency, we contradl the /igametita ciUaria}
which, being concave towards the vitreous humour,
do thereby comprefs it more than otherwife they would
do : by this means it is made to prefs harder upon the
backfide of the cryftalline humour, w’hich is thereby
rendered flatter; and thus the rays proceed farther
before they meet in a focus, than otherwife they would
have done. Add to this, that we dilate the pupils of
our eyes (unlefs in cafes where the light is fo ftrong
that it offends the eye), and thereby admit rays into
them that arc more diverging than thofe which would
otherwife enter. And, when the rays come from an
objedt that is very near, and therefore diverge too
much to be collcdled into their refpedtive foci upon
the retina, by relaxing the ligamenta cUiariay we give
the cryftalline a more convex form, by which means
the rays are made to fuffer a proportionably greater
degree of refradtion in palling through it. Some phi-
lofophers are of opinion that wre do this by a power
of altering the form of the eye ; and others, by remo*
ving the cryftalline forwards «r backwards as occa¬
fion requires i but neither of thefe opinions is pro¬
bable ; for the coats of the eye are too hard, in fome
animals, for the firft; and, as to moving the cryftalline
out of its place, the cavities of the eye feem to be too
well filled with the other humours to admit of fuch
removal.
Befides this, in the cafe above-mentioned, by cort-
tradlirtg the pupils of our eyes, wc exclude the more
diverging rays, and admit only fuch as are more ealily .s
refradted into their refpedtive foci(c). But vifion is
not diHindi at all di(lances, for our power of contrac¬
ting and relaxing the ligamenta ci/iaria is alfo circum-
feribed within certain limits. *
In thofe eyes where the tunica cornea is very pro-of ihort-
tuberant and convex, the rays of light fuffer a very fighted and
confiderable rtfradlion at their entrance into the aque-10.11^1^-
ous humour, and are therefore colledtej into a focused PC0P e'
before they fall upon the retina, nnlefs the objedt be
placed very near, fo that the rays which enter the eye
may have a confiderable degree of divergency. People
that have fuch eyes are faid to be purblind. Now, the
nearer an objedt is to the eye, the greater is the image
of it therein, as explained above : thefe people, there¬
fore can fee much fmaller objedls than others, as fee¬
ing much nearer ones with the fame diftindtnefs; and
their fight continues good longer than that of othef
people, becaufe the tunica cornea of their eyes, as they
grow old, becomes plainer, for want of that redun¬
dancy of humours with which they were filled before.
On the contrary, old men having the cornea of their
eyes too flat for want of a fufficient quantity of the
aqueous humour to fill them out, if the rays diverge
P P too
(g) Accordingly it is obferved, that if w'e make a fmall hole with the poiht of a needle through a piece of
paper, and apply that hole clofe to the eye, making ufe of it, as it were, inftead of a pupil, we ihall be able to
fee an objedl diftmdlly through it, though the objedt be placed within half an inch of the eye.
298 OPT
Of vifion. too much before they enter the eye» they cannot be
brought to a focus before they reach the retina; on
which account thofe people cannot fee diftinctly, un-
kfs the objttt be fituated at a greater diftance from
the eye than is required for thofe whofe eyes arc of a
due form. The latter require the afhdance of convex
glaffes to make them fee objefls diftinitly ; the for¬
mer of concave ones. For if either the cornea ab c
pjate (fig. 4.), or cryftalline humour e, or both of them, be
cccLvur. too flat, as in the eye A, their focus will not be on
the retina as at A, where it ought to be, in order to
render vifion diftinct ; but beyond the eye, as at /.
This is remedied by placing a convex gird's gh before
the eye, which makes the rays converge fooncr, and
imprints the image duly on the retina at d. Again,
if either the cornea, or cryftalline humour, or both of
them, be too convex, as in the eye B, the rays that en¬
ter it from the objeft C will lie converged to a focus
in the vitreous humour, as at f; and by diverging
from thence to the retina, will form a very conhifed
image thereon ; and fo, of ccuife, the obferver will
have as confufed a view of the object as if his eye had
been too flat. This inconvenience is remedied by
placing a concave glafs gh before the eye ; which
glafs, by caufing the rays to diverge between it and
the eve, lengthens the focal diftance fo, that if
the glafs be properly chofen, the rays will unite at
the retina, and form a diftindt image of the objedt
156 upon it.
Of the leaf! Such eyes as are of a due convexity, cannot fee any
v^ffon objedft diftindtly at lefs diftance than fix inches; and
there are numbcrlefs objedts too fmail to be feen at
that diftance, becaufe they cannot appear under any
fenfible angle.-—Concerning the leaft angle under
. which any objtdl is vifible, there was a debate be¬
tween Dr Hooke and Hevelius. The former afl'erted,
that no objeft could well be feen if it fubtended an
angle lefs than one minute; and, if the objedt be
round, as a black circular fpot upon a white ground,
. or a white circle upon a black ground, it follows,
from an experiment made by Dr Smith, that this is
aear the truth ; and from thence he calculates, that
the diameter of the pidture of fuch leaft vifrble point
upon the retina is the Scooth part of an inch; which
he therefore calls a ferifillepoint of the retina. On the
^ther hand, Mr Courtivron concluded from his expe¬
riments, that the fmalleft angle of vifion was 40 fe-
conds. According to Dr Jurin, there are cafes in
which a much fmaller angle than one minute can be
difeerned by the eye; and in order to throw light up¬
on the fubjedt, he obferves, that, in order to our per¬
ceiving the impreffion made by any objedt upon our
fenfes, it muft either be of a certain degree of force,
or of a certain degree of magnitude. For this reafon,
a ftar,, which appears only as a lucid point through a
tdefcope, fubtending net fo much as an angle of one
ftcond, is vifible to the eye; though a white or black
fpot. of 25 or 3ofeconds, is not to be perceived. Al-
I.ines can 0 ^3ne ^e fame breadth with the circular fpot will
be feen un- be vifible, at fuch a diftance as the fpot is not to be
derlm after perceived at; becaufe the quantity of impreffion from
fpots^and*11 hne is much greater than from the fpot; and a
why/ longer line is vifible at a greater diftance than a fhorter
©ne of the fame breadth. He found by experience,
that a Giver wire could be feen when it fubtended an
ICS. Parti.
angle of three feconds and an half; and that a filkOf Vifimm
thread could be feen when it fubtended an angle of two —v—
feconds and an half.
This greater vifibility of a line than of a fpot feems
to arife only from the greater quantity of the impref¬
fion ; but without the limits of perfect vifion, our au¬
thor obferves, that another caufe concurs, whereby
the difference of vifibility between the fpot and the
line is rendered much more confiderabie. For the im-
prtftion upon the retina made by the line is then not
only much greater, but alfo much fironger, than that
of the Ipot; becaufe the faint image, or penumbra, of
any one point ol the line, when the whole is placed be¬
yond the limits of diftirKA vifion, will fall within the
faint image ot the next point, and thereby much iu-
crevfe the light that comes fiom it.'
In feme cr.fes our author found the. caufe of indi-
ftinCt vifion to be the liufteatinefs of the eye; as our
being able to fee a fingle black line upon a white
ground, or a lingle white line upon a black ground,
and not a white line between two black ones on a.
white ground. In viewing either of the former ob¬
jects, it the eye be imperceptibly moved, all the effiedt
will be, that the objedt will be painted upon a different
part of the retina ; but, wherever it is painted, there
will be but one piftuie, fingle and uncotnpounded with
any other. But in viewing the other, if the eye fluc¬
tuate ever fo little, the image of one or other of the
black lines will be fhifted to that part of the retina
which was before poffeffed by the white line; and this
muft occafion fuch a dazzle in the eye, that the white
line cannot be diitindtly perceived, and diftinguiihed
from the black lines; which, by a continual ftu&ua-
tion, will alterBately occupy the fpace of the white
line, whence muft arife an appearance of one broad
dark line, without any manifeft reparation.
By trying this experiment with two pins of known
diameters, fet in a window againft the fky light, with
a fpace between them equal in breadth to one of the
pins, he found that the diftance between the pins could
hardly be diftinguifhed when it fubtended an angle of
lefs than 40 feconds,, though one of the pins alone
could be diftinguifhed when it fubtended a much lefs
angle. But though a fpace between two pins cannot
be diftinguifhed by the eye when it fubtends an angle
lefs than 40 feconds, it would be a miftake to think,
that the eye muft neceflarily commit an error of 40 le-
conds in eftimating the diftance between two pins
when they are much farther from one another. For
if the fpace between them fubtend an angle of one
minute, and each of the pins fubtend an angle of four
feconds, which is greater than the leaft angle the eye
can diftinguifh, it is manifeft that the eye may judge •
of the place of each pin within two feconds at the
molt ; and confequemly the error committed in ta¬
king the angle between them cannot at the moft ex.*
ceed four feconds, provided the kiftrument be fuffir
ciently exaft. And yet, fays he, upon the like mif-
take was founded the principal objection of Dr Hooke
againft the accuracy of the cekftkl obfervations of
Hevslius.
A black fpot upon a white ground, or a white fpot
upon a black ground, he fays, can hardly be perceived
by the generality of eyes when it fubtends a kfs angle
than one minute. And if two black fpots be made
3 upon
Part T.
Of Vifion.
OPT
upon tvhite paper, with a fpaee between thefn.equal in
breadth to one of their diameters, that fpace is not to
be diftinguifhed, even within the limits of perfeft vi¬
fion, under fo fmall an angle as a fingle fpot of the
fame fize can be diftinguifhed. To fee the two fpots
diftin&ly, therefore, the breadth of the fpace between
them mull fubtend an angle of more than a minute. It
would be very difficult, he fays, to make this experi¬
ment accurately, within the limits of perfect vifion ,
becaufe the objects muft be extremely fmall; but by a
rude trial, made with fquare bits of white paper,
pliced upon a black ground, he judged, that the leafl
amde ruder which the interval of two objects could be
Of firijde
vition with
two eyes.
perceived, was at lea ft a fourth part greater than the
feaft angle under which a fingle o' jeft can be percei¬
ved. So that an eye which cannot perceive a fingle
object under a fmaller angle than one minute, will not
perceive the interval between two fuch objedts under a
left angle than 75 feconds.
Without the limits of perfect vifion, the diftance at
which a fingle objedt ceaies to be perceivable will be
much greater in proportion than the diftance at which
a fpace of equal breadth between two fuch objedts
ceafes to be perceivable. Tor, without thefe limits,
the image of each of the objects will be attended with
a penumbra, and the penumbra of the two near ob-
jedts will take up part of the fpace between them, and
thereby render it lets perceivable ; but the penumbra
will add to the breadth of the fingle objedt, and will
thereby make it more perceivable, unkfs its image
be very faint. Upon the fame principles he hkewife
accounts for the radiation of the liars, thereby the
light feemsto project from them different ways at the
fame time.
Mr Mayer made many experiments in order to af-
certain the fmalleft angle of vifion in a variety of re-
fpedts. He began with obferving at what diftance a
black fpot wras vifible on white paper; and found, that
when it could barely be diltinguifhed, it fubtended an
angle of about 34 feconds. When black lines were
difpofed with intervals broader than themfelves, they
were diftinguifhed at a greater diflancc than they could
be when the objedts and the intervals were of an equal
breadth, in all thefe cafes it made no difference whe¬
ther the objedts were placed in the fhade or in the
itrong light of the fun ; but when the degrees of light
v/ere fmall, their differences had a confiderable efledt,
though by no means in proportion to the diffei'ences
of the light. For if an objedt was illuminated to fuch
a degree as to be juft vifible at the* diftance of nine
feet, it would be vifible at the diftance of four feet,
though the light was diminifhed above 160 times. It
appeared in the courfe of thefe experiments, that
common day light is, at a medium, equal to that of
2 <; candles placed at the diftance of one foot from the
objedt.
As an image of every vifible objedt ft painted on the
retina of each of our eyes, it thence becomes a natu¬
ral quellion, Why we do not fee every thing double ?
It was the opinion of Sir Ifftac h ew ton and others,
that objedts appear fingle becauiethe two optic nerves
unite before they reach the brain. But Ur Porterfield
(hows, from the obfervation of feveral nnatomills, that
the optic nerves do not mix, or confound their fub-
itauce, being only united by a clofe cohefiori; and ob-
I G S. . 259
jefts have appeared Angle where the optic nerves wefi of v n ,r.
found to be disjoined. . I59
Dr Briggs fuppofed that fingle vifion was owing to Solutions of
the equal tenfion of the correfponding parts of the op- this diflt-
tic nerves, whereby they vibrated in a fynchronous culty by
manner. But, befides feveral improbable circumftan- Ur Bn°S*»
ces in this account, Dr Porterfield fhows that fadts do
by no means favour it.
To account for this phenomenon, this ingenious
writer fuppofes, that by an original law in our natures,
we imagine objedts to be fituated fomewhere in a right
line drawn from the pidtute of it upon the retina> Dr
through the centre of the pupil. Confequently, the
fame objedt appearing to both eyes to be in the fame
place, the mind cannot diftinguilh it into two. In an-
fwer to an objedtion to this hypothefis. from objedls
appearing double when one eye is diftorted, he fays
the mind miftakes the pofition of the eye, imagining
that it had moved in a manner correfponding to the
other, in which cafe the conclufion would have been
juft. In this he feems to have recourfe to the
power of habit, though in words he difclaims that
hypothefis.
This principle, however, has generally been thought
to be fuffident to account for this appearance. _ Origi¬
nally, every objedt making two pictures, one in each
eye, is imagined to be double ; but by degrees, we
find, that when two correfponding parts of the retina
are impreffed, the objedt is but one; but if thofe cor¬
refponding parts be changed, by the diftortion of one
of the eyes, the objedt muft again appear double as at
the fir ft. This feems to be verified by Mr Chefel-
den ; who informs us, that a gentleman, who from
a blow on his head had one eye diftorted, found
every objedt to appear double ; but by degrees the
rnoft familiar ones came to appear fingle again, and
in time all objedts did fo, without any amendment of
the diftortion. A cafe iimilar to this is mentioned by
Dr Smith. > l6f
On the other hand, Dr Reid is of opinion, that the Dr
correfpondence of the centres of the two eyes, on which in£i
fingle vifion depends, does not arife from cuftom, but
from fome natural conftitution of the eye and of the
mind. He makes feveral juft objedtious to the cafe of
Mr Fofter, recited by Dr Smith and others ; and thinks
that the cafe of the young man couched by Chefelden,
who faw fingly with both eyes immediately upon re¬
ceiving his fight, is nearly decifive in proof of his fup-
pofition. He alio found that three young gentlemen^
whom he endeavoured to cure ot fqumting, faw ob- .
jedts fingly, as loon as ever they were brought to di¬
rect the centres of both their eyes to the fame ob¬
jedt, though they had never been ufed to do fo from
their infancy ; and he obferves, that there are cates,
in which, notwithftanding the fulleft convidtion of an
objedt being fingle, no piadtice of looking at it will
ever make it appear fo, as when it is feen through a
multiplying glafs.
To all thefe folutions of the difficulty refpedting
fingle vifion by both eyes, objections have been lately
made which feem infurmountable. By experiments
judicioudy conceived and accurately conducted, Dr
Wells has fliown, that it is neither by cuftom alone,
nor by an original property of the eyes alone, that ob¬
jedts appear lingle} and having demolifhed the theories
P p 2 of
3°©
Of Vifion.
162
I5r Wells.
* £jfiy
on jingle
yifton, SiC.
OPT
of others, he thus accounts for the phenomenon him-
felf.
“ The vlfible place of an objefl being compofed of
its vjfible diftance and viiible diredlion, to fhow how it
may appear the fame to both eyes, it will be neceffary
(fays he*) to explain in what manner the diflance
and dire&ion, which are perceived by one eye, may co¬
incide with thofe which arc perceived by the other.”
With refpedl to viiible diftance, the author’s opinion
feems not to differ from that which we have ftatedelfe-
where (fee Metaphysics, n* 49, 50) ; and therefore
we have to attend only to what he fays of vifible di-
reiffion.
When a fmall objefi is fo placed with refpeft to
either eye, as to be feen more diftinftly than in any
other fituation, our author fays that it is then in the
optic axis, or the axis of that eye. When the two
optic axes are direded to a fmall objed not very di-
ffant, they may be conceived to form two lides of a
triangle, of which the bafe is the interval between the
points of the corners where the axes enter the eyes.
This bafe he called the vifual bafe ; and a line drawn
from the middle of it to the point of interfedion of
tire optic axes he calls the common axis. He then pro¬
ceeds to fhow, that objeds really Jhiiated in the optic
axis do net appear to be in that line, but in t\it common
axis.
“ Evtry perfon (fays he) knows, that if an objed
be viewed through two fmall holes, one applied to
each eye, the two holes appear but as one. The
theories hitherto invented afford two explanations of
this fa£t. According to Aguilonius, Lkchales, Dr
Porterfield, and Dr Smith, the two holes, or rather
their borders, will be feen in the fame place as the
objed viewed through them, and will confequently
appear united, for the fame reafon that the objed it-
felf is feen fingle. But whoever makes the experiment
will ciftindly perceive, that the united hole is much
nearer to him than the objed ; not to mention, that
«ny fallacy on this head might be correded by
the information from the fenfe of touch, that the
card or other fubffance in which the holes have
been made is within an inch or lefs of our face. The
ether explanation is that furnifhed by the theory of
Dr Reid. According to it, the centres of the retinas,
which in this experiment receive the pidures of the
holes, will, by an original property, reprefent but one.
This theory, however, though it makes the two holes
to appear one, does not determine where this one is
to be feen. It cannot be feen in only one of the per¬
pendiculars to the images upon the retinas, for no
reafon can be given why this law of vifible diredion,
which Dr Reid thinks eftablilhed beyond difpute, if
it operates at all, fhould not operate upon both eyes
at the fame time ; and if it be feen by both eyes in
fuch lines, it muft appear where thofe lines crofs each
other, that is, in the fame place with the objed view-
through the holes, which, as I have already mentioned,
is contrary to experience. Nor is it feen in any di¬
redion, the confiquence of a law affeding both eyes
confide!ed as one organ, but fufpended when each eye
is ufed feparately. For when the two holes appear
one, if we pay attention to its fituation, and then clofe
one eye, the truly fingle hole will be feen by the eye
remaining open in exadly the fame diredion as the
apparently fingle hole was by both eyes.
ICS. Part
“ Hitherto I have fuppofed the holes almofttcuching Of VHkm.
the face. But they have the fame unity of appearance,
in whatever parts of the optic axes they are placed ;
whether both be at the fame diftance from the eyes,
or one be clofe to the eye r.; the axis of which it is,
and the other almoft contiguous to the objtd feen
through them. If a line, therefore, be drawn from
the objed to one of the eyes, it will reprefent all the
real or tangible pofitions of the hole, which allow the
objed to be feen by that eye, and the whole of it will
coincide with the optic axis. Let a fimilar line be
drawn to the other eye, and the two muft appear but
as one line ; for if they do not, the two holes in the
optic axes will not, at every diftance, appear one,
whereas experiments prove that they do. This united
line will therefore reprefent the vifible diredion of
every objed fituated in either of the optic axes. But
the end of it, which is toward the face, is feen by the
right eye to the left, and by the left eye as much to
the right. It muft be feen then in the middle between
the two, and confequently in the common axis. And
as its other extremity coincides with the point where
the optic axes interftd: each other, the whole of it
muft lie in the common axis. Hence the truth of the
propofition is evident, that ofcjeds fituated in the
optic avis, do not appear to be in that line, but in
the common axis.”
He then proves by experiments, for which we muft
refer to his work, that objeds fituated in the com¬
mon axis do not appear to be in that line, but in the
axis of the eye by which they are not feen : that is,
an objed fituated in the common axis appears to the
right eye in the axis of the left, and vice verfa. Hiy
next propolkion, proved likewife by experiments, is,
that “ objeds, fituated in any line drawn through the
mutual interfedion of the optic axes to the vifual bafe,
do not appear to be in that line, but in another, draws
through the fame interfedion, to a point in the vifual
bafe diftant half this bafe from the fimilar extremity
of the former line towards the left, if the objeds be
feen by the right eye, but towards the right if feen by
the left eye.”
From thefe propofitions he thus fatisfadorily ac¬
counts for fingle vifion by both eyes. “ If the queftion
be concerning an objed at the concourfe of the optic
axes, it is feen fingle, becaufe its two fimilar appear¬
ances, in regard to lize, fhape, and colour, are feem
by both eyes in one and the fame diredion, or, if yoii
will, in two diredions, which coincide with each other
through the whole of their extent. It therefore mat¬
ters not whether the diftance be truly or falfely efti-
mated ; whether the objed be thought to touch our
eyes, or to be infinitely remote. And hence we have
a reaion, which no other theory of vifible diredion
affords, why objeds appeared iingle to the young
gentleman mentioned by Mr Chefelden, immediately
after his being couched, and before he could have
learned to judge of diftance by fight.
“ When two fimilar objeds are placed in the optic
axes, one in each, at equal diftances from the eyes,
they will appear in the fume place, and therefore one,
for the fame reafon that a truly fingle objed, in the
concourfe of the optic axes, is feen fingle.
4< To finifh this part of my fubjed, it feems only
neceffary to determine, whether the dependence of vk
lible diredion upon the adions of the naufcles of the
4
eyes.
PartT. O V T
Of Vifion. eyes be eflablifbed by nature, or by cuftom. But
-—¥— fafts are here wanting. As far as they go, however,
they ferve to prove that it arifes from an original
principle of our coullitution. For Mr Chefelden s
patient faw objects fingle, and conlequently in the
fame direftions with both eyes, immediately after he
was couched ; and perfons affedted with fquinting from
their tarlieft infancy fee objetts m the fame direftions
with the eye they have never been accudomed to em¬
ploy, as they do with the ether they have conftantly
ufed.”
The author removes many difficulties, and obviates
the objections to which his theory may feem mold liable.
The whole work deferves to be attentively ftudied
by every optician ; and wo therefore recommend it to
the perufal of our readers.
d*3 We are indebted to Dr Jurin for the following cu-
feerfwith. r’ous experiments, to determine whether an object feen
both eyes by both eyes appears brighter than when feen with
appear one only.
brighter a fljp 0f c|ean white paper direCtly before
feeu with' on a and applying the fide of a book clofe
only one. to his right temple, fo as that the book was advanced
conlxderably more forward than his face, he held it in
fuch a manner, as to hide from his right eye that half
of the paper which lay to his left hand, while the le.t
half of the paper was feen by both eyes, without any
impediment.
Then looking at the paper with both eyes, he ob-
ferved it to be divided, from the top to the bottom,
by a dark line, and the part which was feen with one
eye only was manifeitly darker than that which was
feen with both eyes •, and, applying the hook to
his left temple, he found, by the refult of the experi¬
ment, that both his eyes were of equal goodnefs.
Fie then endeavoured to find to what degree this
cxcefs of brightnefs amounted ; and comparing it with
the appearance of an objeCl illuminated partly by one
candle and partly by two, he was furprifed to find
that an objeft feen with two eyes is by no means twice
as luminous as when it is feen with one only ; and af¬
ter a number of trials, by which he made the propor¬
tion lefs and lefs continually, he found, that when one
paper was illuminated by a candle placed at the di-
Ibunce of three feet, and another paper by the fame
candle at the fame diftance, and by another candle at
the diftance of 11 feet, the former feen by both eyes,
and the latter with one eye only, appeared to ]>e of
equal whitenefs ; fo that an object feen with both eyes
appears brighter than when it is feen with one only by
about a 13th part. But he acknowledges, that it is dif¬
ficult to make this experiment exactly.
He then proceeded to inquire, whether an objeCt
feen with both eyes appears any thing larger than when
feen with one only; but he concluded that it did not,
except on account of fome particular circumftances, as
in the cafe of the binocular telefcope and the concave
fpeculum.
M. du Tour maintains, that the mind attends to no
more than the image made in one eye at a time ; and
produces feveral curious experiments in favour of this
hypothefis, which had alfo been maintained by Kepler
and almoft ail the firit opticians. But, as M. Buffon
obferves, it is a fufficient anfwer to this hypothefis,
how ingenioully foever it may be fupported, that we fee
mort diftinftly with two eyes than without; and that
ICS.
when a round objeft is near us, we plainly fee more of Of v'n°r-
the furface in one cafe than in the other. There are "v
alio other faffs which clearly prove the contrary of
what is maintained by M. du Tour.
With refpect to fingle vifion with two eyes. Dr
Flartley obferves, that it deferves particular attention,
that the optic nerves of men, and fuch other animals
as look the fame way with both eyes, unite in the
cdla turcica in a ganglion, or little brain, as one may
call it, peculiar to themfelves 1 and that the affociations
between fynchronous impreffions on the two retinas
mull be made fooner and cemented ftronger on-this
account; alfo that they ought to have a much greater
power over one another’s images, than in any other
part of the bndy. And thus an impreffion made on
the right eye alone, by a fingle obje&, may propagate
itfelf into the left, and there raife up an image almoit
equal in vividnefs to itfelf;'and conlequently when we
fee with one eye only, we may, however, have pi&ures
in both eyes.
A curious deception in vifion, arifing from the ufe
of both eyes, was obferved and accounted for by Dr
Smith. It is a common obfervation, he fays, that ob-
jedls feen with both eyes appear more vivid and
ftronger than they do to a fingle eye; efpecially
when both of them are equally good. A perfon not
fhort-lighted may foon be convinced of this fad, by-
looking attentively at objeds that are pretty remote,
firlt with one eye, end then with both. This obfer-
vation gave occaiion to the conftrudion of the bino¬
cular telefcope, in the ufe .of which the phenomenon is
ftill more ftrlking.
Befides this, our author obferves, that there is ano¬
ther phenomenon obfervable with this inftrument,
which is very remarkable. , In the foci of the two
telefcopes there are two equal rings, as ufual, which
terminate the pidures of the objeds there formed, and
confequently the vifible area of the objeds themfelves.
Thefe equal rings, by reafon of the equal eye-glaffes,
appear equal, and equally diftant when feen feparately
by each eye ; but when they are feen with both eyes,
they appear much larger, and more diftant alfo ; and
the objeds feen through them do alfo appear much
larger, though circumfcribcd by their united rings,
in the fame places as when they were feen fepa¬
rately.
He obferves, that the phenomenon of the enlarged
circle of the vifible area in the binocular telefcope,
may be fecn very plainly in looking at diftant objeda
through a pair of fpedacles, removed from the eyes
about fonr or five inches, and held fteady at that di¬
ftance. The two innermoft of the four apparent rings,
which hold the glaffes, will then appear united in one
larger and more diftant ring than the two outermoft,
whicii will hardly be vifible unlefs the fpedacles be
farther removed.
A curious circumftance relating to the effed of one
eye upon the other, was noticed by M. iEpinus, who
obferved, that, when he was looking through a hole
made in a plate of metal, about the 10th part of a
line in diameter, with his left eye, both the hole itfelf
appeared larger, and alfo the field of view feen through
i- was more extended, whenever he fhut his right eye ;
and both thefe effeds were more remarkable when that
eye was covered with his hand. Fie found confidet*»
able difficulty in meafuring this augmentation of the
apparent.
5° 2
O
Of Villon, apparent diameter of the hole, and of the field of view;
u—y—- ^ at lengt], he found, that, when the hole was half
an inch, and the tablet which he viewed through it
was three feet from his eye, if the diameter of the field
when both his eyes were open was I, it became
when the other eye was Ihut, and nearly 2 when his
hand was laid upon it.
Upon examining this phenomenon, it prefently ap¬
peared to depend upon the enlargement of the pupil
led, the pu-of one eye when the other is clofed, the phyfical or
jul t f the anatomical caufe of which he did not pretend to aliign ;
«ther^is en-j.)Ut he obferves, that it is wifely appointed by divine
k Providence, in order that when one eye fails, the field
of view in the other may be extended. That this
effedf Ihould be more ftnfible when the eye is covered
with the hand, is owing, he obferves, to the eye lids
not being impervious to the light. But the enlarge¬
ment of the pupil does not enlarge the ficdci of vew,
except in looking through a hole, as in this particular
cafe ; and therefore perfons who are blind of one eye
can derive no advantage from this circumftance. Be¬
164
When one
e>e is clo-
fore we applaud the -wifdom of Providence in any part
of the confutation of nature, we fiiculd be very fure
that we do not miflake concerning the effedfs of that
■conftitution.
A great deal has been written by GafTendi, Ue
Clerc, Muffchenbrock, and Du Tour, concerning the
place to which we refer an objeft viewed by one or
both eyes. But the moil fatisfaftory account, of this
matter that we have met with, the reader will find in
Dr Wells’s EfiTay above quoted, which will teach any
perfon how to fatisfy himfelf by experiment with re-
fpedt to vifible pofition and vifible motion.
§ Of the /Ippearavce of Objefls fen through Media of
different Forms.
The va- For the more eafy fpprehenfion of what relates to
rious ap this fubjedd, we fhail premife the five following parti-
pearances culars, which either have been already mentioned, or
feerfthnd ^°^ow h'001 what has been before laid down,
media of I. That as each point of an objedb, when viewed
different by the naked eye, appears in its proper place, and as
forms that place is always to be found in the line in which
the axis of a pencil of rays flowing from it enters the
ted. ° eye, or elie in the line which Dr ‘Wells calls the com¬
mon axis ; we from htnee acquire an habit of judging
the point to be fituated in that line : and, becaufe the
mind is unacquainted with what refradtions the rays
fufter before they enter the eye, therefore, in cafes
where they are diverted from their natural courfc,
by palling through any medium, it judges the point
to be in that line produced back in which the axis of
a pencil of rays flowing from it is fituated the inffant
they enter the eye, and not in that it was in before
refradtion. We (hall therefore, in what follows, fup-
pole the apparent place of cm objedt, when feen thro’
a refracting medium, to be fomewheie in that line pro¬
duced back in which the axis of a pencil of ravs flow¬
ing from it proceeds after they have pafled through
the mdium.
2. 1 hat we are able to judge, though imperfedily,
of the diftance of an objedt by the degree of diver¬
gency, wherein the rays flowing from the fame point
of the objedl enter the pupil of (he eye, in cafes where
that divergency is coniiderable j but becaufe in what
Plate
CCCI.VMI,
I C S» Part I.
follows it will be necefifary to fuppofe an objedfc, when Appear-
feen through a medium whereby its apnarent diftance Ob¬
is altered, to appear in fome determinate fituation, in thoughm”
thofe cafes where the divergency of the rays at their <R.a oi diffe-
entrance into the eye is coniiderable, we will fuppofe rent Pormj,
the objedl to appear where thofe lines which they de- -v—-"
feribe in entering, if produced back, would crofs each
other : though it muft not be aflerted, that this is the
precife diftanee ; becaufe the brightnefs, diflindlnelV,
and apparent magnitude of the objedl, on which its
apparent diftance in fome meafure depends, will alfo
fuller an alteration by the refradlion of,the rays i^ paf-
lr;lg through that medium.
3. That we eftimate the magnitude of an objecl by
that of the optic angle. ,
4. That vilioa is the brighter, the greater the num¬
ber of rays is which enter the pupil. And,
5. That, in fome cafes, the apparent brightnefs,
diltindtnefs, and magnitude of an objedl, are the on'y
means whereby our judgment is determined in eftima-
ting the diftance of it
Prop. I. An objecl placed within a medium ter¬
minated by a plane furface on that fide which is next
the eye, if the medium be denfer than that in which
the eye is 'vas we fhall always fuppofe it to be, unlefs
where the contrary is expreffed), appears nearer to the
furUce of the medium than it is.
Thus, if A be a point of an objedl placed within
the medium BDCE (fig. 5.), and \b Ac be two rays
proceeding from thence, thefe rays palling out of a
denfer into a rarer medium, will be refradled from their
refpedlive perpendiculars id, ce, and will enter the eye
at H, fuppofe in the directions bf eg 1 let then thefe
lines be produced back till they meet in F; this will
be the apparent place of the point A: and becaufe
the refraded rays bf, eg will diverge more than the
incident ones Ab, Ac, it will be nearer to the points
b and c than the point A ; and as the fame is true of
each point in the object, the whole will appear to an
eye at H, nearer to the furface BC than it is.
From hence it is, that when one end of a ftraight
ftick is put under water, and the Hick is held in an
oblique potition, it appears bent at the furface of the
water ; v’z. becaufe each point that is under water
appears nearer the furface, and confequently higher
than it is.
From hence likewife it is, that an objedl at the l>ot-
tom of a velfel may be feen when the veffel is filled
with water, though it be fo placed with r'efpedt to
the eye, that it cannot be feen when the veflcl is emp¬
ty. To explain this, let ABCD (fig. 6 ) reprefent
a veiTcl, and let E be an objef.1 lying at the bottom of
it. This objedt, when the veft'el is empty, will not
be feen by an eye at F, becaufe HB, the upper part
of the velfel, will obftrudt the ray F.H ; but when it
is filled with water to the height GH, the rav EK
being refradled at the furface of the water into the
line KF, the eye at F fliail fee the objedt by means of
that.
In like manner, an objecl lituated in the horizon ,\n ohjetfl
appears above its true place, upon account of the re~ fituated in
fradlion of the rays which proceed from it in their paf- '^e horizon
fage through the atmofphere of the earth. For, firft,
if the objedl be fituated beyond the limits of the atmo- tru£ place,
fphere, its rays in entering it will be refradled towards
the
iff*
*
Part I.
Appear*
ante of O’)
jt<3s leen
through
JV/edia of
differtTK
Forms.
riaie
CCCLVlU.
I67
An < bjedb
fecn thro’
a pJar;e me
idiun. ap¬
peals 1 !tar.
jer and
Ihrighter
jthan feen
jby the na¬
ked eye.
OPT
the perpendicular; that is, towards a line drawn from
the point where they enter, to the centre of the earth,
which is the centre of the atmofphere : and as they
p;.fs on, they will be continually refracled the fame
way, becaufe they are all along entering a denfer part,
the centie of whofe convexity is Rill the fame point ;
upon which account the line they deferibe will be a
curve bending downwards : and therefore none of the
rays that come from that object can enter an eye upon
the furf ee of the earth, except what enter the atmo-
fphere higher than they need (o do if they could come
in a right line from the object : confequently the ob¬
ject muft appear above its proper place. Secondly,
if the object be placed within the atmofphere, the
cafe is ftill the fame ; for the rays which flow from it
mull continually enter a denfer medium whofe centre
is below the eye ; and therefore being refracted to¬
wards the centre, that is, downwards as before, thofe
which enter the eye muft neceft'arily proceed as from
feme point above the object; wherefore the object wall
appear above its proper place.
From hence it is, that the fun, moon, and flats, ap¬
pear above the horizon, when they are juft below it;
and higher than they ought to do, when they are above
it : Likewife diftant hill-, trees, See. feem to be high¬
er than they are.
Further, the lower theft? objects are in the horizon,
the greater is the obliquity with which the rays which
flew from them enter the atmofphere, or^pafs from
the rnrei into the dtnfer parts of it; and therefore they
appear to be the more elevated by refraction : upon
which recount the lower parts of them are apparently
more elevated than the other. This makes their upper
and under parts feem nearer than they are;. as is evi¬
dent from the fun and moon, which appear of an oval
form when they are in the horizon, their horizontal
diameters appearing of the fame length they would do
if tne rays fufl'ered no refraction, while their vertical
ones are fliortened thereby.
Prop. II, An objeft fern through a medium ter¬
minated by plane and parallel furfaces, appears nearer,
brighter, and larger, than with the naked eye.
For inftance, let AB (fig. 7.) be the objeft, CDEF
the medium, and GH the pupil of an eye, which is
here drawn large to prevent confufion in the figure.
And, ift, let RK, IFL, he two rays proceeding from
.the point R, and entering the denfer medium at K
and L t thefe rays will here by refradiion he made to
diverge lefs, and to proceed afterwards, fuppofe in
the lines Ka, 1LI> s at a and b, where they pafs out
of the denfer medium, they will be as much refrac¬
ted the contrary way, proceeding in the lines id,
parallel to their firft directions. Produce thefe lines
back till they meet in e : this will be the apparent
place of the point R; and it is evident from the fr-
gu.e, that it muft be nearer the eye than that point;
and becaufe the fame is true of all ether pencils flow¬
ing from the objeft AB, the whole will be feen in the
fit nation/^, nearer to the eye than the line AB. 2d,
As the rays RK, RL, would not have entered the
eye, but have pa fled by it in the direftions Kr, L,t,
had they not been refrafted in pafling through the
medium, the chjeff appears brighter. 3d, The rays
AA, Bi, will be reiratted at />and i into the lefs con-
verging lines il, and at the other furfr.ee into / M,
I
s.
/M, parallel to Ah and Bi produced ; fo that the ex- Appey-
tremities of the objeft will appear in the lines Mi, aP
M/ produced, viz. in f and v, and under as large an \hrough
angle fVlgy as the angle AyR under which an eye Media of
at q would have feen it had there been no medium in- different
terpofed to refradt the rays; and therefore it appears * o.m3. ^
larger to the eye at GH, being ieen through the in-
terpofed medium, than otherwife it would have done.
But it is here to he obferved, that the nearer the point
e appears to the eye on account of the refradlion of
the rays RK, RL, the fhorter is the image /jg, be¬
caufe it is terminated by the lines Mf and M g, upon
which account the objedl is made to appear lefs ; and
therefore the apparent magnitude of an objerit is not
much augmented by being feen through a medium of
this form.
Farther, it is apparent from the figure, that the ef-
fe£l of a medium of this form depends wholly upon its
thicknefs; for the diftance between the lines Rr and
ec, and confecpiently the diftance between the points e
and R, depends upon the length of the line Ktf."
Again, the diftance between the lines AM and y’M
depends on the length of the line /j/J*; but both Km and
kb depend on the diftance between the iurfaces CE
and DF, and therefore the dfeft of this medium de¬
pends upon its thicknefs.
Prop. III. An objeft feen through a convex lens,
appears larger, brighter, and more diftaat, than with
the naked eye.
To illuftrate this, let AB (fig. 8.) be the objeef, Seen thro"
CD the lens, and EF the eye. 1. From A and B,.thea convex
extremities of the objerit, draw the lines AYr, BXr, ^ens>^H p
croffing each ocher in the pupil of the eye ; the an^e brighter" *
ArB comprehended between thefe lines, is the angle and more
under which the objetf would be feen with the naked diftant;
eye. But by the interpofition of a lens of this form,
whofe property it is to render converging rays more fo,
the rays AY and BX will he made to crofs each other
before they reach the pupil. There the eye at E will
not perceive the extremities of the objedl by means of
thefe rays (for they will pafs.it without entering), but
by feme others which muft fall without the points Y
and X, or between them ; but if they fall between
them, they will be made to concur fooner than they
themfelves would have done ; and therefore, if the ex¬
tremities of the objedf could not be feen by them, it
will much Lfs be feen by thefe. It remains therefore,
th'.t the rays which will enter the eye from the points
A and B after refraction, muft fall upon the lens
without the points Y and X ; let then the rays AO
and BP be fuch. Thefe after refraction entering the
eye at r, the extremities of the object will he feen in
the lines rQ^/F, produced, and under the optic angle
Qg-T, which is larger than ArB, and therefore the.
apparent magnitude of the object will be increafed.
2. Let GHI be a pencil of rays flowing from the point;
G ; as it is the property of this lens to render diver¬
ging rays lefs diverging, parallel, or converging, iti
is evident that fome of thofe rays, which would pro¬
ceed on to F and E, and mifs the eye, were they to
fuffer no refraCtion in pafling through the lens, will,
now enter it; by which means the objeCt will appear
brighter. 3. As to the apparent diftance of the ob¬
jeCt, that will vary according to the fituation of it withv
refpeCt to the focus of pavaliel rays of the lens,;
1. The n
3^
.Appear¬
ance of Ob¬
jects feen
through'
Me-ha of
different
Forms.
Plate
' eccnvm.
OPT
t. Then, 1st tis fuppofe tlie objeft placed fo much
nearer the lens than its focus of parallel rays, that the
refra&ed rays KE and LF, though rendered lefs di~
verging by pafling through it, may yet have a consi¬
derable degree of divergency, fo that we may be able
to form a judgment of the diftance of the objeft there¬
by. In this cafe, the objett ought to appear where
EK, FL, produced back concur; which, becaufe they
diverge lefs than the rays GH, GI, will be beyond
G, that is, at a greater diftance from the lens than
the objed is. But becaufe both the brightnefs and
magnitude of the objed will at the fame time be aug¬
mented, prejudice will not permit us to judge it quite
fo far off as the point where thofe lines meet, but
lomewhere between that point and its proper place.
2. Let the objed be placed in the focus of parallel
lays, then will the rays KE and LF become parallel;
and though in this cafe the objed would appear at an
jmmenfe diftance, if that diftance were to be judged
of by the diredion of the rays KE and LF, yet upon-
account of the brightnefs and magnitude of it, we (hall
not think it much farther from us than if it were feen
by the naked eye. 3. If the objed be fituated be¬
yond the focus of parallel rays, as in BA (iig. 9.),
the rays flowing from thence and falling upon the lens
CD, will be colleded into their refpedive foci at a
and 3, and the intermediate points m, n, See. and will
there form an image of the objed AB ; and after
Crofting each other in the feveral points of it, as ex-
prefled in the figure, will pafs on diverging as from a
real objed. Now if an eye be fituated at c, where
Ac, Be, rays proceeding from the extreme points of
the objed, make not a much larger angle AcB, than
they would do if there were no lens interpofed, and
the rays belonging to the fame pencil do not converge
fo much as thofe which the eye would receive if it were
placed nearer to a or b, the objed upon tllefe accounts
appearing very little larger or brighter than with the
naked eye, is feen nearly in its proper place; but if
the eye recedes a little way towards a b, the objed
then appearing both brighter and larger, feems to
approach the lens : which is an evident proof of what
has been fo often aflerted, •viz. that we judge of the
diftance of an objed in fome meafure by its bright-
refs and magnitude ; for the rays converge the more
the farther the eye recedes from the lens ; and there¬
fore if we judged of the diftance of the objed by the
diredion of the rays which flow from it, we ought ill
this cafe to conceive it at a greater diftance, than when
the rays were parallel, or diverged at their entrance in¬
to the eye.
That the objed fliould feem to approach the lens in
this cafe, was a difficulty that exceedingly puzzled
the learned Barrow, and which he pronounces infupe-
rable, and not to be accounted for by any theory we
have of vifion. Molineux alfo leaves it to the folution
of others, as that which will be inexplicable, till a more
intimate knowledge of the vifive faculty, as he expref-
fes it, be obtained by mortals.
i hey imagined, that feeing an objed appears far¬
ther off, the lefs the rays diverge which fall upon the
eye, if they ffiould proceed parallel to each other, it
•ought to appear exceeding remote ; and if they fhould
converge, it ffiould then appear more diftant ftill: the
reafon of this wasj becaufe they looked upon the ap-
N~ 34B*
ICS. Parti,
parent place of an objed, as owirtg only to the dirtc- Appear-
tion of the rays whatever it was, and not at all to itsa?c^0^.^
apparent magnitude or fplendor. ^throueh1
Perhaps it may proceed from our judging of the Media of
diftance of an objed in fome meafure by its tnagni- different
tude, that that deception of fight commonly obferved Form3- .
by travellers may arife ; viz. that upon the firft ap- ’ J
pearance of a building larger than ufual, as a cathedral
church, or the like, it generally feema nearer to them,
than they afterwards find it to be. jg.
Pp.ob. IV. If an objed be placed farther from a In certaia
convex lens than its focus of parallel rays, and the eye circum-
be fituated farther from it on the other fide than t^e objea^ccrt
place where the rays of the feveral pencils are colled-thn>tigh a
ed into their refpedive foci, the objed appears in-convex lenj
verted, and pendulous in the air, between the eye and aPPear3 !n’
,, , r J verted and
the lens. . pendulous
To explain this, let AB (ng. 9.) reprelent the ob- U1 theair,
jed, CD the lens; and let the rays of the pencil ACD
be colleded in a, and thole of BCD in b, forming
there an inverted image of the objed AB, and let the
eye be placed in F : it is apparent from the figure,
that fome of the refraded rays which pTs through
each point of the image will enter the eye as from a
real objed in that place; and therefore the objed AB
will appear there, as the propofition ailerts. But we
are fo little accuftomed to fee objeds in this manner,
that it is very difficult to perceive the image with one
eye ; but if both eyes are fituated in fuch a manner,
that rays flowing from each point of the image may
enter both, as at G and H, and we dired our optic
axes to the image, it is eafy to be perceived.
If the eye be fituated in a or b, or very near them
on either fide, the objed appears exceedingly confufed,
viz. if at the rays which proceed from the fame
point of the objed converge fo very much, and if at e,
they diverge fo much, that they cannot be colleded
together upon the retina, but fall upon it as if they
were the axes of fo many diftind pencils coming thro’
every point of the lens ; wherefore little more than
one fingle point of the objed is feen at a time, and
that appears all over the lens ; from whence nothing
but confufion arifes. „
If the lens be fo large that both eyes may be ap¬
plied to it, as in h and k, the objed will appear double;
for it is evident from the figure, that the rays which
enter the eye at h from either extremity of the objed
A or B, do not proceed as from the fame point with
that from whence thofe which enter the other at k
feem to flow; the mind therefore is here deceived, and
looks upon the objed as fituated in two different places,
and therefore judges it to be double. ^
Prop. V. An objed feen through a concave lens An obj«<5
appears nearer, fmaller, and lefs bright, than with the through a
naked eye. concave
Thus, let AB (fig. 10.) be the objed, CD the pu-
pil of an eye, and EF the lens. Now, as it is the dialler,aD<3
property of a lens of this form to render diverging lefs bright
rays more fo, and converging ones lefs fo, the diver-than
ging rays GH, GI, proceeding from the point G, ^na6
will be made to diverge more, and fo to enter the eye *
as from fome nearer pointy ; and the rays AH, BI,
which converge, will be made to converge lefs, and
to enter the eye as from the points a and b ; where¬
fore the objeds *wiU appear in the fituation agh. Ids
and
Part T. O P F
Reflexion and nearer than without the lens. Farther, as the
of Light. ray8 -which proceed from G are rendered more diver-
L * ging, fome of them will be made to pafs by the pu¬
pil of the eye, which otherwife would have entered it,
and therefore each point of the objedt will appear lefs
bright.
Prop. VI. An objedt feen through a polygonous
glafs, that is, fuch as is terminated by feveral plain Sur¬
faces, is multiplied thereby.
Plate For inftance, let A (hg. n). be an objedt, and BC
CCCLVIII.J polygonous glafs terminated by the plain furfaces
BD, DE, &c. and let the fituation of the eye F be
fuch, that the rays AB being refradted in pafiing
through the glafs, may enter it in the diredtion BF,
and the rays AC in the diredtion CF. Then will
the eye, by means of the former, fee the objedt in
G, and by the latter in H ; and by means of the rays
A I, the objedt will appear alfo in its proper fitua¬
tion A.
Sect. III. Of the RefleRion of Light.
171 When a ray of light falls upon any body, however
Some por- tranfparent, the whole of it never pafles through the
al\va°fbut fome part is always driven back or refledted
fiedkdfrom from it; and it is by this refiedted light that all bodies
tranfparent which have no light of their own become vifible to us.
fcodies. Of t]iat part of the ray which enters, another part is
alfo refledted from the fecond furface, or that which
is fartheft from the luminous body. When this part
arrives again at the firlt furface, part of it is refledted
back from that furface } and thus it continues to be
refledted between the two furfaces, and to pafs back¬
wards and forwards within the fubftance of the me¬
dium, till fome part is totally extinguifhed and loft.
Befides this inconfiderable quantity, however, which
is loft in this manner, the fecond furface often refledts
much more than the firft; infomuch that, in certain po-
fitions, fcarce any rays will pafs through both Tides of
the medium. A very confiderable quantity is alfo un¬
accountably loft or extinguifhed at each rtfledting fur¬
face ; infomuch that nobody, however tranfparent, can
tranfmit all the rays which fall upon it; neither, tho’
it be ever fo well fitted for refledtion, will it refledt
them all.
§ I. Of the Cavfe of ReJJedion.
The refleftion of light is by no means fo eafily ac¬
counted for as the refradlion of the fame fluid. This
property, as we have feen in the laft fedtion, may be
accounted for in a fatisfadtory manner by the fuppo-
fition of an attradfive power diffufed throughout the
medium, and extending a very little way beyond it;
but with regard to the refledlion of light, there feems
to be no fatisfadtory hypothefis hitherto invented. Of
the principal opinions on this fubjedt Mr Rowning hath
given us the following account.
I. It was the opinion of philofophers, before Sir
172 Ifaac Newton difeoveted the contrary, that light is
notleflec- refle&ed by impinging upon the folid parts of bodies,
ted by im- But that it is not fo, is clear for the following rea-
pir.pinjr onfoilS.
the folid ;t js not refie&ed at the firft furface of a
Eafthe°"body fey imP'nRing againft it.
firftfaiface, tor it is evident, that, in order to the due and
Vol.XIII. Parti.
ICS. $05
regular refledfion of light, that is, that the refledfed
rays fhould not be difperfed and fcattered one from an-Re e lon*
other, there ought to be no rafures or unevennefs in
the refledfing furface large enough to bear a fenfible
proportion to the magnitude of a ray of light; be-
caufe if the furface abounds with fuch, the refledted
rays will rather be fcattered like a parcel of pebbles
thrown upon a rough pavement, than refledled with
that regularity with which light is obferved.to be from
a well polifhed furface. Now thofe furfaces, which to
our fenfes appear perfedlly fmooth and well poliftied,
are far from being fo; for to polifh, is no other than
to grind off the larger eminences and protuberances of
the metal with the rough and fnarp particles of fand,
emery, or putty, which muft of neceffity leave behind
them an infinity of rafures and fcratches, which, though
inconfiderable with regard to the former roughneffes,
and too minute to be difeerned by us, muft neverthe-
lefs bear a large proportion to, if not vaftly exceed, the
magnitude of the particles of light.
Secondly, it is not refledted at the fecond furface "
by impinging againft any folid particles.
That it is not refledted by impinging upon the folid
particles which conftitute this fecond furface, is fuffi-
ciently clear from the foregoing argument; the feconi
furfaces of bodies being as incapable of a perfedt polifli
as the firft : and it is farther confirmed from hence,
viz. that the quantity of light refledted differs accord¬
ing to the different denfity of the medium behind the
body. And that it is not refledted by impinging up¬
on the particles which conftitute the furface of the
medium behind it, is evident, beeaufe the ftrongeft re¬
fledtion of all at the fecond furface of a body, is when
there is a vacuum behind it. This therefore wants no
faither proof. 174
II. It has been thought by fome, that it is refledted
at the firft furface of a body, by a repulfive T°rce five f0rCe •
equally diffufed over it; and at the fecond, by an at-
tradtive force. 'J75
1. If there be a repulfive force diffufed over the Objected
furface of bodies that repels rays of light at all times,to*
then, fince by increafing the obliquity of a ray we di-
minifti its perpendicular force (which is that only
whereby it muft make its way through this repulfive
force), however weakly that force may be fuppofedto
act, rays of light may be made to fall with lo great a
degree of obliquity on the refledtirtg furface, that
there ft'all be a total refledtion of them there, and not
one particle of light be able to make its way through:
which is contrary to obfervation ; the refledtion of
light at the firlt furface of a tranfparent body being
never total in any obliquity whatever. The hypothefis
therefore in this particular muft be falfe.
2. As to the reflection at the fecond furface by the .
• " A. f i Vf5"
attradtive force of the body ; this may be confidered t n(;e lu^,
in two refpedts : firft, when the refledtion is total; p0fc,l;
fecondly, when it is partial.
And firft, in cafes where the refledtion is total, thd
caufe of it is undoubtedly that fame attradtive force
by which light would be refradted in palling out of
the fame body. This is manifeft from that analogy
which is obfervable between the refledtion of light at
this fecond furface, and its refradtion there. For
otherwife, what can be the reafon that the total re¬
fledtion Ihould begin juft when the obliquity of the in-
Q q cident
3o6 O P T
Caufe of cident ray> at its arrival at the fecond furface, is fuch
Reflexion. that. the refrafted angle ought to be a right one ; or
W“~y when the ray, were it not to return in reflection,
ought to pafs on parallel to the furface, wjthoot going
from it ? For in this cafe it is evident, that it ought
to be returned by this very power, and in fuch man-
ncr that the angle of refleaion (hall be equal to the
angle of incidence ; juft as a ftone thrown obliquely
from the earth, after it is fe far turned out of its
courfe by the attra&ion of the earth, as to begin to
move horizontally, or parallel to the furface of the
earth, is then by the fame power made to return in a
curve fimilar to that which is defcribed in its departure
from the earth, and fo falls with the fame degree of
obliquity that it was thrown with.
*77 gutj fecondly, as to the refleaion at the fecond fur-
C face, when it is partial; an attraaive force uniformly
fpread over it, as the maintainers of this hypothefis
conceive it to be, c?.n never be the caufe thereof.
Becaufe it is inconceivable, that the fame force, aaing
in the fame circumftances in every refpea, can fome-
times reflea the violet coloured rays and tranfmit the
red, and at other times reflea the red and tranfmit
the violet.
We have ftated this objeaion, becaufe it is our bu-
finefs to conceal no plaufible opinions: but it is not
valid; for in each colour, the refleaion takes place at
that angle, and no other, where the refraaion of that
ray would make it parallel to the pofterior furface.
This partial refleaion and refraaion is a great dif¬
ficulty in all the attempts which have been made to
give a mechanical explanation of the phenomena of
optics. It is equally a defideratum in that explana¬
tion which was propofed by Huygens, and, fince his
time, revived by Euler, by means of the undulations
of an elaftic fluid, although a vague confideration of
undulatory motions feems to offer a very fpecious ana¬
logy. But a rigid applicacion of fuch knowledge as we
have acquired of fuch motions, will convince any unpre¬
judiced mathematician, that the phenomena of undula¬
tion are effentially diflimilar to the phenomena of
light. The inflexion of light, and its refraftion,
equally demonftrate that light is adted on by moving
forces in a dire&ion perpendicular to the furface; and
it is equally dtmonftrable that fucb forces muft, in
/ proper circumftances, produce reflexions precifely
fuch as we obferve. The only difficulty is to ffiow
how there can be forces which produce both reflec¬
tion and refraXion, in circumftances which are fimilar.
The faX is, that fuch effeXs are produced : the firft
logical inference is, that with refpeX to the light
which is refleXed and that which is refraXed, the
eircumftances are not fimilar; and our attention fliouM
be direXed to the difcovery of that diffimilarity. All
the phenomena of combined refleXion and refraXion
Ihould be examined and claffed according to their ge¬
nerality, not doubting but that thefe points of re-
femblance will lead to the difcovery of their caufes.
Now the experiments of Mr Bouguer fhow that bo¬
dies differ extremely in theii powers of thus fepa-
rating light by refleXion and refraXion, fome of them
refleXing much more at a given angle than others.
It is not therefore a general property of light to be partly
refleXe and partly refraXed, but a di/linffive pro¬
perty of di/erent bodiesj and fince we fee that they
I C S. Part T.
poffefs it in different degrees, we are authorifed to con- ("aufeof
elude that fome bodies may want it altogether. We
may therefore expeX fome fuccefs by confidering how 11
bodies are affeXed by light, as well as how light is
affeXed by bodies. Now, in all the phenomena of
the material world we find bodies conneXed by mu¬
tual forces. We know no cafe where a body A tends
towards a body B, or, in common language, is attraX-
ed by it, without, at the fame time, the body B tend¬
ing towards A. This is obferved in the phenomena
of magnetifm, eleXricity, gravitation, corpufcular at-
traXion, impulfe, &c. We fhould therefore conclude
from analogy, that as bodies change the motion of
light, light alfo changes the motion of bodies ; and
that the particles near the furface are put into vibra- I7g
tion by the paffage of light through among them.The object
Suppofe a parcel of cork-balls all hanging as pendu-1*011 obvi»»
lums in a fymmetrical order, and that an eleXrifiedted*
ball paffts through the midft of them; it is very eafy
to ffiow that it may proceed through this affemblage
in various direXions with a fiauated motion, and
without touching any of them, and that its ultimate
direXion will have a certain inclination to its primary
direXion, depending on the outline of the afl'emblage,
jull as is obferved in the motion of light; and, in
the mean time, the cork-balls will be varioufly agi¬
tated. Juft fo muft it happen to the particles of a
tranfparent body, if we fuppofe that they aX on the
particles of light by mutual attraXions and repui-
ifions.
An attentive confideration of what happens here
will ffiow us that the fuperficial particles will be much
more agitated than the reft ; and thus a ftratum be
produced, which, in any inftant, will aX on thofe
particles of light which are then approaching them in
a manner different from that in which they will aX
on fimilarly fituated particles of light, which come
into the place of the firft in the following moment,
when thefe aXing particles of the body have (by their
motion of vibration) changed their own fituation.
Now it is clearly underftood, that in all motions of
vibration, fuch as the motions of pendulums, there is
a moment when the body is in its natural fituation, as
when the pendulum is in the vertical line. This may
happen in the fame inftant in each atom of the trans¬
parent body. i he particles of light which then corns
within the fphere of a ion may be wholly refleXed j
in the next moment, particles of light in the veiy
fituation of the firft may be tefraXed.
Then will arife a feparation of light; and as this
will depend on the manner in which the particles ot
bodies are agitated by it during its paffage, and as
this again will depend on the nature of the body, that
is on the law of aXion of thofe forces which con*
neX the particles with each other, and with the
particles of light, it will be different in different bo¬
dies. But in all bodies there will be this general re-
femblance, that the feparation will be molt copious
in great obliquities of incidence, which gives the re-
pulfive forces more time for aXion, while it dkni-
nifhes the perpendicular force of the light. Such a
reftmblance between the phenomena and the legiti¬
mate confequences of the affumption (the agitation
of the parts of the body), gives us fome authority
lor affi^ning this as the caufe j nor can the affump.-
tioa
OPTICS .
Plate CCCPV5H .
t .'frr*** //CtAZfevtjfa/l*? '/+■ o /
Parti. 0 ,P,.T.
Caufe of tion be called gratuitous. To fuppofe that the par-
Refledion. ticle8 0f the tranfp trent body are not thus agitated, would
^ -v a moft. gratuitous contradiction of a law of nature
to which we know no other exception.
Thus the objedtion raifed in n° 132. is obviated,
becaufe the refieftion and refra&ion is not here con¬
ceived as fxmultaneous, but as fucceflive.
179 HI. Some, being apprehenfive of the infufFiciency
An'thef of a repuifive ang attraftive force diffufed over the fur-
Hypo'.he- faceg of bod;C8 and aaing uniformly, have fuppofed,
that, by the adtiou of light upon the furface of bodies,
the matter of thefe bodies is put into an undulatory
motion ; and that where the furface of it is fubfiding
light is tranfmitted, and in thofe places where it is
rifing light is refle&ed. But to overlook the objec¬
tions which we have juft made to this theory of un¬
dulation, we have only to obferve, that, were it ad¬
mitted, it Teems not to advance us one jot farther;
for in thofe cafes, fuppofe where red is reflefted and
violet tranfmitted, how comes it to pafs that the red
impinges only on thofe parts when the waves are ri-
1S0 aud ttie v"lolet wlien they are fabfiding ?
Sir I. New- IV. The next hypothefis that we fhall take notice
ton’s Hy- ef} js that remarkable one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s fits
,$>othefis; 0f eapy rtfledfion and tranfmifiion, which we (hall now
explain and examine.
That author, as far as we can apprehend his
meaning in this particular, is of opinion, that light
in its paffage from the luminous body, is difpofed to
be alternately refleded by and tranfmitted through any
refra&ing furface it may meet with; that thefe dif-
pofitions (which he calls Jits of eafy refleftion and eafy
tranfmijfon) return fucceflively at equal intervals;
and that they are communicated to it at its firll
emiflion out of the luminous body it proceeds from,
probably by fome very fubtle and elaftic fubftance
diffufed through the univerfe, and that in the follow¬
ing manner. As bodies falling into water, or palling
through the air, caufe undulations in each, fo the rays
of light may excite vibrations in this elaftic fubftance.
The quicknefs of which vibrations depending on the
elafticity of the medium (as the quicknefs of the vi¬
brations in the air, which propagate found, depend
folely on the elafticity of the air, and not upon the
quicknefs of thofe in the founding body,), the motion of
the particles of it may be quicker than that of the rays:
and therefore, when a ray at the inftant it impinges
upon any furface, is in that, part of a vibration of this
rlaftic fubftance which confpires with its motion, it
may be eafily tranfmitted ; and when it is in that
part of a vibration which is contrary to its motion, it
<may be refle&ed. He farther fuppofes, that when
light falls upon the furface of a body, if it be not
in a fit of eafy tranfmifiion, every ray is there put
into one, fo that when they come at the other fide
(for this elaftic fubftance, eafily pervading the pores
of bodies, is capable of the fame vibrations within
.the body as without it), the rays of one colour fiiall
!he'in a fit of eafy tranfmifiion, and thofe of another
in a fit of cafy refieftion, according to the thicknefs
•of the body, the intervals of the fits being different
in rays of a different kind. This feems to account
for the different colours of the bubble and thin plate
of air and water, as is obvious enough ; and likewife
for the refledion of light at'the fecond furface of a
I G S, 3°7
thicker body; for the light refleded from thence is ^w*°f
alfo obferved to be coloured, and to form rings ac- 1
cording to the different thicknefs of the body, when
not intermixed and confounded with other light, as
will appear from die following experiment. If a
piece of giafs be ground concave on one fide and
convex on the other, both its concavity and con¬
vexity having one common centre ; and if a ray of
light be made to pafs through a fmall hole in a piece
of paper held in that common centre, and be per¬
mitted to fall on the giafs ; btfides thofe rays which
are regularly reflefted back to the hole again, there
will be others refle&ed to the paper, and form colour¬
ed rings fuuounding the hole, not unlike thofe oc-
cafioned by the refiedlion of light from thin plates. i$t
It is ever with extreme relu&ance that we venture Untenable,
to call in queftion the do&rines of Newton ; but to
his theory of refle&ion there is this infuperable ob¬
jection, that it explains nothing, unlefs the caufe of
the fits of more eafy reflection and tranfmiffion be
held as legitimate, namely, that they are produced by
the undulations of another elaftic fuid, incomparably more
fubtile than light, acting upon it in the way of impulfe.
The fits themfefves are matters of fatt, and no way
different from what we have endeavoured to account
for : but to admit this theory of them would be to
tranfgrefs every rule of philofophtfing, as we have
fhown them to be fufceptible of explanation from ac¬
knowledged optical laws.
§ 2. Of the Laws of Refection.
The fundamental law of the reflection of light, ,'s» ^
that in all cafes the angle of reflection is equal to the ™fe^cflec>
angle of incidence. This is found by experiment to tlon.
be the cafe, and befides may be demonftrated mathe¬
matically from the laws of percufiion in bodies per¬
fectly elaftic. The axiom therefore holds good in
every cafe of reflection, whether it be from plane fur-
faces or fpherical ones, and that whether they are
convex or concave; and hence the feven following pro-
pofitions relating to the reflection of light from plane
and fpherical furfaces may be deduced.
I. Rays of light reflected from a plane furface have
the fame degree of inclination to one another that
their refpetive incident ones have.— For the angle of
refieftion of each ray being equal to that of its refpec-
tive incident one, it is evident, that each reflected
ray will have the fame degree of inclination to that
portion of the furface from whence it is reflefted that
its incident one lias: but it is here fuppofed, that all
thofe portions of furface from whence the rays are re¬
flefted, are fituated in the fame plain; confequently the
reflefted rays will have the fame degree of inclination
to each other that their incident ones have, from what¬
ever part of the furface they are reflefted.
II. Parallel rays reflefted from a concave furface
are rendered converging.—To illuftrate this, let AF,
CD, EB, (fig. 1.) reprefent three parallel rays Hate
falling upon the concave furface FI3, whofe centre is CCCl.lX.
C. To the points F and B draw the lines CF, CB; y
thefe being drawn from the centre, will be perpendi-
rular to the furface at thofe points. The incident ray from a con-
CD alfo palling through the centre, will be perpe-ndi- cavc far-
cular to the furface, and therefore will return after re-*ace’
fleftion in the fame line ; but the oblique rays AF
Q_ q 2 and
30S
Laws of
Refle&ion
O P T
and EB will be refle&ed Into tbe-lines FM and BM,
fituated on ihe contrary fide of their refpe&ive per¬
pendiculars CF and CB. They will therefore proceed
converging after refk&ion towards fome point, as M,
in the line CD.
III. Converging rays falling on the like furface,
are made to converge more.--For, every thing re¬
maining as above, let GF, HB, be the incident rays.
Now, becaufe thefe rays have larger angles of inci¬
dence than the parallel ones AF and EB in the fore¬
going cafe, their angles of refle6tion will alfo be larger
than thofe of the others; they will therefore converge
after refle&ion, fuppofe in the lines FN and BN, ha¬
ving their point of concourfe N farther fro'a the point
C than M, that to which the parallel rays AF and EB
converged to in the foregoing cafe ; and their pre-
cife degree of convergency will be greater than that
wherein they converged before reflexion.
IV. Diverging rays falling upon the like furface,
are, after reflexion, parallel, diverging, or converging.
Jf they diverge from the focus of parallel rays, they
then become parallel; if from a point nearer to the
furface than that, they will diverge, but in a fefs de¬
gree than before refledlion ; if from a point between
that and the centre, they will converge r*'cr reflec¬
tion, and that to foine point on the contrary fide of
the centre, but fituated farther from it than the point
from which they diverged. If the incident ravs di¬
verge from a point beyond the centre, the refleftcd
ones will converge to one on the other fide of it, but
nearer to it than the point they diverged from ; and
if they diverge from the centre, they will be reflected
thither again.
1. Let them diverge in the lines MF, MB, pro¬
ceeding from M, the focus of parallel rays ; then, as
the parallel rays AF and EB were refledfed into the
lines FM and BM (by Prop. II.), thefe rays will now
on the contrary be reflected into them.
2. Let them diverge from N, a point nearer to the
furface than the focus of parallel rays, they will then
be refleded into the diverging lines EG and BH
which the incident rays GF and HB defcribed that
were (hewn to be refleded into them in the fore¬
going propofition ; but the degree wherein they di¬
verge will be lefs than that wherein they diverged be¬
fore refled ion.
3. Let them proceed diverging from X, a point be¬
tween the focus of parallel rays and the centre ; they
then make lefs angles of incidence than the rays MF
and MB, which became parallel by refledion : they
will confequently have lefs angles of refledion, and
proceed therefore converging towards fome point, as
Y; which point will always fall on the Contrary fide
of the centre, becaufe a refleded ray always falls on
the contrary fide of the perpendicular with refped
to that on which its incident one falls ; and of con-
fequence it will be farther diftant from the centre
than X.
4. If the incident ones diverge from Y, they will,
after refledion, converge to X ; thofe which were the
incident rays in the former cafe being the refleded
ones in this. And laftly,
5. If the incident rays proceed from the centre,
they fall in with their refpedive perpendiculars; and
for that reafon are refleded thither again.
I C -S. PartT.
V. Parallel] rays refleded from a convex furface Laws of
are rendered diverging.—For, let AB, GD, EF, R-efle<a:<>n-i
(fig. 2.) be three parallel rays falling upon the con- "p,"ue ' *
vex furface BF, whofe centre of convexity is C, and CCCLIX.
let one of them, viz. GD, be perpendicular to the 184
furface. Through B, D, and F, the points of reflec-Froipafcon'
tion, draw the lines CV, CG, and CT ; which, be-vex u”AUi*
caufe they pafs through the centre, will be perpendi¬
cular to the furface at thefe points. The incident
ray GD being perpendicular to the furface, will re¬
turn after refledion in the fame line, but the oblique
ones AB and EF in the lines BK and FL, fituated on
the contrary fide of their refpedive perpendiculars BV
and FT. They will therefore diverge, after reflec¬
tion, as from fome point M in the line GD produced
and this point will be in the middle between D
and C.
VI. Diverging rays refleded from the like furface
are rendered more diverging—For, every thing re¬
maining as above, let GB, GF, be the incident rays.
Thefe having larger angles of incidence than the pa-^
rallel ones AB and EF in the preceding cafe, their
angles of refledion will alfo be larger than theirs :
they will therefore diverge after refledion, fuppofe in
the lines BP and FQ^ as from fome point N, farther
from C than the point M ; and the degree wherdin
they will diverge will be greater than that wherein
they diverged before refledion.
VII. Converging rays refleded from the like fur¬
face, are parallel, converging, or diverging. If they
tend towards the focus of parallel rays, they then be¬
come parallel ; if to a point nearer the furface than
that, they converge, but in a lefs degree than before
refledion ; if to a point between that and the centre,
they will diverge after refledion, as from fome point
on the contrary fide of the centre, but fituated far¬
ther from it than the point they converged to : if the
incident rays converge to a point beyond the centre,
the refleded ones will diverge as from one on the con¬
trary iide of it, but nearer to it than the point to
which the incident ones converged ; and if the inci¬
dent rays converge towards the centre, the refleded
ones will proceed as from thence.
x. Let them converge in the lines KB and LF,
tending towards M, the focus of parallel rays ; then,
as the parallel rays AB, EF were refleded into the
lines BK and FL (by Prop. V.), thofe rays will now
on the contrary be refleded into them
2. Let them converge in the lines PB, QF, tending
towards N a point nearer the furface than the focus of
parallel rays, they wull then be refleded into the con¬
verging lines BG and FG, in which the rays GB, GF
proceeded that were fhown to be refleded into them by
the laft propofition : but the degree wherein they will
converge will be lefs than that wherein they converged
before refledion.
3. Let them converge in the lines RB and pro-*
ceeding towards X, a point between the focus of pa¬
rallel rays and the centre: their angles of incidence
will then be lefs than thofe of the rays KB and LF,
which became parallel after refledion : their angles of
refledion will therefore be lefs ; on which account
they muft neceflarily diverge, fuppofe in the lines
BH and FI, from fome point, as Y ; which point
(by Prep. IV.) will fall on the contrary fide of the
centre
Part 1.
Laws of
Reflexion.
OPT
centre with refpea to X, and will be farther from it
c s.
verge, the focus of the reflefled rays will be at the fame ^^
than that. v
4. If the incident rays tend towards. 1,
the reflec-
ted ones will diverge as from X; thofewhrchwere the m-
cident ones in one cafe being the refkaed ones in .he
0tlier Laftly, if the incident rays converge towards.the
centre, they fall in with their
lars; on which account they proceed after reflection
as from the centre. ^ t , . . , .prp
We have already obferved, that in fome cafes there
is a very great reflection from the fecond furface ot a
tranfparent body. The degree of inclination neceffary
to caufe a total reflection of a ray at the fecond fur-
face of a medium, is that which requires that the re-
frafted angle (fuppofing the ray to pals out there)
fhould be equal to or greater than a right one ; and
confequently it depends on the refraftive power of the
medium through which the ray paff.s, and is there¬
fore diff rent in different media. When a ray palfes
through glafs furrounded with air, and is inclined to
its fecond furface under an angle of 42 degrees or
more, it will be wholly reflefted there. For, as 11 is
to 17 (the ratio of refraftion out of glafs into air), fo
is the line of an angle of 42 degrees to a fourth num¬
ber that will exceed the fine of a right angle. I'rom
hence it follows, that when a ray of light arrives at
the fecond furface of a tranfparent fubitance with as
great or a greater degree-of obliquity than that which
is neceffary to make a total reflcftion, it will there be
all returned back to the firft : and if it proceeds to¬
wards that with as great an obliquity as it did towards
the other (which it will do if the furfaces of the me-
dium be parallel to each other), it will there be all re¬
flefted again, &c. and will therefore never get out
but oafs from fide to fide, till it be wholly fuffocated
and loll within the body.—From hence may ar.fe an
obvious inquiry, how it comes to pafs, that light tail¬
ing very obliquely upon a glafs window from without,
fhould be tranfmitted into the room. In anfwer to this
it mull be confidered, that however obliquely a ray
falls upon the furface of any medium whofe fades are
parallel (as thofe of the glafs in a window are), it will
fuffer fuch a degree of refraftion in entering there,
that it (hall fall upon the fecond v/ith a lefs obliquity
than that which is neceffary to caufe a total reflection.
For intlance, let the medium be glals, as fuppofed in
the prefent cafe 1 then, as 17 is to 11 (the ratio ot
refraftion out of air into glafs), fo is the fine of the
largeft angle of incidence with \yhich a tay can fall
upon any furface to the fine of a lefs angle than that of
total refleftion. And therefore, if the fides of the glafs
be parallel, the obliquity with which a ray falls upon
the firft furface, cannot be fo great, but that it (hall
pafs the fecond without fuffering a total reflection there.
When light paffes out of a denfer into a rarer me¬
dium, the nearer the fecond medium approaches the
firft in denfity (or more properly in its refraftive
power), the lefs of it will be refraMed in paffing from
one to the other ; and when their refracting powers are
equal, all of it will pafs into the fecond medium,
ine re- The above propofitions mav be all mathematically
ding pivpo-demonftrated in the foftowing manner,
fition* de- pROP J. Of the reflection of rays from a plane fur-
xn«nftrated c
nuuheiuati- C
tally.
Plate
18 5
The prece
“ When rays fall upon a plane furface, if they di-
diftance behind the furface, that the radiant point is be- ^
fore it: if they converge, it will be at the fame diftance
before the furface that the imaginary focus of the in¬
cident rays is behind it.”
'J his propofition admits of two cafes.
Case 1. Of diverging rays.
Dem. Let AB, AC, (fig. 3-) be two Merging y
rays incident on the plain furface DE, the one perpen¬
dicularly, the other obliquely : the perpendicular one
AB will he reflefted to A, proceeding as from fome
point in the line AB produced ; the oblique one AC
will be refleftcd into fome line as CF, fuch that the
point G, where the line F G produced interfefts the
line AB produced alfo, {hall be at an equal diftance
from the furface DE with the radiant A. For the
perpendicular CH being drawn, AC H and HCF will
be the angles ^ incidence and refleftion ; which being
equal, their complements ACB and FCE are fo too:
but the angle BCG is equal to FCE, as being vertical
to it: therefore in the triangles ABC and GbC the
angles at C are equal, the fide BC is common, and
the angles at B are alfo equal to each other, as being
right ones ; therefore the lines AB and BG, which
refpeft the equal angles at C, are alfo equal ; and con¬
fequently the point G, the focus of the incident rays
AB, AC, is at the fame diftance behind the furface,
that the point A is before it. £>. A. D.
Case 2. Of converging rays.
This is the coaverfe of the former cafe. For fuppo-
fing FC and AB to be two converging incident rays,,
CA and BA will be the reflefted ones (the angles of in¬
cidence in the former cafe being now the angles of re¬
fleftion, and vice verja), having the point A tor their
focus ; but this, from what was demonftrated above,
is at an equal diftance from the reflefting furface with
the point G, which in this cafe is the imaginary focus
of the incident rays FC and AB..
Obs. It is not here, as in the refraftion of rays *
in paffing through a plane furface> where fome of the
refracted rays proceed as from one paint, and fome as
from another : but they all proceed after refleftion as
from one and the fame point, however obliquely they
may fall upon the furface ; for what is here demonftra¬
ted of the ray AC holds equally of any,other, as AI, ,
AK’ i r r
The cafe of parallel rays incident on a plane lurface
is included in this propofition : for iiv that cale we aie
to fuppofe the radiant to be at an infinite diftance from
the fuvface, and then by the propofition the focus of
the rtflefted rays will be fo too ; that is, the rays will
be parallel after refleftion, as they were before.^
Prop. II. Of the refleftion of parallel rays from a
fpherical furface.
“ When parallel rays are incident upon a fpherical
furface, the tocus of the reflefted rays will be the
middle point between the centre of convexity and the
furface.”
This propofition admits of two cafes.
Case 1. Of parallel rays falling upon a convex
furface.
Dem.- Let AB, DH, (fig. 4.) reprefent two pa¬
rallel rays incident on the convex lurface BH, the one
perpendicularly,the other obliquely; and let C be the
centre of convexity; fuppofe FIE to be the reflefted ray.
of the oblique incident one DH proceeding as front F,
a.
3 k> OPT
Laws of r point in the line AB produceJ. Through the point
Reflection, ,jraw the line Cl, which will be perpendicular to
'r the furface at that point ; and the angles DHI and
IHE, being the angles of incidence and reflection, will
be equal. To the former of thefe, the angle HCF is
equal, the lines AC and DH being parallel; and to the
latter the angleCHF, as being vertical; wherefore the
triangle CFH is ifofceles, and confequently the Tides
CF and FH are equal: but fuppofing BH to vanifli,
FH is equal to FB ; and therefore upon this fuppofi-
tion FC and FB are equal, that is, the focus of the re-
flefted rays is the middle point between the centre of
convexity and the furface. <9. E. D.
Case 2. Of parallel rays falling upon a concave fur¬
face.
Kate Dem. Let AB, DH, (fig. 5.) be two parallel
GCCLlX. rays incident, the one perpendicularly, the other ob¬
liquely, on the concave furface BH, whofe centre of
concavity is C. Let BF and HF be the reflefted rays
meeting each other in F; this will be the middle point
between B and C. For drawing through C the per¬
pendicular CH, the angles DHC and FHC, being
the angles of incidence and refledfion, will be equal,
to the former of which the angle HCF is equal, as al¬
ternate ; and therefore the triangle CFH is ifofceles.
Wherefore CF and FH are equal: but if we fuppofe
BH to vanifli, FB and FH are alfo equal, and there¬
fore CF is equal to FB ; that is, the focal diftance of
the refledted rays is the middle point between the cen¬
tre and the furface. E. D.
Obs. It is here obfervable, that the farther the
line DH, either in fig. 4. or 5. is taken from AB,
the nearer the point F falls to the furface. For the
farther the point H recedes from B, the larger the
triangle CFH will become ; and confequently, fince
it is always an ifofceles one, and the bafe CH, being
the radius, is everywhere of the fame length, the equal
legs CF and FH will lengthen ; but CF cannot grow
longer iinlefs the point F approach towards the fur¬
face. And the farther H is removed from B, the
fafter F approaches to it.
This is the reafon, that whenever parallel rays are
conhdered as refledled from a fpherical furface, the
diUance of the oohque one from the perpendicular one
■is taken fo fmall with rcfpedf to the focal diftance of
tnat furface, that without any phyfical error it may be
^ fuppofed to vanifli.
Rcfleifled 1‘>0^ hence it follows, that if a number of parallel
lays from ^ays> as AB, CD, EG-, &c. fall upon a convex fur-
a Ipherical face, (as fig. 6.) and if BA, DK, the refledted rays of
vernro^i" ones CD, proceed as from the point
from the of the incident ones CD, EG, viz.DK, GL,
4ame point VV1^ proceed as from N, thole of the incident ones EG,
III, as from O, &c. becaufe the farther the incident
ones CD, EG, &c. are from AB, the nearer to the
furface are the points F,/,/, in the line BF, from
which they proceed after refledfion; fo that properly
the foci of the refledted rays BA, DK, GL, 5:c. are
not m the line AB produced, but in . curve line paf-
fmg through the points F, N, O, &e.
f he fame is applicable to the cafe of parallel rays
refledted from a concave furface, as expreffed by the
PO Rilnnn°rnthe ?ther halfof the where
1,V» are the incident rays; OF, Sf. Vf
tuc refledted ones, mterfeding each other in the points
^ G S. Parti,
X, Y, and F ; fo that the foci of thofe rays are not Laws of
in the line FB, but in a curve paffing through thofe Rx^c<^:ioa'
points
187
Had the furface BH in fig. 4. or 5. been formed by Ra%s
the revolution of a parabola about its axis having its ceedm^™"
focus in the point F, all the rays refledted from the from oue
convex furface would have proceeded as from the point P°‘nt a,|d
F, and thofe refledted from the concave would have a
fallen upon it, however diftant their incident ones concave^
AB, DH, might have been from each other. For inlurface are
the parabola, all lines drawn parallel to the axis makeailre®e^£(l
angles with the tangents to the points where they cut^ om.0116
the parabola (that is, with the furface of the parabo-P°m ‘
la) equal to thofe which are made with the fame tan¬
gents by lines drawn from thence to the focus; there¬
fore, if the incident rays deferibe thofe parallel lines,
the refledted ones will neceflarily deferibe thefe other,
and fo will all proceed as from, or meet in, the fame
point.
Prop. III. Of the refledtion of diverging and con-
verging rays from a fpherical furface. iS«
“ When rays fall upon any fpherical furface, if they prof,or-
diverge, the diilance of the focus of the refledted rays tional df.
from the furface is to the diflance of the radiant pointftaace of
from the fame (or, if they converge, to that of the^’sf”^"f
imaginary focus of the indident rays), as the diftance S from a*
of the focus of the refledted rays from the centre is to fpherkal
the diltance of the radiant point (or imaginary focus^uri"aC€‘
of the incident rays) from the fame.”
This propofition admits of ten cafes.
Case i. Of diverging rays falling upon a convex
furface.
Dem. Let RB, RD (fig. 7.) reprefent two di-
verging rays flowing from the point R as from a ra¬
diant, and tailing the one perpendicularly, the other
obliquely, on the convex furface BD, whofe centre is
C. Let DE be the refledted ray of the incident one
RD, produce ED to F, and through R draw the line
RH parallel to FE till it meets CD produced in H.
Then will the angle RHD be equal to EDH the angle
of refledtion, as being alternate to it, and therefore
equal alfo to RDH which is the angle of incidence ;
wherefore the triangle DRH is ifofceles, and confe¬
quently DR is equal to RH. Now the Hues ED and
RH being parallel, the triangles FDC and RPIC are
fimilar, (or, to exprefs it in Euclid’s way, the fides of
the triangle RHC are cut proportionably, 2 Elem. 6.),:
and therefore FD is to RH, or its equal RD, as CF
to CR4 but BD vanifiling, FD and RD differ not
from FB and RB: wherefore FB is to RB alfo, as
Cl' to CR; that is, the diflance of the focus from the
furface is to the diilance of the radiant point from the
fame, as the diftance of the focus from the centre
is to the diftance of the radiant from thence. 5>.
E. D.
Case 2. Of converging rays falling upon a concave
furface.
Dem. Let KD and CB be the converging inci¬
dent rays having their imaginary focus in the point R,
winch was the radiant in the foregoing cafe. Then
as RD was in that cafe refledled into DE, KD will
in this be refledled into DF; for, fince the angles of
incidence in both cafes are equal, as they are by being
vertical, the angles of refledlion will be fo too ; fo
that F will be the focus of the refledted rays : but it
5 -was
Laws of
Rcfledion.
Parti. 0 p T
was there demondrated, that FB is to RB as CF to
CR; that is, the diilance of the focus from the fur-
face is to the dittance (in this Ca(e) of the ima¬
ginary focus of the incident rays, as the diitance of
the fo;:us from the centre is to the diitance of the ima¬
ginary focus of the incident rays from the fame. ^
E D.
Case 3. Of converging rays falling upon a con¬
vex furface, and tending to a point between the focus
of parallel rays and the centre.
rlate Dem. Let BD (fig. 8.) reprefent a convex furface
«CCL1X. whofe centre is C, and whofe focus of parallel rays is
P; and let AB, KD, he two converging rays inci¬
dent upon it, and having their imaginary focus at R,
a point between P and C. Now becaufe KD tends
to a point between the focus of parallel rays and the
centre, the refleAed ray DE will diverge from fome
point on the other fide the centre, fuppofe F; as ex
plained above (p. 308.) under prop. 7. Through D
draw the perpendicular CD. and produce it to H; then
will KDH and HDE be the angles of incidence and
refle&ion, which being equal, their vertical ones RDC
and CDF will be fo too, and therefore the vertex of
the triangle RDF is bifeAed by the line DC: where¬
fore (3 El. 6.) FD and DR, or, BD vanishing, FB
and BR are to each other as FC to CR ; that is, the
diftance of the focus of the retteAed rays is to that of
the imaginary focus of the incident ones, as the di¬
ftance of the "former from the centre is to the uiftance
of the latter from the fame. ^ E. D.
Case 4. Of diverging rays falling upon a concave
furface, and proceeding from a point between the fo¬
cus of parallel rays and the centre.
Dem. Let RB, RD, (fig. 8.) be the diverging rays
incident upon the concave furface BD, having their
radiant point in the point R, the imaginary focus of
the incident rays in the foregoing cafe. Then as
KD was in that cafe refleAed into DE, RD will
now be refieAtd into DF. But it was there demon-
ftrated, that FB and RB are to each other as CF to
CR ; that is, the diftance of the focus is to that of
the radiant as the diftance of the former from the
centre is to the diftance of the latter from the fame.'
4b E. D. '
The angles of incidence and refleAion being equal,
it is evident, that if, in any cafe, the refleAed ray be
made the incident one, the incident will become the
rtfkAed one ; and therefore the four following cafes
may be conlidered refpeAively as the converfe of the
four foregoing ; for in each of them the incident rays
are fuppofed to coinc.de with the refleAed ones in the
other. Or they may be demonftrated independently
©f them as follows.
Case 5. Of converging rays falling upon a convex
furface, and tending to a point nearer the furiace than
tlie* focus of parallel rays.
Dem. Let ED, RB (fig 7 ) be the converging
rays incident upon the convex furface BD whole
centre is C, and focus of parallel rays is P ; and let
the imaginary focus of the in Lent rays be at F, a
point between P and B ; and let DR be the refleAed
ray From C and R draw the lines CH, RH, the
one pafiing through D, the other parallel to FE.
Then will the angle RHD be equal to HDE the
angle of incidence^ as alternate to it j and therefore
I c s.
311
equal to HDR, the angle of refleAion: wherefore
the triangle HDR is ifofceles, and coniequently DR
is equal to RIT. Now the lines FD and RH being
parallel, the triangles FDC and RHC are fimilar;
and therefore RH, or RD, is to FD as CR to Cb :
but BD vanishing, RD and FD coincide with RB
and FB, wherefore RB is to FB as CR to CF; that
is, the diftance of the focus from the furface is to the
diftance of the imaginary focus of the incident rays,
as the diftance of the focus from the centre is to the
diftance of the imaginary focus of the incident rays
from the fame. 4b E. D-
Case 6. Of diverging rays falling upon a concave
furface, and proceeding from a point between the fo¬
cus of parallel rays and the furface.
Dem. Let FD and FB reprefent two diverging rays
flowing from the point F as a radiant, which was the
imaginary focus of the incident rays in the foregoing
cafe. Then as ED was in that cafe refleAed into DR,
FD will be refitAed into DK (for the reafon men¬
tioned in Cafe 2.), fo that the refleAed ray will pro¬
ceed as from the point R : but it was demonftrated in
the cafe immediately foregoing, that RB is to FB as
CR to CF ; that is, the diftance of the focus from the
furface is to that of the radiant from the fame, as the
diftance of the former from the centre is 10 that of the
latter from the fame. £KE.D.
Case 7. Of converging rays falling upon a convex
furface, and tending towards a point beyond the
centre.
Laws of
Reftedtion.
Dem. Let AB, ED (fig. 8.) be the incident rays
tending to F, a point beyond the centre C, and let
DK be the refleAed ray of the incident one ED.
Then becaufe the incident ray ED tends to a point
beyond the centre, the refleAed ray DK will proceed
as from one on the contrary fide, fuppofe R; as ex¬
plained above under Prop. V1L Ihrough D draw
the perpendicular CD, and produce it to H. Then will
EDH aad HDK.be the angles of incidence and re¬
fleAion , which being equal, their vertical ones CDF
and CDR will be fo too : coniequently the vertex of
the triangle FDR is bifeAed by the line CD: where¬
fore, RD is to DF, or (3 Elem. 6.) BD vanifhing,
RB is to BF as RC 10 CF; that is, the diftance of the
focus of the refleAed rays is to that of the imaginary-
focus of the incident rays, as the diftance ©f the former
from the centre is to the diftance ot the latter from the
fame. 4L E. D.
Case 8. Of diverging rays falling upon a concave
furiace, and proceeding from a point bey ond the cen¬
tre
Dem. Let FB, FD, be the incident rays having
their radiant in F, the imaginary focus of the incident
rays in the foregoing cafe. Then as ED was in that
cafe refleAed into DK, FD will now be refleAed into
DRj.fo that R will be the focus of the refleAed rays.
But it was demonftrated in the foregoing cafe, that
RB is to FB as RC to CF.; that is, the diftance of
tae focus of the refleAed rays from the furface is to
the diftance of the radiant from the fame, as the di¬
ftance of the focus of the reflected rays from the cen¬
tre is to the diftauce of the radiant from thence.
E. D.
The two remaining cafes m:.y be confidered as the
converfe of tnofe under Prop. il. (p.30^,3,o.j,becaufe
the
Plate
CCCLIX.
312 o P T
Laws nf the incident rays in thefe are the refledled ones in them;
'Reflection. or t]1Cy m3y demonftrated in the fame manner with
1" v the foregoing, as follows.
Cask 9. Converging rays falling upon a convex fur-
face, and tending to the focus of parallel rays, become
parallel after reflection.
Df.m. Let El), RB (fig. 7.), reprefent two con-
■verging rays incident on the convex furface BD, and
tending towards F, which we wall now fuppofe to he
the focus of parallel rays ; and let DR be the reflect¬
ed ray, and C the centre of convexity of the reflecting
"furface. Through C draw the line CD, and produce
it to H, drawing RH parallel to ED produced to F.
Now it has been demonftrated (Cafe ;. where the in¬
cident rays are fuppofed to tend to the point Fj, that
RB is to FB as RC to CF ; but F in this Cafe being
fuppofed to be the focus of parallel rays, it is the
middle point between C and B (by Prop. II.), and
therefore FB and FC are equal; and confequently the
two other terms in the proportion, u/'z RB and RC,
muft be fo too; which can only be upon thefuppofition
that R is at an infinite diftance from B ; that is,
that the reflected rays BR and DR be parallel, jp.
ED.
Case io- Diverging rays falling upon a concave
furface, and proceeding from ihe focus of parallel rays,
become parallel after reflection.
D em. Let RD, RB (fig. 8.), be two diverging
rays incident upon the concave furface BD, as fuppo¬
fed in Cafe 4. where it was demonftrated that FB is
to RB as CF to CR. But in the prefent cafe RB and
CR are equal, becaufe R is fuppofed to be the focus
of parallel rays ; therefore FB and FC are fo too :
which cannot be unlefs F be taken at an infinite di-
Itance from B ; that is, unlefs the reflected rays BF
and DF be parallel. S^E. D.
Obs. It is here obfervable, that in the cafe of di-
verging rays falling upon a convex furface (lee fig. 7.),
the farther the point D is taken from B, the nearer
the point F, the focus of the reflected rays, approaches
to B, while the radiant R remains the fame. For it
is evident from the curvature of a circle, that the point
D (fig. 9.) may be taken fo far from B, that the re¬
flected ray DE fliall proceed as from F, G, H, or
even from B, or from any point between B and R;
and the farther it is taken from B, the fafter the point
from which it proceeds approaches towards R: as
will eafily appear if we draw feveral incident rays with
their refpeftive reflected ones, in fuch manner that
the angles of reflection may be all equal to their re-
fpeCtive angles of incidence, as is done in the figure.
The like is applicable to any of the other cafes of di-
verging or converging rays incident upon a fpherical
furface. This is the reafon, that when rays are
confidered as reflected from a fpherical furface, the
diftance of the oblique rays from the perpendicular one
that it may be fuppofed to va-
From hence it follow-s, that if a number of diver-
ging ra) s are incident upon the convex furface BD at
the feveral points it, D, D, &c. they fhall net pro¬
ceed after reflection as from any point in the line RB
produced,_ but as from a curve line palling through the
fevc-n ! p„,„ts F /, /; &c. The fair<. u ap licable in
all the other cafes.
N° 248.
£ G S. PartT.
Had the curvature BD (fig. 7.) been hyperboli- Laws of
cal, having its foci in R and F ; then R being the ra. Reiie&ion,
diant (or the imaginary focus of incident rays), F * J
would have been the focus of the reflected ones, and
'vice verf/j) however diftant the points B and D might
be taken from each other. In like manner, had the
curve BD (fig. 8.) been elliptical, having its foci in
F and R, the one of thefe being made the radiant (or
imaginary focus ©f incident rays), the other would
have been the focus of reflected ones, and vice verfa.
For both in the hyperbola and ellipfis, lines drawn
from each of their foci through any point make equal
angles with the tangent to that point. Therefore, if
the incident rays proceed to or from one of their foci,
the reflected ones will all proceed as from or to the
other. So that, in order that diverging or converging
rays may be accurately refleCted to or from a point,
the reflecting furface muft be formed by the revolu¬
tion of an hyperbola about its longer axis, when the
incident rays are fuch, that their radiant or imaginary
focus of incident rays fhall fall on one fide the furface,
and the focus of the refleCted ones on the other: when
they are both to fall on the fame fide, it muft be form¬
ed by the revolution of an ellipjts about its longer axis.
However, upon account of the great facility with
which fpherical furfaces are formed in coraparifon of
that with which furfaces formed by the revolution of
any of the conic feCtions about their axes are made,
the latter are very rarely ufed. Add to this another
inconvenience, viz. that the foci of thefe curves being
mathematical points, it is but one point of the furface
of an objeCt that can be placed in any of them at a
time; fo that it is only in theory that furfaces formed
by the revolution of thefe curves about their axes ren¬
der reflection perfeCt. jpg
Now, becaufe the focal diftance of rays refleCted from Method of
a fpherical furface cannot be found by the analogy ^
laid down in the third propofition, without making jiance 0f
ufe of the quantity fought; we (hall here give an in-rays reflec*
flance whereby the method of doing it in all otherste^ hom»
will readily appear. face^1 ^
Prob. Let it be required to find the focal diftance
of diverging rays incident upon a convex furface, whofe
radius of convexity is 5 parts, and the diftance of the
radiant from the furface is 20.
Sol. Call the focal diftance fought x; then will the
diftance of the focus from the centre be 9—.v, and that
of the radiant from the fame 25* therefore by prop .3.
we have the following proportion, viz. * : 20 : : 5—■
x : 25 ; and multiplying extremes together and means
together, we have 25 100—20a:, which, after due
reduAion, gives x— l-£-r-
If in any cafe it fhould happen that the value of x
Ihould be a negative quantity, the focal point muft;
then be taken on the contrary fide of the furface to
that on which it was fuppofed that it would fall in
ftating the problem.
If letters inftead of figures had been made ufe of in
the foregoing folution, a general theorem might have
been raifed, to have determined the focal diftance of
refle&ed rays in all cafes whatever. See this done in
Suppl. to Gregory's Optics, 2d edit. p. I 12.
Becaufe it was, in the preceding fe&ion, obferved,
that different incident rays, though tending to or from
one point, would after refia&ion proceed to or from
6 different
Part T.
The Ap¬
pearance
of Bodies
li en by Re
fledtion.
Plate
CCCL1X
190
The ap-
yearance 1
ohjedf s 1 e
flefttd
from plar
Surfaces.
O P T
different points, a method there inferted of detcr-
rohiing the diftindt point which each feparate tay
entering a fpherical furface converges to, or diverges
from, after refraction : the fame has been obferved
here with regaid to rays reflected from a fpherical
furface ffeeObf. in Cafe 2. ami Cafe 10.) 13ut the
method of determining the diftindt point to or from
which any given incident ray proceeds after reflection,
is much more Ample. It is only neceffary to draw
the refkaed ray fuch, that the angle of reflection
may be equal to the angle of incidence, which will
determine the point it proceeds to or from in any cafe
whatever. >
<) 3. Of the appearance of Bodies feen by Light refected
from plane and fpherical Surfaces.
Whatever has been faid concerning the appear¬
ance of bodies feen by refraCted light through lenfes,
refpeCts alfo the appearance of bodies feen by reflec¬
tion. But befides thefe, there is one thing peculiar to
images by reflection, viz. that each point in the re-
prefentation of an objeCt, made by reflection appears
fituated fomewhere in an infinite right line that paffes
through its correfpondent point in the objeCt, and is
perpendicular to the reflecting furface.
The truth of this appears fufficiently from the pro-
pofitions formerly laid down : in each of which, rays
flowing from any radiant point, are fhown to proceed
after reflection to or from fome point in a line that
pafles through the faid radiant, and is perpendicular
to the reflecting furface. For inftance (fig. 1.), rays
, flowing from Y are collected in X, a point in the per¬
pendicular CD, which, being produced, pafTes through
Y : again (fig. 2.), rays flowing from G, proceed,
after reflection, as from N, a point in the perpendicu¬
lar CD, which, being produced, pafTes through G ;
and fo of the reft.
This obfervation, however, except where an objeCt
is feen by reflection from a plain furface, relates only
to thofe cafes where the reprefentation is made by
means of fuch rays as fall upon the reflecting furface
with a very fmall degree of obliquity ; becaufe fuch
as fall at a conllderable diftance from the perpendicu¬
lar, proceed not after reflection as from any point in
that perpendicular, but as from other points fituated
in a certain c urve, as hath already been explained ;
upon which account thefe J'ays are negleCted, as ma¬
king a confufed and deformed reprefentation. And
therefore it is to be remembered, that however the fi-
tuation of the eye with refpeCt to the objeCt and reflec¬
ting furface may be reprefented in the following fi¬
gures, it is to be fuppofed as fituated in fuch a man¬
ner with refpeCt to the objeCt, that rays flowing from
thence and entering it after reflection, may be fuch
on’y as fall with a very fmall degree of obliquity up¬
on the furface ; that is, the eye mu ft be fuppofed to
be placed almoft direCtly behind the objeCt, or be¬
tween it and the reflecting furface. The reafon why
it is not always fo placed, is only to avoid confufion
in the figures.
I. When an objeCt is feen by reflection from a plane
T furface, the image of it appears at the fame diftance
- behind the furface that the object is placed before it,
of the fame magnitude therewith, and direCtly oppo-
fite to it.
Vol. XIII. Part I.
ICS. .313
To explain this, let AB (fig. 10 ) reprefent an ob-The Ap-
jeCt feen by reflection from the plain furface SV; andP^*^
let the rays AF, AG, be fo inclined to the furface, feen by Re-
that they {hall enter an eye at H after reflection ; fle&Lon.
and let AE be perpendicular to the furface : theft, y-—’
by the obfervation juft mentioned, the point A will
appear in fome part of the line AE produced, fup-
pofe I ; that is, the oblique rays AF and AG will
proceed after reflection as from that point; and fur¬
ther, becaufe the reflected rays FH, GK, will have
the fame degree of inclination to one another that their
incident ones have, that point mutt neceffarily be at the
fame diftance from the furface that the point A is; the
reprefentation therefore of the point A will be at the
fame diftance behind the furface that the point itfelf
is before it, and direClly oppofite to it: confequently,
fince the like may be fhown of the point B, or of any
other, the whole image IM will appear at the fame
diftance behind the furface that the objeft is before it,
and direClly oppofite to it ; and beCaufe the lines AI,
BM, v/hich are perpendicular to the plain furface, are
for that reafon parallel to each other, it will alfo be of
the fame magnitude therewith. - ^ j^f
II. When an objeCt is feen by reflection from a con-From con»
vex furface, its image appears nearer to the furface, vex fur-
and lefs than the ohjedt. ^ccs > an,i
Let AB (Hg. 12.) reprefent the objeCt, SV a reflec¬
ting furface whofe centre of convexity is C : and let
the rays AF, AG, be fo inclined to the furface, that
after reflection therefrom, they fhall enter the eye tit
H : and let AE be perpendicular to the furface;
then will the oblique rays AF, AG, proceed after
reflection as from feme point in the line AE produced,
fuppofe from I ; which point, becaufe the reflected
rays will diverge more than the incident ones, muft be
nearer to the furface than the point A. And finee
the fame is alfo true of the rays which flow from B»
or any other point, the repvefenration IM will be near¬
er to the furface than the objeCt ; and becaufe it is
terminated by the perpendiculars AE and BF, which
incline to each other, as concurring at the centre, it
will alfo appear lefs.
III. When an objeCt is feen by reflection from arrorgco#,
concave furface, the reprefentation of it is various, both cave fur-
with regard to its magnitude and fituation, according faces.
as the dittance of the objeCt from the reflecting furface
is greater or lefs. e-
1. When the objeCt is nearer to the furface than its
focus of parallel rays, the image falls on the oppofite
fide of the furface, is more diftant from it, and larger
than the objeCt.
Thus, let AB (fig. 13.) be the objeCt, SV the re¬
flecting furface, F the focus of parallel rays, and 0
its centre. Through A and B, the extremities' of
the objeCt, draw the lines CE, CR, which will be
perpendicular to the furface ; and let the rays AR*
AG, be incident upon fuch points of it that they fhall
lie reflected into an eye at H. Now, bccaufe the ra¬
diant points A and B are neaier the furface than F
the focus of parallel rays, the reflected rays will di¬
verge, and will therefore proceed as from fome points
on the oppofite fide of the furface; which points, by the ♦
obfervation laid down at the beginning of this fedtion,
will be in the perpendiculars AE, BR, produced,
■fuppofe in I and M: but they will diverge in a lefs
R v degree
OPT
degree than their incident ones (fee the propofition
jult referred to) ; and therefore the faid points will
be farther from the furface than the points A and
B. The image therefore will be on the oppofite fide
from diffe- of the furface with refpeft to the ohjeft: it will be
rent Surfa- niore Jidant than it; and confequently being termi-
CtS' nated by the perpendiculars Cl and CM, it will alfo
be larger.
3H
't he Ap-
ptrarance
of Bodies
fcen By Ke
fleftion
2. When the objeft is placed in the focus of paral¬
lel rays, the refle&ed rays enter the eye parallel; in
which cafe the image ought to appear at an infinite di-
ilance behind the reflecting furface : but the repre-
fentation of it, for the like reafons that were given
in the foregoing cafe, being large and diftind, we
judge it not much farther from the furface than the
image.
3. When the objeft is placed between the focus of
parallel rays and the centre, the image falls on the
opposite fide of the centre, is larger than the object, and
in an inverted polition.
CC^l-dX ’Ihus let AB (fig. 14.) reprefent the objeCt, SV
^ J ' the reflecting furface, F its focus of parallel rays, and
C its centre. Through A and B, the extremities of
the objeCt, draw the lines CE and CN, which will be
perpendicular to the furface ; and let AR, AG, be a
. pencil of rays flowing from A. Thefe rays proceed¬
ing from a point beyond the focus of parallel rays, will
after reflection converge towards fome point on the
oppofite fide the centre, which will fall upon the per¬
pendicular EC produced, but at a greater diftance
from C than the radiant A from which they diverged.
For the fame reafon, rays flowing from B will con¬
verge to a point in the perpendicular NC produced,
which (hall be farther from C than the point B ; from
whence it is evident, that the image IM is larger than,
the objeCt AB, that it falls on the contrary fide the
centre, and that their pofitions are inverted with re-
fpeCl to each other.
4. If the objeCl be placed beyond the centre of con¬
vexity, the image is then formed between the centre
and the focus of parallel rays, is lefs than the objed^
and its pofition is inverted.
This propofition is the converfe of the foregoing:
for as in that cafe rays proceeding from A were re-
fleded to I, and from B to M; fo rays flowing from
I and M will be refleded to. A and B; if therefore an
objed be fuppofed to be fituaced beyond the centre in
IM, the image of it will be formed in AB between
that and the focus of parallel rays, will be lefs than the
objed, and iaverted.
5. If the middle of the objed be placed in the cen¬
tre of convexity of the refleding furface, the objed
and its image will be coincident; but the image will
be inverted with refped to the objed.
That the place of the image and the objed fliould
be the fame in this cafe needs little explication ; for
the middle of the objed being in the centre, rays
flowing from thence will fall perpendicularly upon
the furface, and therefore neceflarily return thither
again ; fo that the middle of the image will be coin¬
cident with the middle of the objed. But that the
image (hould be inverted is perhaps not fo clear. To
explain this, let AB (fig. 15.) be the objed, having
Us njidule point C in the centre of the refleding fur.
I C S. Fart I,,
face SV ; through the centre and the point II draw The Ap-
the line CR, which will be perpendicular to the re- r^arance
fleding furface ; join the points AR and BR, and let feen°b'en
AR reprefent a ray flowing from A ; this will be re-e'
fleded into RB : for C being the middle point be-from diffe-
tween A and B, the angles ARC and CRB are equal;rent Surfa.
and a ray from B will likewife be refleded to A ; andces' t ,
therefore the pofition of the image will be inverted v
with refped to that of the objed.
In this prepofition it is to be fuppofed, that the.
objed AB is fo fituated with refped to the refleding
furface, that the angle ACR may be right; for other-
wife the angles ARC and BRC will not be equal, and
part of the image will therefore fall upon the objed
and part off.
6. If in any of the three Lift cafes, in each of
which the image is formed on the fame fide of the reflec¬
ting furface with the objed, the eye be fituated far-,
ther from the furface than the place where the image,
falls, the rays of each pencil, crofiing each other in..
the feveral points of the image, will enter the eye as.
from a real objed fituated there ; fo that the image,
will appear pendulous in the air between the eye and
the refleding furface, and in the pofition wherein it
is formed, viz. inverted with refped to the objed, in
the fame manner that an image formed by refraded"
light appears to an. eye placed beyond ft; which waa
fully explained under Prop. IV. (p. 304.), and there¬
fore neesls not be repeated.
But as what relates to the appearance of the objed.
when the eye is placed nearer to the furface than the
image, was not there fully inquired into, that point
lhall now be more ftridly examined under the follow¬
ing cafe, which equally relates to refraded and refled¬
ed light.
7. If the eye be fituated between the refleding fur¬
face and the place of the image, the objed is then
feen beyond the furface; and the farther the eye re¬
cedes from the furface towards the place of the image,,
the more confufed, larger, and nearer, the objed ap¬
pears.
To explain this, let AB (fig. 16.) reprefent the ob¬
jed ; IM its image, one of whofe points M is formed,
by the concurrence of the refleded rays DM, EM, &c.
which before refledion came from B ; the other, I,
by the concurrence of DI, El, Sec. which came from
A : and let <z £ be the pupil of an eye, fituated be¬
tween the furface DP and the image. This pupil will
admit the rays Ha, K£,- which, becaufe they are.
tending towards I, are fuch as came from A, and,
therefore the point A will appear diffufed over the
fpace RS. In like manner the pupil will alfo receive
into it the, refleded rays K a and L £, which, becaufe
they are tending towards M, by fuppofition came from
B ; and therefore the point B will be feen fpread as it
were over the fpace TV, and the objed will feem to
fill the fpace RV; but the reprefentation of it will be
confufed, becaufe the intermediate points of the ob*
jed being equally enlarged in appearance, there will
not be room for them between the points S and T*
but they will coincide in part one with another : for
inftance, the appearance of that point in the objed,
whofe reprefentation falls upon c in the image, will fill
the fpace mns and fo of the reft. Now, if the fame
193
The ap¬
parent
face.
Part I. 0 p T
IV Ap- pupil be removed into the {ituntion e f, the reflected
peararce rayS £ j aru\ Q f VviU then enter the eye, and therefore
• one extremity of the ohjeft will appear to cover the
fleiftion C fpace XY ; and becaufe the rays 0/ and L e will al-
from difTc- fo enter it in their progrefs towards M, the point B,
rent ?ui fa- fj-piTj whence they came, wfll appear to cover ZV ;
the objeft therefore will appear larger and more con-
fufed than before. And when the eye recedes quite
to the image, it fees but one Angle point of the objeft,
and that appears diffufed all over the reflefting furface:
for inftance, if the eye recedes to the point M, then
rays flowing from'the point B enter it upon whatever
part of the furface they fall; and fd for the reft. The
objeft alfo appears nearer to the furface the farther the
eye recedes from it towards the place of the image; pro¬
bably becaufe, as the appearance of the objedt becomes
more and more confufed, its place is not fo eafily di-
ftinguifbed from that of the reflefting furface itfelf, till
at laft when it is quite confufed (as it is when the eye
is arrived at M) they both appear as one, the furfacc
afluming the colour of the objetft.
As to the precife apparent magnitude of an objedf
feen after this manner, it is fuch that the afigle it ap-
magnitude pears under fhall be equal to that which the image of
J'm n'l^'lc^ th6 fame object would appear under were we to fup-
fledtion P0^ it feen from the fame place: that is, the apparent
ft om a con- objedt (fen- fuch we muft call it to diftfnguifh it from
cavei'ur- the image of the fame objedt) and the image fubtend
equal angles at the eye.
Dlm. Here we muft fuppofe the pupil of the eye
to be a point only, becaufe the magnitude of that
caufes fmall alteration in the apparent magnitude of
the objedl ; as we ftiall fee by and by. Let then the
point a reprefent the pupil, then will the extreme rays
that can enter it be H a and K a; the objedt therefore
will appear under the angle HaK, which is equal to
its vertical one Ma i, under which the image 1M would
appear were it to be feen from a. Again, if the eye
be placed in the objedt appears under the angle
G/0 equal to which the image fubtends at
the fame place, and therefore the apparent objedf and
image of it fubtend equal angles at the eye.
£. D.
Now if we fuppofe the pupil to have any fenftble
magnitude, fuch, fuppofe, that its diameter may be ah;
then the objedl feen by the eye in that fituation will
appear under the angle HXL, which is larger than
the angle H a K, under which it appeared before; be¬
caufe the angle at X is nearer than the angle at a, to
the line IM, which is a fubtenfe common to them
both.
From this propofition it follows, that, were the
eye clofe to the furface at K, the real and apparent
objeft would be feen under equal angles (for the real
objedt appears from that place under the fame angle
that the image does, as will be fhown at the end of
this fedtion): therefore, when the eye is nearer to the
image than that point, the image will fubtend a ’arger
angle at it than the object does ; and confequently,
fince the image and apparent objedt fubtend equal
angles at the eye, the apparent objedt muft neceflarily
be feen under a larger angle than the objedt itfelf,
wherever the eye be placed, between the furface and
the image.
i g s. s’j;
As each point in the reprcfentritron of an objedt The A|>-
made by rdledtion is fttuated fomewhere in a right
line that pafl'es through its correfpondent point in the feen ^ Re_
objedt, and is perpendicular to the refledting furface, lle&ion
as was fhown in the beginning of this fedtion ; we may from diffc-
from hence deduce a molt eafy and expeditious method U1 9
of determining both the magnitude and lituation of ^ 1
the image in all cafes whatever. Thus,
Through the extremities of the objedt AB and the
centre C (fig. 17, 18, or 19.) draw the lines AC BC,
and produce them as the cafe requires; thefe lines v/ill ^ ^
be perpendicular to the refledting furface, and therefore
the extremities of the image will fall upon them.
Through F the middle point of the ohjedt and the
centre, draw the line FC, and produce it till it paffes
through the refledting furface ; this will alfo be per¬
pendicular to the furface. Through G, the point
where this line cuts the furface, draw the lines AG
and BG, and produce them this way or that, till they
crofs the former perpendiculars; and where theycrofs»
there I and M the extremities of the image will fall.
For fuppofing AG to be a ray proceeding from the
point A and falling upon G, it will be refledted to B ;
becaufe FA is equal to FB, and FG is perpendicular
to the refledting furface ; and therefore the reprefen-
tation of the point A will be in BG produced as well as
in AC; confequently it will fall on the point I, where
they crofs each other. Likewife the ray BG will for
the fame reafon he refledted to A ; and therefore the
reprefentation of the point B will be in AG produced,
as well as in fomc part of BC, that is, in M where
they crofs. From whence the propofition is clear.
If it happens that the lines will not crofs which
way foever they are produced, as in (fig. 20.), then
is the obje<& in the focus of parallel rays of that
furface, and has no image formed in any place what¬
ever. For in this cafe the rays AFI, AG, flowing
from the point A, become parallel after refledtion
in the lines HC, GB, and therefore do not flow as
to or from any point : in like manner, rays flowing
from B are refledted into the parallel lines KB and
GA ; fo that no reprefentation can be formed by fuch
refledtion.
From hence we learn another circumflance relating
to the magnitude of the image made by refledtion ;
viz. that it fubtends the fame angle at the vertex of
the refledting furface that the objedt does. This ap¬
pears by inlpedtion of the 17th, 18th, or 19th figure,
in each of which the angle IGM, which the image
fubtends at G the vertex of the refledting furface, is
equal to the angle AGB, which the objedt fub¬
tends at the fame place; for in the two firft of thofe
figures they are vertical, in the third they are the fame.
And,
Farther, the angle ICM, which the image fubtenda
at die centre, is alfo equal to the angle ACB which
the objedt fubtends at the fame place ; for in the two
firft figures they are the fame, in the laft they are ver¬
tical to each other.
From whence it is evident, that the objedt and its
image are to each other in diameter, either as their
refpedtive diftances from the vertex of the refiedting
furface, or as their diftances from the centre of the
fame.
Rr 2
3*6
i.ight c!i«-
ferently
rcfrangi-
Plate
C'CCLIX.
OPT
IV. As objcAs are multiplied by being feen thro’
tranfparent media, whofe furfaces are properly difpo-
fed, fo they may alfo by reflecting furfaces. Thus,
1. If two refle&ing furfaces be difpofed at right
angles, as the furfaces AB, BC, (fig. 2t.), an object
at D may be feen by an eye at E, after one reflection
at F, in the line EF produced ; after two reflections,
the firfl at G, the fecond at H, in the line EH pro¬
duced t and alfo, after one reflection made at A, in the
line EA produced.
2. If the furfaces be parallel, as AB, CD, (fig. 22.),
and the objeCl be placed at E and the eye at F, the
objeCt will appear multiplied an infinite number of
times : thus, it may be feen in the line FG produced,
after one reflection at G; in the line FH produced,
after two reflections, the fir ft at I, the fecond at H ;
and alfo in FP produced, after feveral fueceffive reflec¬
tions of the ray EL, at the points L, M, N, O, and P:
and fo on in infinitum. But the greater the number of
reflections are, the weaker their reprefentation will be.
Sect. IV. Of the different RefravgibUity of
Light.
As this property of light folves a great number of
the phenomena which could not be underftood by for¬
mer opticians, we fhall give an account of it in the
words of Sir Ifaac Nev/ton, who firfl difeovered it;
efpecially as his account is much more full, clear, and
perfpicuous, than thofe of fucceeding writers.
CrCLX a Ver? ^ark chamber, at a round hole F(fig. 1.),
about one third of an inch broad, made in the fhut of a
window, I placed a glafs prifm ABC, whereby the beam
of the fun’s light, SF, which came in at that hole,
rpight be'refraCled upwards, toward the oppofite wall
of the chamber, and there form a coloured image of
the fun, repreiented at PP. The axis of the prifm
(that is, the line palling through the middle of the
prifm, from one end of it to the other end, parallel
to the edge of the refrafting angle) was in this and
the following experiments peipendicular to the inci¬
dent rays. About this axis I turned the prifm flotvly,
and faw the refraded light on the wall, or coloured
image of the fun, firft to defeend, and then to afeend.
Between the defeent and afeent, when the image
feemed ftationary, 1 flopped the prifm and fixed it in
that pofture.
“ Then I let the refraCled light fall perpendicularly
npon a (beet of white paper, MN, placed at the op¬
pofite wall of the chamber, and obferved the figure and
dimenfions of the folar image, PP, formed on the pa¬
per by that light. This image was oblong, and not
oval, but terminated by two re&ilinear and parallel
fides and two femicircular ends. On its fidcs it was
bounded pretty diftintdy; but on its ends very confu-
fedly and indiftinCtly, the light there decaying and va-
iiifhing by degrees. At the diflance of 184 feet from
the priim theflireadth of the image was about 2-g- inches,
but its length was about 10^ inches, and the length of
its reAiiinear fides about eight inches ; and ACB, the
refra Aing angle of the prifm, whereby fo great a length
was ma e, was 64 degrees. With a lefs angle the
length of the image was lefs, the breadth remaining
the fame. It is farther to be obferved, that the rays
went on in flraight lines from the prifm to the image,
I C S, Part f,
and therefore at their going out of the prifm had all Light dif.
that inclination to one another from which the length^eremlv
of the image proceeded. This image PT was colour- £jgrangi’
cd, and the more eminent colours lay in this order from e' j
the bottom at T to the top at P ; red, orange, yel¬
low, green, blue, indigo, violet ; together with all
their intermediate degrees in a continual fucceffion
perpetually varying.”
Our author concludes from this experiment, and Light con-
many more to be mentioned hereafter, “ that the light,, f fe'
of the fun confifts of a mixture of feveral forts of co-
loured rays, fome of which at equal incidences are ray^difft-l
more refracted than others, and therefore are called rently re-
more refrangible. The red at T, being neareft to the frangible,
place Y, where the rays of the fun would go directly
if the prifrn was taken away, is the leaft refrafled of
all the rays ; and the orange, yellow, green, blue, in¬
digo, and violet, are continually more and more re-
fraifled, as they are more and more diverted from the
courfe of the direft light. For by mathematical rea-
foning he has proved, that when the prifm is fixed in
the pofture above-mentioned, fo that the place of
the image fhall be the loweft poffible, or at the limit
between its defeent and afeent, the figure of the image
ought then to be round like the foot at Y, if all the
rays that tended to it were equally refraefled. There¬
fore, feeing by experience it is found that this image
is not round, but about five times longer than broad,
it follows that all the rays are not equally refrafled..
And this conclufion is farther confirmed by the fol¬
lowing experiments.
“ In the fun-beam SF (fig. 2.), which was propagated
into the room thro’ the hole in the window-fhut EG,
at the diftance of fome feet from the hole, I held the
prifm ABC in fuch a pofture, that its axis might be
perpendicular to that beam: then I looked through the
priim upon the hole F, and turning the prifm to and
fro about its axis to make the image p t qS. the hole
afeend and defeend, when between its two contrary
motions it feemed flationary, I flopped the prifm; in
this fituation of the prifm, viewing through it the faid
hole F, I obferved the length of its refrafled image
/> # to be many times greater than its breadth; and
that the molt refrafled part thereof appeared violet at
p ; the leaft refrafled red, at / ; and the middle parts
indigo, blue, green, yellow, and orange, is order.
The fame thing happened when 1 removed the prifm
out of the fun’s light, and looked through it upon the
hole fhining by the light of the clouds beyond it. And
yet if the refraflions of all the rays were equal ac¬
cording to one certain proportion of the fines of in¬
cidence and refraflion, as is vulgarly fuppofed, the
refrafled image ought to have appeared round, by
the mathematical demonftration above-mentioned. So
then by thefe two experiments it appears, that in
equal incidences there is a confiderable inequality of
refraflions.”
For the difeovery of this fundamental property of’
light, which has opened the whole myftcry of co¬
lours, we fee our author was not only beholden to the
experiments themfelves, which many others had made
before him, but alfo to his fleill in geometry ; which
was abfolutely neceflary to determine what the figure
of the refrafled image ought to be upon the old prin¬
ciple of an equal refraflion of all the rays; hut ha-
& ving
part I.
Ugto dif¬
ferently
rdiangi-
b!c.
Plate
CCCLX.
TP5
■Refleiiled
fight diffc
ftntly re-
Irangible
OPT
vlng thuamde the difeovery, he contrived the follow¬
ing experiment to prove it at fight.
«£In the middle of two thin beards,DE ^(ng. 3.), i
made a round hole in each, at G and ^ a thud part
of an inch in diameter; and in the window-lnut a
much larger hole being made, at F, to let into my
darkened chamber a large beam of the fun s light, i
placed a prifm, ABC, behind the fhut in that beam,
to refraft it towards the oppofite wall; and dole be¬
hind this prifm I fixed one of the boards DE, in fuch
a manner that the middle of the refra&ed light might
pafs through the hole made in it at G, and the red be
intercepted by the board. Then at the diftance of
about 12 feet from the firlh board, 1 fixed the other
board, </e, in fuch manner that the middle of the re¬
fra&ed light, which came through the hole in the firfl
board, and fell upon the oppolite wall, might pafs
through the hole £ in this other board de, and the reft
being intercepted by the board, might paint upon it
the coloured fpe&rum of the fun. And clofe behind
this board 1 fixed another prifm a/A, to refraft the
light which came through the hole Then I returned
fpcedily to the firft prifm ABC, and by turning it
,1owly to and fro about its axis, 1 caufed the image
which fell upon the fecond board d e, to move up and
down upon that board, that all its parts might pafs
fuccefiively through the hole in that board, and fall
-upon the prifm behind it. And in the mean time 1
noted the places, M, N, on the oppofite wall, to which
that light after its refra&ion in the fecond prifm did
pafs; and by the difference of the places at A/and N,
I found that the light, which being moft refra&ed in
the firft prifm ABC, did go to the blue end of the
image, was again more refra&ed by the fecond prifm
mbc, than the light which went to the red end of that
image. For when the lower part of the light which
fell upon the fecond hoard <tr, was call through the
hole g, it went to a lower place M on the wall; and
when the higher part of that light was caft through
the fame hole g, it went to a higher place N on the
wall; and when any intermediate part of the light was
caft through that hole, it went to fome place in the
wall between M and N. 'The unchanged pofition of
the holes in the boards made the incidence of the rays
upon the fecond prifm to be the fame in all cafes. And
yet in that common incidence fome of the rays were
more refra&ed and others left : and thofe were more
refra&ed in this prifm, which by a greater refradion
in the firft prifm were more turned out of their way ;
and theiefore, for their conftancy of being mere refra&-
ed, are defervedly called more refrangible.*1
Our author {hows alfo, by experiments made with
convex glafs, that lights (Tefle&ed from natural bodies)
which differ in colour, differ alfio in degrees of refran-
gibility ; and that they differ in the fame manner as
the rays of the fun do.
“ The fun’s light confifts of rays differing in reflexi¬
bility* and thofe rays are more reflexible than others
which are more refrangible. A prifm, ABC (fig.4.),
whofe two anules, at its bafe BC, were equal to one an¬
other and half right ones, and the third at A a right
one, 1 placed in a beam FM of the fun’s light, let into
a dark chamber through a hole F one third part cf an
inch broad. And turning the prifm flowly about its
axis until the light which went through one of its
ICS. 3r7
angles ACB, and was refreaed by It to G and H, be-
gan to be refle&ed into the line ISiN by it* haie BC, refl.angi_
at which till then it went out of the glals ; I obiervedbie-
that thofe rays, as MH, which had fuffered the great-
eft refra&ion, were fooner refle&ed than the reft. 1. o
make it evident that the rays which vanifhed at PI
were reflefted into the beam MN, I made this beam
pafs through another prifm VXY, and being refract¬
ed by it to fall afterwards upon a fheet of white paper
p t placed at fome diftance behind it, and there by that
refra&ion to paint the ufual colours ztpt. Then
cauling the firft prifm to be turned about its axis ac¬
cording to the order of the letters ABC, I obferved,
that when thofe rays MH, which in this prifm nad
fuffered the greateft refra&ion, and appeared blue and
violet, began to be totally refle&ed, the blue and
violet light on the paper which was moft. refra&ed in
the fecond prifm received a fenfible increafe at/>, above
that of the red and yellow at t: and afterwards, when
the reft of the light, which was green, yellow, and
red, began to be totally refle&ed and vanifhed at G,
the light of thofe colours at t, on the paper p t, re¬
ceived as great an increafe as the violet and blue had
received before. Which puts it paft difpiue, that
thofe rays becarhe- firft of all totally refle&ed at the
bale BC, which before at equal incidences with the
reft upon the bafe BC had fuffered the greateft re-
fra&icn. 1 do not here take notice of any refrac¬
tions made m. the fides AC, AB, of the firft prifm,,
becaufe the light enters almoft perpendicularly at the
firft fide, and goes out almoft perpendicularly at the
fecond ; and therefore fuffers none, or fo little, that
the angles of incidence at the bafe BC are not fenfibly
altered by it ; efpecially if the angles of the prifm at
the bafe BC be each about 40 degsees. For the rays:
FM begin to be totally refle&ed when the angle CMF
is about 90 degrees, and therefore they will then
make a right angle of 90 degrees with AC.
“ It appears alfo from experiments, that the beam
of light MN, refle&ed by the bafe of the prifm, being
augmented firft by the more refrangible rays and
afterwards by the lefs refrangible, is compofed of raya
differently refrangible.
“ The light whofe rays are all alike refrangible, I call
jjmp/e, hoinogeneaf and Jimilar ; and that whofe rays are
fome more refrangible than others, I call compound,
heterogeneal; and dtftmilar. 1 he former light I call
homogeneal, not becanfe I would affirm it fo in all re-
fpe&s ; but becaufe the rays \yhich agree in refrangi-
bility agree at k-aft in all their other properties which
I confider in the following difeourfe.
“ The colours of homogeneal lights I call primary, Q0^rs
homogeneal, and Jimple; and thofe of heterogeneal lights, rimple r>r
heterogeneal and compound. For thefe are always com - compound
pounced of homogeneal lights, as will appear in the.
following difeourfe.
« The homogeneal light and rays which appear
red, or rather make obje&s appear fo, I call rulnjic
or red-making; thofe which make obje&s- appear
yellow, green, bine, and violet, I call yellow-making,
green making, blue-making, violet-making ; and fo of the
reft. And if at any time I fpeak of light and rays as
coloured or endowed with colours, I would be under-
flood to fpeak not philofophieally and properly, but
grofsly, and according to fuch conceptions as vulgar
neorle
ji8
i-itrht difffi
rently re-
iVantrjble.
0
T97
Why the
image of
the fun, by
heteroge-
reous rays
pafling
through a
j rifm, is
oblong.
Plate
CCCLX.
people in feeing all thefe experiments would be apt to
frame. Tor the rays, to fpeak properly, are not co¬
loured. In them there is nothing elfe than a certain
power and difpofition to ftir up a fenfation of this or
that colour. For as found, in a bell or mufical firing
or other founding body, is nothing but a trembling
motion, and in the air nothing but that motion pro¬
pagated from the objedl, and in the fenferium it is a
fenfe of that motion under the form of found ; fo co¬
lours in the objedl are nothing but a difpofition to re-
fietl this or that fort of rays more copioufly than the
reft . in rays they are nothing but their difpofitions to
piopagate this or that motion into the fenforium ; and
in the fenforium they are fenfations of tliofe motions
under the forms of colours. See Chromatics.
( hy the mathematical propofition above-mention¬
ed, it is certain that the rays which are equally re¬
frangible do fall upon a circle anfvvering to the fun’s
apparent dillc, which will alfo be proved by experiment
by and by. Now let AG ('fig. y.) reprefent the circle
which all the moft refrangible rays, propagated from
the whole difk of the fun, woudd illuminate and paint
upon the oppofite wall if they were alone ; EL the
circle, which all the leaft refrangilje rays would in like
manner illuminate if they were alone ; BH, Cl, DIC,
the circles which fo many intermediate forts would
paint upon the wall, if they were fingly propagated
from the fun in fucceffive order, the reft being inter¬
cepted ; and conceive that there are other circles with¬
out number, which innumerable other intermediate
forts of rays would fuccefiively paint upon the wall, if
the fun Ihould fucceffively emit every fort apart. And
feeing the fun emits all thefe forts at once, they muft
all together illuminate and paint innumerable equal
circles; of all which, being according to their degrees
of refrangibility placed in order in a continual feries,
that oblong fpeftrum P F is compofed, which was de-
fenbed in the firft experiment.
. N°w if thefe circles, whilft their centres keep
their diftances and pofitions, could be made lefsin dia¬
meter, their interfering one with another, and confe-
quently the mixture of the heterogeneous rays, would
be preportionably diminilhed. Let the circles AG,
BH, Cf, &c. remain as before ; and let ag, bh> ci, &c.
.e fo many lefs circles lying in a like continual feries,
between two parallel right lines ^ and ^/, with the
fame diftances between their centres, and illuminated
with the fame forts of rays : that is, the circle with
the fame fort by which the correfponding circle AG
was illuminated ; and the reft of the circles l> h, c i, dL
cl refpedhvely with the fame forts of ray is by which
the correfponding circles BH, CI, DK, EL, were il¬
luminated. In the figure PT, compofed of the great
circles, three «f thofe, AG, BH, CI, are fo expanded
into each other, that three forts of rays, by which thofe
circles are illuminated, together with innumerable other
ions of intermediate rays, are mixed at OR in the
midde of the circle BH. And the like mixtftre hap-
pens throughout almoft the whole length of the figure
A,1Y Vn - ?gUre P *' comPofed of the lefs circles,
ie iree e s circles/?^, bh, ci, which anfwer to thofe
three greater, d@ not extend into one another ; nor are
there anywhere mingled fo much as any two of the
rated ard °ti ‘^ 3 W!11'c^ t^°^e circles ate illumi¬
nated, and which in the figure PT are all of them in-
I C S. PhrtT,
termingled at QR- So then, if we would dim ini Hr the Light diflfe,
mixture of the rays, we are to diminilh the diametersrcnt‘y re
of the circles. Now thefe would be diminiftted if thefran^U,le-
fun’s diameter, to which they anfwer, could be made
lefj than it is, or (which comes to the fame purpofe)
if without doors, at a great diftance from the prifm
towards the fun, fome opaque body were placed with
a round hole in the middle of it to intercept all the
fun s light, e-xcept fo much as coming from the middle
of his body could pafs through that hole to the prifm.
For lo the circles AG, BH, and the reft, would not
any longer anfwer to the whole dilk of the fun, but
only to that part of it which could be feen from the
prifm through that hole ; that is, to the apparent mag¬
nitude of that hole viewed from the prifm. But that
thefe circles may anfwer more diftL&ly to that hole,
a lens is to be placed by the prifm to call the image
of the hole (that is, every one of the circles AG, BH,
See.) diftinaiy upon the paper at PT ; after fuch a
manner, as by a lens placed at a window the pictures
of obje&s abroad are call diftin&ly upon a paper with¬
in the room. It this be done, it will not beneceflary
to place that hole very far off, no not beyond the win-
dow. And therefore, inftead of that hole, I ufed the
hole in the window-fhut as follows.
in the fun s light let into my darkened chamber
through a fmall round hole in my window-fhut, at.
about to or 12 feet from the wfindow, 1 placed a lens
MN(fig. 6.), by which the image of the hole Fmight be
diftindly call upon a fheet of white paper placed at I.
1 hen immediately after the lens I placed a priftn
ABC, by which the trajeded light might be refrac¬
ted either upwards or fideways, and thereby the round
image which the lens alone did call up*n the paper at
I, might be drawn out into a long one with parallel
fides, as reprefented at p t. This oblong image 1 let
fall upon another paper at about the fame diftance
from the prifm as the image at I, moving the paper
either towards the prifm or from it, until I found the
juft diftance where the redilinear lides of the image
p t become moft diftind. For in this cafe the circular
images of the hole, which compofe that image, after
the manner that the circles ag, bh, ci, &c. do the
figure p t, were terminated moft diftindly, and there¬
fore extended into one another the leait that they could,
and by confequence the mixture of the heterogeneous
rays was now the leaft of all. The circles a g, bhy
ci, &c. which compofe the image//, are each equal
to the circle at I ; and therefore, by diminifhing the
hole F,. or by removing the lens farther from it, may
be dimimfhed at pleafure, whilft their centres keep
the fame diftances from each other. Thus, by dimi¬
nifhing the breadth of the image />/, the circles of he-
terogeneal rays that compofe it may be feparated from
each other as much as you pleafe. Yet inftead of the
circular hole F, it is better to fubftitute an oblong hole
fhaped like a parallelogram, with its length parallel to
the length of the pnfm. For if this hole be an inch
or two long, and but a 10th or 2Cth part of an inch
broad, or narrower, the light of the image pt will be
as fimple as before, or Ampler ; and the image being
much broader, is therefore fitter to have experiments
tried in its light than before.
“ Homogeneal light is refraded regularly without
any dilatation, fplitting, or fluttering of the rays j and
^ the
Pirtl. OPT
Lu'htdiff; the confufcd vifion of objefta feen through refra^ing
rently re- foodies by heterogeneal light, arifes from the different
frai.jhWe. refrangibility of feveral forts of rays. This will appear
i<;8 hy the experiments which will follow. In the middle
The imaoe of a black paper I made a round hole about a fifth or
«'f the fun, a fixth part of an inch in diameter. Upon this paper I
by/^P!e caufed the fpe&rum of homogeneal light, deferibed in
Ipeneou™0 ^1C former article, fo to fall that fomepart of the light
light,circu-might p ifs through the hole in the paper. This tranf-
lar. nnitted part of the light I refraded with a prifm pla¬
ced behind the paper: and letting this refraded light
fall perpendicularly upon a white paper, two or three
feet difiant from the prifm,*1 found that the fpedrum
formed on the paper by this light was not oblong, as
when it is made in the firll experiment, by refrading
the fun's compound light, but was, fo far as I could
judge by my eye, perfedly circular, the length being
nowhere greater than the breadth ; which fhows that
this light is refraded regularly without any dilatation
of the rays, and is an ocular demonllration of the ma¬
thematical propofition mentioned above.
“ In the homogeneal light 1 placed a paper circle
of a quarter of an inch in diameter; and in the fun’s
unrefraded, heterogeneal, white light, I placed ano¬
ther paper circle of the fame bignefs ; and going from
thefe papers to the diftance of fome feet, I view.ed
both circles through a prifrn. The circle illuminated
by the fun’s heterogeneal light appeared very oblong,
as in the fecond experiment, the length being many
times greater than the breadth. But the other circle
illuminated with homogeneal light appeared circular,
and diilindly defined, as when it is viewed by the nar
ked eye ; which proves the whole propofition mention-
199 *n tfie beginning of this article.
“ In the homogeneal light I placed flies and fuch
like minute objeds, and viewing them through a prifm
homo^ene- I faw their parts as diftindly defined as if I had view-
al than in ed them with the naked eye. The fame objeds pla-
heteropene-ced in the fun’s unrefraded heterogeneal light, which
cus light was wfo|te, I viewed alfo through a prifm, and faw
them moft confufedly defined, fo that I could not di-
ftinguilh their fmaller parts from one another. I pla¬
ced alfo the letters of a fmall print one while in the
homogeneal light, and then in the heterogeneal; and
viewing them through a prifm, they appeared in the
latter cafe fo confufed and indiftind that I could not
read them ; but in the former, they appeared fo diftind
that I could read readily, and thought I faw them as
diltindt as when I viewed them with my naked eye
in both cafes, I viewed the fame objeds through the
fame prifm, at the fame diftance from me, and ik the
fame fituation. There was no difference but in the
lights by which the ebjedis were illuminated, and which
in one cafe was fimple, in the other compound ; and
therefore the diftind vifion in the former cafe, and
confufed i» the latte*, could arife from nothing elfe
than from that difference in the lights. Which proves
the whole propofition.
“ In thefe three experiments, it is farther very re-
Vi fion
more di.
ftindt in
res. 319
markable, that the colour of homogeneal'light was Light differ
never changed by the refradion. And as thefe colours™”
were not changed by refradions, fo neither -were they '
by refledions. For all white, grey, red, yellow, green,
blue, violet bodies, as paper, afhes, red lead, orpi-
ment, indigo, bice, gold, filver, copper, grafs, blue
flowers, violets, bubbles of water tinged with various
colours, peacocks feathers, the tincture of lignum ne-
phriticum, and fuch like, in red homogeneal light ap- •
peared totally red, in blue light totally blue, in green
light totally green, and fo of other colours. In the
homogeneal light of any colour they all appeared to¬
tally of that fame colour ; with this only difference, that
fome of them refleded that light more ftrongly, others
more faintly. I never yet found any body which by
refltding homogeneal light could fenfibly change its
colour.
“ From all which it is manifeft, that if the fun’s
light confifted of but one fort of rays, there would be
but one colour in the world, nor would it be poffible
to produce any new colour by refledions and refrac¬
tions ; and by confequence, that the variety of colours-
depends upon the compofition of light.
“ The folar image f>t, formed by the feparated raya.
in the 5th experiment, did rn the progrefs from rfs end.
p, on which the moft refrangible rays fell, unto its end
f, on which the leaft refrangible rays fell, appear tin¬
ged with this feries of colours ; violet, indigo, blue*,
green, yellow, orange, red, together with ail their in¬
termediate degrees in a continual fucceflion perpetu¬
ally varying; fo that there appeared as many degrees
of colours as there were forts of rays differing in re-
frangibility. And fince thefe colours could not be
changed by refradions nor by refiedions, it follows,
that all homogeneal light has its proper colour an-
fwering to its degree of refrangibility. ico,
“ Every homogeneal ray confidered apart is refrac-Every lif¬
ted, according to one and the fame rule ; fo that itsmn^gneal
fine of incidence is to its fine of refradion in a given™}''s 11e'
ratio : that is, every different coloured ray has a dif-^Hif^/to
ferent ratio belonging to it. This our author has one and
proved by experiment, and by other experiments has lhe fame
determined by what numbers thofe given ratios are exA1'16*
preffed. For inftance, if an heterogeneal white ray of
the fun emerges out of glafs into air; or, which is the
fame thing, if rays of all colours be fuppofed to fucceed
one.another in the fame line AC, and AD(jig. 15.) their Phf«
common fine of incidence in glafs be divided into 50 CCCLJ5-
equal parts, then EF and GH, the fines of refradion
into air, of the leaft and moft refrangible rays, will be
77 and 78 fuch parts refpedively. And fince every
colour has feveral degrees, the fines of refradion of all
the degrees of red will have all intermediate degrees
of magnitude from 77 to 77^-, of all the degrees of
orange from 77I* to yyf, of yellow from 774 to 77^,
of green from 77I to 77^, of blue from 774- to 77^,
of indigo from 77y to 77^, and of violet from 774:
1078."
P A R X
320
Of the
Rainbow.
OPTICS.
PART II.
Part II.
Of the
Rainbow,
Sect. I. The Application cf the foregoing Theory
to feveral natural Phenomena.
§ l. Of the Rainbow.
THIS beautiful phenomenon hath engaged the at¬
tention of all ages. By feme nations it hath been
deified ; though the more fenfible part always looked
upon it as a natural appearance, and endeavoured,
however imperfectly, to account for it. The obfer-
vations of the ancients and philofophers of the mid¬
dle ages concerning the rainbow were fuch as could
not have efcaped the notice of the mod illiterate huf-
bandmen who gazed at the iky ; and their various _hy-
Knr.wledge pothefes deferve no notice. It was a confiderable time
cf the na- even after the dawn of true philofophy in this weftern
ture of the part Gf t]ic world, before we find any difeovery of im-
moderndd-Portance on this fubjea- Maurolycus was the firil
rovery. who pretended to have meafured the diameters of the
two rainbows with m(ich exa&nefs ; and he reports,
that he found that of the inner bow to be 45 degrees,
and that of the outer bow 56 ; from which Defcarces
takes occafion to obferve, how little we can depend
upon the obfervations of thofe who were not acquaint¬
ed with the caufe of the appearances.
One Chchtovaus (the fame, it is probable, who di-
fiinguifhed himfelf by his oppofition to Luther, and
who died in 1543) had maintained, that the fecond
bow is the image of the firft, as he thought was evi¬
dent fiom the inverted order of the colours. For,
laid he, when we look into the water, all the images
that we fee refle&ed by it are inverted with refpedf to
the objefts themfelves; the tops of the trees, for in-
flance, that ftand near.the brink, appearing lower than
the roots.
That the rainbow is oppofite to the fun, had al¬
ways been obferved. It was, therefore, natural to
imagine, that the colours of it were produced by feme
kind of reflection of the rays of light from drops of
rain, or vapour. The regular order of the colours
was another circumftance that could not have efcaped
■the notice of any perfon. But, notwithllanding mere
reflexion had in no other cafe been obferved to pro¬
duce colours, and it could not but have been obferved
that refraftion is frequently attended with that phe¬
nomenon, yet no perfon feems to have thought of ha-
ving recourfe to a proper refraftion in this cafe, be-
Approach fore one Fletcher of Breflau, who, in a treatife which
madetf lt publifired in 1571, endeavoured to account for the
fletcher cf colours of the rainbow by means of a double refrac-
Brcflau. tion and one reflexion. But he imagined that a ray
of light, after entering a drop of rain, and fuffering a
refraction both at its entrance and exit, was after¬
wards refle&ed from another drop, before it reached
the eye of the fpedator. He feems to have over¬
looked the reflection at the farther fide of the drop,
or to have imagined that all the bendings of the light
within the drop would not make a fufficient curvature
to bring the ray of the fun to the eye of the fpeftator.
That he fliould think of two refractions, was the ne-
N° 248.
cefiary confequence of his fuppofing that the ray en¬
tered the drop at all. This fuppofition, therefore,
was all the light that he threw upon the fubjeft. B.
Porta fuppofed that the rainbow is produced by the
refraction oflight in the whole body of rain or vapour,
but not in the feparate drops.
After all, it was a man whom no writers allow to
have had any pretenfions to philofophy, that hit upon 20^
this curious difeovery. This was Antonio De Do-Thedifco.
minis, blfliop of Spaiatro, whofe treatife De Radiis Vi- ^eiTn!a^e
fits et Lucis, was publilhed by J. Bartolus in i6ii.c^d”^
He firft advanced, that the double refraftion of Flet- bifhopof
cher, with an intervening refleftion, was fufficient to Spalauo.
produce the colours of the bow, and alfo to bring-the
rays that formed them to the eye of the fpedtator,
without any fubfequent refleftion. He diftinftly de-
feribes the progrefs of a ray of light entering the up¬
per part of the drop, where it fuffers one rcfraclion,
and after being thereby thrown upon the back part of
the inner furface, is from thence refled^ed to the lower
part of the drop j at which place undergoing a fecond
refradtlon, it is thereby bent, f@ as to come diredfly to
the eye. To verify this hypothefis, this perfon (no
philofopher as he was) proceeded in a very fenfible
and philofophical manner. For he procured a fruall
globe of folid glafs, and viewing it when it was expo-
fed to the rays of the fun, in the fame manner in which
he had fuppofed that the drops of rain were fituated
with refpeeft to them, he adtually obferved the fame co¬
lours which he had feen in the true rainbow, and in
the fame order.
Thus the circumftances in which the colours of the
rainbow were formed, and the progrefs of a ray of
light through a drop of water, were clearly under-
ftood ; but philofophers were a long time at a lofs when
they endeavoured to ftffign reafons for all the particu¬
lar colours, and for the order of them. Indeed no¬
thing but the dodirine of the different refrangibility
of the rays oflight, which was a difeovery refervtd for
the great Sir Ifaac Newton, could furnifh a complete
folution of this difficulty. De Dominis fuppofed that
the red rays were thofe which had traverfed the leafl
fpace in the infide of a drop of water, and therefore
retained more of their native force, and confequently,
ftriking the eye more brifkly, gave it a ftronger fen-
fation ; that the green and blue colours were pro¬
duced by thdfe rays, the force of which had been, in
feme meafure, obtunded in paffing through a greater
body of water; and that all the intermediate colours
were compofed (according to the hypothefis which ge¬
nerally prevailed at that time) of a mixture, of thefe
three primary ones. That the different colours were
caufed by fome difference in the impulfe of light upon
the, eye, and the greater or lefs impreffion that was
thereby made upon it, was an opinion which had been
adopted by many perfons, who had ventured to depart
from the authority of Ariftotle.
Afterwards the fame De Dominis obferved, that all
"the rays of the fame colour rauft leave the drop of wa¬
ter in a part fimihrly fituated with refpedt to the eye,
its
Part II• ^ ^
O f the in order that each of the colours may appear in a circle,
Rainbow. centre of which is a point of the heavens, in a line
—v’—' drawn from the fun through the eye of the fpe&ator.
The red rays, he obferved, mail iffue from the drop
neareft to the bottom of it, in order that the circle of
red may be the outermoid, and therefore the moft ele¬
vated in the bow.
Notwithftanding De Dominis conceived fo juftly of
the manner in which the inner rainbow is formed, he
was far from having as juft an idea of the caufe of
the exterior bow. This he endeavoured to explain in
the very fame manner in which he had done the inte¬
rior, viz. by one refleftion of the light within the
drop, preceded and followed by a refra&ion ; fuppo-
fing only that the rays which formed the exterior
bow were returned to the eye by a part of the drop
lower than that which tranfmitted the red of the inte¬
rior bow. He alfo fuppofed that the rays which form¬
ed one of the bows came from the fuperior part of the
fun’s difk, and thofe which formed the other from the
inferior part of it. He did not confider, that upon
thofe principles, the two bows ought to have been
contiguous ; or rather, that an indefinite number of
bows would have had their colours all intermixed ;
which would have been no bow at all.
When Sir Ifaac Newton difeovered the different re-
frangibility of the rays of light, he immediately ap¬
plied his new theory of light and colours to the phe¬
nomena of the rainbow, taking this remarkable objeft
of philofophical inquiry where De Dominis and Def-
cartes, for want of this knowledge, were obliged to
leave their inveftigations imperfedt. For they could
give no good reafon why the bow fhould be coloured,
and much lefs could they give any fatisfa&ory account
of the order in which the colours appear.
The mie If different particles of light had not different de-
caufe of the grees of refrangibility, on which the colours depend,
the rainbow, beiides being much narrower than it is,
would be colourlefs ; but the different refrangibility of
differently coloured rays being admitted, the reafon is
obvious, both why the bow fhould be coloured, and
alfo why the colours fhould appear in the order in
which they are obferved. Let a (fig. 8.) be a drop
of water, and S a pencil of light ; which, on its leav¬
ing the drop of water, reaches the eye of the fpefta-
tor. This ray, at its entrance into the drop, begins
to be decompofed into its proper colours ; and upon
leaving the drop, after one refle&ion and a fecond re-
fra&ion, it is farther decompofed into as many fmall
differently-coloured pencils as there are primitive co¬
lours in the light. Three of them only are drawn in
this figure, of which the blue is the moft, and the red
the leaft refradbed.
The dodlrine of the different refrangibility of light
enables us to give a reafon for the fize of a bow of
each particular colour. Newton, having found that
the fines of refra&ion of the moft refrangible and leaft
refrangible rays, in pafiing from rain-water into air,
are in the proportion of 185 to 182, when the fine of
incidence is 138, calculated the fize of the'bow ; and
he found, that if the fun was only a phyfical point,
without fenfible magnitude, the breadth of the inner
bow would be 2 degrees ; and if to this 30' was add¬
ed for the apparent diameter of the fun, the whole
breadth would be 2t degrees. But as the outermoft
Vol.XIII. Part I.
colours of
the rain¬
bow.
Plate
CCCLX.
I c s.
colours, efpecialiy the violet, are extremely fain*, the
breadth of the bow will not in reality appear to ex¬
ceed two degrees. He finds, by the fame principles,
that the breadth of the exterior bow, if it was every¬
where equally vivid, would be 40 zd. But in this cafe
there is a greater dedu&ion to be made, on account of
the faintnefs of the light of the exterior bow ; fo that,
in fa&, it will not appear to be more than 3 degrees
broad.
The principal phenomena of the rainbow are all
explained on Sir Ifaac Newton’s principles in the fol¬
lowing propofitions.
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drop of rain and
enter into it, fame of them, after one refeSion and
tnuo refradions, may come to the eye of a fpeclator
who has his back towards the fun, and his face towards
the drop.
If XY (fig. 9.) is a drop of rain, and the fun^xrla^'
fhines upon it in any lines sf, s d, s a, &c. moft °fphenomena
the rays will enter into the drop ; fome few of them of rambow
only will be refle&ed from the firft furface ; tbofe raysonthe prin-
which are Tefle&ed from thence do not come under “I’l63 oJ:
our prefent confideration, becaufe they are never re.N-sv‘°“*
frafted at all. The greateft part of the rays then en¬
ter the drop, and thofe paffing on to the iecond fur-
face, will moft of them be tranfmitted through the
drop ; but neither do thofe rays which are thus tranf¬
mitted fall under our prefent confideration, flnce they
are not refle&ed. For the rays, which are deferibed
in the propofition, are fuch as are twice refrafiled and
once reflefiled. However, at the fecond furface, or
hinder part of the drop, at pg, fome few rays will be
reflefiled, whilft the reft are tranfmitted : thofe rays
proceed in fome fuch lines as nr, n q •, and coming
out of the drop in the lines r v, q t, may fall upon the
eye of a fpefitator, who is placed anywhere in thofe
lines, with his face towards the drop, and confequent-
ly with his back towards the fun, which is fuppofed
to fhine upon the drop in the lines sf, s d, s a, &c.
Thefe rays are twice refrafiled and once reflefiled ;
they are refrafiled when they pafs out of the air intr»
the drop ; they are reflefiled from the fecond furface,
and are refrafited again when they pafs out of the drop
into the air.
When rays of light reflefied from a drop of rain come
to the eye, thfe are called ejfcdual which are able t»
excite a fenfation.
When rays of light come out of a drop of rain, they will
not be ejfedual, unlefs they are parallel and cont'u
suous.
There are but few rays that can come to the eye at
all: for fince the greateft part of thofe rays which enU r
the drop XY (tig. 9.) between X and a, pafs out of
the drop through the hinder furface pg ; only few are
reflefiled from thence, and come out through the nearer
furface between a and y. Now, fuch rays as emerge,
or come out of the drop, between a and Y, will be in-
effefitual, unlefs they are parallel to one another, as r v
and q t are ; becaufe fuch rays as come out diverging
from one another w'ill be fo far afunder when they
come to the eye, that all of them cannot enter the pu¬
pil ; and the very few that can enter it will not be
S f fufficient
322
Of the
Rainhow.
OPT
fufficient to excite any fenfation. But even rays,
which are parallel, as r-u, qt) will not he effectual,
unlefs there are feveral of them contiguous or very
near to one ahother. The two rays rv and qt alone
will not be perceived, though both of them enter the
eye ; for fo very few rays are not fufficient to excite a
fenfation.
When rays of light come out of a drop of rain after one
refeElicn, thofe will be ejfeflual which are ref tiled
from the fame pointy and which entered the drop near
to one another.
Plate
CCCJLX -Any rays, as sb and c d, (fig. 10.) when they have
parted out of the air into a drop of water, will be re¬
fracted towards the perpendiculars b l, d l \ and as the
ray s b falls farther from the axis a v than the ray c d,
s b will be more refracted than c d; fo that thefe rays,
though parallel to one another ac their incidence, may
deferibe the lines be and de after refraCtion, and be
both of them reflected from one and the fame point e.
Now all rays which are thus reflected from one and
the fame point, when they have deferibed the lines eJ\
e g> and after reflection emerge at f and will be fo
refraCted, when they pafs out of the drop into the air,
as to deferibe the linesy h, gi, parallel to one another.
If thefe rays were to return from e in the lines e b, edy
and were to emerge at b and d, they would be refrac¬
ted into the lines of their incidence bst dc. But if
thefe rays, inftead of being returned in the lines eb,
sd, are reflected from the lame point e in the lines eg,
ef, the lines of reflection eg and ef will be inclined
both to one another, and to the furface of the drop ;
juft as much as the lines e b and e d are. Firft e b and
eg make juft the fame angle with the furface of the
drop : for the angle hex, which eb makes with the
furface of the drop, is the complement of incidence,
and the angle g e <v, which eg makes with the furface,
is the complement of reflection ; and thefe two
are equal to one another. In the fame manner we
might prove, chat ed *nd ef make equal angles
with the furface of the drop. Secondly, The angle
led is equal to the angle feg ; or the reflected
1-ays eg, ef, and the incident rays be, de, are equal¬
ly inclined to each other. For the angle of incidence
be l is equal to the angle of reflection gel, and the
angle of incidence d e l\i equal to the angle of reflec¬
tion/<?/;. confequently the difference between the
angles of incidence is equal to the difference between
the angles of reflection, or b e l—delwge l~f e l, or
led^gef Since therefore either the lines eg, ef, or
the lines eb, ed, are equally inclined both to one an¬
other and to the furface of the drop ; the rays will be
refraCted in the fame manner, whether they were to
return in the lines eb, e d, or are reflected in the lines
eg, ef. But if they were to return in the lines eb,
e d, the refraCtion, when they emerge at b and d, would
make them parallel. Therefore, if they are reflected
from one and the fame point e in the lines eg, e f, the
refraCtion, when they emerge at p- and/, will likewife
make them parallel.
But though fuch rays as are reflected from the fame
point in the hinder part of a drop of rain, are parallel
to one another when they emerge, and fo have one
condition that is reqmfite towards making them effec¬
tual, yet there is another condition neceffary j for rays.
^ R Payt fj4
that are effectual, muft he cofttiguoug as well as parnl- Of rhe
lei. An 1 though rays, which enter the drop in difte- Rainbow,
rent places, may be parallel when they emerge, thofe
only will be contiguo u which enter it nearly at the
fame place.
Let XY (fig. 9 ) be a drop of rain, ag the axis or
diameter of the drop, and sa a ray of light that comes
from the fun and enters the drop at the points. This
ray s a, becaufe it is perpendicular to both the furfa-
ces, will pafs ftraight through the drop in the line
ag h without being refraCIed ; but any collateral rays,
fuch as thofe that fall about si, as they pafs through
the drop, will be made to converge to their axis, and
pdfing out at n will meet the axis at h: rays which
fall farther from the axis than s b, fuch as thofe which
fall about s c, will likewife be made to converge ; but
then their focus will be nearer to the drop "than h.
Suppofe therefore / to be the focus to which the rays
that fall about sc will converge, any ray sc, when it
has deferibed the linero within the drop, and is tend¬
ing to the focus i, will pafs out of the drop at the
point o. The rays that fall upon the drop about s dr
more remote ftill from the axis, will converge to a fo¬
cus ftill nearer than i, as fuppofe at k. Thefe ray»
therefore go out of the drop at p. The rays, that fall
ftill more remote from the axis, as .re, will converge
to a focus nearer than k, as fuppofe at /; and the ray
s e, when it has deferibed the line e o within the dr«p,
and is tending to /, will pafs out at the point o. The
rays that Til ftill more remote from the axis wall
converge to a focus ftill nearer. Thus the ray s f will
after refraCtion converge to a focus at m, which i»
nearer than /; and having deferibed the line fn with¬
in the drop, it will pafs out to the point n. Nowhere
we may obferve, that as any rays j 3 or r, fall farther
above the axis s a, the points n, or o, where they pafs
out behind the drop, w ill be farther above g ; or that,,
as the incident ray rifes from the axis sa, the arc ^ « u
increafes, till we come to fome ray sd, which partes out
of the drop at p ; and this is the higheft point where
any ray that falls upon the quadrant or quarter ax can
pafs out : for any rays se, or sf, that fall higher than
sd, will not pafs out in any point above p, but at the
points o or n, which are below it. Confequeatly, tho*
the arc gnop increafes, whilft the diftance of the in¬
cident ray from the axis sa increafes, till we come to
the ray sd; yet afterwards, the higher the ray fail*
above the axis sa, this arc pong will decreafe.
We have hitherto fpoken of the points on the hin¬
der part of the drop, where the rays pafs out of it ;
but this was for the fake of determining the point*
from whence tlrofe rays are reflected, which do not
pafs out behind the drop. For, in explaining the rain¬
bow, we have no farther reafon to confider thofe rayj
which go through the drop ; fince they can never come
to the eye of a ipeCfator placed anywhere ia the line*
rv or qt with his face towards the drop. Now, a*
there are many rays which pafs out of the drop be¬
tween g and p, fo fome few rays will be reflected from
thence •, and confequently the feveral points between g
and p, which are the points where fome of the ray*
pafs out of the drop, are likewife the points of reflec¬
tion for the reft which do not pafs out. Therefore, in
refpeCt of thofe rays which are reflected, we may call
gp the arc of reflection ; and may fay, that this arc
2 Of
Pm If. OP T
Of the ox refleftion tncr< afes, as the cHflance of the Incident
Rainbow. ray from t|,e ax{3 sa increafes, till we come to the ray
td’ the arc of refleftion is gn for the ray sf>, it
is go for the ray sc ; and gp for the ray sd. But
after this, as the diftance of the incident ray from
the axis sa increafes, the arc of refleftion decreafes ;
for og lefs than pg is the arc of refleflion for the ray
se, and ng is the arc of refltftion for the ray sf., _
From hence it is obvious, that fome one ray, which
falls above sd, may be refle&ed from the fume point
with fome other ray which falls below sd. Thus, for
tnftance, the ray sb will be reflefted from the point «,
and the ray sf will be reflefted from the fame point ;
and ccnfequently, when the reflected rays nr, nq, are
refracted as they pafs out of the drop at r and q, they
will be parallel, by what has been fhown in the for¬
mer part of this propofition. But fince the interme¬
diate rays, which enter the drop between sf and s b,
are not reflected from the fame point r>, thefe two rays
alone will be the parallel to one another when they
come out of the drop, and the intermediate rays will
not be parallel to them. And confequently thefe rays
rv, qt, though they are parallel after they emerge at
r and q, will not be contiguous, and for that reafon
will not be effeftual ; the ray sd is rtHefted from p,
which has !>een {hown to be the limit of the arc of re-
fledtion ; fuch rays as fall jufl above sd, and juft be¬
low ji, will be reflected from nearly the fame point
p, as appears from what has been already Ihown. Thefe
rays therefore will be parallel, becaufe they are reflec¬
ted from the fame point /) ; and they will likewife be
contiguous, becaufe they all of them enter the drop
at one and the fame place very near to d. Confe¬
quently, fuch rays as enter the drop at d, and are re¬
lieved from p the limit of the arc of refieVion, will
be cfteChial; fince, when they emerge at the fore part
of the drop between a and y, they will lie both parallel
and contiguous.
If we can make out hereafter that the rainbow is
produced by the rays of the fun which are thus reflec¬
ted from drops of rain as they fall whilit the fun Ihines
upon-them, this propofition may ferve to ihow us, that
this appearance is not produced by any rays that fall
upon any part, r.nd are rcflecled from any part of thofe
drops : fince tins appearance cannot be produced by
any rays but thofe which are effedtual ; and efftVual
rays muft always enter each d op at one certain place
in the fore-part of it, and muft likewife be refleVed
fiom one certain place in the hinder luriace.
When rays that are effefiual emerge from a drop of rain
after one refe Si on and two rejratlions, thofe which are
mof refrangible will, at their etnerfon, make a lefs
angle with the incident rays than thofe do which are
leaf refrangible ; and by this means the rays of different
colours will befeparated from one another.
T’hte Let/A (fig. 10.) be effeVual violet rays
Cl-CLK. emerging from the drop at fg ; and fn, gp, efFeVual
red rays emerging from the fame drop at the fame
place. Now, though all the violet rays are parallel
to one another, becuife they are fuppofed efteVual,
and though all the red rays are likewife parallel to
one another for the fame reafon ; yet the violet rays
will not be parallel to the red rays. Thefe rays, as
they have different colours, and different degrees of re-
I C S. 323
frangibility, will diverge from one another ; any vio-
let ray g i, which emerges at g, will diverge from , ff0 ^
any red ray gp, which emerges at the fame place.
Now, both the violet ray g z, and the red ray gp, as
they piL out of the drop of water into the air, will be
refracted from the perpendicular /o. But the violet
ray is more refrangible than the red one ; and for that
reafon g i, or the refrafted violet ray, will make a
greater angle with the perpendicular than ^ the re¬
fracted red ray ; or the angle ig 0 will be greater than
the angle/>£0. Suppofe the incident ray r ^ to be
continued in the direVion rand the violet ray ig
to be continued backward in the direction ik, till it
meets the incident ray at k. Suppofe likewife the
red my pg to be continued backwards in the fame
manner, till it meets the incident ray at w. The angle
iks is that which the violet ray, or moft lefrangible
ray at its emerfion, makes with the incident ray ; and
the angle/>wj is that which the red ray, or lead re¬
frangible ray at its emerfion, makes with the incident
ray. The angle z’^r is lefs than the angle/)‘zur. For,
in the triangle, g w k, g w s, ov p w s, is the external
angle at the bafe, and g k w or i k s is one of the in¬
ternal oppofite angles; and either internal oppofitc
angle is lefs than the external angle at the bafe. (Euc.
b. I. prop. 16.) What has been (hown to be true o£
the rays g i and gp might be fhown in the fame man¬
ner of the rays fh and fn, or of any other rays that
emerge refpeVively parallel to gi and gp. But all
the effeVual violet rays are parallel to ^ i, and all the
effeVual red rays are parallel to g p. Therefore the
effectual violet rays at their emerfion make a lef*
angle with the incident ones than the effectual red ones.
And for the fame reafon, in all the other forts of rays,
thofe which are moft refrangible, at their emerfion from
a drop of rain after one reflection, will make a lefa
angle with the incident rays, than thofe do which are
lefs refrangible.
Or otherwife : When the rays g i and gp emerge at
the fame pointy, as they both come out of water into
air, and confequently are refraCted from the perpen¬
dicular, infteari of going flraight forwards in the line
eg continued, they will both be turned round upon the
pointy from the perpendicular ^ 0. Nowit is eafy to
conceive, that either of thefe lines might be turned in
this manner upon the point g as upon a centre, till
they became parallel to $ £ the incident ray. But i£
either of thefe lines or rays were refraVed fo much
from g 0 as to become parallel to s b, the ray fo much
refraVed, would, after emerfion, make no angle with
s k, becaufe it would be parallel to it. And confe¬
quently that ray which is moft turned round upon the
pointy, or that ray which is moft refrangible, will af¬
ter emerfion be neareft parallel to the incident ray, or
will make the lea ft angle with it. The fame may be
proved of all other rays emerging parallel to g i and
gp refpeVively, or of all effeCtual rays; thofe which
are moil; refrangible will after ernerfi >n make a lefs
angle with the incident rays, than thofe do which are
leaft refrangible.
But fince the effeVual rays of different colours make
different angles with s k at their emerfion, they will be
feparated from one another : fo that if the eye was
placed in the beam fg h i, it would receive only rays of
one colour from the drop xagv; and if it was placed
S 1 2 ia
324
Of the
Rainbow.
OPT
in the beam fgnp, It would receive only rays of fome
other colour.
The angle s wp, which the lead refrangible or red
rays make with the incident ones when they emerge
fo as to be effectual, is found by calculation to be 42
degrees 2 minutes. And the angle ski, which the
moil refrangible rays make with the incident ones
when they emerge fo as to he effe£lual, is found to be
40 degrees 17 minutes. The rays which have the in¬
termediate degrees of refrangibility, make with the in¬
cident ones intermediate angles between 42 degrees
2 minutes, and 40 degrees 17 minutes.
Jf a Tine is fuppofed to he drawn from the centre of the
fun through the eye of the fpeclator% the angle which any
cffedual ray, after two refractions and one refection,
males with the incident ray, will be equal to the angle
•which it makes with that line.
Let the eye of the fpedtator be at i, (fig. 10.) an^
^ \ttqt be the line fuppofed to be drawn from the centre
of the fun through the eye of the fpeftator; the angle
g i t, which any effectual ray makes with this line, will
be equal to the angle i Is, which the fame ray makes
with the incident ray s b or s l. If r is a ray coming
from the centre of the fun, then fince q t is fuppofed
to be drawn from the fame point, thefe two lines, up¬
on account of the remotenefs of the point from whence
they are drawn, may be looked upon as parallel to
one another. But the right line l i croffing thefe
two parallel lines will make the alternate angles equal.
(Euc. b. I. prop. 29.) Therefore k itoxgi t is equal
to r i.
2,06
Two rain¬
bows feen
at.once.
When the fun fines upon the drops of rain as they are
falling, the rays that come from thofe drops to the eye
of a fpedator, after one refedion and two refradions,
produce the primary rainbow.
If the fun {bines upon the rain as it falls, there are
commonlyfeen two bows, as AFB, CHD, (fig. xi.);
or if the cloud and rain does not reach over that whole
fide of the Iky where the bows appear, then only a
part of one or of both bows is feen in that place
where the rain falls. Of thefe two bows, the innermoft
AFB is the more vivid of the two, and this is called
the primary bow. The outer part TFY of the pri¬
mary bow is red, the inner part VFX is violet ; the
intermediate parts, reckoning from the red to the vio¬
let, are orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo. Sup-
pofe the fpeftator’s eye to be at O, and let LOP be
an imaginary line drawn from the centre of the fun
through the eye of the fpedator : if abeam of light S
coming from the fun falls upon any drop F ; and the
rays that emerge at F in the line FO, fo as to be ef-
feftual, make an angle FOP of 42° 2' with the line
LP ; then thefe effeClual rays make an angle of 42°2'
with the incident rays, by the preceding propofition,
and confequently thefe rays will be red, fo that the
drop F will appear red. All the other rays, which
emerge at F, and would be effedual if they fell upon
the eye, are refrafted more than the red ones, and
confequently will pafs above the eye. If a beam of
tight S falls upon the drop E ; and the rays that
emerge at E m the line EO, fo as to be effeaual,
make an angle EOP of 40° 17' with the line LP ;
■ CK e it dual rays make likewife an angle of
^ C b. Part II,
40° 17' with the incident rays, and the drop E will Of the
appear of a violet colour. All the other rays, which Rahibow.
emerge at E, and would be effe&uiil if they came to ^ 'r~mJ
the eye, are refracted lefs than the violet ones, and
therefore pafs below the eye. '1 he intermediate drops
between F and E will for the fame reafons be of the
intermediate colours.
Thus we have Ihown why a fet of drops from F to
E, as they are falling, fhould appear of the primary
colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet. It is not neceffary that the feveral drops, which
produce thefe colours, finould all of them fall at exadly
the fame diftance from the eye. The angle FOP, for
inftance, is the fame whether the diftance of the drop
from the eye is OF, or whether it is in any other part
of the line OF fomething nearer to the eve. And
whilft the angle FOP is the fume, the angle made by
the emerging and incident rays, and confequently the
colour of the drop, will be the fame. This is.equally
true of any other drop. So that although in the
figure the drops F and E are reprefented as falling
perpendicularly one under the other, yet this is not
neceffary in order to produce the bow.
But the coloured line FE,- which we have already
accounted for, is only the breadth of the bow. It ftill
remains to be fhown, why not only the drop F Ihould
appear red, but why all the other drops quite from A
to B in the arc ATFYB fhould appear of the fame
colour. Now it is evident, that wheiever a drop of
rain is placed, if the angle which the effe&ual rays
make with the line LP is equal to the angle FQPV
that is, if the angle which the effe&ual rays make
with the incident rays is 420 2', any of thofe drops
will be red, for the fame reafon that the drop F is of
this colour.
If FOP was to turn round upon the line OP, fo that
one end of this line fttould always be at the eye, and
the other be at P oppofite to the fun ; fuch a motion
of this figure would be like that of a p.tir of compaffea
turning round upon one of the legs OP with the open¬
ing FOP. In this revolution the drop F would de-
feribe a circle, P would be the centre, and ATFYB
would be an arc in this circle. Now fince, in this mo¬
tion of the line and drop OF, the angle made by FO
with OP, that is, the angle FOP, continues the fame;
if the fun was to fhine upon this drop as it revolves,
the effedlual rays would make the fame angle with the
incident rays, in whatever part of the arc ATFYB the
drop was to be. Therefore, whether the drop is at
A, or at T, or at Y, or at B, or wherever elfe it is in
this whole arc, it would appear icd, as it does at F,
The drops of rain, as they fall, are not indeed turned
round in this manner : but then, as innumerable of
them are falling at once in right lines from the cloud,
whilft one drop is at F, there will be others at Y, at
T, at B, at A, and m every other part of the arc
ATFYB : xand all thefe drops will be red for the fame
reafon that the drop F would have been red, if it had
been in the fame place. Therefore, when the fun fhines
upon the rain as it falls, there will be a red arc ATFYB
oppofite to the fun. In the fame manner, becaufe the
drop E is violet, we might prove that any other drop,
which, whilft it is falling, is in any part of the arc
AVEXB, will be violet; and confequently, at the fame
time that thejed arc ATFYB appears, there will like-
wife'
Plate
CCCLX.
207
"Why the
arc of the
primary
rainbow is
never
greater
than afemi-
circle.
PartII. ° . P. T
Of the wife be a violet arc AVEXB below or within it. FE
Rainbow. jg t^e diftance between thefe two coloured areo; and
from what has been faid> it followsj tnat the interme”
diate fpace between thtfe two arcs will be filled up
with arcs of the intermediate colours, orange, yellow,
blue, green, and indigo. All thefe coloured arcs to¬
gether make up the primary rainbow. -
The primary rainbow is. never a greater arc than a fe-
micircle.
Since the line LOP is drawn from the fun through
the eye of the fpeftator, and fince P (fig- 9 ) is the
centre of the rainbow ; it follows, chat the centre of
the rainbow is always oppofite to the fun. The angle
FOP is an angle of 420 2', as was obferved, or F the
higheft part of the bow is 420 2' from P the centre of
it.° If the fun is more than 42° 2' high, P the centre
of the rainbow, which is oppofite to the fun, will
■be more than 42° 2' below the horizon; and con-
fequently F the top of the bow, which is only 42y 2'
from P, will be below the horizon ; that is, when
the fun is more than 42“ 2' high, no primary rain¬
bow will be feen. If the fun is fomething lefs than
42“ 2' high, then P will be fomething lefs than 42^ 2'
below the horizon; and confequently F, which is only
42“ 2' from P, will be juft above the horizon ; that
is, a fmall part of the bow at this height of the fun
will appear clofe to the ground oppofite to the fun. If
the fun is 20° high, then P will be 20° below the ho¬
rizon ; and F the top of the bow, being 42 2 from
P, will be 2 2° 2' above the horizon ; therefore, at
this height of the fun, the bow will be an arc of a
circle whole centre is below the horizon ; and conie-
quently that arc of the circle which is above the hori¬
zon, or the bow, will be lefs than a femicircle. If the
fun is in the horizon, then P, the centre of the bow,
will be in the oppofite part of the horizon; F, the top
of the bow, will be 420 2' above the horizon; and the
bow itfelf, becnufe the hoiizon pafles through the
centre of it, will be a femicircle. More than a femi-
circle can never appear; hecaufe if the bow was more
than a femicircle, P the centre of it muft be above the
horizon ; but P is always oppofite to the fun, there¬
fore P cannot be above the horizon, unlefs the fun is
below it; and when the fun is fet, or is below the ho¬
rizon, it cannot ftiine upon the drops of rain as they
fall; and confequently, when the fun is below the ho¬
rizon, no bow at all can be feen.
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drop of rain, fame
of them, after two reflexions and two ref radians, may
come to the eye of a fpedator, who has his back to¬
wards the fun and his face towards the drop.
If HGW (fig. 12.) is a drop of rain, and parallel
rays coming from the fun, as z y w, fall upon the
lower part of it, they will be refracted towards the
perpendiculars v 1, w l, as they enter into it, and will
defcribe fome fuch lines as v h, w i. At h and i great
part of thefe rays will pafs ©uc of the drop ; but fome
of them will he reflefted from thence in the lines h f,
i rr. At y'and^ again, great part of the rays that
were reflefted thither will pafs out of the drop. But
thefe rays will not come to the eye of a fpettator at
0. However, here again all the rays will not pafs
out; but fome few will be reflected from/and ", in
I G S.
fome fuch lines as/d, gb; and thefe, when they
emerge out of the drop of water into the air at b and
d, will be refradfted from the perpendiculars, and, de-
fcribing the lines dt, bo, may come to the eye of the
fpedfator who has his back towards the fun and his
face towards the drop.
Thofe rays, which are parallel to one another after they
have been once refraded and once rejleded in a drop of
rain, will be ejfedual when they emerge after two re-
fradions and two rejledions.
No rays can be effectual, unlefs they are contigu¬
ous and parallel. From what was faid, it appears, that
when rays come out of a drop of rain contiguous to
one another, either after one or after two reficdtions,
they muft enter the drop nearly at one and the fame
place. And if fuch rays as are contiguous are paral¬
lel after the firft reflection, they will emerge parallel,
and therefore will be effectual. Let zv and yw be
contiguous rays which come from the fun, and are pa¬
rallel to one another when they fall upon the lower
part of the drop, fuppofe thcie rays to be refracted
at v and w, and to be reflected at h and i; it they
are parallel to one another, as h f, g i, after this firft
reflection, then, after they are reflected a fecond time
from / and g, and refraCted a fecond time as they
emerge at d and b, they will go out of the drop paral¬
lel to one another in the lines dt and bo, and will there¬
fore be effectual.
The rays zv, yw, are refradted towards the perpen¬
diculars vl, wl, when they enter the drop, and will be
made to converge. As thefe rays are very oblique,
their focus will not be far trom the furfaee vw. If this
focus is at h, the rays, after they have palled the focus,
will diverge from thence in the directions k h, k i; and
if k i is the principal focal diftance of the concave
reflecting furface h i, the reflected rays hf, ig, will be
parallel. Thefe rays ef, ig, are reflected again from
the concave furface fg, and will meet in a focus at e,
fo that ge will be the principal focal diftance of this
reflecting iurface f g. And becaufe h i and fg are parts
of the fame fphere, the principal focal diitances^z and
k i will be equal to one another. When the rays have
palled the focus e, they will diverge from thence in the
linese/ eb: and we are to Ihow, that when they emerge
at d and b, and are refraCted there, they will become
parallel.
Now if the rays vk, wk, when they have met at k,
were to be turned back again in the directions k v, k w}'
and were to emerge at v and w, they would be refrac¬
ted into the lines of their incidence, vz, wy, and there¬
fore would be parallel. But fince is equal to ii, as
has already been Ihown, the rays ed, eb, that diverge
from e, fall in the fame manner upon the drop at d and
b, as the rays kv, kw, would fall upon it at v and w 5
and e d, eb, are juft as much inclined to the refracting
furface db, as kv, kw, would be to the furface v w.
From hence it follows, that the rays ed, eb, emerging
at d aud b, will be refracted in the fame manner, and
will have the fame direction in refpeCl of one another,
as kv, kw, would have. But kv and kw would be pa¬
rallel after refraction. Therefore ed and eb will emerge
in lines dp, bo, So as to be parallel to one another, and
coniequently fo as to be effectual.
When.
3*6
O
Of the f
Rainbow. When rays that are eJfeBual emerge from a drop of rain
v-.—J after two refections and two refractions^ thofe which
are mnjl refrangible will at their emerfon make a
greater angle with the incident rays than thofe do
which are leaf re frangible ; and by this means the
rays of different colours will be feparated from one an¬
other.
If rays of different colours, which are differently re-
ftangib,e> emerge at any point b (fig. 12.), thefe rays
** ^ ’ will not be all of them equally refrn&ed from the per¬
pendicular. Thus, if £0 is a red ray, which is of all
others the Jeaft refrangible, and is a violet ray,
which is of all others the mofl refrangible; when thefe
two rays emerge at the violet ray will be refra&ed
more from the perpendicular b x than the red ray, and
the refradted angle xbm will be greater than the refrac¬
ted angle xbo. From hence it follows, that thefe two
rays, after emerfion, will diverge from one another.
In like manner, the rays that emerge at d will diverge
from one another; a red ray will emerge in the line
dp, a violet ray in the line dt. So that though all the
elFedlual red rays of the beam bdmt are parallel to one
another, and all the effedfual red rays of the beam bdop
are like wife parallel to one another, yet the violet rays
will not he parallel to the red ones, but the violet
fceam will diverge from the red beam. Thus the
rays of different colours will be feparated from one
another.
I his will appear farther, if we confider what the
propofition affirms, That any violet or molt refran-
git le ray will make a greater angle with the incident
rays, than any red or leaft refrangible ray makes with
the fame incident rays. Thus yw is an incident ray,
bm a violet ray emerging from the point b, and bo a
red ray emerging from the fame point; the angle
which the violet ray makes with the incident one is
yrm, and that which the red ray makes with it is yso.
Now yrm is a greater angle than yso. For in the tri¬
angle brs the internal angle brs is lefs than bsy the
external angle ct the bafe. (Fuel. B. I. prop. 16.) But
yrm is the complement of brs or of bry to two right
•ones, and yso is the complement of bsy to two right
ones. 1 herefore, fince bry is lefs than bsy, the com¬
plement of bry to two right angles will be greater than
the complement of bsy to two right angles; or yrm
will be greater thanyjo.
Or otherwife: Both the rays taand bm, when they
are refradted in palling out of the drop at b, are turned
round upon the point b from the perpendicular lx.
Now either of thefe lines ho or bm might be turned
round in this manner, till it made a right angle with
yw. Confequently, that ray which is moft turned round
upon b, or which is mofl refrafled, will make an angle
with yw that will be nearer to a right one than that
ray makes with it which is leaPc turned round upon b,
or which is lead refraaed. Therefore that ray which
is mofl refraaed will make a greater angle with the
incident ray than that which is leafl refraaed.
But fince the emerging rays, as they are differently
re rangtb e, make different angles with the fame inci-
dent rssjyw, the refraaion which theyfuffer at emer-
tion will feparate them from one another.
I c S. part; if.
culation to be f 5 and the angle yso, which the Of the
leafl refrangible or red rays make with the incident Raii:f,ow.
ones, is found to be qo0 57': the angles, which the
rays of the intermediate colours, indigo, blue green,
yellow, and orange, make with the incident rays, are
intermediate angles between 54°7f and S0°Si'•
If a line is fuppofed to be drawn from the centre of the
fun through the eye of the fpeclutor ; the angle which,
after two refractions and two refections, any effectual
ray makes with the incident ray, will be equal to the
angle which it makes with that line.
The angle yrm, which the mofl refrangible or vio-
rays make with the incident ones, is found by cal-
It yw (fig. 12) is an incident ray, £0 an effedlual
ray, and a line drawn from the centre of the fun
through 0 the eye of the fpedator ; the angle yso,
which the effedlual ray makes with the incident ray,
is equal to son the angle which the fame effectual ray-
makes with the line q n. Foryw and qn, confidered
as drawn from the centre of the fun, are parallel; bo
croffes them, and corfequently makes the alternate
angles y jo, son, equal to one another. Eucl. B. I
Prop. 29.
IVhen the fun fines upon the drops of rain as they are
falling, the rays that come from thefe drops to the eye
of a fpetlator, after two refedions and two ref radians,
produce the fecondary rainbow.
The fecondary rainbow is the outermoft CHD,>rjie^c*n#
fig. 1 1. When the fun fhines upon a drop of rain H; dary rain-
and the rays HO, which emerge at H fo as to be ef-bow produ*
feftual, make an angle HOP of 54<?7' w ith LOP ace^by.tW(>
line drawn from the fun through the eye of the fpec-
tator ; the fame effa&ual rays will make likewife an refra&ioa*
angle of 54°7' with the incident rays S, and the rays
which emerge at this angle are violet ones, by what
was obferved above. Therefore, if the fpeftator’s eye
is at O, none but violet rays will enter it : for as all
the other rays make a lefs angle with OP, they will
fall above the fpeftator’s eye. In like manner, if the
effe&ual rays that emerge from the drop G make an
angle of 50°sf with the line OP, they will likewife
make the fame angle with the incident rays S ; and
confequently, from the drop G to the fpedator’s eye
at O, no rays will come but red ones; for all the other
rays, making a greater angle with the line OP, will
fall below the eye at O. For the fame reafon, the rays
emerging from the intermediate drops between H and
G, and coming to the fpetlator’s eye at O, will emerge
at intermediate angles, and therefore will have the in¬
termediate colours. Thus, if there are feven drops from
H to G inclufively, their colours will be violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. This coloured
line is the breadth of the fecondary rainbow.
Now, if HOP was to turn round upon the line OP,
like a pair of compaffes upon one of the legs OP with
the opening HOP, it is plain from the fuppofition,
that, in fuch a revolution of the drop H, the angle
HOP would be the fame, and confequently the emer¬
ging rays would make the fame angle with the inci¬
dent ones. But in fuch a revolution the drop would
deferibe a circle of which P would be the centre, and
CNHRD an arc. Confequently, fince, when the drop
is at N, or at R, or anywhere elfe in that arc, the
emerging rays make the fame angle with the incident
ones as when the drop is at H, the colour of the drop
will
Part II. OPT
Oi the will be the fame to an eye placed at 0, whether the
Rainbow, ;3 at or at H, or at R, or anywhere elfe m
^ - J that arc. Now, though the drop does not thus turn
round as it falls, and does not pals through the feveral
parts of this arc, yet, fince there are drops of rain fall¬
ing everywhere at the fame time, when one drop is at
H ’ there will be another at R, another at N, and others
in all parts of the arc ; and thefe drops will all of them
be violet-coloured, for the fame reafon that the drop
H would have been of this colour if it had been in any
of thofe places. In like manner, as the drop G is red
when it is at G, it would likewifs be red in any part
of the arc CWGQD 5 and fo will any other drop,
when, as it is falling, it comes to any part of that arc.
Thus as the fun fhines upon the rain, whilll it falls,
there will be two arcs produced, a violet coloured one
CNHRD, and a red one CWGQD; and for the fame
reafons the intermediate fpace between thefe two arcs
will be filled up with arcs of the intermediate colours.
All thefe arcs together make up the fecondary rain¬
bow.
The colours of the fecondary rainbow are fainter than thofe
of the primary rainbow ; and are ranged in the contrary
order.
‘Wli2°the The primary rainbow is produced by fuch rays as
colours of have been only once refle&ed ; the fecondary rainbov/
the fecon- jg produced by fuch rays as have been twice rellefted.
dary rain- gut at every refle&ion fome rays pafs out of the drop
fainted than °f ra'n without being refltfted; fo that the oftener the
thofe of the rays are refle&ed, the fewer of them are left. There-
primary, fore the colours of the fecondary bow are produced by
and ranged fewer rays, and confequently will be fainter, than the
in a con- . rbi. • t
trary order. colour8 of t!^e Pnmary bow; . r , f
In the primary bow, reckoning from the outiide of
it, the colours are ranged in this order; red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. In the fecondary
bow, reckoning from the outfide, the colours are vio¬
let, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. So that
the red, which is the outermoft or higheft colour in
the primary bow, is the innermoft or lowelt colour in
the fecondary one.
Now the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be
effe&ual after one reflexion, make a lefs :ngle with
Plate tbe *nc^ent ray3 tban tbe re^ ones> confequently the
CCCJLX. violet rays make a lefs angle with the lines OP (fig. 11.)
than the red ones. But, in the primary rainbow, the
rays are only once reflefled, and the angle which the
effedlual rays make with OP is the difiance of the co¬
loured drop from P the centre of the bow. Therefore
the violet drops, or violet arc, in the primary bow, will
be nearer to the centre of the bow than the red drops
or red arc; that is, the innermoft colour in the pri¬
mary bow will be violet, and the outermoft colour will
be red. And, for the fame reafon, through the
whole primary bow, every colour will be nearer to
the centre P, as the rays of that colour are more re¬
frangible.
But the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be
effectual after two refle£tions, make a greater angle
with the incident rays than the red ones; confequently
the violet rays will make a greater angle with the line
OP, than the red ones. But in the fecondary rain¬
bow the rays are twice refle&ed, and the angle which
effectual rays make with OP is the dillance of the co-
Dr Bar-
I C S. 327
loured drop from P the centre of the bow. Therefore appa-
tlw violet drops or vio'et arc in the fecondary bow will ie!£cp;Je*
be farther from the centre of the bow than the red 0bje<Sb.
drops or red arc; that is, the-outermoft colour in the -y—
fecondary bow will be violet, and the innermoft co¬
lour will be red. And, for the fame reafon, through
the whole fecondary bow, every colour will be further
from the centre P, as the rays of that colour are more
refrangible.
$ 2. Of Coronas, Parhelia, See.
Under the articles Corona and Par.hel.ton a
pretty full account is given of the different hypo-
thefes concerning thefe phenomena, and likewife of
the method by which thefe hypothefes are fupported,
from tjie known laws of refraction and reflection ; to-
which therefore, in order to avoid repetition, we muft
refer.
$ 3. Of the apparent Place, Dijlance, Magnitude, and
Motion of Objects.
Philosophers in general had taken for granted,
that the place to which the eye refers any vifible ob-
jeCt feen by reflection or refraction, is that in which
the vifual ray meets a perpendicular from the objeCl
upon the reflecting or refraCting plane. But this me¬
thod of judging of the place of objeCts was called in
queition by Dr Barrow, who contended that the ar¬
guments brought in favour of the opinion were not row-s
conclufive. Thefe arguments are, that the images of theory re-
objeCts appear ftraight in a plane mirror, but curved in fpeding
a convex or concave one: that a ftraight thread, when tllc aPj a'
partly immerfed perpendicularly in water, does not oTobje&s,
appear crooked as when it is obliquely plunged into
the fluid; but that which is within the water ftems to
be a continuation of that which is without. Withre-
fpeCI to the reflected image, however, of a perpen¬
dicular right line from a convex or concave mirror,
he fays, that it is not cafy for the eye to diftinguilh
the curve that it really makes; and that, if the ap¬
pearance of a perpendicular thread, part of which is
plunged in water, be clofely attended to, it will not
favour the common hypothefls. If the thread is of any
filming metal, as filver, and viewed obliquely, the
image of the part immerfed will appear to detach it-
felf fenfi-bly from that part which is without the water,
fo that it cannot be true that every objeCl: appears to
be in the fame place where the refraClei ray meets the
perpendicular ; and the fame obfervation, he thinks,,
may be extended to the cafe of reflection. Accord¬
ing to this writer, we refer every point of an object
to the place from which the pencils of light, that
give us the image of it, iflue, or from which they
would have iflued if no reflecting or refraCting fub-
ftance intervened. Purfuing this principle, he pro¬
ceeds to inveftigate the place in which the rays ifiuing
from each of the points of an object, and which reach
the eye after one reflection or refraction, meet; and
he found, that if the refraCting furface was plane,
and the refraCtion was made from a denfer medium
into a rarer, thofe rays would always meet in a place
between the eye and a perpendicular to the point of
incidence. If a convex mirror be ufed, the cafe will
be the fame ; but if the mirror be plane, the rays will
meet in the perpendicular, and beyond it if it be con-
The appa-
ent place,
&c. of
objects.
.211
“3V1. de la
-Hire’s ob-
fervatioi.s.
OPT
cave. He alfo determined, according to thefe prin¬
ciples, what form the image of a right line will take,
when it is prefenied in different manners to a fphcri-
cal mirror, or when it is feen through a refradting
medium.
Probable as Dr Barrow thought the maxim which
he endeavoured to eftabliih, concerning the fuppofed
place of vifible objects, he has the candour to mention
an objection to it, and to acknowledge that he was
not able to give a fatisfaftory folution of it. It is this.
Let an objeft be placed beyond the focus of a convex
lens ; and if the eye be clofe to the lens, it will appear
confufed, but very near to its true place. If the eye
be a little withdrawn, the confufion will increafe, and
the objedt will feem to come nearer; and when the
eye is very near the focus, the confufion will be ex¬
ceedingly great, and the objedt will feem to be clofe
to the eye. But in this experiment the eye receives
no rays but thofe that are converging ; and the point
from which they iffue is fo far from being nearer than
the objedl, that it is beyond it; notwithftanding
which, the objedt is conceived to be much nearer than
it is, though no very diftindt idea can be formed of its
-precife diftance. It may be obferved, that in reality, the
jays falling upon the eye in this cafe in a manner quite
different from that in which they fall upon it in other
circumftances, we can form no judgment about the
place from which they iffue. This fubjedt was afterwards
taken up by Berkeley, Smith,Montucla, and others.
M. de la Hire made feveral valuable obfervations
concerning the diftance of vifible objedts, and various
other phenomena of vilion, which are well worth our
notice. He alfo took particular pains to afcertain the
manner in which the eye conforms itfelf to the view of
objedts placed at different diftances. He enumerates
live circumftances, which affift us in judging of the
diftance of objects, namely, their apparent magnitude,
the ilrength of the colouring, the direction of the two
eyes, the parallax of the objects, and the diitinctnefs
of their fmall parts. Painters, he fays, can only take
advantage of the two firfl: mentioned circumftances,
and therefore pidtures can never perfedtly deceive the
eye ; but in the decorations of theatres, they, in feme
meafure, make ufe of them all. The fize of objedts,
and the ftrength of their colouring, are diminifhed in
proportion to the diftance at which they are intended
to appear. Parts of the fame objedl which are to ap¬
pear at different diftances, as columns in an order of
architedture, are drawn upon dift'erent planes, a little
removed from one another, that the two eyes may be
obliged to change their direction, in order to diftin-
guifhthe parts of thenearer planefrom thofeof the more
remote. The fmall diftance of the planes ferves to
make a fmall parallax, by changing the pofition of the
eye ; and as we do not preferve a diftinct idea of the
quantity of parallax, correfponding to the different
diftances of objedls, it is fufficient that we perceive
there is a parallax, to be convinced that tbefe planes
are diftant from one another, without determining
w’hat that diftance is ; and as to the laft circumftance,
viz. the diftindlnefs of the fmall parts of objedls, it is
of no ufe in difeovering the deception, on account of
the falfe light that is thrown upon thefe decorations.
I o thete obfervations concerning deceptions of
fight, we fhall add a fimilar one of M. le Cat, who
Na 249.
I C S. Partir.'
took notice that the reafon why we imagine objedls to The app».
be larger when they are feen through a mift, is the reDt P!ace
dimnefs or obfeurity with which they are then feen ;
this circumPcance being affociated with the idea of > ^ .
great diftance. This he fays is confirmed by our be- 212
ing furprifed to find, upon approaching fuch objedls,M le Cat,»
that they are fo much nearer to us, as well as fo ^uch ^fCt°“ent of
fmaller, than we had imagined. largenefs of
Among other cafes concerning vifion, which fellobje&s m
under the confideration of M. de la Hire, he men-m*^*
tions one which is of difficult folution. It is when a
candle, in a dark place, and fituated beyond the
limits of diftindl vifion, is viewed through a very nar¬
row chink in a card ; in which cafe a confiderable
number of candles, fometimes fo many as fix, will be
feen along the chink. This appearance he aferibes to
fmall irregularities in the furface of the humours of
the eye, the effect of which is not fenfible when rays
are admitted into the eye through the whole extent of
the pupil, and confequently one principal image effaces
a number of fmall ones ; whereas, in this cafe, each
of them is formed feparately, and no one of them is fo
confiderable as to prevent the others from being per¬
ceived at the fame time.
There are few perfons, M. de la Hire obferves,
who have both their eyes perfedtly equal, not only
with refpedt to the limits of diftindl vifion, but alfo
with refpedt to the colour with which objedls appear
tinged when they are viewed by them, efpecially if v
one of the eyes has been expofed to the imprefiion of
a ftrong light. To compare them together in this re-
fpect, he diredts us to take two thin cards, and to
make in each of them a round hole of a third or a
fourth of a line in diameter, and, applying one of them
to each of the eyes, to look through the holes on a
white paper, equally illuminated ; when a circle of
the paper will appear to each of the eyes, and, placing
the cards properly, thefe two circles may be made to
touch one another, and thereby the appearance of the
fame objedl to each of the eyes may be compared to
the greateft advantage. To make this experiment
with the greateft exadtnefs, it is neceffary, he fays,
that the eyes be kept ihut fome time before the cards
be applied to them.
M. de la Hire firft endeavoured to explain the caufe
of thofe dark fpots which feem to float before the eyes,
efpecially thofe of old people. They are moll vifible
when the eyes are turned towards an uniform white
objedl, as the fnow in the open fields. If they be
fixed when the eye is fo, this philofopher fuppofed
that they were occafioned by extravafated blood upon
the retina. But he thought that the moveable fpots
were occafioned by opaque matter fl@ating in the
aqueous humour of the eye. He thought the vitreous
humour was not fulficiently limpid-for this purpofe.
By the following calculation, M. de la Hire gives
us an idea of the extreme fenfibility of the optic nerves.
One may lee very eafily, at the diftance of 4000 toifes,
the fail of a wind-mill, 6 feet in diameter; and the
eye being fuppofed to be an inch in diameter,the pidture
ol this fail, at the bottom of the eye, will be of
an inch, which is lefs than the 66Cth part of a line, and
is about the 66th part of a common hair, or the hfth
part of a fingle thread of filk. So fmall, therefore,
mull one of the fibres of the optic nerve be, which he
fay«
Hate CCCLX
Partir. o P T
Apparent fays Is almbU inconceivable, fince each of thefe fibres
place, &c. *s a fyjjg that contains fpirits. If birds perceive di*
ofobjefts. ftant objea3 as wen as men, which he thinks very
V probable, he obferves that the fibres of their optic
113 nerves muft be much finer than ouis.
Berkeley’s perfon who firft took much notice of Dr Bar-
account of row,g hypotiief,s was the ingenious Dr Berkeley, bifhop
ment'fofm-of Cloyne, who diftinguifhed himfelf fo much by the
ed concern-objedfions which he ftarted to the reality of a material
ing diftance worldj and by his oppofition to the Newtonian doc^
bv confuted trlne ^ flllxiong. In his Effay towards a New Theory
10n' of Vifion, he obferves, that the circle formed upon the
retina, by the rays which do not come to a focus,
produce the fame confufion in the eye, whether they
crofs one another before they reach the retina, or
tend to do it afterwards ; and therefore that the
judgment concerning diftance will be the fame in both
the cafes, without any regard to the place from which
the rays originally iffued ; fo that in this cafe, as, by
receding from the lens, the confufion, which always
accompanies the nearnefs of an objedl, increafes, the
mind will judge that the objedt comes nearer.
Smith’s ac- But, fays Dr Smith, if this be true, the objedl
cuunt. ought always to appear at a lefs diftance from the eye
than that at which obje.fts are feen diftindlly, which
is not the cafe i and to explain this appearance, as
well as every other in which a judgment is formed
concerning diftance, he maintains, that we judge of it
by the apparent magnitude of objects only, or chiefly $
fo that, fince the image growslarger as we recede from
the lens through which it is viewed, we conceive the
objedl to come nearer. He alfo endeavours to fhow,
that, in all cafes in which glafles are ufed, we judge
of diftance by the fame fimple rule; from which he
concludes univerfally, that the apparent diftance of
an objedl feen in a glafs is to its apparent diftance
feen by the naked eye as the apparent magnitude to
the naked eye is to its apparent magnitude in the glafs.
But that we do not judge of diftance merely by the
angle under which objedls are feen, is an obfervation
as old as Alhazen, who mentions fevcral inftances, in
which, though the angles under which obje&s appear
US be different, the magnitudes are univerfally and in-
Obje&cd toftantaneoufly deemed not to be fo. And Mr Robins
brnsf^0* clearly fhows the hypothefis of Dr Smith to be con¬
trary to fadft in the moft common and fimple cafes.
In microfcopes, he fays, it is impoffible that the eye
Ihould judge the objeft to be nearer than the diftance
at which it has viewed the objeft itfell, in proportion
to the degree of magnifying. For when the micro-
fcope magnifies much, this rule would place the image
at a diftance, of which the fight cannot pofiibly form
any opinion, as being an interval from the eye at
Which no objedft can be feen. In general, he fays, he
believes, that whoever looks at an objedl through a
convex glafs, and then at the objed itfelf without
the glafs, will find it to appear nearer in the latter
cafe, though it be magnified in the glafs ; and in the
fame trial with the concave glafs, though by the glafs
the objed be diminifhed, it will appear nearer through
the glafs than without it.
But the moft convincing proof that the apparent
diftance of the image is not determined by its apparent
magnitude, is the following experiment. If a double
convex glafs be held upright before fome luminous
Vol. XIII, Part I.
I ' C S. 329
objedj as a candle, there will be feen two images, Apparent
one ered, and the other inverted. The full is made 0f0|,je(as,
Amply by refledion from the neareft furface, the.—J
fecond by refledion from the farther furface, the rays
undergoing a refradion from the firft furface both be¬
fore and after the refledion. If this glafs has not tod
ftiort a focal diftance, when it is held near the objed,
the inverted image wiil appear larger than the other*
and alfo nearer ; but if the glafs be carried off from
the objed* though the eye remain as near to it as be¬
fore, the inverted image will diminifh fo much falter
than the other, that, at length, it will appear very
much lefs than it, but ftill nearer. Here, fays Mr
Robins, two images of the fame objed are feen under
one view, and their apparent diftances immediately
compared ; and here it is evident, that thofe diftances
have no neceflary connedion with the apparent mag¬
nitude. He alfo ftiows how this experiment may be
made ftill more convincing, by flicking a piece of
paper on the middle of the lens, and viewing it through
a ftiort tube, sik
M* Bouguer adopts the general maxim of Dr Bar- M. Bou-
row, in luppoling that we refer objeds to the place
from which the pencils of rays feemingly converge
their entrance into the pupil. But when fays iffue
from below the furface of a veffel of water, or any
other refrading medium, he finds that there are always
two different places of this feeming convergence ; one
of them of the rays that iffue from it in the fame ver¬
tical circle, and therefore fall with different degrees of
obliquity upon the furface of the refrading medium ;
and another, of thofe that fall upon the furface with
the fame degree t>f obliquity, entering the eye laterally
with refped to one another. Sometimes, he fays,
one of thefe images is attended to by the mind, ami
fometimes the other, and different images may be ob-
ferved by different perfons. An objed plunged in
water affords an example, he fays, of this duplicity of
images.
If BA £ (fig. i.) be part of the furface of water, piate
and the objed be at O, there will be two images ofcCCLST
it in two different places; one at G, on the cauftic
by refradion, and the other at E, in the perpendicu¬
lar AO, which is as much a cauftic as the other line.
The former image is vifible by the rays ODM, O dmy
which are one higher than the other, in their progrefs %
to the eye whereas the image at E is made by the
rays ODM, O e f, which enter the eye laterally. This,
fays he, may ferve to explain the difficulty of Father
Tacquet, Barrow, Smith, and many other authors,
and which Newton himfelf confidered as a veiy diffi¬
cult problem, though it might not be abfolutely info-
luble.
G. W. Kraft has ably fupported the Opinion of Dr
Barrow, that the place of any point, feen by reflec¬
tion from the furface ©f any medium, is that in which
rays iffuing from it, infinitely near to one another*
would meet; and confidering the cafe of a diftant ob¬
jed, viewed in a concave mirror, by an eye very near
to it, when the image, according to Euclid and other
WTiters, would be between the eye and the objed, and
the rule of Dr Barrow cannot be applied ; he fays
that in this cafe the fpeculum may be confidered as
a plane, the effed being the fame, only the imaere is
more obfeure.
Tt
Dr
33°. OPT
Apparent Dr Porterfield gives a diftindl and comprehenfive
of obkftt vi.ew of the natural methods of judging concerning the
». ') diftance of pbjedls. ,
217 The conformation of the eye, he obferves, can be
Pr PGrtrr- 0f no ufe to us with refpedt to objeds that are placed
of thisVfubVwIth°Ut l^e Iimits of diftl'nc^ vifi°n. As the object,
jetf. however, does then appear more or lefs confufed, ac¬
cording as ft is more or lefs removed from thofe li¬
mits, this confufion affifts the mind in judging of the
diftance of the objedt ; it being always efteemed fo
much the nearer, or the farther off, by how much
the confufion is greater. But this confufion hath its li¬
mits alfo, beyond which it can never extend ; for
when an object is placed at a certain diftance from the
eye, to which the breadth of the pupil heaps no fen-
fible proportion, the rays of light that come from a
point in the objedt and pafs the pupil, are fo little di¬
verging, that they may be confidered as parallel. For
a pidfure on the retina will not be fenfibly more con¬
fufed, though the objedt be removed to a much greater
diftance.
The moft univerfal, and frequently the moft fure
means of judging of the diftance of objedls is. he fays,
the angle made by the optic axis. For our two eyes
are like two different ftations, by the aftiitance of
which d 1 fiances are taken ; and this is the reafon why
thofe perfonswho are blind of one eye, fo frequently
mifs their mark in pouring liquor into a glafs, fnuff-
mg a candle, and fuch other adlions as require that
the diftance be exaftly diftinguifhed. To convince
ourfelves of the ufefulnefs of this method of judging of
the diftance of objeAs, he diredls us to fufpend a r ng
in a thread, fo that its fide may be towards us and
the hole in it to the right and left hand ; and taking
a fmall rod, crooked at the end, retire from the ring
two or three paces, and having with one hand cover¬
ed one of our eyes, to endeavour with the other to pafs
the crooked end of the rod through the ring. i hb,
fays he, appears very eafy ; and yet, upon trial, pei-
haps once in icp times we {hall not fucceed, efpe-
cially if we move the rod a little quickly.
Our author obferves, that by perf#ns recollefting
the time when they began- to be fubjedt to the mj-
ilakes aliove mentioned, they may tell when it was
that they loft the ufe ©f one of their eyes ; which
many perfons are long ignorant of, and which may be
See a circumftance of fome confequence to a phyfician
*1° 360. * fecond method of judging of diftances
De Chales limited to 120 feet; beyon<f which, he fays,
we are not fcnlible of any difference in the angle of
the optic axis.
A third method of judging of the diftance of ob-
jedls, conlifts in their apparent magnitudes, on which
fo much ft refs was laid by Dr Smith. From this
change in the magnitude of the image upon the reti¬
na, we eafily judge of the diftance of objedls, as often
as we are otherwife acquainted with the magnitude of
the objefis themfclves ; but as often as \ye are igno¬
rant of the real magnitude of bodies, we can never,
from their apparent magnitude, form any judgment of
thfir dtftatjce.
From this we may fee why we are fo frequently de¬
ceived in our eftimates of diftance, by any extraordi¬
nary magnitudes of obje&s feen at the end of it: as
m travelling towards a large city, or a caftle, or <t ca¬
thedral church, or a mountain larger than ordinary,'
* C & parc
we fancy them to be nearer than we find them to be. Apparent
This alfo is the reafon why animals, and all fmall ob- Place: &c*
je£b,. feen in valleys, contiguous to large mountains,
appear exceedingly fmall. For we think the moun¬
tain nearer to us than if it were fmaller; and we
fhould not be furprifed at the fmallnefs of the neigh¬
bouring animals, if we thought them farther off.
For the fame reafon, we think them exceedingly
fmall, when they are placed upon the top of a moua-
tain, or a large building ; which appear nearer to
us than they really are, on account of their extraor*
dinary lize.
Hr [urm clearly accounts for our imagining objefts, WhyobjefU-
when feen from a high building, to be fmaller than feen from
they are, and fmaller than we fancy them to be when a k'gh
we view them at the fame diftanee on level ground. It
is, fays he, becaufe we have no diftmft idea of di- than diey*
llance in that direction, and therefore judge ef things are.
by their pidlures upon the eye only ; but cuftom will
enable us to judge rightly £ very in this cafe.
Let a boy, fays he, who has never been upon any
high building, go to the ?op of the monument, and ,
look down into the ftreet; the objedls feen there, as
men and horfes, will appear fo fmall as greatly to fur-,
prife him. But 10 or 20 years after, if in the mean
time he has ufed himfelf now and then to look down,
from that and other great heights, he will no longer
find the fame objetls to appear fi> final! And if he
was to view the lame objects from fuch heights as fre¬
quently as he fees them upon the fame level.with him-
felf in the ftreets, he fuppofes that they would appear
to him juft of the fame magnitude from the top of
the monument, as they do from a window one ftory.
high. For this reafon it is, that ftatues placed upon
very high buildings ought to he made of a larger iize
than thofe which are feeu at a nearer diftance ; be-
canfe all perfons, except archite£ls, are apt to imagine
the height of fuch buildings to be much lefs than it
really is.
1 he fourth method by which Dr Porterfield fays
that we judge of the diftance of objedls, is the force
with which their colour ftnkes upon our eyes. For if
we be allured that two objects are of a fimilar and like
colour, and that one appears more bright and lively
than the other, we judge that the brighter object is
the nearer of the two.
The fifth method confifts in the different appearance
of the fmall parts of objedls. When thefe parts appear
diftinft, we judge that the objedl is near; but when
they appear confufed, or when they do not appear at
all, we judge that it is at a greater diftance. For the
image of any objeeft, or part of an objeift, diminilhes
as the diftance of it increafes.
I he fixth and laft method by which we judge of
the diftance of obje£ls is, that the eye does not repre-
fent to our mind one objedl alone, but at the lame
time a!! thofe that are placed betwixt us and the prin¬
cipal objedl, whofe diftance we are confidering ; and
the more this diftan.ee is divided into feparate and di-
ftinfl parts, the greater it appears to be. For this
reafon, diftances upon uneven furfaees appear lefs than
upon a plane :. for the inequalities of the furfaces,
fuch as hills, and holes, and riveps, that lie low and
out of fight, either do not appear, or hinder the parts
that lie behind them from appearing; and fo the whole
apparent diftance is diminilhed by the parts that do
not
Part M. ' OPT
^pj arent not eppear in it. This is the reafon that the banks of
jlate, &C, a rjver appear contiguous to a diftant eye, when the
ut objtC s. r-ver jow an(^ noj. feeni
219 Dr Porterfield very well explains feveral fallacies in
Several fat vifion depending upon our mifiaking the difiances of
lacicsol vi-Gj:je^g> Qf this kind, he fays, is the appearance of
v!!ained. parallel lines, and long villas confifting of parallel
rows of trees; for they feem to convetge more and
more as they are farther extended Irom the eye. The
reafon of this, he fays, is becaufe the apparent mag¬
nitudes of their perpendicular intervals are perpetual¬
ly di mini filing, while, at the fame time, we mifiake
their diftance. Hence we may lee why, when two
parallel rows of trees fiand upon an afeent, whereby
the more remote parts appear farther off than they
• really are, becaufe the line that meafuresthe length of
the villas now appears under a greater angle than when
it was horizontal, the trees, in inch a cafe, will feem
to converge lefs, and fometimes, inftead of conver¬
ging, they will be thought to diverge.
For the fame reafon that a long villa appears to
converge more and more the farther it is extended
from the eye, the remoter parts of a horizontal walk
or a long Hour will appear to afeend gradually ; and
objtdls placed upon it, the more remote they are the
higher they will appear, trll the lafi be leen on a level
with the eye ; whereas the ceiling of a long gallery
appears to deicend towards a horizontal line, drawn
from the eye of the Ipedtator. For this reafon, alfo,
the lurface of the fta, feen from an eminence, feems
to rife higher and higher the farther we look ; and the
upper parts of high buildings feem to Hoop, or in¬
cline forwards over the eye below, becaufe they feem
to approach towards a vertical line proceeding from
the Ipedlator’s eye ; fo that llatues on the top of luch
buildings, in order to appear upright, mufi recline.,
or bend backwards.
Our author alio fiiows the reafon why a windmill,
feen from a great difiance, is iometimes imagined to
move the contrary way irom what it really dots, by
our taking the ntaier end of the fail for the more re¬
mote. '1 he uncertainty we fometimes find in the
comfe of the motion of a branch of lighted candles,
turned round at a difiance, is owing, he fays, to the
fame caufe ; as alfo our iometimes mifiaking a convex
for a concave furiace, more eipecially in viewing feals
and imprelfions with a convex glafs or a double mi-
crofcope ; and laftly, that, upon coming in a dark
night into a fireet, in which there is but one row
of lamps, we often miftake the fide of the fireet they
are on. ’
Far more light was thrown upon this curious fub-
i je& by M. Bouguer.
C, 52°r ht PTOPer method of drawing the appearance of
thrown "up -two rows °* trees t*iat aPPear parallel to the eye,
on this fub-is a problem which has exercifed the ingenuity ®f fe-
jeeft by M. veral philofophers and mathematicians. That the ap-
Bouguer. parent magnitude of objects decreales with the angle
under which they are leen, has always been acknow¬
ledged. It is alfo acknowledged, that it is only by
cullom and experience that we leant to form a judge¬
ment both of magnitudes and diitances. But in the
application of theie maxims to the above mentioned
problem, all perfons, before M. Bouguer, made uie
of the real diftanoe inikad of the apparent one ; by
I C S, 331
which only the mind can form its judgmetfi. _ Arid it Apparent
is manifett, that, if any circumfiances contribute to
make the diftance appear otherwiie than it is in rea-1„ ^
lity, the apparent magnitude ©1 the object will be
affected by it; for the fame reafon* that, if the mag¬
nitude be mifnpprehended, the idea of the diftance
will vary.
For want of attending to this diftin&ion, Tacquet
pretended to demonftrate, that nothing can give the
idea of two parallel lines (rows of trees for m.tance)
to an eye fituated at one of their extremities, but two
hyperbolical curves, turned the contrary way ; and
M. Varignon maintained, that in order to make a
villa appear of the fame width, it mufi be made nai-
rower, inftead of wider, as it recedes from the eye.
M. Bouguer obferves, that very great difiances, and
thofe that are coriliderably lefs than they, make near¬
ly the fame impreffion upon the eye. We, th-reiore,
always imagine great difiances to be lels than they are;
and for this reaion the ground plan of a long vifia al¬
ways appears to rile. The viiual rays come in a de¬
terminate direction ; but as we imagine that they ter¬
minate looner than they do, we neceflarily conceive
that the place from which they iflue is elevated, li¬
very large plane, therefore, as AB, \Tg. 2.) viewed by piate
an eye at O, will feem to lie in fuch a direCtioa as CCCLXf.
; and confequently lines, in order to appear truly
parallel on the plane AB, mufi be drawn io as that
they would appear parallel on the plane A£, and be
from thence piojeded to the plane AB.
To determine the inclination of the apparent ground-
plan AT to the true ground-plan AB, our ingeni¬
ous author directs us^ to draw upon a piece of level
ground two firaight lines of a lufficient iength (for
which purpoft lines fafiened to fmall flicks are very
convenient), making an angle of 3 or 4 degrees v, ith 1
one another. Then a perron, placing himieif within
the angle, with his back towards the angular point,
mufi walk backwards and forwards till he can fancy
the lines to be parallel. In this ifiliation, a line drawn
from the point of the angle thro" the place of his eye,
will contain the fame angle with the true ground-
plan which this does with the apparent one.
M. Bouguer then fhows other mote geometrical
methods of determining this inclination j and fays,
that by thefe means he has often found it to be 4 or 5
degrees, though fometimes only 2 or 2l- degrees. The
determination of this angle, he obferves, is variable ;
depending upon the manner in which the ground is il¬
luminated and the intenfity of the light, the colour
of the foil is alfo not without its influence, as well as
the particular conformation of the eye, by which it is
more or lefs affeCted by the fame degree of light, and
alfo the part of the eye on which the object is paint¬
ed. When, by a flight motion of his head, he con¬
trived, that certain parts of the foil, the. image of
which fell towards the bottom of his eye, fhouid fall
towards the top of the retina, he always thought that
this apparent inclination became a little greater.
But what is very remarkable, and what he fays he
can affure his reader may be depended upon, is, that
if he look towards a rifmg ground, the difference be¬
tween tnt apparent ground-plan and the true one will
be much more confiderabie, fo that they will fome¬
times make an angle of 25 or 30 degrees. Of this he
T t 2 had
332 OPT
Appare: t made frequent obfervations. Mountains, he fays,
of^ob'edts beSIn to be inacceffible when their tides make an angle
i . '■ from 35 to 37 degrees with the horizon, as then it is
not poffible to climb th^m but by means of Hones or
Ihrubs, to ferve as Heps to fix the feet on. In thcfe
cafes, both he and his companions always agreed that
, the apparent inclination of the fide of the mountain
was 6o or 70 degrees.
Plate Thef- deceptions are reprefented in fig. 3. in which,
CCCLXI. when the ground plan AM, or AN, are much incli¬
ned, the apparent ground-plan A.?ra, or An, makes a
very large angle with it. On the contrary, if the
ground dips below the level, the inclination of the ap¬
parent to the true ground-plan diminifhes, till, at a
certain degree of the Hope, it becomes nothing at all ;
the two plans AP and A/> being the fame, fo that pa¬
rallel lines drawn upon them would always appear fo.
if the inclination below the horizon is carried beyond
the fituation AP, the error will increafe ; and what is
very remarkable, it will be on the contrary fide; the
apparent plan Ar being always below the true plan
AR, fo that if a perfon would draw upon the plau AR
lines that fhall appear parrdlel to the eye, they muft
be drawn converging, and not diverging, as is ufual on
the level ground; becaufe they mult be the projedtions
of two lines imagined t© be parallel, on the plan Ar,
which is more inclined to the horizon than AR.
Thefe remarks, he obferves, are applicable to diffe¬
rent planes expofed to the eye at the fame time. For
if 15H, fig. 4. be the front of a building, at the di-
fiance of AB from the eye, it will be reduced in ap¬
pearance to the diftance A and the front of the
building will be bh, rather inclined towards the fpec-
tator, unlefs the difiance be inconfiderable.
After making a great number of obfervations upon
this fubjedl, our author concludes, that when a man
Hands upon a level plane, it does not feem to rife fen-
fibly but at fome diftance from him. The apparent
plane, therefore, has a curvature in it, at that diftance,
the form of which is not very eafy to determine; fo
that a man Handing upon a level plane, of infinite ex¬
tent, will imagine that he Hands in the centre of a ba-
fon. This is alfo, in fome meafure, the cafe with a
perfon Handing upon the level of the fea.
He concludes with obferving, that there is no dif¬
ficulty in drawing lines according to thefe rules, fo as
to have any given effedl upon the eye, except when
fome parts of the profpeft are very near the fpe£lator,
and others very difiant from him; becaufe, in this cafe,
regard muft be had to the conical or conoidal figure of
a lurface. A right line palling at a fmall diftance from
the obferver, and below the level of his eye, in that
cafe almoft always appears fenfibly curved at a certain
diftance from the eye ; and almoft all figures in this
cafe are fubjeft to fome complicated optical alteration
to which the rules of perfpedtive have not as yet been
extended. If a circle be dr.nvn near our feet, and
within that part of the ground which appears level
to us, it will always appear to be a circle, and at
a very confiderable diftance it will appear an ellipfe ;
but between thefe two lunations, it will not appear to
be either the one or the other, but will be like one of
thqfe ovals of Defcartes, which is more curved on one
of its fides than the other.
On thefe principles a parterre, which appears dif-
^ ? C S. Part II<
torted when it is feen in a low fituation, appears per- Apparent
fe£lly regular when it is viewed from a balcony or P!ace> &«-
any ocher eminence. Still, however,, the apparent ir- ollje&s-
regularity takes place at a greater diftance, while the
part that is near the fpedlator is exempt from it. - If
AB, fig. 5. be the ground plane, and Aa be a per¬
pendicular, under the eye, the higher it is fituated, at
O, to the greater diftance will T, the place at which
the plane begins to have an apparent afeent along T6,
be removed.
All the varieties that can occur with refpeft to the
vifible motion of objecls, are thus fuccindly fummtd
up by Dr Porterfield under eleven heads.
1. An object moving very fwiftly is not feen, unlefs
it be very luminous. Thus a cannon-ball is not feen if
it is viewed tranfverfely : but if it be viewed accord¬
ing to the line it deferibes, it may be feen, fcecaufe its
pi&ure continues long on the fame place of the retina;
which, therefore, receives a more ftnfible impreffion
from the objedl.
2. A live coal fwung brilkly round in a circle ap¬
pears a continued circle of fire, becaufe the impreffions
made on the retina by light, being of a vibrating, and
confequently of a lading nature, do not presently pe-
riih, but continue till the coal performs its whole cir¬
cuit, and returns again to its former place.
3. If two objecls, unequally dillant from the eye,
move with equal velocity, the more remote one will
appear the flower ; or, if their celerities be propor¬
tional to their diftances, they will appear equally
fwift.
4. If two objeffs, unequally diftant from the eye,
move with unequal velocities in the fame direftion,
their apparent velocities are in a ratio compounded of
the diredft ratio of their true velocities, and the reci¬
procal one of their diftances from the eye.
5. A vifible obje6t moving with any velocity appears
to be at reft, if the fpace deferibed in the interval of
one fecond be imperceptible at the diftance of the eye.
Hence it is that a near objeef moving very flowly, as
the index of a clock, or a remote one very fwiftly, as
a planet, feems to be at reft.
6. An obje£I moving with any degree of velocity
will appear at reft, if the fpace it runs over in a fe¬
cond of time be to its diftance from the eye as 1 to
1400.
7. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to
another, a lateral object, not too far off, whether on
the right or left, will feem to move the contrary-
way.
8. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to
another, and being fenfible of its motion, diftant ob-
jedls will feem to move the fame way, and with the
lame velocity. Thus, to a perfon running eaitwards,
the moon on his right hand appears to move the fame
way, and with equal fwiftnefs; for, by reafon of its
diltance, its image continues fixed upon the fame place
of the retina, from whence we imagine that the object
moves along with the eye.
9. If the eye and the object move both the fame
way, only the eye much fwifter than the objedt, the
laft will appear to go backwards.
10. If two or more objedts move with the fame velo¬
city, and a third remain at reft, the moveable ones
will appear fixed, and the quiefeent in motion the
4 contrary
of object1'-
C)r Porter
field’* ac-
Part Hr OPT
Apparent contrary way. Thus clouds m®ving* very fwiftly, their
place, Sc. parts feem to preferve their fituation, and the moon
to move the contrary way.
ii. If the eye be moved witi great velocity, lateral
obje&s at re It appear to move the contrary way.
Thus to a perfon fitting in a coach, and riding briflcly
through a wood, the trees feem to retire the contrary
way ; and to people io a fhip, See. the ihores feem to
recede. .
At the conclufion of thefe obfervations, our author
endeavours to explain another phenomenon of motion,
MeKi * enucdwuLo uw  r-— :
count ofob- which, though very common and well known, had
not, as far as he knew, been explained in a fatisfac-
movetoa tory manner. It is this: If a perfon turns fwiftly
giddy per- round, without changing his place, all obje&s about
fonwhenhewjjj fecm to move round in a circle the contrary way;
jeSts ap¬
pearing to
move to a
and they j this deception continues not only while the perfon
are both at “ r . . , . , / r •/-_
ril.
Jia
Dr Wells
accounts
for thisph
Doxnenon.
himfelf moves round; but, which is more furprifing,
it alfo continues for fome time after he ceafes to
move, when the eye, as well as the obje&, is at abfo-
lute reft.
The reafon why obje&s appear to move roupd the
contrary way, when the eye turns round, is not fo dif¬
ficult to explain : for though, properly fpeaking, mo¬
tion is not feen, as not being in itfelf the immediate
obje& of fight; yet by the fight we eafily know when
the image changes its place on the retina, and thence
conclude that either the objeft, the eye, or both, are
moved. But by the fight alone we can never deter¬
mine how far this motion belongs to the object, how
far to the eye, or how far to both. If we imagine
the eye at reft, we aferibe the whole motion to the
obje&, though it be truly at reft. If we imagine the
objed at reft, we aferibe the whole motion to the
eye, though it belongs entirely to the objed; and when
the eye is in motion, though we are fenlible of its
motion, yet, if we do not imagine that it moves fo
fwiftly as it really does, we aferibe only a part of the
motion to the eye, and the reft: of it we aferibe to the
objed, though it be truly at reft. This laft, he fays,
is what happens in the prefent cafe, when the eye
turns round; for though we are fcnfible of the motion
of the eye, yet we do not apprehend that it moves fo
faft as it really does ; and therefore the bodies about
appear to move the contrary way, as is agreeable to
experience.
But the great difficulty ftill remains, via. Why,
after the eye ceafcs to move, ohje&s ftiould, for iome
time, ftill appear to continue in motion, though their
pidutea on the retina be truly at-reft, and do not at
all change their place. This, he imagined, proceeds
from a miftake we are in with refped to the eye,
which, though it be abfolutely at reft, we neverthelefs
conceive as moving the contrary way to that in
which it moved before ; from which miftake, with re¬
fped to the motion of the eye, the obje&s at reft will
appear to move the fame way which the eye is ima¬
gined to move ; and, confcquently, will feem to con¬
tinue their motion for fome time after the eye is at
reft.
This is ingenious, but perhaps not juft. An ac¬
count of this matter, which feems to us more fatis-
e fadory, has been lately given to the public by
Dr Wells. “ Some of the older writers upon op¬
tics (fays this able philofopher) imagined the vifive
fpirfts to be contained in the head, as.water is in a
ICS. 335
veffel; which, therefore, when cnce put in motion by Apparent,
the rotation of our bodies, muft continue in it for
fome time after this has ceafed ; and to this real cir- ^——<
cular movement of the viiive fpirits, while the body
is at reft, they attributed the apparent motions of ob¬
je&s in giddinefs. Dechales faw the weaknefs of
this hypothefis ; and conjedured, that the phenome¬
non might be owing to a real movement of the eyes;
but produced no fad in proof of his opinion. Dr Por¬
terfield, on the contrary, fuppofed the difficulty oi
explaining it to confilt in ftiowing, why objects at reft
appear in motion to an eye which is aifo at reft 1 ho
folution he offered of this reprefentation of the phe¬
nomenon, is not only extremely ingenipns, but is I
believe the only probable one which can be given. Ic
does not apply, however, to the fad which truly ex-
ifts ; for I ihall immediately (how, that the eye is not
at reft, as he imagined. The laft author 1 know of
who has touched upon this fubjed is Dr Darwin.
His words are, ‘ When any one turns round rapidly
on one foot till he becomes dizzy, and falls upon the
ground, the fpe&ra of the ambient objeds continue to
prefent themf&ves in rotation, or appear to hbrate,
and he feerns to behold them for fome time in mo¬
tion.’ I do not indeed pretend tounderftand his opi¬
nion fully; but this much feems clear, that if luch an
apparent motion of the furrounding objeds depends in
any way upon their fpe&ra, or the illufive repreienta-
tions of thofe objeds, occafioned by their former im-
preffions upon the retinas, no fimilar motion would be
obferved, were we to turn ourfelves round with our
eyes fhut, and not to open them till we became giddy;
for in this cafe, as the furrounding objeds could ndt
fend their pi&ures to the retinas, there would conle-
quently be no fpe&ra to prefent themfelves afterward
in rotation. But whoever will make the experiment,
will find, that objeds about him appear to be equally
in motion, when he has become giddy by turning him¬
felf round, whether this has been done with his eyes
open or ffiut. I ffiall now venture to propofe my own
opinion upon this fubjed.
“ If the eye be at reft, we judge an objed to be Uro2n2^h3t
in motion when its pi&ure falls in fucceeding times up- data we
on different parts of the retina; and if the eye be in judge yifi-
motion, we judge an objed to be at reft, as long as’:,le obie<ft*
the change in the place of its pi&ure upon the retina motjon or
holds a certain correfpondence with the change of the at reft,
eye’s pofition. Let us now fuppofe the eye to be in
motion, while, from fome diforder in the fyftem of
fenfation, we are either without thofe feelings which
indicate the various pofitions of the eye, or are not
able to attend to them. It is evident, that in fuch a
Hate of things an objed at reft muft appear to be in
motion, fince it fends in fucceeding times its pi&ure
to different paits of the retina. And this feems to be
what happens in giddinefs. 1 was firft led to think .
fo from obferving, that, during a flight fit of giddinefs
I was accidentally feized with, a coloured fpot, occa¬
fioned by looking fttadily at a luminous body, and up¬
on which 1 happened at that moment to be making an
experiment, was moved in a manner altogether inde¬
pendent of the pofitions I conceived my eyes to pof-
fefs. To determine this point, I again produced the
fpot, by looking fome time at the flame of a candle :
then turning myfelf round till I became giddy, I fud-
denly difeontinued this motion, and dired.ed my eyes
to-
•334
O
Apparent
place, &c.
ef obje<51:s.
2^4
to the middle of a flieet of paper, fixed upon the wall
of my chamber. The fpot now appeared upon the
paper, but only for a moment ; for it immediately af-
t.T feemed to move to one fide, and the paper to the
other, Botwithilanding 1 conceived the poikion of my
Curious ex eyes to be in the mean while unchanged. To go on
periments wkh the experiment, when the paper and fpot had
^.^ceitain proceCded to a certain diftance from each other, they
fuddenly came together again ; and this reparation and
conjunftionwere alternately repeated a number of times,
the linuto4of the feparation gradually becoming lefs, till
at length the paper and fpot both appeared to be at
reft, and the latter to be projected upon the middle of
the former. I found alfo, upon repeating and varying
the experiment a little, that when 1 had turned myfelf
from left to right, the paper moved from right
to left, and the fpot confequently the contrary way ;
but that when I had turned from right to left, the pa¬
per would then move from left to right. Thele were
the appearances obferved while I flood eretf. When
1 inclined, however, my head in fuch a manner as to
bring the fide of my face parallel to the horizon, the
fpot and paper would then move from each other, one
upward and the other downward. But all thefe phe¬
nomena demonftiate, that there was a real jnotion in
my eyes at the time I imagined thim to be at reft ;
for the apparent fituation of the fpot, with refpedl to
the paper, could not poffihly have been altered, with¬
out a real change of the pofkion of thofe organs. To
have the fame thing proved in another way, I defired
a perfon to turn quickly round, till he became very
giddy ; then to flop hirrifelf, and look fledfaftly at me.
He did fo, and I could plainly fee, that although he
thought his eyes were fixed, they were in reality mo
ving in their fockets, firlt toward one fide and then
toward the other.”
M. Le Cat well explains a remarkable deception,
by which a perfon ftiall imagine an objeft to be on
'the oppofite fide of a board, when it is not fo, and al¬
fo inverted and magnified. It is illuftrated by fig. 6.
in which D reprefents the eye, and CB a large
CCCkXI. biack board, pierced with a fmall hole. E is a Ifuge
'whiteboard, placed beyond it, and ftrongly illumi¬
nated ; and d a pin, or other fmall object, held be¬
twixt the eye and the fu ft board. In thefe circum-
ftances, the pin fhnll be imagined to be at F, on the
other fide of the board, where it will appear inverted
and magnified ; becaufe what is in fad! perceived, is
the ftiadow of the pin upon the retina ; and the light
that is flopped by the upper part of the pin coming
from the lower part of the enlightened board, and
that which is flopped by the lower part coming from
the upper part of the board, the ftiadow muft necef-
farily be inverted with refpedl to the objedl.
There is a curious phenomenon relating to vifion,
which fome perfons have aferibed to the infledlion of
light, but which Mr Melville explains in a very diffe¬
rent and very Ample manner.
When any opaque body is held at the diftance of
three or four inches from the eye, fo that a part of
-cKpyn. feme more diftant luminous objed!, fuch as the win-
JMelville' ^ow’ or the flame of a candle, may be feen by rays
palling r.eai its edge, if another opaque body, neater
to the eye, be brought acrofs from the oppofite fide,
.the edge of the firft body will feem to fwell out-
225
A remark¬
able decep¬
tion ex¬
plained by
M. le Cat
Plate
226
A curious
■phenome-
I C S.
Part II.
wards, and meet the latter ; and in doing fo will in- Concavity
tercept a portion of the luminous objeit thac was feen0^ ^
before. '1 '■,f’
This appearance he explains in the following man¬
ner: Let AB (fig. 7.) repreferrt the luminous objedl
to which the fight is diredled, Cf) the more diftant
opaque body, GH the nearer, and EF the diameter
of the pupil. Join ED, FD, EG, FG, and produce
them till they meet AB in K, N, M, and L. It is
plain that the parts AN, MB, of the luminous objedt
cannot be feen. ’But taking any point a between N
and K, and drawing a 1) d, fmee the portion d F of
the pupil is filled with light flowing from that point,
it muft be vilible. Any point b, between a and K,
muft fill/F, a greater portion of the pupil, and there¬
fore muft appear brighter. Again, any point c> be¬
tween b and K, muft appear brighter than b, becaufe
it fills a greater portion^ F with light. The point K
ttfelf, and every other point iq the fpace KL, mull
appear very luminous, fince they fend entire pencils of
rays EKF, ELF, to the eye ; and the vifible bright*
nefs of every point from L towards M, muft decreafe
gradually, as from K to N , that is, the fpaces KN,
LM, will appear as dim ihadowy borders, or fringes,
adjacent to the edges of the opaque bodies.
When the edge G is brought to touch the right
line KF, the penumbras unite; and as loan as it reached
ND F, the above phenomenon begins ; for it cannot
pals that right line without meeting fome line a D dt
drawn from a point between N and K, and, by inter¬
cepting all the rays that fail upon the pupil, render it
invifible. In advancing gradually to the line KDE,
it will meet other lines b D/, c Yd g. See. and there¬
fore render the points b, c, See. from N to K, fuccef-
fively invifible ; and therefore the edge of the fixed
opaque body CD muft feem to fwell outwards, and
cover the whole fpace NK; while GH, by its motion,
covers MK. When GH is placed at a greater diftance
from the eye, CD continuing fixed, the fpace OP to
be paffed over in order to intercept NK is lefs ; and
therefore, with an equal motion of GH, the apparent
fwelling of CD muft be quicker ; which is found true
by experience*
If ML reprefent a luminous objedl, and REFQ^
any plane expofed to its light, the fpace FQ^will be
entirely ftiaded from the rays, and the fpace FE will
be occupied by a penumbra, gradually darker, from
E to F. Let now GH continue fixed, and CD move
parallel to the plane EF; and as foon as it paffes the
line LF, it is evident that the ftiadow QJ*’ will feerrt
to fwell outwards ; and when CD reaches ME, fo as
to cover with its fhadow the fpace RE, QJ’, by its
extenfion, will cover FE. This is found to hold true
likevvife by experiment.
§ 4. Of the Concave Figure of the Sky.
This apparent concavity is only an optical ^eceP“pxt*2/rf
tion founded on the incapacity of our organs of vifion the yjfible
to take in very large diftances. — Dr Smith, in hishoriz non
Complete Syftem of Optics, hath demonftrated, that,a plane
if the furface of the earth was perfectly plane, the di-iur^acc‘
fiance of the vifible horizon from the eye would fcarce
exceed the diftance of 5000 times the height of the
eye above the ground, fuppofing the height of the
eye between five and fix feet: beyond this diftance,
3-
Fnrt IL OPT
Corcavit/ all obje&a would appear In the vlfible horizon. For,
pf the Sky jet QP be the height of the eye above the line PA
1 drawn upon the ground ; and if an object AB, equal
CCOLXI. in height to PO, be removed to a dillance PA equal
fig. 8. to 5000 times that height, it will hardly be vifible by
reafon of the fmallnefs of the angle AOB. Confe-
quently any diftance AC, how great foever, beyond
A, will be invifible. For fince AC and BO are
parallel, the ray CO will always cut AB in fome
point D between A and B : and therefore the angle
AOC, or AOD, will always be lefs than AOB, and
therefore \D or AC will be invifible, Confequendy
all objefts and clouds, as CE and FG, placed at all
diftances beyond A, if they be high enough to be
vifible, or to fubtend a bigger angle at the eye than
AOB, will appear at the horizon AB ; becaufe the
diftance AC is invifible.
Why a Eng Hence, if wefuppofe a vafl long row of objedts, or a
row of ob- vaft ionrr wall ABZY(fig. 9.), built upon this plane, and
jedb ap its perpendicular diftance OA from the eye at O to
LV.1 U1 ' he equal to or greater than the diftance Q a of the
vifible horizon, it will not appear ftraight, but circular,
as if it was built upon the circumference of the
horizon acegy : and if the wall be continued to an
iminenfe diftance, its extreme parts YZ will appear
in the horizon at yz, where it is cut by a line'Oy pa.
rallel to the wall. For, funpofing a ray YO, the
angle YOy will become infenfibly. fmall. Imagine
this infinite plane OAYy, with the wall upon it, to
be turned about the horizontal line O like the lid of a
box, till it becomes perpendicular to the other half
of the horizontal plane LMy, and the wall parallel to
it, like a vaft ceiling over head ; and then the wall
will appear like the concave figure of the clouds over¬
head. But though the wall in the horizon appear in
the figure of a femicircle, yet the ceiling will not,
but much flatter. Becaufe the horizontal plane was
a vifible furface, which fuggefted the idea of the fame
diftances quite round the eye: but in the vertical plane
extended between the eye and the ceiling, there is
nothing that affe&s the fenfe with an idea of its parts
but the common line Oy ; confequently the apparent
diftances of the higher parts of the ceiling will be gra¬
dually diminifhed in afeending from that line. Now
when the fky is quite overcaft with clouds of equal
gravities, they will all float in the air at equal heights
above the earth, and confequently will compofe a iur-
face refembling a large ceiling, as flat as the vifible
furface of the tarth Its concavity therefore is not
real, but apparent : and when the heights of the
clouds are unequal, fince their real fliapes and magni¬
tudes are all unknown, the eye can feldom diitinguifh
the unequal diftances of thofe clouds that appear in
the fame dire&ions, unlefs when they are very near us,
or are driven by contrary currents ©i the air. So that
the vifible ftiape of the whole furface remains alike in
both cafes. And when the fky is either partly over¬
caft or partly free from clouds, it is matter of faft
that we retain much the fame idea of its concavity as
I ^ 219 when it was quite overcaft.
Why the 'pfog concavity of the heavens appears to the eye,
«>fthe iky which is the only judge of an apparent figure, to be a
app. r. kfslefs portion of a fpherical furface than a hemifphere.
than a he- J)1 Smith fays, that the centre of the concavity is
tnifphcre. mijch ^elow tke eye . and by taking a medium among
and four times greater th in the apparent diftance of
its parts overhead. For let the arch ABCD repre-10,
fent the apparent concavityof the fky, O the place of the
eye, OA and OC the horizontal and vertical apparent
diftances, whofe proportion is required, f irftobferve
when the fun or the moon, or any cloud or ftar, is in
fuch a pofition at B, that the apparent arches B A, BC,
extended on each fi le of this object towards the
horizon and zenith, feem equal to the eye; then
taking the altitude of the objefl B with a quadrant,
or a crofs-ftaff, or finding it by aftronomy fro.n the
given time of obfervation, the angle AOB is known.
JDrawing therefore the line OB in the pofition thus
determined, and taking in it any point B at plea-
fure, in the vertical line CO produced downwards,
feek the centre E of a circle \BC, whofe arches BA,
BC, intercepted between B and the leg of the tight
angle AOC, fhall be equal to each other; then will this
arch A BCD reprefent the apparent figure of the Iky.
For by the eye we eftimate the diftance between any
two objedls in the heavens by the quantity of fky that
appears to lie between them ; as upon earth we
eftimate it by the quantity of ground that lies be¬
tween them. The centre E may be found geometri¬
cally by conftru&ing a cubic equation, or as quickly
and fufficiently ex.uft by trying whether the chords
B A, BC, of the arch ABC drawn by conje£lure are
equal, and by altering its radius B K till they are fo.
Now in making feveral obfervations upon the iun, and
fome others upon the moon and ftars, they feemed to
our author to bifeeft the vertical arch ABC at B, when
their apparent altitudes or the angle AOB was about
23 degrees ; which gives the proportion of OC to
OA as 3 to 10 or as 1 to 3 nearly. When the fun
was but 30 degrees high, the upper arch feemed always
lefs than the under one; and, in our author’s opinion,
always greater when the fun was about 18 or 20 de¬
grees high.
$ 5. Of the Blue Colour of the Viy, and of Blue and
Green Shadows.
The opinions of ancient writers concerning the cO” Opinions cF
lour of the fky merit no notice. The firft who gave the ancients
any rational explanation was Fromondus. By him it refpe6Hng
was fuppofed, that the blueneis of the iky proceeded ^
from a mixture of the white light of the fun with the
black fpace beyond the atmofphere, where there is
neither refraflion nor refle£lion. This opinion pre¬
vailed very generally even in modern times, and was
maintained by Otto Guerick and all his cotemporaries,
who aflerted that white and black may be mixed in
fuch a manner as to make a blue. Mr Bouguer had
recourfe to the vapours diffufed through the atmo¬
fphere, to account for the refkftion of the blue rays
rather than any other. He feems however to fuppofe,
that it arifes from the conftitution of the air itfelf^
whereby the fainter coloured rays are incapable of-
making their way through any confiderable traft of
it. Hence he is of opinion, that the colour of the air
is properly blue; to which opinion Dr Smith feems alfo
to have inclined.
To this blue colour of the fky is owing the appear¬
ance of blue and green fhadows in the mornings and
evenings, •
336 OPT
Blue c^re.entH^.^Th.fe were firfl takea notice of by'M.
, e y,' BufFon in the month of July 1742, when he obferved
23I that the fhadows of trees which fell upon a white wall
Green flia- were green. He was at that time handing upon an
eminence, and the fun was fetting in the cleft of a
M Buffon tr,oun,;a‘n> ^at he appeared confiderably lower than
the horizon. The Iky was clear, excepting in the
weft, which, though free from clouds, was lightly
(haded with vapours, of a yellow colour, inclining to
red. Thtn the fun itfelf was exceedingly red, and w^s
feemingly at leafl four times as large as he appears
to be at mid-day. In thefe circumftances, he faw
very diflindtly the fhadows of the trees, which were
30 or 40 feet from the white wall, coloured with a
light green, inclining to blue. The fhadow of an ar¬
bour, which was three feet from the wall, was ex¬
actly drawn upon it, and looked as if it had been
newdy painted with verdegrife. This appearance laft-
ed near five minutes ; after which it grew fainter,
and vanifhed at the fame time with the light of the
(J32 fun.
Blue fha- The next morning, at funrife, he went to obferve
veiTb °h[er* 0t^er fhadows, upon another white wall ; but inftead
? of finding them green, as he expe&ed, he obferved
that they were blue, or rather of the colour of lively
indigo. The fky was ferene, except a flight covering
of yeilowifh vapouis in the eaft; and the fun arofe be¬
hind a hill, fo that it was elevated above his horizon.
In thefe circumftances, the blue fhadows were only vi-
fible three minutes; after which they appeared black,
and in the evening of the fame day he obferved the
green fhadows exactly as before. Six days pafied
without his being able to repeat his obfervations, on
account of the clouds ; but the 7th day, at funfet,
the fhadows were not green, but of a beautiful fky-
blue. He alfo obferved, that the fky was in a great
meafure free from vapours at that time ; and that
the fun fet behind a rock, fo that it difappeared be¬
fore it came to his horizon. Afterwards he often
obferved the fhadows both at funrife and fun fit ; but
always obferved them to be blue, though with a great
variety of fhades of that colour. He fhowed this
phenomenon to many of his friends, who were as much
furprifed at it as he himfelf had been ; but he fays
that any perfon may fee a blue fhadow, if he will only
hold his finger before a piece of white paper at fun-
rife or funfet.
Explana- The firft perfon who attempted to explain this phe-
ti®n of thefe nomenon was the Abbe Mazeas, in a memoir of the
xiaTttem't ^oc*ety ‘n Berlin for the year 1752. He obferved,
«d by Abbe ^at when an opaque body was illuminated by the
Mazeas. moon and a candle at the fame time, and the two
fhadows were caft upon the fame white wall, that
which was enlightened by the candle was reddifh, and
that which was enlightened by the moon was blue.
But, without attending to any othjer cireumftances, he
fuppofed the change of colour to be occalioned by the
diminution of the light; but M. Melville, and M.
Bouguer, both independent of one another, feem to
have hit upon the true caufe of this curious appear¬
ance, and which hath been already hinted at. The for¬
mer of thefe gentlemen, in his attempts to explain the
blue colour of the fky, obferves, that fince it is cer¬
tain that no body aflumes any particular colour, but
becaufe it reflects one fort of rays more abundantly
NS 249. J 3
*34
Melville’s
and Bou-
guer’s ex¬
planation.
I C* S. Part If,
than the reft; and ft rice it cannot be fuppofed that the Blue colour
conflituent parts of pure air are grofs enough to feoa- t^e
rate any colours of themfelves ; we muft conclude with
Sir Ifaac Newton, that the violet and blue making
rays are reflected more copioufiy than the reft, by the
finer vapours diffufed through the atmofphere, whofe
parts are not big enough to give them the appearance
of vifible opaque clouds. And he fhows, that in proper
circumftances, the bluifii colour of the fky-light may
be actually feert on bodies illuminated by it, as, he
fays, it is objedfed fliould always happen upon this hy-
pothefis. For that if, on a clear cloudlefs day, a fheet
of white paper be expofed to the fun’s beams, when
any opaque body is placed upon it, the fhadow which
is illuminated by the fky only will appear remarkably
bluifh compared with the reft of the paper, which re¬
ceives the fun’s direft rays.
M. Bouguer, who has taken the moft pains with
this fu' jeft, obferves, that as M. Buftbn mentions the
fhadows appearing green only twice, and that at all
other times they were blue, this is the colour which
they regularly have, and that the blue was changed
into green by fame accidental circumftance. Green,
he fays, is only a compofition of blue and yellow, fo
that this accidental change may have arifen from the
mixture of fame yellow rays in the blue fhadow ; and
that perhaps the wall might have had that tinge, fa
that the blue is the only colour for which a general
reafon is required. And this, he fays, muft be derived
from the colour of pure air, which always appears
blue, and which always refledls that colour upon all
objects without diftin&ion ; but which is too faint
to be perceived when our eyes are ftrongly affe&ed
by the light of the fun, reflc&ed from other obje&s
around us.
Fo confirm this hypothefis, he adds fome curious
obfervations of his own, in which this appearance is
agreeably diverfified. Being at the village of Boucholtz
in July 1764, he obferved the fhadows proje&ed on the
white paper of his pocket-book, when the iky was clear.
At half an hour paft 6 in the evening, when the fun wasCuriouS ob-
about four degrees high, he obferved that the fhadowfervations
of his finger was of a dark grey, while he held ther<dati,1g t0
paper oppofite to the fun ; but when he inclined it al-thi6 fubiedt‘
moft horizontally, the paper had a bluifh caft, and the
fhadow upon it was of a beautiful bright blue.
When his eye was placed between the fun and the
paper laid horizontally, it always appeared of a biuifh
caft ; but when he held the paper thus inclined be¬
tween his eye and the fun, he could diftinguifh, upon
every little eminence occafioned by the inequality of
the furface of the paper, the principal of the prifma-
tic colours. He alfo perceived them upon his nails,
and upon the fkin of his hand. This multitude of co¬
loured points, red, yellow, green, and blue, almoft ef¬
faced the natural colour of the objefts.
At three quarters paft fix, the fhadows began to be
blue, even when the rays of the fun fell perpendicu¬
larly. The colour was the moft lively when the rays
fell upon it at an angle of 45 degrees ; but with a lefs
inclination of the paper, he could diflinftly perceive,
that the blue fhadow had a border of a ftronger blue
on that fide which looked towards the fky, and a red
border on that fide wThich was turned towards the
earth. To fee thefe borders, the body that made the
{hadow
V
Part II. ’ OPT
•Different fiaadow was obliged to be placed very near the paper ;
■ coloured an(j nearer it was the more fenfible was the red
Shadows. ^ bor(ler> At diftance of three inches, the whole
Ihadow was blue. At every obfervation, after having
held the paper towards the Iky, he turned it towards
the earth, which was covered with verdure ; holding it
in fuch a manner, that the fun might ftune upon it
while it received the lhadows of various bodies ; but
in this pofition he could never perceive the lhadow to
be blue or green at any inclination with refpeft to the
fun’s rays. ''
At feven o’clock, the fun being ftill about two de¬
grees high, the fhadows were of a bright blue, even
when the rays fell perpendicularly upon the paper, but
were the brighteft when it was inclined at an angle of
450. At this time he was furprifed to obferve, that
a large tradt of Iky was not favourable to this blue co¬
lour, and that the (hadow falling upon the paper placed
horizontally was not coloured, or at leaft the blue was
very faint. This Angularity, he concluded, arofe from
the fmall difference between the light of that part of
the paper which received the rays of the fun and that
which was in the fhade in this fituation. In a fitua-
tion precifely horizontal, the difference would vanifh,
and there could be no fhadow. Thus too much or too
little of the fun’s light produced, but for different rea-
fons, the fame effedt ; for they both made the blue
light refledfed from the fky to become infenfible. This
gentleman never faw any green fhadows, but when he
made them fall on yellow paper. But he does not
abfolutely fay, that green fhadows cannot be produ¬
ced in any other manner ; and fuppofes, that if it was
en the fame wall that M. Buffon faw the blue fha¬
dows, feven days after having feen the green ones, the
caufe of it might be the mixture of yellow rays, re-
• fledled from the vapours, which he obferves were of
s-,6 that colour.
Blue flia- Thefe blue fhadows, our author obferves, are not
dows not confined to the times of the fun-rifing and fun-fetting ;
the morn-0 on the *9^ of July» when the fun has t¥ Sreateft
in^s and force, he obferved them at three o’clock in the af-
cvenings. ternoon, but the fun fhone through a mill at that
time.
If the fky is clear, the fhadows begin to be blue;
when, if they be projected horizontally, they are eight
times as long as the height of the body that produces
them, that is, when the centre of the fun is 7° S' a-
bove the horizon. This obfervation, he fays, was made
in the beginning of Auguft. ,
Befides thefe coloured fhadows, which nre produced
by the interception of the diredt rays of the fun, our
author obferved others fimilar to them at every hour of
the day, in rooms into which the light of the fun was
refledted from lome white body, it any part of the
dear fky could be feen from the place, and all unne-
ceffary light was excluded as much as pofiible. Ob-
ferving thefe precautions, he fays that the blue fha¬
dow s may be feen at any hour of the day, even with
the diredt light of the fun ; and that this colour will
difappear in all thofe places of the fhadow from which
the blue fky cannot be feen.
All the obfervations that our author made upon the
yellow or reddifh borders of fhadows above-mention¬
ed, led him to conclude, that they v'ere occafioned by
the interception of the Iky-light, whereby part of the
Vol. XIII. Parti.
1 C S. 337
(hadow was illuminated either by the red rays refledl-Irradiations
ed from the clouds, when the fun is near the horizon, ®
or from fome terreftrial bodies in the neighbourhood.. -J *
This conjedfure ia favoured by the neceffity he was
under of placing any body near the paper, in order to
produce this bordered fhadow, as he fays it is eafily
demonftrated, that the interception of the fky-light
can only take place when the breadth of the opaque
body is to its diftance from the white ground on which
the fhadow falls, as twice the fine of half the ampli¬
tude of the fky to its cofine.
At the conclufion of his obfervations on thefe blue Another
fhadows, he gives a fhort account of another kind of
them, which, he does not doubt, have the fame ori- 1
gin. Thefe he often faw early in the fpring when he
was reading by the light of a candle in the morning,
and confequently the twilight mixed with that of his
candle. In thefe circumftances, the fhadow that was
made by intercepting the light of his candle, at the di¬
ftance of about fix feet, was of a beautiful and clear
blue, which became deeper as the opaque body
which made the fhadow was brought nearer to the
wall, and was exceedingly deep at the diftance of a
few inches only. But wherever the day-light did not
come, the fhadows were all black without the leaft
mixture of blue.
§ 6. 0/ the Irradiations of the Sun's Light appearing
through the interjtices of the Clouds.
This is an appearance which every one mull have
obferved when the fky was pretty much overcaft with
clouds at fome diftance from each other. At that time
feveral large beams of light, fomething like the appear¬
ance of the light of the fun admitted into a fmoky
room, will be feen generally with a very confiderable
degree of divergence, as if the radiant point was fi-
tuated at no great diftance above the clouds. Dr
Smith obferves that this appearance is one of thofe
which ferve to demonftrate that veiy high and remote
objefts in the heavens do not appear to us in their real
fhapes and pofitions, but according to their perfpe&ive
projections on the apparent concavity of the fky. He
acquaints us, that though thefe beams are generally
feen diverging, as reprefented in fig. n. it is not al- Plate
ways the cafe. He himfelf, in particular, once faw CCCLX1.
them converging towards a point diametrically oppo-^^3^
fitetothe fun : for, as near as he could conjedture, the?in^rra_
point to which they converged was fituated as muchdiations ob-
below the horizon as the fun was then elevated aboveterved by
the oppofite part of it. This part is reprefented byDrSmith*
the line fD?, and the point below it in oppofition to pjg I2>
the fun is E ; towards which all the beams i> /, *u &c.
appeared to converge.
“ Obferving (fays our author) that the point of-phe pheno-
convergence was oppofite to the fun, I began to fufpeftmenon tx-
t-hat this unufual phenomenon was but a cafe of thei'l/dned by
ufual apparent divergence of the beams of the fun fromlum*
his apparent place among the clouds, as reprefented in
fig. ii. I fay an apparent divergence ; for though no¬
thing is more common than for rays to diverge from a
luminous body, yet the divergence of thefe beams in
fuch lanre angles is not real, but apparent. Becaufe it
is impoffible for the direft rays of the fun to crofs one
another at any point of the apparent concavity of the
(ky, in a greater angle than about half a degree. For
U u the
33 8
OPT
Plate
CCCLX1.
fig-13-
Irradiationsthe diameter of the earth being fo extremely fmall, in
Li'ht S&cScomPar^on to t^ie c^1^:ance °P Pun» l!S to Pub tend an
k, 'i angle at any point of his body of but 2c or 22 feconds
at moft ; and the diameter of our vilible horizon being
extremely fmaller than that of the earth ; it is plain,
that all the rays which fall upon the horizon from any
given point of the fun, muft be inclined to each other
in the fmalleft angles imaginable : the greateit of them
being as much fmaller than that angle of 22 feconds,
as the diameter of the vifible horizon is fmaller than
that of the eaith. All the rays that come to us from
any given point of the fun may therefore be confider-
ed as parallel to each other; as the rays from the
point e, or/B/j from the oppofite point/; and con-
fequently the rays of thefe two pencils that come from
oppofite points of the fun’s reil diameter, and crofs each
other in the fun’s apparent place B among the clouds,
can conftitute no greater an angle with each other
than about half a degree ; this angle of their interfec-
tion eB/being the fame as the fun would appear un¬
der to an eye placed among the clouds at B, or (which
is much the fame) to an eye at O upon the ground
Becaufe the fun's real dillance OS is inconceivably
greater than his apparent diftance OB. Therefore the
rays of the fun, as B^, B£, do really diverge from his
apparent place B in no greater angles ^B^ than about
half a degree. Neverthelefs they appear to diverge
^g- ii- from the place B in all pofiible angles, and even in op¬
pofite direttions. Let us proceed then to an explana¬
tion of this apparent divergence, which is not felf-evi-
dent by any means ; though at firft fight we are apt to
think it is, by not diftinguifhing the vaft difference
• between the true and apparent diilances of the fun.
“ What I am going to demonftrate is this. Sup-
pofing all the rays of the fun to fall accurately paral¬
lel to each other upon the vifible horizon, as they do
very nearly, yet in both cafes they muft appear to di¬
verge in all pofiible angles. Let us imagine the hea¬
vens to be partly overcaft with a fpacious bed of bro-
i’ig. 14. ken clouds, v, v, v, See. lying parallel to the phne of
the vifible horizon, here reprefented by the line AOD ;
and when the fun’s rays fall upon thefe clouds in the
parallel lines s v, s v, See. let fome of them pafs through
their intervals in the lines v/, vt, See. and fall upon
the plane of the horizon at the pi :ces t, t, Sec. And
finee the reft of the incident rays s v, s v, are fuppofed
to be intercepted from the place of the fpe&ator at O
by the cloud x, and hon the intervals between the
tranfmitted rays v t, v tf Sec. by the clouds v, v, Sec. a
fmall part of thefe latter rays v t, vt, when refiefted
every way from fome certain kind of thin vapours float¬
ing in the air, may undoubtedly be fufficient to affe&
the eye with an appearance of lights and ftiades, in
the form of bright beams in the places vt, vt, Sec.
and of dark ones in the intervals between them ; juft
as the like beams of light and fhade appear in a room
by refledtions of the fun’s rays from a fmoky or dufty
air within it ; the lights and fhades being here occa-
fioned by the tranfnnfiion of the rays through fome
parts of the window, and by their interruption at other
parts.
“ Now, if the apparent concavity of this bed of
clouds v, v, to the eye at O, be reprefented by the
arch A BCD, and be cut in the point B by the line OB*
drawn parallel to the beams tv sit will be evident by
ICS. part jj.
the rules of perfpeaive, that thefe long beams will not Irradiation,
appear in their real places, but upon the concave A B of the Sl,n’»
CD diverging every way from the place B, where the !'igi;it’ Ac‘.
fun himfelf appears, or the cloud a- that covers hia *
body, as reprefented feparately in full view in fig. j
“ And for the fame reafon, if the line BO be pro¬
duced towards E, below the plane of the horizon AOD
and the eye be dire&ed towards the region of the fky
direfUy above E, the lower ends of the fame real beams
vt, vt, will now appear upon the part DF of this
concave ; and will feem to converge towards the point
E, fituated juft as much below the horizon as the op¬
pofite point B is above it: which is feparately repre¬
fented, in full view in fig. 12.
“ For if the beams v t, vt, be fuppofed to be vifible
throughout their whole lengths, and the eye be direc¬
ted in a plane perpendicular to them, here reprefented
by the line OF ; they and their intervals will appear
broadeft in and about this plane, becaufe thefe parts
of them are the neareft to the eye ; and therefore their
remoter parts and intervals will appear gradually nar¬
rower towards the oppofite ends of the line BE. As
a faither illuftration of this matter, we may conceive
the fpe&ator at O to be fituated upon the top of fa
large a defeent OHI towards a remote valley IK, and
the fun to be fo very low, that the point E, oppofite
to him, may be feen above the horizon of this ihady
valley. In this cafe it is manifeft, that the fpeftators at
O would now fee thefe beams converging fo far as to
meet each other at the point E in the Iky itfelf. , ^
“ I do not remember to have ever feen any pheno--’obfer-
menon of this kind by moon-light; not fo much as ofveJ by
beams diverging from her apparent place. Probably™0,0"'
her light is too weak after refleffions from any kind ‘S ^
of vapours, to caufe a fenfible appearance of lights and
Ihades fo as to form thefe beams. And in the unufual
phenomenon I well remember, that the converging
fun-beams towards the point below the horizon were
not quite fo bright and ftrong as thofe ufually are that
diverge from him ; and that the iky beyond them ap¬
peared very black (feveral Ihowers having paffed that
way), which certainly contributed to the evidence of
this appearance. Hence it is probable that the thin-
nefs and wtaknefs of the refledled rays from the va¬
pours oppofite to the fun, is the chief caufe that this
appearance is fo very uncommon in comparifon to that
other of diverging beams. For as the region of the
Iky round about the fun is always brighter than the
oppofite one, fo the light of the diverging beams
ought alfo to be brighter than that of the converging
ones. For, though rays are refledted from rough un-
polifned bodies in all poflible directions, yet it is a ge¬
neral obfervation, that more of them are reflected for¬
wards obliquely, than are reflected more direCtly back¬
wards. Befides, in the prefent cafe, the incident rays
upon the oppofite region to the fun, are more dimi-
nifned by continual reflections from a longer traCt of
the atmofphere, than the incident rays upon the region
next the fun. 5^T
“ The common phenomenon of diverging beams, I The pheno-
think, is more frequent in fummer than in winter, and , '
alio when the fun is lower than when higher up; pro- i.e^ms'more
P£i
Plate ccrjjo:
'V v
\ t S'/*/ }
• ' a/-> ',Y.yur ;
Part II.
OPT
Illumina¬
tion of the
Shadow of
the Earth,
per; fcecBufe the air ia generally quieter in the morn¬
ings and evenings than about noon-day ; and laftly,
becaufe many forts of vapours are exhaled in greater
plenty in fummer than in winter, from many kinds of
volatile vegetables; which vapours, when the air is
cooled and condenfed in the mornings and evenings,
may become denfe enough to refleft a fenfiblelight/'
§>]. Of the Illumination of the Shadow of the Earth ly
the refraBirm of the Atmofphere.
The ancient philofophers, who knew nothing of the
refractive power of the atmofphere, were very much
perplexed to account for the body of the moon being
vifible when totally eclipfed. At fuch times the gene¬
rally appears of a dull red colour, like tarnifhed cop-
r *4* per, or of iron almoft red-hot. This, they thought,
"^'noVisvi- wa8 t^e moon’s native light, by which fhe became vi-
fible^hen fible when hid from the brighter light of the fun.
totally Plutarch indeed, in his difeourfe upon the face of the
cclipled. moon, attributes this appearance to the light of the
fixed ftars reflected to us by the moon ; but this mull
be by far too weak to produce that effeCt. The true
caufe of it is the fcattered beams of the fun bent into
the earth’s lhadow by refraftions through the atmo¬
fphere in the following manner.
, “ Let the body of the fun, fays Dr Smith, be repre-
CCCLXil. fented by the greater circle ab, and that of the earth by
%. i. ’the lefler one cd; and let the lines ace and bde touch
them both on their oppolite fidcs, and meet in e beyond
the earth; then the angular fpace ced will reprefentthe
conic figure of the earth’s fhadow, which would be to¬
tally deprived of the fun’s rays, were none of them
bent into it by the refraCtive power of the atmofphere.
Let this power juft vanilh at the circle h z, concentric
to the earth, fo that the rays ah and biy which touch
its oppofite Tides, may proceed unrefraCted, and meet
each other at k. Then the two neareft rays to thefe
that flow within them, from the fame points a and 3,
being refraCted inwards through the margin of the at^
ICS. 539
mofphere, will crofs each other at a poiut T, fon'iewhat?hum:^-^
nearer to the earth than k ; and in like manner, two cj^iow 0f
oppofite rays next within the two laft will crofs eachthe Earth,
other at a point w, feme what nearer to the earth than i——\ ^
/, having fuffered greater refraftions, by pafling through
longer and denfer trafts of air lying fomewhat nearer
to the earth. The like approach of the fucceflive in-
terfeftions <£, /, zzz, is to be underftood of innumerable
couples of rays, till you come to the interfeCTion n of
the two innermoft; which we may fuppofe juft to totich
the earth at the points o and p. It is plain then, that
the fpace bounded by thefe rays on, vp, will be the only
part of the earth’s fhadow wholly ^deprived of the fun’s
rays. Let fmg reprefent part of the moon’s orbit
when it is neareft to the earth, at a time when the
earth’s dark fhadow onp is the longeft : in this cafe I
will fhow that the ratio of tm to tn is about 4 to 3 ;
and confequently that the moon, though centrally eclip¬
fed at m, may yet be vifible by means of thofe fcatter¬
ed lays above-mentioned, firft tranfmitted to the moon
by refraftion through the atmofphere, and from thence
refledted to the earth.
“ For let the incident and emergent parts a q, rn, rig*
of the ray a q o rn, that juft touches the earth at 0, be
produced till they meet at zz, and let a q u produced
meet the axis st produced in x ; and joining us and
u nty fince the refractions of an horizontal ray palling
from 0 to r, or from 0 to y, would be alike and equal,
the external angle nu x h double the quantity of the
ufual refraCtion of an horizontal ray ; and the angle
zz zz j is the apparent meafure of the fun’s femidiameter
feen from the earth ; and the angle usth that of the
earth’s femidiameter t u feen from the fun (called his
horizontal parallax) ; and laftly, the angle u mt h that
of the earth’s femidiameter feen from the moon (call¬
ed her horizontal parallax); becaufe the elevation
the point zz above the eatth is too fmall to make a
fenfible error in the quantity of thefe angles ; whofe
meafures by aftronomical tables are as follow :
z '/
* Eud.l.
prop. 32.
f Ibid.
The fun’s leaft apparent femidiametcr :
The fun’s horizontal parallax -
Their difference * is
Double the horizontal rtfraCtion
Their fum f is
The moon’s greateft horizontal parallax
Therefore (by a preceding prop.) we have tm : tn :
(ang. t nu : ang. tmu :: 83'—10" : 62' —10" ::) 4 :
3,111 round numbers ; which was to he proved. It is
eafy to colled from the moon’s greateft horizontal pa¬
rallax of 62'—1 o ', that her leaft diftance f »? is about
i;5y femidiameters of the earth; and therefore the
greateft length t n of the dark fhadow, being three quar¬
ters of t m, is about 414 femidiameters.
“ The difference of the laft mentioned angles */zrz,
tmuy is mun — z\', that is, about two thirds of 31'—
40", the angle which the whole diameter of the fun
fubtends at zz. Whence it follows, that the middle
point m of the moon centrally eclipfed, is illuminated
by rays which come from two thirds of every diame¬
ter of the fun’s difk, and pafs by one fide of the
earth ; and alfo by rays that come from the oppeiite
ang. a u s ~ 15—50
= ang. ust = 00—10
— ang. txu—i 5—40
— ang. nu x = 67—30
— ang. tnu = 83—10
== ang. t mu ~ 62—10
two thirds of every one of the faid diameters, and
pafs by the other fide of the earth. This will appear
by conceiving the ray a q 0 r n to be inflexible, and
its middle point 0 to Aide upon the earth, while
the part r n is approaching to touch the point m ; for
then the oppofite part qa will trace over two thirds
of the fun’s diameter. The tme proportion of the
angles n um, a u s, could not be preferved in the
fcheme, by reafon of the fun’s immenfe diftance and
magnitude with refpeCt to the earth.
“ Having drawn the line at«, it is obfervable, that Fig 3,
all the incident rays, as aq, «x, flowing from any one
point of the fun to the circumference of the earth,
will be colleded to a focus «, whofe diftance / “is lefs
than tm in the ratio of 62 to 67 nearly 5 and thus
an image of the fun will be formed at «/?, whofe rays
U u 2 will
US
'Why the
moon ap-
34© * OPT
Meafure* will'diverge irpdn the moon. For the angle t«u is the
of Light. ^jfference 0f tjie angles x u a, u xt found above; and / «:
tm : : ang. tmu «: ang. t*u : : 62'—10" : 67—30''.
“ The rays that flow next above a q and ax, by
palling through a thinner part of the atmofphere, will
be united at a point in the axis atu fomewhat far¬
ther from the earth than the lad focus « ; and the
fame may be faid of the rays that pafs next above
thefe, and fo on ; whereby an infinite feries of images
of the fun will be formed, whofe diameters and de¬
grees of brightnefs will increafe with their diftances
from the earth.
“ Hence it Is manifeft why the moon eclipfed in her
perigee is obferved to appear always duller and dark-
pears duller er t^an jn ap0nree. The realon why her colour
fed in her is always of the copper kind between a dull red and
perigee orange, 1 take to be this. The blue colour of a clear
than in her fky (hows manifellly that the blue-making rays are
apogee. more copioufly refle&ed from pure air than thofe of
any other colour; confequently they are lefs copioufly
tranfraitted through it among the reft that come from
the fun, and fo much the lefs as the tradi of air
through which they pafs is the longer. Hence the
common colour of the fun and moon is whitert in the
meridian, and grows gradually more inclined to di¬
luted yellow, orange, and red, as-they defcend lower,
that is, as the rays are tranfmitted through a longer
traft of air ; which tradh being ftill lengthened in pafi.
ling to the moon and back again, caufes a ftill great¬
er lofs of the blue-making rays in proportion to the
reft; and fo the refulting colour of the tranfrnitted
rays muft lie between a dark orange and red, accord¬
ing to Sir Ifaac Newton’s rule for finding the refult
of a mixture of colours. We have an inftance of the
reverfe of this cafe in leaf-gold, which appears yeh
low by refledted and blue by tranfmitted rays. The
circular edge of the lhadovv in a partial eclipfe ap¬
pears red ; hecaufe the red-making rays are the leaft
refradted of all others, and confeqyently ace left alone
in the conical furface of the fiiadow, all the reft be¬
ing refradted into it.
$ 8. Of the. Meafures of Light*
That fome luminous bodies give a ftronger, and
others a weaker light, and that fome refledl more
light than others, was always obvious to mankind ;
3VT."b?u- but no perfon, before M. Bouguer, hit upon a toler-
puer’s con- able method of afeertaining the proportion that two
trivance* or n-ore lights bear to one another. The methods he
™e^ur'moft commonly ufed were the following,
opiate He took two pieces of wood orpafteboard EC and
CCCLXII. CD (fig. 4.), in which he made two equal holes P
and over which he drew pieces of oiled or white
paper. Upon thefe holes he contrived that the light
of the different bodies he was comparing fhould fall ;
while he placed a third piece of pafteboard FC, fo as
to prevent the two lights from mixing with one ano¬
ther. Then placing |himfelf fometimes on one fide,
and fometimes on the other, but generally on the op-
pefite fide of this inftrument, with refpedl to the light,
he altered their pofition till the papers in the two holes
appeared to be equally enlightened. This being done,
he computed the proportion of their light by the
fquares of the diftances at which the luminous bodies
were placed from the obje&s. If, for inftance, the
6
I CS. Part IK
diftances were as three and nine, he concluded that Meafure*
the light they gave were as nine and eighty-one. of
Where any light was veiy faint, he fometimes made'
life of lenfes, in order to condenfe it; and he inclofed
them in tubes or not as his particular application of
them required.
To meafure the intenfity of light proceeding from*
the heavenly bodies, or reflefted from any part of the
fky, he contrived an inftrument which rcfembles a-
kind of portable camera obfeura. He had two tubes,
of which the inner was black, faftened at their lower
extremities by a hinge C, (fig. 5.) At the bottom of
thefe tubes were two holes, R and S* three or four
lines in diameter, covered with two pieces of fine white
paper. The two other extremities had each of them-
a circular aperture, an inch in diameter; and one of
the tubes confifted of two,, one of them Aiding into
the other, which produced the fame effeft as varying
the aperture at the end. When this inftrument is
ufed, the obferver has his head, and the end of the in¬
ftrument C, io covered, th i no light can fall upon his
eye, befides that which comes through the two holes S
and R, while an affiftant manages the inftrument, and
draws out or ihortens the tube DE, as the obferver di-
refts. When the two holes appear equally illumina¬
ted, the intenfity of the lights is judged to be inverfe-
ly as the fquares of the tubes.
In uling this inftrument, it is neceffary that the ob-
je£t Ihould fubtend an angle larger than the aperture
A or D, feen from the other end of the tube ; for,
otherwife, the lengthening of the tube has no effedl.
To avoid, in this cafe, making the inftrument of au
inconvenient length, or making the aperture D too
narrow, he has recourfe to another expedient. Fie
conftrmfts an inftrument, reprefented (fig. 6.), confilt-f
ing of two objeft-glaffes, AE and DF, exa&ly equal,
fixed in the ends of two tubes fix or feven feet, or, io
fome cafes, 10 or 12 feet long, and having their foci at
the other ends. At the bottom of thefe tubes B, are
two holes, three or four lines in diameter, covered
with a piece of white paper ; and this inftrument is
ufed exaftly like the former.
If the two objedls to be obferved by this Jnftrument
be not equally luminous, the light that iffuesfrom them
muft be reduced to an equality, by diminilhing the
aperture of one of the objcd-glaffes ; and then the re¬
maining furface of the two glaffes will give the propor¬
tion of their lights. But for this purpofe, the central
parts of the glafs muft be covered in the fame propor-
teenwith the parts near the circumference, leaving the
aperture fuch as is reprefented (fig. 7.), becaufe the
middle part of the glafs is thicker and lefs tranfparent
than the reft.
If all the obje&s to be obferved lie nearly in the
fame dire&ion, our author obferves, that thefe two
long tubes may be reduced into, one, the two obje&T
glalfes being placed clofe together, and one eye glafs
fufficing for them both.. The inflrument will then be .
the fame with that of which he .publiihed an account
in 1748, and which he called a heliatruter, or ajlrometer.
Our author obferves, that it is not the abfolute Thefe'in-
quantity, but only the intenfity of the light, that isfltuments
meafured by thefe two inftruments, or the number of
rays, in proportion to the furface of the luminous bo tenfity ci
dy j and it is of great importance that thefe two things light.
be
Part IL
O
c s.
3^
Meafures be dillinguifFicd. The intenfity of light may be very
of Li^ht. greatj when the quantity, and its power of iliumina-
l(' ' J ling other bodies, may be very fmall, on account of
the fmallnefs of its furface ; or the contrary may be
the cafe, when the furface is large.
Having explained thefe methods which M. Bouguer
took to meafure the difierent proportions of light, we
fhall fubjoin in this place a few mifcellaneous examples
of his application ot them.
It is obfervable, that when a perfon {lands in a place
where there is a ftrong light, he cannot diftinguifh:
objcdls that are placed in the (hade ; nor can he fee
any thing upon going immediately into a place where
there is very little light. It is plain, therefore, that
the adlion of a ftrong light upon the eye, and alfo the
imprefiion which it leaves upon it, makes it infenfrble
to the effedl of a weaker light. M. Bouguer had the
curiofity to endeavour to afcertain the propoitioir be¬
tween the intenfities of the two lights in this cafe y
and by throwing the light of two equal candles upon
a board, he found that the fhadow made by intercept¬
ing the light of one of them, could not be perceived
by his eye, upon the place enlightened by the other,
at little more than eight times the diftance ; from
whence he concluded, that when one light is eight
times eight, or 64 times lefs than another, its pre-
fence or abfence will not be perceived. He allows,
however, that the effedl may be different on different
eyes; and fuppofes that the boundaries in this cafe,
with refpeft to different perfons, may lie between 60
and 80.
Applying the two tubes of his inftrument, men¬
tioned above, to meafure the intenfity of the light re-
flefted from different parts of the fky ; he found, that
when the fun was 25 degrees high, the light was four
times ftronger at the diftance of eight or nine degrees
from his body, than it was at 31 or 32 degrees. But
what ftruck him the moft was to find, that when the
146
Orcar vz-
riatam of
fun is 15 or 20 degrees high, the light decreafes on
the fame parallel to the horizon to 110 or 120 de¬
grees, and then increafes again to the place exactly
oppolite to the fun.
The light of the fun, our author obferves, is too
ftrong, and that of the ftars toa weak, to determine
the variation of their light at different altitudes: but
as, in both cafes, it mu ft be in the fame proportion
w;.th the diminution of the light of rhe moon in the
fame circumftances, he made his obfervations on that
luminary, and found, that its light nt 190 16', is to
its light at 66» 11', as 1681 to 2500; that is, the
one is nearly two thirds of the other. He chofe thofe
particular altitudes, becaufe they are thofe of the fun
the moon^ at t^e two ^^ces at Croific, where he then refided.
at different When one limb of the moon touched the horizon of
altitudes, the fen, its light was 2000 times lefs than at the alti¬
tude of 66c i-i'. But this proportion he acknowledges
muft be fubjefl to many variations, the atmofphere
near the earth varying fd much in its denfity. From
this obfervation he concludes, that at a medium light
is diminifhed in the proportion of about 2500 to i68t,
7 ^ in trayeriing 7469 toifes of denfe air.
Variation Laflly, our accurate philofopher applied his inftru-
in different, ment to the different parts of the fun’s diftc, and found
P-^that the centre is confidtrably more luminous than the
fun and'1C extremities of it. As near as he could make the ob-
plauets.
fervation, it was more luminous than apart of the ch'fk.Meaftires
■|ths of the femidiameter from it, in* the proportion , of |
of 3? to 28 ; which, as he obferves, is more than in v
the proportion of the fines of the angles of obliquity.
On the other hand, he obferves, that both the primary
and fecondary planets are more luminous at their edges
than near their centres.
The comparifon of the light of the fun and moon is
a fubjeft that has frequently exercifed the thoughts of
philofophers ; but we find nothing but random conjec¬
tures, before our author applied his accurate meafures
in this cafe. In general,, the light of the moon is
imagined to bear a much greater proportion to that of
the fun than it really does ; and not only are the ima¬
ginations of the vulgar, but thofe of philofophers al¬
fo, impofed upon with refpeft to it. It was a great
furprife to M. de la Hire to find that he could noV
by the help of any burning mirror, colled the beams
of the moon in a fufficient quantity to produce the
leaft fenfible heat. Other philofophers have fince
made the like attempts with mirrors of greater power,
though without any greater fuccefs ; but this will not
furprife us, when we fee the refult of M. Bouguer’s
obfervations on this fubjtd. a48
In order to folve this curious problem concerning. M. Hou-
the comparifon of the light of the fun and moon, he user’s cal-
compared each, of them to. that of a candle in a dark
room, on&in the day-time, and the other in the night the of
following, when the. moon was at her mean diftance the moon,
from, the earth; and, after many trials, he concluded
that the light of the fun is about 300,000 times greater
than that of the moon ; which is fuch a difproportion,
that,, as he obferves, it can be no wonder that phil
fophers have had fo little fuccefs in their attempts to
colled the light of the moon with burning-glaffes.
For the largefl of them will not increafe the light 1000
times ; which will ftill leave the light of the moon, in
the focus of the--mirror,. 300 times-lefs than the interr-
fity of the common light of the fun.
To this account of the proportion of light which
we adually receive from the moon, it cannot be dif-
pleaiVng to the reader, if we compate it with the quan¬
tity which would have been tranfmitted to us from
that opaque body, if it refieded all the light it re¬
ceives. Dr Smith thought that he had proved, from
two different confiderations, that the light of the full
moan would be to our day-light as I to about 90,900,
if no rays were loft at the moon. ^
In the firft place, he fuppofes that the moon, en- SmithV
lightened by the fun, is as luminous as the clouds are calculation,
at a medium. He therefore fuppofed the light of the
fun to be equal to that of a whole hemifphere of
clouds, or as many moons as would cover the furface
of the heavens. Biit on this Dr Prieftley obferves,
that it is true, the light of the fun fhining perpendi¬
cularly upon any furface would be equal to the light
refieded from the whole hemifphere, if every part re¬
fieded all the light that fell upon it ; bust the light
that would in fad be received from the whole herai-
fphere (part of it being received obliquely) would be-
only one-hhlf as much as would be received from the
whole hemifphere, if every part of it fhone diredly
upon the furface to be illuminated.
In his Remarks, pas-. 97, Dr Smith demonftrates
his. method of calculation in the following manner.^
“ Let
342 OPT
Mcafurc* '< Let tftc Ktllc* circle cf<!g reprefient the mown's
iA jJocjy enlightened by the fun, and the great circle
"'plate" aeb, a ipherical fhell concentric to the moon, and
CCCJLXH touching the earth ; u d, any diameter of that (hell per-
iig* 8. pcndicular to a great circle of the moon’s body, re-
prefented by its diameter c d; e the place of the fheil
receiving full moonlight from the bright hemifphere
f dg. Now, becaufe the furface of the moon is rough
like that of the earth, we may allow that the fun’s
rays, incident upon any fmall part of it, with any ob¬
liquity, are reflefted from it every way alike, as if
they were emitted. And therefore, if the fegment df
fhone alone, the points a, c, would be equally illumi¬
nated by it ; and likevvife -if the remaining bright
■ft'gment dg fhone alone, the points b e would be equal¬
ly illuminated by it. Confequently, if the light at the
point a was increafed by the light at b, it would be¬
come equal to the full moon-light at e. And con¬
ceiving the fame transfer to be made from every point
of the hemifpherical furface b bi k to their oppohte
points in the hemifphere kaeh, the former hemi¬
fphere would be left quite dark, and the latter would
be uniformly illuminated with full moon-light; arifing
from a quantity of the fun’s light, which, immediately
before its incidence on the moon, would uniformly il¬
luminate a circular plane equal to a great circle of her
body, called her difk. Therefore the quantities of
light being the fame upon both furfaces, the deniity
of the fun’s incident light is to the deniity of full
moon-light, as that hemifpherical furface heb is to
the faid dilk ; that is, as any other hemifpherical fur¬
face whofe centre is at the eye, to that part of it which
the moon’s dilk appears to poffefs very nearly, becaufe
it fubtends but a fmall angle at the eye : that is, as
jradius of the hemifphere to the verfed fine of the
moon’s apparent femidiameter, or as 10,000,coo to
2
uo6™ or as 90,400 to 1 ; taking the moon’s mean
horizontal diameter to be 16' 7".
Striftly fpeaking, this rule compares moon light
at. the earth with day-light at the moon ; the medium
of which, at her quadratures, is the fame as our day¬
light ; but is lefs at her full in the duplicate ratio of
365 to 366, or thereabout, that is, of the fun’s di-
Itances from the earth and full moon : and therefore
full-moon light would he to our day-light as about 1
to 90,900, if no rays were loll at the moon.
“ Secondly, 1 fay that full-moon light is to any
other moon light as the whole dilk of the moon to
the part that appears enlightened, confidered upon a
Fig. 9. plane furface. For now let the earth be at b, and let
d/ he perpendicular to fg, and gm to cd: then it is
plain, that g l is equal to dm; and that gl'n equal to
a perpendicular fcCtion of the fun’s rays incident upon
the arch dg, which at b appears equal to dm ; the
eye^ being unable to diltinguilh the unequal dillances
of its parts. In like manner, conceiving the moon’s
furface to confilt of innumerable phyficaf circles pa¬
rallel tocfdg, as reprefented at A, the fame reafon
5-olds for every one of thefe circles as for cfdg. It
follows then, that the bright part of the furface vifible
at b, when reduced to a fiat as reprefented at B, by
the crefccnt p dq mp, will be equal and fimilar to a
perpendicular feciion of all the rays incident on that
^ ^ P&rt n.
part, reprefented at C hy tSe crefccM psqlp, KowOf AW
the whole difle being in propoition to this crefcent tiou.
as the quantities of light incident upon them ; and the' 
hght falling upon every rough particle, being equally-
ranhed in diverging to the eye at b, confidcred as
equidiftant from them all; it follows, that full moon¬
light is to this moon-light as the whole difk pdqc to
the erebetnt p dq mp. * *
. “ 'therefore, by compounding this ratio with that
in the former remark, daylight is to moon-light as
tae furtace of an hemifphere whofe centre is at the
eye, to the part of that furface which appears to be
pofieffed by the enlightened part of the moon.”
Mr Michell made his computation in a much more Mr Mi
fimple and eafy manner, and in which there is much chcll’s cal-
leis danger of falling into any miltake. ConfideringNation,
tim alliance of the moon from the fun, and that the
denfity of the light mufl decreafe in the proportion of
the tquare of that diitance, he calculated the denfity
of the fun’s light, at that diflance, in proportion to its
denfity at the furface of the fun ; and in this manner
he found, that it he moon refleded all the light it re¬
ceives from the fun, it would only be the 45 oooth
paii. of the hght wTe receive from the greater lumi¬
nary. Admitting, therefore, that moon-light is only
a 300,000th pare of the light of the fun, Mr Michell
concludes, that it refleds no more than between the
6th and 7th part of what falls upon it.
Sect. IV. Of Aberration.
The great pradical ufe of the fcience of optics isTheTy of
to aid human fight ; but rt has been repeatedly ob-aberration,
ferved during the progrefs of this article, that in
conllHiding dioptrical inflruments for this purpofe,
great difficulties aiife from the aberration of light!
It has been ffiown, page 288, &c. how to determine
the concourfe of any refraded ray PF’ with the rav
RVCF’ (figs. 5, 6, &c. Plate CCCLV.) which pafTes
through the centre C,and therefore falls perpendicularly
on the fphencal furface at the vertex V, and fuffers no
refradton. This is the conjugate focus to R for
the two rays RP, RV, and for another ray flowing
from R and falling on the furface at an equal diflance
on the oppolite fide to P. In ffiort, it is the con¬
jugate focus for. all the rays flowing from R and fall¬
ing on the fpherical furface in the circumference o*1 a
circle deferibed by the revolution of the point P round
the axis RVCF ; that is, of all the rays which oc¬
cupy the conical furface deferibed by the revolution
of Ivl, and the refraded rays occupy the conical fur¬
face produced by the revolution of PF’.
But no other rays flowing from R are colleded at
P ; for it appeared in the demonflration of that pro-
pofition, that rays incident at a greater diftance from
the axis KC were colleded at a point between C
and F ; and then the rays which are incident on the
whole arch PC, or the fpherical furface generated by
its revolution round RC, although they all crofs the
axis RC, are diffufed over a certain portion of it by ’
what has been called the aberration of figure. It is
called alfo (but improperly) the aberration from the
geometrical focus, by which is meant the focus of an
iafinitely {lender pencil of rays, of which the middle
ray (or axis of the pencil) occupies the lens RC, and
5 fuffera
OTTIO'S .
Plate CCOLXII .
OPTICS.
343
Of Abena- fuffers no refraftion. But there is no fuch focus. But
“m1, f if we make wRV—«RC : wRV — VC : VF} the point
v' * F is called the geometrical focus, and is the remoteff
limit from C of all the foci (equally geometrical) of
rays flowing from R. The other limit is eafily de¬
termined by conftrufting the problem for the extreme
point of the given arch.
It is evident from the conftruftion, that while the
point of incidence P is near to V, the line CK in-
creafes but very little, and therefore CF diminifhes
little, and the refra&ed rays are but little diffufed from
F; and therefore they are much denfer in its vicinity than
any other point of the axis It will icon be evident
that they are incomparably denfer. It is on this ac¬
count that the point F has been called the conjugate
focus to R, and the geometrical focus
and the diffufion has been called aberration. A geo¬
metrical point R is thus reprefented by a very fmall
circle (or phyfical point as it is improperly called) atF,
and Fhasdravvn the chief attention. And as, in the per¬
formance of optical inltruments, it is neceflary that
this extended reprefentation of a mathematical point
R be very fmall, that may not fenflbly interfere with
the reprefentations of the points adjacent to R, and
thus caufe indiflindl vifion, a limit is thus fet to the
extent of the refradfing Airfare which rr.ufl be em¬
ployed to produce this reprefentation. But this evi¬
dently diminifhes the quantity of light, and renders
the vifion obfeure, though diflinct. Artifts have
therefore endeavoured to execute refradling furfaces
of forms not fpherical, which collecl accurately to
one point the light ifiuing from another, and the ma¬
thematicians have furnifhed them with forms having
this property ; but their attempts have been fruitlefs.
Spherical furfaces are the only ones which-can be
executed with accuracy. Ail are done by grinding
the refra&ing fubffance in a mould of proper mate¬
rials. When this is fphertcal, the two work them-
felves, with moderate attention, into an exaft fphere;
becaufe if any part is more prominent than another,
it is ground away, and the whole gets of neceffity
one curvature. And it is aftonifhing to what degree
of accuracy this is done. An error of the millioneth
part of an inch would totally deftroy the figure of a
mirror of an inch focal difiance, fa as to make it
ufelefs for the coarfeft inftrument. Therefore all at¬
tempts to make other figures are given up. Indeed
other reafons make them worfe than fpherical, even
when accurately executed. They would not colledt
to accura’te focufes the rays of oblique pencils.
It is evident from thefe -obfervations, that the theory
of aberrations is abfolutely neceffary for the fuccefs-
ful conflrudion of optical inflruments ; and it mu A
be acceptable to the reader to have a fhort account
of it in this place. Enough Avail be faid here to fhow
the general nature and effects of it in optical inftru-
ments, and in fome of the more curious phenomena
of nature. Under the-article. Telescctpe the fub-
jed vvill-be refumed, in fuch a manner as to enable
the reader who poilefles a very moderate {hare of ma-,
thematical knowledge, not only to underftand how
aberrations are increafed and diminifhed, but alfo how,
by a proper employment.of contrary aberrations, their
hurtful efftds may be ahnoft entirely removed in all im¬
portant cafes. And the manner in which the fub-
jed fhal! be treated in the prefent general Iketch, will Of :trra-
have the advantage of pointing out at the fame time, tl('n'
the maxims of conffrudion of the greateft part of v
optical inftruments, which generally produce their
effeds by means of pencils of rays which are either
out of the axis altogether, or are oblique to it; cafes
which are feldom confidered in elementary treatifes of
optics.
Let PW (fig. i.) be a fpherical furface of a re- ^latc
Trading fubftance (glafs for inflance), of which C jgCCCLlHI!*
the centre, and let an indefinitely {lender pencil of
rays AP ap be incident on it, in a diredion parallel
to a ray CV palling through the centre. It is re¬
quired to determine the focus/ of this pencil.
Let AP be reb aded into PF. Draw Cl, CR the How to re;
fines of incidence and refnitiion, and CP the radius. m<^y th6
Draw RB perpendicular to CP, and B/ parallel toev^s a*3*
AP or CV. I fay, firft, f is the focus of the inde-tnatK>U‘
finitely {lender pencil, or, more accurately fpeaking,y
is the remoteft limit from P of the concourfe of rays
with PF’ refraded by points lying without the arch
VP, or the neareft limit for rays incident between V
and P.
Draw the radius Cpe>, the line pf; and draw pg
parallel to P_/( andPo perpendicular to Py. It is
evident, that if ybe the focus, c’pf is the angle of
refradion correfponding to the angle of incidence apC,
as C’Pf is the angle correfponding to APC. Alfo
PC/ is the increment of the angle of incidence, and
the angle cypg is equal to the fum of the angle C’P/*
and C’C r, and the angle %p f is etpial to the angle
pfV. Therefore c} p fz. C’P/d-P, C/>,+P/>. There¬
fore PC/+Pfp is the correfponding increment of the
angle of refradion. Alfo, becaufe RPc-CP/ (being
right angles) the angle pi* o =:RPC, and Po:P6=;
PR : PC.
I herefore, by a preceding Lemma in this article, Page zBe.
we have PC/-}-Pfp : PCp ~ tan. ref. : tan. incid. ~ &c.
T, R : T, I; and P// ; PCp = T, R - T, I : T, I,
Pf* ; T* [ ’ but
p^» —PR : Pyj nr DR : D3 (becaufe DP is paral¬
lel to By by conflrudion) rr tan. CPR — tan. CPI r
tan. CPI Now CPI is the angle of incidence ; and
there!ore CPR is the angle properly correfponding to
it ns an angle of refradion, and uhe point f is properly
determined.
Hence the following rule . As the difterence of the
tangents of incidence and refradion is to the tangent
of incidence, fo is the radius of the furface multiplied
by the cofine of refradion to the diffance of the focus
of an infinitely Aen !er pencil of parallel incident rays.
N. B. We here confider tht cofine of refiadion as a
number. This was firfl done by the celebrated Leo¬
nhard Euler, and is one of the greateil improvements
in mathematics which this century can boafl of. The
fines, tangents, fecants, &c. are confidered as-fradionai
numbers, of which the radius is unity. Thus, CP X
i CP
fin. 30°, is the fame thing with -CP, or —.. And in
like manner, CB, drawn perpendicular to the r.x!s X
fin. 190 28' 16,"32"', is the fame thing with — of CB,
C B 0 3
■A-lfo—___ is the fame .thing with twice CB, &c.
Col. 60° 'J ’ T
■344 ' OPT
Of Abcrra- In this manner, BE=.BCX fin. BCE, and alfo BE
.tion. — CEx ta*. BCE, and CB = CExfec. BCE, &c. &c.
v’ This manner of confidering the lines which occur in
geometrical conftru&ions is of immenfe ufe in all parts
of mixed mathematics; and no where more remarkably
than in optics, the moft beautiful example of them.
Of this an important inftance (hall now be given.
Corol. i. The diftanceyG of this lateral focus from
the axis CV (that is, from the line drawn through the
centre parallel to the incident light) is proportional to
the cube of the femi-aperture PH of the fpheiical fur-
face.
For/G=:BE. Now BE=CBx fin. BCE, =CB
X fin. CPA } and CBzrRCX cof. RCB, =RCX fin.
CPR, and RC“CPX fin. CPR : Therefore BErrPC
X fin.z CPRX fin. PC A, =aPCX fin.1 refr. X fin. incid.
rn*
but fin.1 refr. = pr fin.1 incid. Therefore, finally,
BE, or/GarPCX^-X fin.3 incid1: But PC. fin. incid.
J n'-
is evidently PH the femi-aperture ; .therefore the pro-
pufition is manifeft.
Corol. 2. Now let this (lender pencil of rays be in¬
cident at the vertex V. The focus will now be a point
F in the axis, determined by making CV : CF = wz —
n : m. Let the incident pencil gradually recede from
the axis CF, dill, however, keeping parallel to it. The
focus / will always be found in a curve line DC’F, fo
conftituted that the ordinate G will be as the cube
of the line PH, perpendicular to the axis intercepted
between the axis and that point of the furface which
is cut by a tangent to the curve in /.
All the rcfra&ed rays will he tangents to this curve,
and the adjacent rays will crofs each other in thefe la¬
teral foci f; and will therefore be incomparably more
denfe along the curve than any where within its area.
This is finely illuflrated by receiving on white paper
the light of the fun refradfed through a globe or cy¬
linder of glafs filled with water. If the paper is held
parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and clofe to it, the
illuminated part will be bounded by two very bright
parallel lines, where it is cut by the curve ; and thefe
lines will gradually approach each other as the paper is
withdrawn from the veffel, till they coalefce into one
very bright line at F, or near it. If the paper be held
with its end touching the vefiel, and its plane nearly
perpendicular to the axis, the whole progrefs at the
curve will be diftindlly feen.
As fuch globes were ufed for burning-glafies, the
point of greateft condenfation (which is very near but
not exadfly in F) was called the focus. When thefe
curves were obferved by Mr Tchirnhaufs, he called
them cm flics ; and tbofe formed by tefradlion he call¬
ed diacaiflicsy to diftinguifh them from the catacaujlics
formed by rcfleftien.
It is fomewhat furprifing, that thefe curves have
been fo little ftudied fince the time of Tchirnhaufs.
The dodtrine of aberrations has indeed been confidered
in a manner independent on their properties. But
whoever confidersthe progrefs of rays in the eye-piece
of optical inftruments, will fee that the knowledge of
the properties of diacauftic curves determines direftly,
and almoft accurately, the foci and images that are
formed there. For, let the objeft-glafs of a telefcope
or microfe-ope be of any dhnenfxons, the pencils inci-
Ny 2490
I C sc
Part II.
dent on the eye-glafies are almoft. all-of this evanefcentOf Abeu a-
bulk. Thefe advantages will be (hown in their proper fi00, ,
places : and we proceed at p re fen t to extend our know- v
ledge of aberrations in general, firft confidering the
aberrations of parallel incident rays.
Abiding by the inftance reprelented by the figure, .,
it is evident that the cauftic will touch the furface in a
point P, fo fituated that c ?: PX m m. The refract¬
ed ray v* will touch the furface, and will crofs the
a’xis in ‘J’, the neareft limit of diffulton along the axis.
If the furface is of fmaller extent, as PV, the cauftic
begins at/, when the extreme refraftedray P/touches
the cauftic, and crofles the axis in F’, and the oppo-
flte branch of the cauftic in K. If there be drawn an
ordinate KO k to the cauftic, it is evident that the
whole light incident on the furface PV n paffes through
the circle whofe diameter is K k, and that the circle is
the fmalleft fpace which receives all the refrafted
%ht\ . . *53
It is of great importance to confider the manner in How light
which the light is diftributed over the furface of this is diftribu-j
circle of fmalleft diffufion ; for this is the rePrelienta*the ’
tion of one point of the infinitely diftant radiant ob-e^ circie 0£
je<ft. Each point of a planet, for inftance, is repre-diffufion,
fented by this little circle ; and as the circles repre-
ferlting the different adjacent points muft interfere with
each other* an indiftindnefs muft arife fimilar to what
is obferved when we view an objedl through a pair of
fpeftacles which do not fit the eye. The indiftimR-
nefs muft be in proportion to the number of points
whofe circles of diffufion interfere ; that is, to the area
of thefe circles, provided that the light is uniformly
diffufed over them : but if it be very rare at the cir¬
cumference, the impreflion made by the circles belong¬
ing to the adjacent points muft be lefs fenfible. Ac¬
cordingly, Sir Ifaac Newton, fuppoling it incomparably
rarer at the circumference than towards the centre, af¬
firms, that the indiftin&nefs of telefcopes arifing from
the fpherical figure of the objed-glafs was fome thou-
fand times lefs than that arifing from the unequal re-
frangibility of light; and therefore, that the attempts
to improve them by diminiftiing or removing this aber¬
ration were needlefs, while the diftirnftnefs from unequal
refrangibility remained. It is furpriiing, that a phi-
lofopher fo eminent for fagacity and for mathematical
knowledge, (hould have made fuch a miftake, and un¬
fortunate that the authority of his great name hindered
Others from examining the matter, trufting to his af-
fertion, that the light was fo rare at the border of this
circle. His miftake is furprifing, becaufe the very na¬
ture of a cauftic (hould have (bowed him* that the light
was infinitely denfe at the borders of the circle of
fmalleft diftulion. The firft perfon who dete&ed this
overlight of the Britifti philofopher was the Abbe.
Bofcovich, who, in a differtation publilhed at Vienna
in 1767, (bowed, by a very beautiful analyfis, that the
diftribution was extremely different from what Newton
had afferted, and that the fuperior indiffin&nefs ari¬
fing from unequal refrangibility was incomparably lefs
than he had faid. We ftiall attempt to make this de¬
licate and interefting matter conceivable by thofe who
have but fmall mathematical preparation.
Let the curve I3VZCI c d (fig- 2.) be the cauftic Plate
(magnified), El its axis, I the focus of central rays,CCCLXUI
B the focus of extreme rays, and IB the line contain¬
ing
Part IP OPT
Wtk!n.rra' t^ie t^,e ^oc* intermeeliate rays, and CO c
■ i ■ - ■ y-'—, j the diameter of the circle of fraalleft diffufion.
It is plain, that from the centre O there can be
drawn two rays OV, O v, touching the cauftic in V,
Therefore the point O will receive the ray EO, which
pafles through the vertex of the retracing furface, and
all the rays which are incident on the circumference of
a circle deferibed on the refradhing furface by the extre¬
mity of the ray OV, or O v. The denfity of the light
at 0 will therefore be indefinitely great.
From the point C there can be drawn two rays ;
one of them CX touching the cr.uftic in C, and the
other C, touching it at d on the oppofite fide. The
rays which touch the caufiic in the immediate vicinity
of Cy, both in the arch CV and the arch Cl wall cut
OC in points indefinitely near to each other ; becaufe
their diftance from each other in the line OC will be
to their uniform diftance on the refra&ing furface as
the diftance between their points of contad with the
cauftic to the diftance of thefe points from the refradt-
irig furface. Here therefore at C the denfity of the
light will alfo be indefinitely great.
1 From any point H, lying between O and C, may
be drawn three rays. One of them, LHT, P, touch¬
ing the arch CD of the cauftic in T, cutting the re-
iVading furface in P, and the axis in L : another,
t H />, touching the arch Cl of the cauftic in t. The
third is ht *, touching-the arch c d of the oppofite
branch of the cauilic in
It will greatly aflift our conceptions of this fubjed,
if we conlider a ray of light from the refrading fur
face as a thread attached at I of this figure, or at F
€eCXLllIef % and gradually unlapped from the cauftic
DVCI on.one tide, and then lapped on the oppofite
branch Icvd; and attend to the point of its inter-
fedion with the diameter r OC of the circle of fmail-
eft difTufion.
Therefore, I. let the rsy.be firft fuppofed to pafs
through the refrading furface at F, the right hand
extremity of the aperture. The thread is then folded
up on the whole right hand branch ICVD'of the
cauftic ; and if the ftraight part of it FD be produced,
it will cut the diameter of the circle of fmaUcft diffu-
fion in the oppofite extremity c. Or fuppofe a ruler
in place of the thread, applied to the cauftic at D and
to the refrading furface at F, the part of it Dr,
which is detached from the cauftic, cuts COr in the
point r; 2. Now fuppofe the ruler to revolve gra¬
dually, its extremity moving acrofs the arch FA/of
the refrading furface while the edge is applied to the
cauftic ; the point of contad with the cauftic will
ftrift gradually down the branch DV of the cauftic
while its edge paftes acrofs the line r C ; and when the’
point of contad arrives at V, the extremity will be at
Y on the refrading furface, and the interfedion of the
edge will be at O. 3. Continuing the motion, the
point of contad fhifts from V to Z, the extremity
from Y to Q_’, and the interfedion from O to O, fo
, ^ OC1 .
* CQI— % ’ as prefently appear. 4. After
this, the point of contad will ftrift from Z to C
the extnmify from to X, halfway from F to A,
as will foen be fhown, and the interfedion from Qto
C. 5. '1 he point of contaft will now ftiift from C
down to I, the extremity will pafs from X to A, and
the mterfedion will go back from C to O. 6. The
Vol. XIII. Parti. ^
ICS. 345
ruler muft now be applied to the other branch of the Of Aberra-
cauftic l czv d, and the point" of contad will afeend,
from I to c, the extremity will pafs from A to*:, half v 11 *
way to f from A, and the interfedion from O to c.
7. The point of contad will afeend from C to z, the
extremity paftes from x to q\ and the interfedion from
Or*
C to q, Oql being 8. While the contad of
the ruler and cauftic ftufts from z to v, the extremity
(hifts from q’ toy, and the interfedion from q to O.
9. The contad rifes from v to d, the extremity pafles
fromy to /, and the interfedion from O to C; and
then the motion acrofs the refrading furface is com¬
pleted, the point of contad fliifting down from D to
I, along the branch DVZCI, and then afeending
along the other branch lcz<v d, while the interfedion
paflesFrom c to C, back again from C to c, and then
back again from c to C, where it ends, having thrice
paffed through every intermediate point of rTd. ai-4
We may form a notion of the denfity of the light Dehfity of
in any point H, by fuppofing the incident light of uni-hght.
form denfity at the refrading furface, and attending
to the conilipation of the rays in the circle of fmalleft
diftufion. Their vicinity may beeftimated bothinthedi-
redion of the radii OH, and in the diredion of the cir¬
cumference deferibed by its extremity H, during its re¬
volution round the axis ; and the denfity muft be con¬
ceived as proportional to the number of originally equidi-
ftant rays, which are colleded intoafpot of given area.
Thefe have been colleded from a correfponding fpot or
area of the refracting furface ; and as the number of rays
is the fame in both, the denfity at H will be to the
denfity of the refrading furface, as the area occupied
of the refrading furface to the correfponding area at H.
1 he vicinity of the rays in the direction of the radius
depends on the proportion between PT and TH.
For the ray adjacent to PTH may be fuppofed to crofs
it at the point of contad T ; and therefore the uniform
diftance between them at the furface of that medium
is to the diftance between the fame rays at H as the
diftance of T from the refrading furface to its diftance
from H. Therefore the number of rays which occupy
a tenth of an inch, for example, of the radius AP, is
to the number which would occupy a tenth of an inch
at H as 1 H to 1 P; and the radial denfity at P is to the
radial denfity at H alfo asTH to TP.-In the next place,
the circumferential cenfity at P is to that at H as the ra¬
dius AP to the radius OH. For fuppofing the figure to
turn round its axis A I, the point P of the refraining
furface will deferibe a circumference whofe radius is
AP, and H will deferibe a circumference whofe radius
is OH ; and the whole rays which pafs through the
firft circumference pafs alfo thro* the fall; and therefore
their circumferential denfities will be in the inverfe
proportion of the fpaces into wdrich they are colleded.
Now the radius AP is to the radius OH as AL to
OL ; and circumferences have the fame proportion
with their radii. Therefore the circumferential den¬
fity at P is to that in H as AL to OL inverfely ; and
it was found that the radial denfity w^as as AN to
ON inverfely, being as TH to TP, which are very
nearly in this ratio. Therefore the abfolute denfity
(or number of rays colleded in a given fpace) at P
»ill be to that at H, in the ratio compounded of thefe
ratios ; that is, in the ratio of ONxOL to ANXAL.
But as N-L bears but a very ftnall ratio to AN or AL,
Xx ANXAL
34-6
Of Abbera
, tb>n.
255
Contrary
OPT
ANXAL may be taken as equal to AO* without
u any fenfible error. It never differs from it in tele-
fcopes loeth part, and is generally incomparably
fmallcr. Therefore the denfity at H may be confi-
dered as proportional to ONXOL invetfely. And it
Ivill afterwards appear that NS is = 3oL. There¬
fore the denfity at H is inverfely as ONxNS.
Now delcribe a circle on the diameter OS, and
draw NT? cutting the circumference N pj~ONxNS,
and the denfity at H is as N ?1 inverfely. This
gives us a very eafy eftimation of the denfity, 'viz.
draw a line from the point of contaftof the ray which
touches the part VC of the cauftic, and the denfity
is in the inverfe fubduplicate ratio of the part of this
line intercepted between the axis and the circumfe¬
rence S?0. It will afterwards appear that the den¬
fity covrefponcling to this ray is one half of the den¬
fity correfponding to all the three : or a better ex-
preffion will be had for the denfity at H by drawing
R/3 perpendicular to R?, and go perpendicular to
<p g, making pR in o ; then yo is as—^tV> or is propor¬
tional to the denfity, as is evident.
When H is at O, N is at S, and ^o is infinite.
As H moves from O, N defeends, and ? o diminiihes, till
II cornes to Q> and T to z, and p to and o to R.
When H moves from (^towards C, T defeends be¬
low z, f o again increafes, till it is again infinite, when
H is at C, T at C, and N at O.
Thus it appears, without any minute confideration,
that the light has a denfity indefinitely great in the
centre O ; that the denfity decreafes to a minimum
in fome intermediate point and then increafes
again to infinity at the margin C. Hence it follows,
that the indiftindtnefs arifing from the fpherical figure
of the refrafting furfaces is incomparably greater than
Newton fuppefed ; and that the valuable difeovery of
Mr Dollond of achromatic lenfes, muff have failed of
anfwering his fond expedbations, if his very method of
producing them had not, at the fame time, enabled
him to remove that other indiftinftnefs by employing
contraiy aberrations. And now', fince the difeoveries
by Dr Blair of fubftances which difperfe the different
colours in the fame proportions, but very different de¬
grees, has enabled us to employ much larger portions
of the fphere than Mr Dollond could introduce into
his objedb-glaffes, it becomes abfolutely neceffary to
iludy this matter completely, in order to difeover and
afeertain the amount of the errors which perhaps un¬
avoidably remain.
This flight flcetch of the moft Ample cafe of aber-
aberrations ration, namely, when the incident rays are parallel,
cor red w;u ferve to give a general notion of the fubjedt; and
cac ot‘ier' the reader can now fee how contrary aberrations may
be employed in order to form an ultimate image which
fhali be as dillinft as poffible. For let it be propofed
Plate *° converge parallel rays accurately to the focus F
eCCLXIII (fig- 3-) by the refraction of fpherical furfaces of which
V is the vertex. Let PV be a convex lens of fuch a
form that rays flowing from F and palling through it
immediately round the vertex V are colledted to the
conjugate focus R, while the extreme ray FP, inci¬
dent ©n the margin of the lens P, is converged to r,
nearer to V, having the longitudinal aberration Rr.
Let p\r be a plano-concave lens, of fuch fphericity
ICS. PAI-t II..
that a ray A/>, parallel to the axis OV, and incident Of he
on the point /, as far from its vertex V as P in the Multiply-
other lens is from its vertex, is clifperfed from r, the , ‘“S' g!ajs’t
diftance pV being equal to T V, while the centralrays
are difperfed from P, as far from V as R is from V.
It is evident, that if thefe lenfes be joined as in fig. 4.
a ray A’yd, parallel to the common axis CV, will be
collefted at the diflance VF equal to VF in the fig. 4.
and that rays palling through both lenfes in the neigh-
bouihood of the axis will be colled!ed at the fame
point F.
This compound lens is faid to be withoHt fpheri¬
cal aberration ; and it is true that the central and the
extreme rays are colledted in the fame point F : but
the rays which fall on the lens between the centre anti
margin are a little diffufed from F, and it is not pof¬
fible to colledl them all to one point. For in the rules
for computing the aberration, quantities are negledied
which do not preferve (in different apertures)the fame
ratio to the quantities retained. The diffulion is leaft
when the aberration is corredled, not for the very ex¬
tremity, but for a certain intermediate point (varying
with the aperture, and having no known ratio to it);
and when this is done the compound lens is in its (late
of greateft perfedlion, and the remaining aberration is
quite infenfible.
This fubjedl will be refumed under the article Te¬
lescope, and profecuted as far as the conitrudlion of
optical inltruments requires.
Sect. IV. Of Optical Injlruvicnts.
Of the mechanifm of optical inftruments particular'
accounts are given in this work under their refpedtive
denominations. Thefe it would be improper to re¬
peat : but as it belongs to the fcience of optics to ex¬
plain, by the laws of refradlion and refleftion, the fe-
veral phenomena which thofe inftruments exhibit, we
muft in this place enumerate the inftruments them-
felves, omitting entirely, or ftating very briefly, fuch
fafts as are ftated at large in other places. In this
enumeration we fliall begin with the multiplying-glafs%
not becaufe it is firft in importance, but that it may
not intervene between inftruments more ufeful, and
which have a mutual relation to one another.
$ I. The Multiplying-glafs. .
The multiplying-glafs is made by grinding down
the round fide hik (fig- 1.) of a plano-convex glafs
AB, into feveral flat fuifaces, as hb, bid, dk. An
object C will not appear magnified when feen through
this glafs by the eye at H; but it wjll appear multiplied na of the ~
into as many different objects as the glafs contains niultiply-
plane furfaces. For, fince rays will flow from theing'£laU’
obje£t C to all parts of the glafs, and each plane fur-
face will refraft thefe rays to the eye, the fame objeft
will appear to the eye in the direftien of the rays
which ,enter it through each furface. Thus, a ray
gi H, falling perpendicularly on the middle furface,
will go through the glafs to the eye without fuffering
any refraftion; and v/ill therefore Ihow the object in
its true place at C: whilft a ray ab flowing from
the fame obj-eft, and falling obliquely on the plane
furface b b, will be refracted in the direction b e, by
palling through the glafs ; and, upon leaving, it, will
go on to the eye in the direction e H ; which will
g caufs
Vin\v C'< VLXm..
O PT LO 3 .
Part If. OPT
plane caufe the fame object C to appear alfo at E, m the
. M>rrurs- i direction of the lay He, produced in the right line
H e n. And the ray c d, flowing from the objedt C,
and falling obliquely on the plane furface dk, will be
refradted (by palflng through the glafo, and leaving
jt at fj to the eye at H ; which will caufe the fame
objedl to appear at D, in the diredtion -If
the glafs be turned round the line^/H, as an axis,
the objedt C will keep its place, becaufe the furface
bid is not removed ; but all the other ohjedts will
feem to go round C, becaufe the oblique planes, on
which the rays abed fall, will go round by the turning
of the glafs.
. § 2. Mirrors.
It has been tlfewhere obferved, that of mirrors
there are three principally ufed in optical experiments
(See Catoptrics, Sedl. I.); the plane mirror, the
fphm'cal convex mirror, and the fpherical concave
mirror. Of thefe the plane mirror firft claims our
attention, as it is more common, and undoubtedly
more ancient, than the other two. It has been faid
(ubi fupra), that the image remedied by this mirror
appears as far behind the furface as the objedt is be¬
fore it; that the image will appear of the fame fize,
and in the fame polition with the objedt ; that every
fuch mirror will refledt an image of twice its own
length and breadth; and that in certain circumftances
it will refledt feveral images of the fame objedt. For
thefe phenomena it is our buflnefs in this place to ac¬
count by the laws of refledtion.
rrru ytv '^et 2') ke an °kje^ Placed before the re-
CCCLX V fle(cyng furface gbt of the plane mirror CD ; and let
the eye be at o. Let hh be a ray of light flowing
from the top A of the objedt, and falling upon the
mirror at b, and h m be a perpendicular to the furface
of the minor at h; the ray l\h will be reflected from
the minpr to the eye at o, making an angle mho equal
to the angle Ah m: then w ill the top of the image E
appear to the eye in the diredtion of the refledted ray
o h produced to E, where the right line Ay>E, from the
top of the object, cuts the light line o h E, at E. Let
13 i he a ray of light proceeding from the foot of the
objedt at B to the mirror at i; and n i u perpendicular
to the mirror from the point i, where the ray B i falls
upon it : this ray will be refledted in the line i o, ma¬
king an angle n t o equal the angle B /’«, with that per¬
pendicular, and entering the eye at o; then will the
foot ¥ of the image appear in the diredtion of the re¬
flected iay oi, produced to F, where the right line
BF cats the refledted ray produced to F. All the
other rays that flow from the intermediate points of
the objedi AB, and fall upon the mirror between b and
t, will be refledted to the eye at o ; and all the inter¬
mediate points of the image EF will appear to the
eye in the diredtion of thefe refledted rays produced.
But all the rays that flow from the object, and fall
upon the mirror above h, will be reflected back above
the eye at o ; and all the rays that flow from the ob¬
jedt, and fall upon the mirror below z, will he refledted
back below the eye at o; fo that none of the rays that
fall above A, or below /, can be refledted to the eve at
c; and the diltance between A and ris equal to half
'he length of the objedt AB.
Hence it .appears, that -if a man fees his whole
I ; C ■ S. > 347
image in a plane boking-glafs, the psrt of the ghfs Plane
that reflects his image mutt be juft half as long and M:rrorS'
half as broad as himfelf, let him ftand at any diftance
from it whatever ; and that his image mutt appear juft size of a
as far behind the glafs as he is before it. Thus, the man looking-
AB (fig. 3.) viewing himfelf in the plane mirror CD,£!a{s 'n
which is juft half as long as himfelf, fees his whole
image as at EF, behind the glais, exadtly equal to fee his ^
his own fize. For a ray &C proceeding from iiis eye whole
at A, and falling perpendicularly upon the furface 0fim3&e*
the glafs at C, is refledted back to bis eye, in the fame
line CA ; and the eye of his image will appear at E,
in the fame line produced to E, beyond the glafs.
And a ray BD, flowing from his foot, and falling ob¬
liquely on the glafs at D, will ire reflected as obliquely
on the other fide of the perpendicular a b D, in the
diredtion DA; and the foot of his image will appear
at F, in the diredtion of the refledted ray AD, pro¬
duced to F, where it is cut by the right line BGF,
drawn parallel to the right line ACE. Juft the fame
as if the glafs were taken away, and a real man ftood
at F, equal in fize to the man Handing at B : for to
his eye at A, the eye of the other man at E would be
feen in the direction of the line ACE ; and the foot
of the man at F -would be feen by the eye A, in the
diredlion of the line ADF.
II the glafs be brought nearer the man AB, as fup-
pofe to cb, he will fee his image as at CDG : for the
refledted ray C/b (being perpendicular to the glafs}
will ftiow the eye of the image as at C ; and the inci¬
dent ray BA, being refiedted in-the line A A, will
fliow the foot of his image as at G; the angle of re¬
flection ab i\ being always equal to the angle of inci-
deijce ¥>b a: and fo of all the intermediate rays from
A to B. Hence, if the man AB advances towards
the glafs CD, his image will approach towards it ;
and ir he recedes from the glafs, bis image will aifo
recede from it.
If the objedt be placed before a common looking-
glals, and viewed obliquely, three, four, or more images
of it, will appear behind the glafs.
To explain this, let ABCU {fig. 11.) represent the
glafs; and let EF be the axis of a pencil of rays flow- cCClIx,
ing from E, a point in an object fituated there. The
rays of this pencil will in part be refledted at F, fup-
pofe into the line FG. What remains will (after re¬
traction at F, which we do not confider here) pafs on
to H ; from whence (on account of the quickfilver
which is fpread over the fecond furface of glafles of
this kind to prevent any of the rays from being tranf-
mitted there) they will be ftrongly reflected to K,
where part ot them will emerge and enter an eve at
L. By this means one reprefentation of the faid point Why thre*
will be lormed in the line LIv produced, ftippofe in M; or four “ ~
Again, another pencil, whole axis is EN, firft reflec--’m3<!es
ted at N, then at O, and afterwards at P, will form obje6ls are
a fecond reprefentation of the fame point at Qj AndSiemir-
thirdly, another pencil, whofe axis is ER, after reflec- r->r,.
tion at the feveral points R, S, H, T, V, fucceflively
will exhibit a third reprefentation of the fame point at
X; and k> on in infinitum. The fame being true of
each point in die object, the whole will be reprefented
in the like manner; but the reprefentations will be
faint, in proportion to the number of reflections the
lays fuller, and the length of their progrefs within the
x 2 glafs.
348 OPT
Concav glafs. We may add to thefe another reprefentation
and Convex u£ the fajue ov je£t; in the line LO produced, made by
« A'‘^rorv , fuch of the rays as fall upon O, and are from thence
refledted to the eye at L.
This experiment may be tried by placing a candle
before the glafs as at E, and viewing it obliquely, as
from L.
2. Of Concave and Convex Mirrors. . The effects of
thefe in magnifying and diminifhing obie&s have been
already in general explained ; but for the better un-
derftanding the nature of rtfle&ing telefcopes, it will
ilill be proper to fubjoin the following particular dc-
fcription of the effedts of concave ones.
Plate When parallel rays (fig. 4.), as df a, Cmb, elc,
CCCiiXlV fall upon a concave mirror AB (which is not trsnfpa-
rent, but has only the furface A5B of a clear polifh),
they will be reflefted back from that mirror, and meet
in a point m, at half the diftance of the furface of the
mirror from C the centre of its concavity ; for they
will be reflefted at as great an angle from a perpen¬
dicular to the furface of the mirror, as they fell upon
it with regard to that perpendicular, but on the other
fide thereof. Thus, let C be the centre ol concavity
of the mirror A£B; and let the parallel rays dfat
C rnJby and e/r, fall upon it at the points a, 3, and c.
Draw the lines C za, Cmb, and Che, from the cen¬
tre C to thefe points; and all thefe lines will be per¬
pendicular to the furface of the mirror, becaufe they
proceed thereto like fo many radii or fpokes from its
centre. Make the_angle Cah equal to the angle da
C, and draw the line am h, which will be the direc¬
tion of the ray df a, after it is re fie died from the
point a of the mirror : fo that the angle of incidence
daC is equal to the angle of refledlion Cah; the
rays making equal angles with the perpendicular C i a
on its oppofite fides. ,
Draw alfo the perpendicular C h c to the point c,
where the ray f/r touches the mirror; and having
made the angle C c i equal to the angle C c e, draw the
line c m i, which will be the courfe of the ray e lc, af¬
ter it is reflefted from the mirror.
The ray Cmb palling through the centre of con¬
cavity of the mirror, and falling upon it at b, is per¬
pendicular to it ; and is therefore reflected back from
it in the fame line bmC.
All thefe reflected rays meet in the point m; and in
that point the image of the body which emits the pa¬
rallel rays da, C b, and ec, will be formed ; which
point is diftant from the mirror equal to half the ra¬
dius 3 »z C of its concavity.
The rays which proceed from any celeflial objeft
may be efteemed parallel at the earth ; and therefore
the image of that objedl will be formed at m, when
the reflefting furface of the concave mirror is turn¬
ed direflly towards the objefit. Hence, the focus m
of parallel rays is not in the centre of the mirror’s
concavity, but half way between the mirror and that
centre.
The rays which proceed from any remote terreftrial
object are nearly parallel at the mirror : not ftri&ly
fo, but come diverging to it, in feparate pencils, or as
it were bundles of rays, from each point of the fide
of the obje& next the mirror ; and therefore they will
not be converged to a point at the diftance of half the
xadius of the minor’s concavity from its refle&ing far»
ICS. Part III
face, but into feparate points at a little greater di- Concave
{lance from the mirror. And the nearer the objedl {s atidCVnvex
to the mirror, the farther thefe points will be from it ; . irJ01~” <
and an inverted image of the object will be formed in 2^9
them, which will feem to hang pendant in the air ; Aerial
and will be feen by an eye placed beyond it (with
gard to the mirror) in all refpefts like the objed, and ^ c^n.
as diftinvft as the obje£l itfelf. cave mir.
Let ArB (fig. 5.) be the reflefting furface of ai'urs.
mirror, whofe centre of concavity is at C ; and let
the upright objeft DE be placed beyond the centre
C, and fend out a conical pencil of diverging rays
from its upper extremity D, to every point of the con¬
cave furface of the mirror AcB. But to avoid con*
fufion, we only draw three rays of that pencil, as DA,
Dr, DB.
From the centre of concavity C, draw the three
right lines CA, C r, CB, touching the mirror in the
fame points where the forefaid rays touch it ; and ail
thefe lines will be perpendicular to the furface of the
mirror. Make the angle CAd equal to the angle
DAC, and draw the right line Ad for the courfe of
the refle&ed ray DA: make the angle Ccz/ equal to
the angle DcC, and draw the right line c d for the
courfe of the refie&ed ray Dd: make alfo the angle
CBz/equal to the angle DBC, and draw the right
line B d for the courfe of the refie&ed ray DB. AH
thefe reftefted rays will meet in the point d, where
they will form the extremity d of the inverted image
e d, fimilar to the extremity D of the upright objebt
DE.
If the pencil of rays E/, E^, E3, be alfo continued
to the mirror, and their angles of reflection from it
be made equal to their angles of incidence upon it, as
in the former pencil from D, they will all meet at
the point e by reflection, and form the extremity e of
the image e d, limilar to the extremity E of the ob-
jeft DE.
And as each intermediate point of the oljea, be¬
tween D and E, fends out a pencil of rays in like
manner to every part of the mirror, the i-ays of each
pencil will be refleaed back from it, and meet in all
the intermediate points between the extremities e and
d of the image; and fo the whole image will be form¬
ed, not at i, half the diftance of the mirror from its
centre of concavity C, but at a greater diftance, be¬
tween i and the object DE; and the image will be in¬
verted with refpea to the objea.
This being well underftood, the reader will eafily
fee how the image is formed by the large concave mir¬
ror of the reflecting telefcope, when he comes to the
defeription of that inftrument.
When the object is more remote from the mirror
than its centre of concavity C, the image will be lefs
than the objea, and between the objeCt and mirror ^
when the objea is nearer than the centre of concavity,
the image will be more remote and bigger than the
objea. Thus, if ED be the objea, de will be its
image: For, as the objea recedes from the mirror, the
image approaches nearer to it; and as the objea ap¬
proaches nearer to the mirror, the image recedes far¬
ther from it ; on account of the lefler or greater di¬
vergency of the pencils of rays which proceed from
the objeCl : for the lefs they diverge, the fooner they,
are converged to points by refleaion j and the more
Part II. OPT
Micro- tliey diverge, the farther they muft be refle&ed before
fcopes, they meet.
   —[f the radius of the mirror’s concavity, and the dw
ftance of the objeft from it, be known, the diftance of
the image from the mirror is found by this rule : Di¬
vide the product of the diftance and radius by double
the diftance made lefs by the radius, and the quotient
is the diftance required.
If the objedt be in the centre of the mirror’s conca¬
vity, the image and objedft will be coincident, and equal
in bulk.
If a man places himfelf diredlly before a large con¬
cave mirror, but farther from it than its centre of con¬
cavity, he will fee an inverted image of himftlf in the
air, between him and the mirror, of a lefs fr/e than
himfelf. And if he holds out his hand towards the
mirror, the hand of the image will come out towards
his hand, and coincide with it, of an equal bulk, when
his hand is in the centre of concavity ; and he will ima¬
gine he may fliake hands with his image. If he reaches
his hand farther, the hand of the image will pafs by
his hand, and come between his hand and his body :
' and if he moves his hand towards either fide, the hand
of the image will move towards the other; fo that
whatever way the objed moves, the image will move
the contrary. / «
All the while a byftander will fee nothing of the
image, becaufe none of the refleded rays that form it
enter his eyes.
$ 3. Microfccpes.
Under the word Microscope a copious detail has
been given of the conftrudion of thofe inftruments as
they are now made by the moft eminent artifts. In that
article it fell not within our plan to treat fcientifically
of their magnifying powers : thefe can be explained
only by the laws of refraction and reftedion, which,
we (hall therefore apply to a few microfcopes, leaving
our readers to make the application themfelves to fuch
others as they may choofe to analife by optical prin¬
ciples.
The firft and fimpleft of all microfcopes is nothing
more than a very frnall globule of glafs, or a convex
lens whofe focal diftance is extremely (hort. The
magnifying power of this microfcope is thus afeertam-
ed by Dr Smith. “ A minute objed pq, feen diftind-
CCCXVXIV ly through a fmall glafs AE by the eye put clofe to it,
Bgs. 6. 7. appears fo much greater than it would to the naked
eye, placed at the leaft diftance qla from whence it ap¬
pears fufficiently diftind, as this latter diftance is
greater than the former qY.. For having put your eye
clofc to the glafs EA, in order to fee as much of the
objed as poffiblc at one view, remove the objed pq to
and fro till it appear moil diftindtiy, fuppofe at the di-
ftance Yq. Then conceiving the glafs AE to be re¬
moved, and a thin plate, with a pin-hole in it, to be
put in its place, the objed will appear diftind, and as
large as before, when feen through the glafs, only not
fo bright. And in this latter cafe it appears fo much
greater than it does to the naked eye at the diftance
9L, either with the pin-hole or without it, as the angle
pYq is greater than the angle pYq, or as the latter di¬
ftance qY is greater than the former yE. Since the
mterpoiition of the glafs has no other effed than to
render the appearance diftind, by helping the eye to
I G S. 349
increafe the refradion of the rays in each pencil, It is Micro¬
plain that the greater apparent magnitude is entirely ^
owing to a nearer view than could be taken by the na-
ked eye. As the human eye is fo conftruded, as,
for reafons already affigned, to have diitind vifion
only when the rays which fall upon it are parallel or
nearly fo ; it follows, that if the eye be fo perfed as
to lee diftindly by pencils of parallel rays falling upon
it, the diftance Yq, of the objed from the glafs, is then
the focal diftance of the glafs. Now, if the glafs he
a fmall round globule, of about -j-’j-th of an inch dia¬
meter, its focal diftance Yq, being three quarters of
its diameter, is -j-^th of an inch ; and if qY be eight
inches, the diftance at which we ufually view minute
objeds, this globule will magnify in the proportion of
8 to or of 160 to x.
2. The Double or Compound Microfcope (fig. 8.) con-
fifts of an o'jed-glafs cd, and an eye-glafs ef. The
fmall objed ab is placed at a little greater diftance
from the glafs cd than its principal focus ; 10 that the
pencils of rays flowing Iro n the different points of the
objed, and palling through the glafs, may be made
to converge, and unite in as many points between^
and/j, where the image of the objed.will be formed:
which image is viewed by the eye through the eye-
glafs ef. For the eye-glafs being fo placed, that the
image gh may be- in its focus, and the eye much about
the fame diftance on the other fide, the rays of each
pencil will be parallel after going out of the eye-
glafs, as at e and f till they come to the eye at
where they will begin to converge by the refradive
power of the humours ; and after having crofted each
other in the pupil, and palled through the cryftalline
and vitreous humours, they will be colleded into
points on the retina, and form the large inverted image
AB thereon.
By this combination of lenfes, the aberration of Ufe of fe-
the light from the figure of the glafs, which in a
globule of the kind above-mentioned is very confide-p0un(j ur;.
rable, is in fome meafure corredted. This appeared crofeopc.
fo fenfibly to be the cafe, even to former opticians,
that they very foon began to make the addition of
another lens. The inilrnment, however, receives a
confiderable improvement by the addition of a third
lens. For, fays Mr Martin, it is not only evident
from the theory of this aberration, that the image of
any point is rendered lefs confufed by refradion thro*
two lenfes than by an equal retradion through one j
but it alfo follows, from the fame principle, that the
fame point has its image ilill lefs confufed when form¬
ed by rays refraded through three lenfes than by an
equal refradion through two; and therefore a third
lens added to the other two will contribute to make
the image more diftind, and confequentiy the inftru*
ment more complete. At the fame time the field of
view is amplified, and the ufe of the microfcope ren
dered more agreeable, by the addition of the other
lens. Thus alfo we may allow a fomewhat larger aper¬
ture to the objed-lens, and thereby increafe the bright-
nefs of objeds, and greatly heighten the pleafure of
viewing them. For the fame reafon, Mr Martin has
propofed a four-glafs microfcope, which anfwers the
purpofes of magnifying and of diftind vifion ftill more
perfedly.
The magnifying power of double microfcopea is ea^
7.
OPT
filyUnderlined, thus: The glafs L next theobjeftPO^
is very fmal!, and very much convex, and confequently
Plate its f°cal diftance LF is very Ihort; the diftance LQ of
CCCLXIV the fmall obje& PQjs but a little greater than LT :
hfer*9- Greater it mull be, that the rays flowing from the ob¬
ject may converge after palling through the glafs, and,
croffing one another, form an image of the objeft;
and it mull be but a little greater, that the image pq
may be at a great diftance from the glafs, and confe-
quently may be much larger than the objeft itfelf.
I his pidure pq being viewed through a convex glafs
AE, whofe focal diftance isyE, appears diftinft as
in a telefcope. b.ow the objedl appears magnified
upon two accounts ; firft, becaufe, if we viewed ics
picturej&y with the naked eye, it would appear as much
greater than the objeft, at the fame diftance, as it
really is greater than the objeft, ©r as much as Ly is
greater than LQj and, fecondly, becaufe this pic¬
ture appears magnified through the eye-glafs as much
BS the leaft diftance at which it can be feen diftin&ly
with the naked eye, is greater than q E, the focal
diftance of the eye-glafs. For example, if this latter
ratio be five to one, and the former ratio of L y to
X-QJie 20 to i; then, upon both accounts, the objeft
will appear y times 20, or 100 times greater than to
the naked eye.
Fig. 10. reprefents the feeftion of a compound mi-
crofeope with three lenfes. By the middle one GK
the pencils of rays coming from the obje<S-glafs are
1 ei 1 acted 10 as to tend to a focus at O 1 but being in¬
tercepted by the proper eye-glafs DF, they are
brought together at I, which is nearer to that lens
than its proper focus at L; fo that the angle DIF, un¬
der which the objeft now appears, is larger than DLF,
under which it would have appeared without this ad¬
ditional glafs ; and confequently the obje& is more
magnified in the fame proportion. Dr Hooke tells
us, that, in moft of his obfervations, he made ufe of
a double microfcope with this broad middie-glafs when
he wanted to fee much of an objeft at one view, and
taking it out when he would examine the fmall’parts
of an objeft more accurately ; for the fewer refrac¬
tions there are, the more bright and clear the objedl
appears.
Having in the hiftorical part of this article given
a practical account of the conftru&ion of Dr Smith’s
double leflefting microfcope, it may not be improper
miciofcoie.,n th,S pIace to afcertain its magnifying power. This
we fliall do from the author hirnfelf, becaufe his fym-
bols, being general, are applicable to fuch microfcopes
of all dimenfions; and though the mere practical reader
may perhaps be at firft fight puzzled by them, yet, if
he will fubilitute any particular numbers for m and nf
fee. he may afcertain with cafe the magnifying power
of fuch a microfcope of thofe particular dimenfions.
Between the centre E and principal focus T of a
concave fpeculum ABC, whofe axis is FQTC, place
an objea FQj and let the rays flowing from it be re-
fkfted from the fpeculum AB towards an image
but before they unite in it, let them be received by a
convex fpeculum aic, and thence be reflected, through
a hole BC in the vertex of the concave, to a ftcond
image to be viewed through an eye-glafs /.
The objed may be fituated^between the fpecula C,
Jt / or, which is better, between the principal focus /
261
'The mag¬
nifying
power of '
Dr Smith’s
<%. II.
1 G S. Part II.
and vertex c of the convex on?, a fmall hole be’" Micro-
ing made in its vertex for the incident rays to pafs fcoi e8-
through. r —y—
In both cafes we have TQ^, TE, Ty, continual
proportionals in fome given ratio, fuppofe of 1 to n ;
and alfo /y, tc, continual proportionals in fome
other given ratio, fiappofe of 1 to m. ’i hen if d be
the ufual diftance at which we view minute ohje£ls
diftindly with the naked eye, and J the focal diftance
of the leaft eye-glafs, through which the objedt ap¬
pears fufficiently bright and dillind, it will be magni¬
fied in the ratio of mnd to ■ l.
For the objedl PQ, and its firft image />y, are termi¬
nated on one fide by the common axis of the fpecula,
and on the other by a line PEp, drawn through the
centre E of the concave ABC. Dikewife the images
pq and are terminated by the common axis and by
the line cp™, drawn through the centre e of the con¬
vex abc*. Hence, by the fimilar triangles ™ *■ et pqe,*
and alfo pyE, PQE, we have ^ * :py : : : ye : ;
m : 1, and py : PQj : yE • QE : : « : 1 ; and con¬
fequently w-k ; PQ^, « : mn : 1, whence =zmn x PQ.
Now if //. be the focal diftance of the eye-glafs /, the
points P, of the objedl, ate feen through it by
the rays of two pencils emerging parallel to the lines
*r/, y-I refpedtivcly ; that is, PQ^appears under aa
angle equal to w/*, which is as —ancj to
the naked eye at the diftance d from it appears
under an angle PsQ^which is and therefore is
magnified in the ratio of thefe angles, that is, of
mnd to y.l.
Coro!. Having the numbers m, », d, to find an
eye-glafs which ftiall caufe the microfcope to magnify
M times in diameter, take *7=:-^-. For the appa¬
rent magnitude is to the true as M : 1 : : mnd i */,
e fhall conclude this part of our fubjecl with the An eafy
following eafy method of afeertairiing the magnifyintm.ethod of
power of fuch microfcopes as are moil in ufe. 0afeertaining
I he apparent magnitude of any objedl, as mull
tlie ma^
nifying
appear from what hath been already delivered, is po-iyer of
meafured by the angle under which it is feen ; and the moft
this angle is greater or fmaller according as thecolnniGa
objea is near to or far from the eye; and of confe-
quence the lefs the diftance at which it can be viewed
tlie larger it will appear. The naked eye is unable to
diftinguifh any objea brought exceedingly near it:
but looking through a convex lens, however near the
focus of that lens be, there an objea may be diftindtly
feen ; and the fmaller the lens is, the nearer will be
its focus, and in the fame proportion the greater will
be its magnifying power. From thefe principles it is
eafy to find the reafon why the firft or greateft tnag-
r.ifiers are fo extremely minute ; and alfo to calculate
the magnifying power of any convex lens employed
in a Angle microfcope : For as the proportion of the
natural fight is to the focus, luch will be its power
of magnifying. If the focus of a convex lens, for in-
ftance, be at one inch, and the natural fight at eight
inches, which is the common itandard, an objeft may
be feen through that lens at one inch diftance from the
eye, and will appear in its diameter eight times larger
than
Part IT.
OPT
Micio-
fcopen.
261
Further
©hferva-
tiors on
the mag
nifying
power of
micro-
fcopes.
titan it does to the naked eye: but as the object is
rringnified every way, in l?ngth as well as in breadth,
we muft fquare this diameter to know how much it
really is enlarged; and we then find that its fuperficies
is magnified 64 times.
Again, fuppofe a convex lens whofe focus is only
one-tenth of an inch diftant from its centre; as in eight
inches, the common diftance of diftinft vifion with
the naked eye, there are 80 fuch tenths, an objedl
may be feen through this glafs 80 times nearer than
with the naked eye. It will, of confequence, appear
80 times longer, and as much broader, than it does to
common fight ; and therefore is 6400 times magni¬
fied. If a convex glafs be fo fmall that its focus is
only iV of an inch diftant, we find that eight inches
contains 1 60 of thefe twentieth-parts; and of confe¬
quence the length and breadth of any objeft feen
through fuch a lens will be magnified 160 times, and
tbe whole furface 25,600 times. As it is an eafy
matter to melt a drop or globule of a much fmalk-r
diameter than a lens can be ground, and as the focus
of a globule is no farther off than a quarter of its own
diameter, it muft of confequence magnify to a pro¬
digious degree. But this excefiive magnifying power
is much more than counterbalanced by its admitting fo
little light, want of diftinftnefs, and fhowing fuch a
minute part of the objedt to be examined ; for which
reafon, thefe globules, though greatly in vogue feme
time ago, are now almoit entirely rejected. Mr Leeu¬
wenhoek, as has been already obferved, made ufe only
of fingle roicrofcopes confilting of convex lenfes, and
left to the Royal Society a legacy of 26 of thofe
glafles. According to Mr Folke’s defeription of
thefe, they were all exceedingly clear, and fhowed the
objedl very bright and diflindl; ‘‘which (fays Mr
Folkes) muft be owing to the great care this gentle¬
man took in the choice of his glafs, his exa&nefs in
giving it the true figure, and afterwards, among
many, referving only fuch for his ufe as upon trial he
found to be moft excellent. Their powers of magni¬
fying are different, as different objefts may require:
and as on the one hand, being all ground glaffes,
none of them are fo fmall, or confequently magnify
1 C s.
to fo great a degree, as fome of thofe drops frequently
ufedin other microfcopes; yet, on the other hand, the
diftindtnefs of thefe very much exceeds what I have
met with in glaffes of that fort. And this was what
Mr Leeuwenhoek ever propofed to himfelf; reje&ing
all thofe degrees of magnifying in which he could not
fo well obtain that end. For he informs us in one of
his letters, that though he had above 40 years by
him glaffes of an extraordinary fmallnefs, he had
made but very little ufe of them ; as having found, in
a long courfe of experience, that the moft confider-
able difeoveries were to be made with fuch glaffes as,
magnifying but moderately, exhibited the object with
the greateft brightnefs and diftindfion.”
In a fingle microfcope, if you want to learn the
magnifying power of any glafs, no more is neceflary
than to bring it to its true focus, the exad place
whereof will be known by an objedl’s appearing
perfectly diftinft and iharp when placed there. Then,
with a pair of fmall compaffes, meafure, as nearly as
you can, the diftance from the centre of the glafs to
the object you was viewing, and afterwards applying
the compaffes to any ruler, with a diagonal i’cale of
the parts of an inch marked on it, you will eafily find
how many parts of an inch the faid diftance is. When
that is known, compute how many times thofe parts
of an inch are contained in eight inches, the common
ftandard of fight, and that will give you the number
of times the diameter is magnified : fquaring the dia¬
meter will give the fuperficies; and, if you would
learn the folk! contents, it will be fhown by multiply¬
ing the fuperficies by the diame’ter.
The fuperficies of one fide of an objedl only can be
feen at one view ; and to compute how much that i«
magnified, is moft commonly fufficient: but fome-*
times it is fatisfaffory to know how many minute
objects are contained in a larger; as fuppofe we de¬
fire to know how many animalcules are contained in
the bulk of a grain of fand : and to anfwer this, the
cube, as well as the furface, muft be taken into the
account. For the greater fatisfa&ion of thofe who
are not much verfed in thefe matters, we fhall here fub-
join the following
TABLE
OPTIC
3tv3
Alicro*
fcopes’
s.
Part II,
TABLE of the magnifying powers of convex glasses, employed in Single Mlcrof(opesi according to the
diilance of their focus ; Calculated by the Laic of an inch divided int(% i oo parts. Showing how manv
times the diameter, the superficies, and the cube of an object, is magnified, when viewed through fuck
glafles, to an eye whofe natural light is at eight inches, or 800 of the toodth-parts of an inch.
The Re-
framing
Telefcope.
Magnifies
the Dia.
meter.
or
The focus of
a glafs at
50I
f 4-,
TU» 01' 40
tu, or 3°
•j-, or 20
13
12
11
tuj or 10 ^
9 '
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
U
To. or
-a
16
20
26
40
53
57
61
66
72
80
88
100
1 H
*33
360
200
266
400
800
Magnifies
the Super¬
ficies.
256
400
676
i,6co
2,809
3>249
3.72i
4>356
, 5.i84
6,400
7.744
10,000
12,996
17,689
25,600
40,000
7°, 756
160,000
640,000
Magnifies the
Ch.be ci" an
Wbjedl.
4.°961
8,000
i7.576
64,000
148,877
i85>193
226,981
287,496
373,248
512,000 f Times.
681,472'
I ,000,000
1,481,544
2,352,637
4,096,000
8,000,000
18,82 1,096
64,000,000
5 12,000,000
The gieateft magnifier in Mr Leeuwenhoek’s ca-
.binet of microfcopes, prefented to the Royal Society,
has its focus, as nearly as can •well be meafured, at
-one-twentieth of an inch diftance from its centre ;
and confequently magnifies the diameter of an objedt
160 times, and the fuperficies 25,600. ^But the great-
eit magnifier in Mr Wilfon’s fingle microfcopes, as
they are now made, has ufually its focus at no farther
diilance than about the 50th part of an inch; whereby
it has a power of enlarging the diameter of an objedl
400, and its fuperficies 160,000 times.
264 The magnifying power of the folar microfcope mu ft
The mag- calculated in a different manner ; for here the dif-
ro'ver^of Rrence between the focus of the magnifier and the di-
the folar fiance of the feretn or fneet whereon the image of the
microfcope objedl is call, is the proportion of its being magnified,
calcirlafed guppofe, for infiance, the lens made ufe of has its fo-
fr..mThatf cus at an ‘nc^> ancl t^ie i,'creen *s pLced at the di-
©f others, fiance of five feet, the objeA will then appear magni¬
fied in the proportion of five feet to half an inch: and
ns in five feet there are 120 half inches, the diameter
will be magnified 120 times, and the fuperficies 14,400
times ; and, by putting the fereen at farther difiances,
you may magnify the objedl almoft as much as you
pleafe ; but Mr Baker advifes to regard difiindtnefs
more than bignefs, and to place the fereen juft at
that difiance where the objedt is feen moft diftindf and
clear.
With regard to the double refledling microfcope,
Mr Baker obferves, that the power of the objedf-lens
is indeed greatly increafed by the addition of two eye-
glaffes ; but as no objedt-lens can be ufed with them
of fo minute a diameter, or which magnifies of itfelf
near fo much as thofe that can be ufed alone, the
gbfies of this microfcope, upon the whole, inagnity
little or nothing rhore than thofe of Mr Willon’s lingle
N° 249.
one; the chief advantage arifing from a combination
of lenfes being the light of a larger field or portion
-of an objedl magnified in the fame degree.
$ 4. Telefcopes.
I. The Refracting Telescope. ^
After what has been faid concerning thefl;rudlure^atlveof
of the compound microfcope, and the manner in which ^
the rays pafs through it to the eye, the nature of the icfc0pe.
common altronomical telefcope will eafily be under-
.ftood : for it differs from the microfcope only in that
the objedl is placed at fo-great a dillance from it, that
the rays of the fame pencil, flowing from thence,
may be conlidered as falling parallel to one another
upon the objeef-glafs ; and therefore the image made
by that glafs is looked upon as coincident with its focus
ot parallel rays.
1. This will appear very plain from the 12th figure,^ ^!^jy
in which AB is the objedt emitting the feveral pencils'"
of rays A c cl. Bed, &c. but fuppofed to be at fo
great a diftance from the objeef-glafs c d, that the rays
of the fame pencil may be conlidered as parallel to
each other ; they are therefore fuppofed to be collected
inteAheir refpeftive foci at tfi’e points m and^, fituated
at the focal diftance of the objedt-glafs c d. Here
they form an image E, and croffing each other proceed
diverging to the eye-glafs hg ; which being placed at
its own focal diftance from the points w and/>, the
rays of each pencil, after pafling through that glafs,
will become parallel among themfelve^ ; but the pencils
themfelves will converge confiderably with refpedf t«
one another, even fo as to crols at e, very little farther
from the glafs g h than its focus ; hecaule, when they
entered the glafs, their axes were almoft parallel, as
coming through the object-glafs at the point k, to
whole
2 66
Magnify¬
ing power
of.
Partir. OPT
Refra6Hng whofe dlftaHce the breadth of the eye-glafs in a long
Telefcope. telefcope bears very fm ill proportion. So that the
place of the eye will be nearly at the focal diftance of
the eye-glafs, and the rays of each refpefKve pencil
being parallel among theinfelvea, and their axes croffing
each other in a larger angle than they would do if the
objefl were to be feen by the naked eye, vifion will
be diftimSt, and the obje& wo'll appear magnified.
The power of magnifying in this telefcope is as the
focal length of the objeft-glafs to the focal length of
the eye-glafs.
Dem. In order to prove this, we may confider the
angle A/fB as that under which the objeclwould be feen
by the naked eye ; for in confidering the diftance of
the objeft, the length of the telefcope may be omit¬
ted, as bearing no proportion to it. Now the angle
under which the objedt is feen by means of the tele¬
fcope is o-e h, which is to the other AiB, or its equal
gLb, as the dillance from the centre of the objecl-glafs
to that of the eye-glafs. The angle, therefore, under
which an objedt appears to an eye a {lifted by a tele¬
fcope of this kind, is to that under which it would be
feen without it, as the focal length of the objedt-glafs
to the focal length of the eye-glafs.
It is evident from the figure, that the vifible area,
or fpace which can be feen at one view when we look
through this telefcope, depends on the breadth of the
eye-glafs, and not of the objedft glafs ; for if the eye-
glafs be too fmall to receive the rays^wi, p h, the ex¬
tremities of the objedl could not have been feen at all:
a larger breadth of the objeft-glafs conduces only to the
rendering each point of the image more luminous by
receiving a larger pencil of rays from each point of
, the objeft.
©bje&sfecn It *s in this telefcope as in the compound micro-
through, fcope, where we f^e, when we look through it, not
the objeft itfelf, but only an image of it at CED : now
that image being inverted with refpedt to the objed,
as it is, becaufe the axes of the pencils that flow from
the objed crofs each other at h, obje&s feen through
a telefcope of this kind neceflarily appear inverted.
This is a circumftance not at all regarded by aftro-
nomers : but for viewing objeds upon the earth, it is
convenient that the telelcope fhould reprefent them in
their natural pofture ; to which ufe the telefcope with
three eye-glafft's, as reprefented fig. 13. is peculiarly
CCCLXIV aclapted, and the progrefs of the rays through it from
the objed to the eye is as follows :
AB is the objed fending out the feveral pencils
Acd, ¥>cd, &c. which pnfling through the objed-
a68 glafs c d, are colleded into their refpedive foci in CD,
Common where they form an inverted image. From hence they
refracting proceed to the firft eye-glafs ef, whofe focus being at
lhows°ob ^ t^ie rays eac^ Penc,i are rendered parallel among
jeitsereCt. themfelves, and their axes, which were nearly parallel
before, are made to converge and crofs each other:
the fecond eye-glafs g being fo placed that its focus
fhall fall upon rrt, renders the axes of the pencils which
diverge from thence parallel, and caufes the rays of
each, which were parallel among themfelves, to meet
again at its focus EF on the other fide, where they
form a fecond image inverted with refped to the for¬
mer, but ere£l with refped to the objed. Now this
image being feen by the eye at a b through the eye-
glafs i h, affords a dired reprefentation of the objed,
and under the fame angle that the firft image CD
Vol.XIII. Parti.
inverted.
Plate
1 c S- 351
would have appeared, had the eye been placed at /, Rtfiafling
fuppofing the eye-glaffes to be of equal convexity ; Telefcopes.
and therefore the objed is feen equally magnified in '“"~v
this as in the former telefcope, that is, as the focal di¬
ftance of the objed-glafs to that of any one of the eye-
glaffes, and appears ered.
If a tclefcope exceeds 20 feet, it is of no ufe in view¬
ing objeds upon the furface of the earth ; for if it mag¬
nifies above 90 or 100 times, as thofe of that length
ufually do, the vapours which continually float near
the earth in great plenty, will be fo magnified as to
render vifion obfeure.
2. Tbs Gallilean Telefcope with the concave eye-glafs
is conftruded as follows : telefcope,
AB (hg. 1.) is an objed fending forth the pencils pi3te
of rays k lm, &c. which, after pafling through CCCLXV.
the objed-glafs c d, tend towards eE/ (where we will
fuppofe the focus of it to be), in order to form an in¬
verted image there as before ; but in their way to it
are made to pafs through the concave glafs n 0, fo pla¬
ced that its focus may fall upon E, and confequently
the rays of the feveral pencils which were converging
towards thofe refpedive focal points e, E, f, will be
rendered parallel among themfclves : but the axes of
thofe pencils crofling each other at F, and diverging
from thence, will be rendered more diverging, as re¬
prefented in the figure. Now thefe rays entering the
pupil of an eye, will form a large and diftind image
a b upon the retina, which will be inverted with refped
to the objed, becaufe the axis of the pencils crofs in
F. The objed of courfe will be feen ered, an 1 the
angle-under which it will appear will be equal to that
which the lines rzF, bY, produced back through the
eye-glafs, form at F.
It is evident, that the lefs the pupil of the eye is,
the lefs is the vifible area feen through a telefcope of
this kind ; for a lefs pupil would exclude fuch pencils
as proceed from the extremities of the objed AB, as is
evident from the figure. This is an inconvenience that
renders this telefcope unfit for many ufes; and is only
to be remedied by the telefcope with the convex eye-
glaffes, where the rays which form the extreme parts
of the image are brought together in order to enter
the pupil of the eye, as explained above.
It is apparent alfo, that the nearer the eye is placed
to the eye-glafs of this telefcope, the larger is the area
feen through it; for, being placed clofe to the glafs,
as in the figure, it admits rays that come from A and
B, the extremities of the objed, which it could not if
it was placed farther off. 2
The degree of magnifying in this telefcope is in the vta - ify.
fame proportion with that in the other, vi-z,. as the fo-irg pwver ;
cal diftance of the objed-glafs is to the focal diftanceoi-
of the eye-glafs.
For there is no other difference but this, %n%. that
as the extreme pencils in that telefcope were made to
converge and form the angle geh (fig. 12.), ox ink pja(.^
(fig. 13.), thefe are nowmade todiverge and form theccC..Xtv
angle aYb (fig. 1.); which angles, if the concave glafs Piafe
in one has an equal refradive power with the convex CCC'LXV.
one in the other, will be equal, and therefore each
kind will exhibit the objed magnified in the fame de¬
gree.
There is a deftd in all thefe kinds of telefcopes,
not to be remedied in a fingle lens by any means what¬
ever, which was thought only to arife from hence,
Y y viz-.
354 OPT
Refracting v}z, that fphencal glafTes do not colleft rays to one
Teiefcore. and t^e came point.’ But it was happily difcovrred
‘ by Sir Ifaic Newton, that the imperfection of this
fort of telefcope, fo far as it arifes from the fpherical
form of the glaffes, bears ahnoft no proportion to that
which is owing to the different refrangibility of light.
This diverfity in the refradtion of rays is about a 28th
part of the whole ; fo that the objeCt-glafs of a tele¬
fcope cannot colledt the rays which flow from any one
point in the objedt into a lefs room than the circular
fpace whofe diameter is about the 56th part of the
breadth of the glafs.
Plate To fhow this, let AB (fig.2.) reprefent a convex lens,
CCCi.XV.ancj let CDF be a pencil of rays flowing from the
point D ; let H be the point at which the leaft re¬
frangible rays are colledted to a focus; and I, that
where the moft refrangible concur. Then, if IH be
the 28th part of EH, IK will be a proportionable part
of EC (the triangles H(K and HEC being ilmilar):
confequently LK will be the 28th part of FC. But
MN will be the kaft fpace into which the rays will be
colledted, as appears by their progrefs reprefenced in
the figure. Now MN is but about half of KL ; and
therefore it is about the 56th part of CF: fo that the
diameter of the fpace into which the rays are colledl-
ed will be about the 56th part of the breadth of that
part of the glafs through which the rays pafs ; which
was to be fhown.
Since therefore each point of the ©bjedt will be re-
prefented in fo large a fpace, and the centres of thofe
fpaces will be contiguous, becaufe the points in the
objedl the rays flow from are fo ; it is evident, that
the image of an objedf made by fuch a glafs mull be a
mod confufed reprefentation, though it does not ap¬
pear fo when viewed through an eye-glafs that magni¬
fies in a moderate degree; confequently the degree of
magnifying in the eye-glafs muft not be too great
with refpedl to that of the objedl-glafs, left the confu-
fon become fenfible.
Notwith{landing this imperfedlion, a dioptrical te¬
lefcope may be made to magnify in any given degree,
provided it be of fufficient length ; for the greater the
focal diftance of the objedl-glafs is, the lefs may be
the proportion which the focal diftance of the eye-glafs
,7I may bear to that of the objedl-glafs, without render-
^efra&ing ing the image obfeure. Thus, an objedl-glafs, whofe
telefcopes focal diftance is about four feet, will admit of an eye-
tmagnify in ^japs wh0fe focal diftance fhall be little more than an
to'thdr °n ^ch, and confequently will magnify aim oft 48 times;
length. but an objedl-glafs of 40 feet focus will admit of an
eye-glafs of only four inches focus, and will therefore
magnify 120 times; and an objedl-glafs of 100 feet
focus will admit of an eye glafs of little more than fix
inches focus, and will therefore magnify ahaoft 200
times.
The reafon of this difproportion in their feveral de¬
grees of magnifying is to be explained in the follow¬
ing manner : Since the diameter of the fpaces, into
which rays flowing from the feveral points of an ©b-
jedl are colledted, are as the breadth of the objedl-
glafs, it is evident that the degree of confufednefs in
the image is as the breadth of that glafs ; for the de¬
gree of confufednefs will only be as the diameters or
breadths of thofe fpaces, and not as the fpaces them-
jfeives. Now the focal length of the eye-glufs, that is,
I C S. Part If.
its power of magnifying, muft be as that degree; for, RefA&Ing
if it exceeds it, it will render the confufednefs fen- Telefcope.
fible; and therefore it muft be as the breadth or dia- ^
meter of the objedl-glafs. The diameter of the ob¬
jedl-glafs, which is as the fquare root of its aperture
or magnitude, mull be as the fquare-root of the power
of magnify ing in the telefcope ; for unlefs the aper¬
ture itfelf be as the power of magnifying, the image
will want light: the fquare root of the power of mag¬
nifying will be as the fquare root of the focal diftance
of the objedl-glafs; and therefore the focal diftance
of the eye-glafs muft be only as the fquare root of
that of the objedl-glal's. So that in making ufe of an
objedl-glafs of a longer focus, fuppofe, than one that
is given, you are not obliged to apply an tye-glafs of
a proportion ably longer focus than what would fuit
the given objedl-glafs, but fuch an one only whofe fo¬
cal diftance fhall be to the focal diftance of that which
will fuit the given objedl-glafs, aS the fquare root of
the focal length of the ofcjedl glafs you make ufe of,
is to the fquare root of the focal length of the given
one. And this is the reafon that longer telefcopes
are capable of magnifying in a greater degree than
fhorter ones, without rendering the objedl confufed or
coloured. 272
3. But the inconveniency of very long telefcopes is fo Their^nr-^
great, that different attempts have been made to remove remedied
it. Of thefe, the moft fuccefsful have been by Dollondby Pollond
and Blair ; and the general principles upon which thefe and Blair,
eminent opticians proceeded have been mentioned in the
hiftorical part of this article, and in the preceding fedlioru
The public will foon be favoured with a fuller account of
Dr Blair’s difeovery from his own pen ; and of Dol-
lond’s, it may be fufficient to obferve, in addition to
what has been already faid, that the objedl-glaffes of
his telefcopes are cotnpofed of three diftindl lenfes,
two convex and one concave ; of which the concave
one is placed in the middle, as is reprefented in fig. 3.
where a and c fhow the two convex lenfes, and bb the
concave one, which is by the Britifh artifts placed in.
the middle. The two convex ones are made of Lon¬
don crown glafs, and the middle one of white flint
glafs; and they are all ground to fpheres of different
radii, according to the refra&ive powers of the diffe¬
rent kinds of glafs and the intended focal diftance of „
the objedl-glafs of the telefcope. According to Bof-
covich, the focal diftance of the parallel rays for the
concave lens is one-half, and for the convex glafs one-
third of the combined focus. When put together,,
they refradi the rays in the following manner. Let
aby a b (fig. 4.), be two red rays of the fun’s light
falling parallel on the firfl convex lens c. Suppofing
there was no other lens prefent but that one, they
would then be converged into the lines b be, and at
laft meet in the focus q. Let the lines g hy g hy re¬
prefent two violet rays falling on the furface of the
lens. Thefe are alfo refradled, and will meet in a fo¬
cus ; but as they have a greater degree of refrangibi-
lity than the red rays, they muft of confequence con¬
verge more by the fame power of refradtion in the
glafs, and meet fooner in a focus, fuppofe at r.—Let
now the concave lens dd bt placed in fuch a manner
as to intercept all the rays before they come to their
focus. Were this lens made of the fame materials, and
ground to the fame radius with the convex one, it
1 would
Part If. ° P .T
Kdr^dlint; v-0uM have the fame power to caufe the rays diverge
Tekfcpe that the formev had to make them converge. In this
' v cafe, the red rays would become parallel, and move on
in the line o o, o o': But the concave lens, being made
of flint glafs, and upon a (horter radius, has a greater
refra&ive power, and therefore they diverge a little
after they come out of it ; and if no third lens was
interpofed, they would proceed diverging in the lines
opt, opt; but, by the interpofition of the third lens
ovo, they are again made to converge, and meet in a
focus fomewhat more dilfant than the former, as at x.
By the concave lens the violet rays are alfo refradted,
and made to diverge : but having a greater degree of
' refrangibility, the fame power of refradtion makes them
diverge fomewhat more than the red ones ; and thus,
if no third lens was interpofed, they would proceed
in inch lines as /mn, linn. Now as the different y
'coloured rays fall upon the third lens with different
degrees of divergence, it is plain, that the fame power
of rtfra&ion in that lens will operate upon them in
fueh a manner as to bring them all together to a locus
very nearly at the fame point. The red rays, it is
true, require the greateft power of refraftion to bring
them to a focus' but they fall upon the lens with the
leall degree of divergence. The violet rays, though
they require the leaft power of refradfion, yet have the
greateft degree of divergence; and thus all meet toge¬
ther ai the point x, or very nearly fo.
13ut, though we have hitherto fuppofed the refrac-
tion of the concave lens to be greater than that of the
convex ones, it is eafy to fee how the errors occafion-
ed by the lirft lens may be corredted by it, though it
fhould have even a lefs power of refradtion than the
Plat, convex one. Thus, let <ib (fig.5-)> be two^rays
CCCLXV.of red light falling upon the convex lens r, and re.radt-
ed into the focus q ; let alfo g h, g h, be two violet rays
converged into a focus at r ; it is not neceflary, in or¬
der to their convergence into a common focus at x,
that the concave lens fhould make them diverge, it is
fufficient if the glafs has a power of difperfing the vio¬
let rays fomewhat more than the red ones; and many
kinds of glafs have this power of difpeifing fome kinds
of rays, without a very great power of refradfion. It
is better, however, to have the objedf-glafs compofed
of three lenfes ; becaufe there is then another correc¬
tion of the aberration by means of the third lens; and^
it might be impollible to find two lenfes, the errors of
which would exactly corredt each other. It is alfo
eafy to fee, that the efida may be the fame whether
the concave glafs is a portion of the fame Ipheie with
the others or not ; the eftea depending upon a com¬
bination of certain circumftances, of which there is an
infinite variety.
By means of this corredtion of the errors anfing
from the different refrangU ility of the rays of light,
it is poflible to fliortei-i dioptric telelcopes conli .er-
ably, and yet leave them equal magnifying powers.
The reafon of this is, that the errors anfing from the
objea-glafs being removed, thofe which are occalion-
ed by the eye glafs are inconliderable : for the error
is always in proportion to the length of the focus in
any glafs ; and in very long telefcopes it becomes ex¬
ceedingly great, being no lefs than -j^th of the whole;
but in glaffes of a few inches focus it becomes trifling.
Kefiading telefcopes, which go by the name of Dol-
ICS. 355'
land's, are therefore now conftrufled in the following ^edhag
manner. Let AB (fig. 6.) reprefent an objed-g.ais
compofed of three lenfes as above defenbed, and con¬
verging the rays I, 2, 3, 4> to a very diftant fo¬
cus as at x. By means of the interpofed lens CJJ,
however, they are converged to one much nearer, as
at y, where an image of the objedt is formed. 1m*
rays diverging from thence fall upon another .ens Lr,
where the pencils are rendered parallel, and an eye
placed near that lens would fee the objedf magnified
and very diftindf. To enlarge the magnifying power
ftill more, however, the pencils thus become parahe
are made to fall upon another at GH; by which they
are again made to converge to a diftant focus : but,
being intercepted by the lens IK, they are made to
meet at the nearer one z; whence diverging to LM,
they are again rendered parallel, and the eye at N fees
the objedt very diftindily. . .
From an inlpedion of the figure it is evident, that
Dollond’s telefcope thus conftrudted is in fadt two te¬
lefcopes combined together; the fir ft ending with the
lens EF, and the fecond with LM. In the firfl vve
do not perceive the objedt itfeif, but the image o it
formed at y; and in the fecond we perceive only the
image of that image formed at 2. Neverthelefs fuca
telefcopes are exceedingly diftindt, and reprefent ob-
jedts fo clearly as to be preferred, in viewing terreftnai
things, even to refledtors themfelves. The latter indeed
have greatly the advantage in their powers of magni¬
fying, but they are much deficient in point of light.
Much more light is loft by rcfledtion than by refrac¬
tion : and as in thtfe telefcopes the light mint una¬
voidably fuffer two refledtions, a great deal of it is
loft ; nor is this lofs counterbalanced by the greater
aperture which thefe telefcopes will bear, which en¬
ables them to receive a greater quantity of light than
the refradting ones. The metals of reflect ng telefcopes
alfo axe very much fubjed to tarniih, and require much
more dexterity to clean them than the glaffes of retrac¬
tors ; which makes them mere troublefome and expen-
five, though for making difeoverks in the celeftial re¬
gions they are undoubtedly the only proper mitru-
ments which have been hitherto conltruCted. If -Ur
Blair indeed (hall be fo fortunate as difeover a vitre¬
ous fubftance of the fame powers with the fluid in the
compound objed-glafs of his telefcope (and from his
abilities and perfeverance we have every thing to hope),
a refradling telefcope may be conflruCted fuperior for
every purpofe to the befl refledfor.
II. The Reflecting Telescope.
The inconveniences an Ting from the great length of
refradling telefcopes, before Dollond’s difeovery, are
fufficiendy obvious ; and thefe, together with the dif¬
ficulties occafioned by the different refrangibihty of 273 >
light, induced Sir Ifaac Newton to turn his attention Newmn,
to the fubjedl of reflection, and endeavour to realize 1 h
the ideas of himfelf and others concerning the polfibi-
lity of conftrudting telefcopes upon that principle.
The inftrument which he contrived is repreiented,
fi-T. 7. where ABCD is a large tube, open at AD and
clofed at BC, and of a length at leaf! equal to the
diilance of the focus from the meta ti: fpherical con¬
cave fpeculum GH placed at the end BC. I he rays
LG, EH, &c. proceeding from a remote ohjedl PR,
Y y 2 interfedil
356
Reflecting
'Feiefcoj^e.
o
274
Its magni
lying
power.
Plate
eccLxy
interfcft one another fomewhere before they enter the
fo that EG, eg are thofe that come from the
lower part of the objeft, and//;, FH from its upper
part : thefe rays, after falling on the fpcculum GH,
will he reflefted, fo as to converge and meet in m n,
■w-here they will form a perfect image of the objeft. 
Pmt as this image cannot be feen by the fpeftator, they
are intercepted by a fmall plane metallic fpeculum KK,
inteifefting the axis at an angle of by which the
rays tending to m n will be reflected towards a hole LL
in the fide of the tube, and the image of the objedl
T-n - tiUS he formed in ? S 5 which ,mage will he lefs
cntinct, becaufe fome of the rays which would other-
wife fall on t!ie concave fpeculum GH, are intercept¬
ed by the plane fpeculum : neverthelefs it will appear
in a confiderable degree diftinft, becaufe the aperture
of the tube, and the fpeculum GH are large. In
the lateral ho e LL is fixed a convex lens, whole focus
is at Sy ; and therefore this lens will refraft the rays
that proceed from any point of the image, fo as at their
exit they will be parallel, and thofe that proceed from
the extreme points S y will converge after refraftion,
and form an angle at O, where the eye is placed;
which will fee the im ige S y, as if it were an objeft’
through the lens LL ; confequently the object will
appear enlarged, inverted, bright, and diftina. In LL
ienfes of different convexities may be placed, which by
being moved nearer to the image or farther from it,
would reprefent the objed more or lefs magnified, pro¬
vided that the lurface of the fpeculum GH be of a
perfedly fpherical figure. If, in the room of one lens
LL, tbiee lenfes be oifpofed in the lame manner with
ihe three eye-glalTes of the refrading telefcope, the
objed will appear ered, but lefs diftind than when it
isobferved with one lens. On account of the pofition
ol the eye in this telefcope, it is extremely difficult to
thred the mftrument towards any objed. Huygens
therefore, firft thought of adding to it a fmall refrad-
ing telefcope, the axis of which is parallel to that of
the refledor. 1 his is called a fitvler, or director. The
.Newtonian telefcope is alfo furnilhed with a fuitable
apparatus for the commodious ufe of it.
In order to determine the magnifying power of this
teleicope, it is to be confidered that the plane fpeculum
KK is of no ufe in this refped. Let us then fuppofe,
that one ray proceeding from the objed coincides with
the axis GLIA (fig. 8.) of the lens and fpeculum ; let
/G be another ray proceeding from the lower extreme
of the objed, and palling through the focus I of the
fpeculum KH : this will be refleded in the diredion
lid, parallel to the axis GLA, and falling on the lens
^ L / will be refraded to G ; fo that GL will be
e?”ai.t0 3nd ^^ ^ r^° ^ie naked eye the
objed would appear under the angle Ibi^s HA ; but
by means of the tekfeope it appears under the angle
^ i w r/I L ~ ^ and the angle Idi is to the-
angfe Id; confequently the apparent mao--
fj!tUumby therte,eftoPe is ^ that by the naked eye as
aie diftance of the focus of the fpeculum from the fpe-
t0 tht dlftance °f the focus of the ^ns from
XT ThbKneWi0ni’a r telefcoPe ftill inconvenient.
Notwithftanding the contrivance of Huygens, objeds
a tie by it found with difficulty. The telefcope of
TICS.
Gregory, tnerefore, loon obtained the preference, to
wumh for mofi; purpofes it is juftiy iruitled, as the
reaoer will perceive from the following conftrudion.
. ^ 11 9-) be a brafs tube, in which L//D
is a metallic concave fpeculum, perforated in the mid-
, at ^ 5 ano Eh a lefs concave mirror, fo fixed by
the arm or itrong wire RT, which is moveable by
means of a long ferew on the outfide of the tube, as
to be moved nearer to or farther from the larger fpe-
culurn L bdl), ns axis being kept in the fame line
with that of the great one. Let AB repreftnt a very
i emote onjed, from each part of which Hue pencils of
r^y\e' g- C ^ C D, from A the upper extreme of the
objed, and I L, i/t from the lower part B ; the rays
1 L, CL from the extremes croffing one another be¬
fore they enter the tube. Thefe rays, falling uoon
the larger mirror LD, are refleded from it into the fo-
C11S iVi?kwbe.re tiiey form an Jnverted image of the
objed AB, as in the Newtonian tekfeope. From this
image the rays, iffuing as from an objed, fall upon the
fmall mirror EF, the centre of which is at e ;.fo that
after refledion they would meet in their foci at Q Q
and there form an ered image. But fince an at
that p.aee could fee but a fmall part of an objed, in
order to bring rays from more r’.ifiant parts ot it into
the pupil, they are intercepted by the plano-convex
lens MN, by which means a fmaller ered ima re is
formeu at PV, which is viewed through the me in feus
•So by an eye at O. This menifeus both makes the
lj'ys ° Aeacb Pencil parallel, and magnifies the imaoe
Pv.^ At the place of this image all the foreign rays
are intercepted by the perforated partition ZZ. For
the fame reafon the hole near the eye O is very nar¬
row. When nearer objeds are viewed by this tcle-
cope, the imall fpeculum EF is removed to a greater
diftance from the larger ED, fo that the fecond image
may be always formed in PV ; and this diftance is to
be adjufted (by means of the ferew on the outfide of
the gieat tube) according to the form of the eye of
the fpedator. It is alfo neceflary, that the axis of the
telefcope ftiould pafs through the middle of the fpecu¬
lum EF, and its centre, the centre of the fpeculum,
LL, and the middle of the hole X, the centres of the
knfes MN, SS, and the hole near O. As the hole X
in the fpeculum LL can refled none of the rays iffuin-
from the objed, that part of the image which cone •
fponds to the middle of the objed muft appear to the
obferver more dark and confufed than the extreme
parts of it. Befides, the fpeculum EF will alfo inter¬
cept many rays proceeding from the objed; and there¬
fore, unlefs the aperture TT be large, the objed muft-
appear in fome degree obfeure.
In the beft refleding telefcopes, the focus of the,
fmall mirror is never coincident with the focus of the
great one, where the firft image KPI is formed, but a
little beyond it (with refped to the eye), as at « ;
the confequence of which is, that the rays of the pen¬
cils will not be parallel after refledion from the fmall
mirror, but converge fo as to meet in points'about
Qj1’ Q^where they would form a larger upright image
than PV, if the glafs R was not in their way ; and
this image might be viewed by means of a Angle eye-
glafs properly placed between the image and the eye :
but then the field of view would be kfs, and confe¬
quently:
Part ir.
RefPtfling
Telefcope.
2 75
Gregorian
telefco^e.
276
It? magni-
fying
power.
Part II. OPT
Rrfle&ing quently not To pleafant; for which reafon, the glafs
Telelcope. ^ jg retained, to enlarge the fcope or area of the
1 ' field.
To find the magnifying power of this tclefcope,
multiply the focal diftance of the great mirror by the
diftance of the fmall mirror from the image next the
eye, and multiply the focal diltance of the fmall mir¬
ror by the focal diftance of the eye glafs : then divide
the produdl of the former multiplication by the pro-
du£t of the latter, and the quotient will exprefs the
magnifying power.
One great advantage of the refle&ing telefcope is,
that it will admit of an eye-glafs of a much fliovter
focal diftance than a refra&ing telefcope will ; and
confequently it will magnify fo much the more : for
the rays are not coloured by refledfion from a concave
mirror, if it be ground to a true figure, as they are
by palling through a convex glafs, let it be ground
ever fo true.
The nearer an objedt is to the telefcope, the more
its pencils of rays will diverge before they fall upon
the great mirror, and therefore they will be the longer
of meeting in points after refledlion ; fo that the firil
image KH will be formed at a greater diftance from
the large mirror, when the objedl is near the tele¬
fcope, than when it is very remote. But as this
image mull be formed farther from the fmall mirror
than its principal focus », this mirror mult be always
fet at a greater diftance from the large one, in view¬
ing near objedts, than in viewing remote ones. And
this is done by turning the fciew on the outfide of the
tube, until the fmall mirror be fo adjufted, that the
objedt (or rather its image) appears perfedt.
In looking through any telefcope towards an ob-
jedt, we never fee the objedt itfelf, but only that
image of it which is formed next the eye in the tele-
icope. For if a man holds his linger or a ftiek be¬
tween his bare eye and rn objtdk, it will hide part
(if not the whole) of the objedt from his view : But
if he ties a flick acrofs the mouth of a telcfcope be¬
fore the objedt-giafs, it will hide no part of the ima¬
ginary objedt he faw through the telefcope before,
uulefs it covers the whole mouth of the tube : for all
the eftedt will be, to make the objedt appear dimmer,
becauie it intercepts part of the rays Whereas, if
he puts only a piece of wire acrofs the in fide of the
tube, between the eye-glafs and his eye, it will hide
part of the objedt which he thinks he fees ; which
proves, that he fees not the real objedt, but its image.
This is alfo confirmed by means of the fmall mirror EF,.
in the reflecting telefcope, which is made of opaque
metal, and Hands diredily between the eye and the
objedt towards which the telefcope is turned ; and will
hide the whole objedt from the eye at O, if the two
gkfles ZZ and SS arc taken out of the tube.
Great improvements have been lately made in the con-
ilruction of both relledting and refracting telefcopes,
as well as in the method of applying thofe inftruments
to the purpofes for which they are intended. Thefe,
however, fall not properly under the fcience of
optics, as fitter opportunities occur of giving a full
account of them, as v eil as of the magic lantern, ca¬
mera ohfeura, See. under other articles of our multifa¬
rious woik. See Catoptrics, DioptricSj Speculum^
h C S- 357'
and Telescope. We fhall conclude this article with Micro-
fome obfervations feopesi and
I elefcapes
On the different Merits of Mlcrofcopes and Telefcopes, compared.^
compared with one another ; how far we may reafonably ' ' v
depend on the Difoveries made by them, and what hopes
we may entertain of further Improvements.
The advantages arifing from the ufe of microfcopes j\fefpJof
and telefcopes depend, in the firft place, upon their pro-microfcopes
perty of magnifying the minute parts of objedis, foandtele-
that they can by that means be more diftindbly viewed ^0P jS com’
by the eye ; and, feconclly, upon their throwing more*
light into the pupil of the eye than what is done with¬
out them. The advantages arifing from the magnify¬
ing power would be extremely limited, if they were not
alfo accompanied by the latter : for if the fame quan¬
tity of light is fpread over a large portion of furface,
it becomes proportionably diminiihed in force ; and
therefore the objedts, though magnified, appear pro-
portionahly dim. 'Thus, though any magnifying glafs
fhould enlarge the diameter of the object 10 times, and
confequently magnify the furface 100 times, yet if the
focal diftance of the glafs was about eight inches (pro¬
vided this was poftible), and its diameter only about the-
fize of the pupil of the eye, the objedt would appear ico
times more dim when we looked through the glafs,
than when we beheld it with our naked eyes; and this,
even on a fuppofition that the glafs tranfmitted all the
light which fell upon it, which no glafs can do. But if
the focal diftance of the glafs was only four inches,
though its diameter remained as before, the inconveni¬
ence would be vaftly diminifhed, becaufe the glafs could
then be placed twice as near the o! jedt as beiore, and
confequently would receive four times as many rays as
in the former cafe, and therefore we would fee it
much brighter than before. Going on thus, ftill di*
minifhing the focal diftance of the glafs, and keeping
its diameter as large as poffible, we will perceive the
objedt marc and more magnified, and at the fame time
very diftindt and bright. It is evident, however, that-
with regard to optical inftruments of the microfcopie
kind, we.muft fooner or later arrive at a limit which
cannot be palled. 1 his limit is formed by the follow-
ing particulars. 1. The quantity of light loft in pafs-
ing through the glafs. 2. The diminution of the glafs
itfelf, by which it receives only a fmall quantity of
rays. 3. The extreme'ftrortnefs of the focal diftance
of great magnifiers, whereby the free accefs of the
light to the ol jedt which we with to view is impe¬
ded, and confequently the refledtion of the light from
;t is weakened. 4. The aberrations of the rays, oc-
cafioned by their different refrangibility.
To under lb. tkI this more fully, as well as to fee hour
far thefe obftacles can be removed, let us fuppofe the
lens made of fuch a dull kind of glafs that it tranfmits
only one half of the light which falls upon it. It is
evident that fuch a glafs, of four inches focal diftance,
and which magnifies the diameter of an objeit twice,
Itiil fuppofing its own breadth equal to that of the
pupil of the eye, will fhow it four times magnified in
furface, but only half as bright as if it was feen by.
the naked eye at the ufual diftance'; for the light ■
which falls upon the eye from the objedt at eight inches
diftance, and likewife the furface of the oljedt in its
natural 1
358 • OPT
Micro- natural fize, being both reprefented by r, the furface
Tel fS and t^ie niagn’fiec^ object will be 4, and the light which
compared'. makes that magnified objeft vifible only 2 ; becaufe
u—-vr—^ though the glafs receives four times as much light as
the naked eye does at the ufual diftance of diftimSt
vifion, yet one half is loft in palling through the glafs.
The inconvenience in this refpecl can therefore be re¬
moved only as far as it is poffible to increafe the clear-
nefs of the glafs, fo that it lhall tranfmit nearly all the
rays which fall upon it; and how far this can be done,
hath not yet been afeertained.
The fecond obftacle to the perfection of microfcopic
glaftes is the fmall lize of great magnifiers, by which,
.notwithftanding their near approach to the object, they
receive a fmaller quantity of rays than might be ex¬
pected. Thus, fuppofe a glafs of only Tloth ©f an
inch focal diftance ; fuch a glafs would increafe the
vifible diameter 80 times, and the furface 6400 times.
If the breadth of the glafs could at the fame time be
preferved as great as that of the pupil of the eye,
which we fhall fuppofe -rV^hs of an inch, the object
would appear magnified 6400 times, at the fame time
that every part of it would be as bright as it appears
to the naked eye. But if we fuppofe that this mag¬
nifying glafs is only of an inch in diameter, it
will then only receive ^th of the light which otherwife
would have fallen upon it; and therefore, inftead of
communicating to the magnified ebjet a quantity of
illumination equal to 6400, it would communicate on¬
ly one equal to 1600, and the magnified objeeft *ould
appear four times as dim as it dees to the naked eye.
This inconvenience, however, is ftill capable of being
removed, not indeed by increafing the diameter of the
lens, becaufe this muft be in proportion to its focal di-
flance, but by throwing a greater quantity of light on
the objeeft. Thus, in the above-mentioned example,
if four times the quantity of light which naturally falls
upon it could be thrown upon the ofcjedt, it is plain
that the reflection from it would be four times as great
as in the natural way ; and confequently the magnified
image, at the fame time that it was as many times
magnified as before, would be as bright as when feen
by the naked eye. In tranfparent objefts this can be
done very effectually by a concave fpeculum, as in the
refleting microfcope already deferibed : but in opaque
•objets the cafe is femewhat more doubtful; neither do
the contrivances for viewing thefe objets feem entirely
to make up for the deficiencies of the light from the
fmallnefs of the lens and (hortnefs of the focus.—
When a microfcopic lens magnifies the diameter of an
objet 40 times, it hath then the utmoft poffible mag¬
nifying power, without diminiflung the natural bright-
nefs of the objet.
The third obftacle arifes from the fhortnefs of the
focal diftance in large magnifiers: but in tranfparent
objets, where a fufficient quantity of light is thrown
on the objet from below, the inconvenience anfes at
laft from ftraining the e\e, which muft be placed
nearer the glafs than it can well bear ; and this1- en¬
tirely fuperledes the ufe of magnifiers beyond a certain
■degree.
The fourth obftacle arifes from the different refran-
igibility of the rays of light, and which frequently caufes
Inch a deviation from truth in the appearancesof things,
that many people have imagined thcmfelv.es to have
I C S. Part II.
made furprifing difeoveries, and have even publilhed Micro,
them to the world ; wfien in fail they have been only ^0P®S a,1<*
as many optical deceptions, owing to the unequal re- c^paied!
fra&ions of the rays. For this there feems to be no ‘ v—-»
remedy, except the introdiuftion of achromatic glaffes
into microfcopes as well as telefcopes. How far this
is prailicable, hath not yet been tried; but when thefe
glafi'es fhall be introduced (if fuch introdudlion is
pradlicable), microfcopes will then undoubtedly have
received their ultimate degree of perfedion. 278
With regard to telefcopes, thofe of the refra&ing Doffiind’*
kind have evidently the advantage of all others, where
the aperture is equal, and the aberrations of the rays teiefCOpes
are correded according to Mr Dollond’s method ; be- fupehor ts
caufe the image is not enly more perfed, but a muchotfiers*
greater quantity of light is tranfmitted than what can
be refleded from the beft materials hitherto known.
Unluckily, however, the imperfe&ions of the glafs fet
a limit to thefc telefcopts, as hath already been ob-
ferved, fo that they cannot be made above three feet
and an half long. On the whole, therefore, the rt flec-
tin-g telefcopes are preferable in this refped, that they
may be made of dimenfions greatly fuperior; by which
means they can both magnify to a greater degree,
and at the fame time throw much more light into the
eye.
With regard to the powers of telefcopes, however,
they are all of them exceedingly lefs than what we
would be apt to imagine from the number of times
which they magnify the objed. Thus, when we
hear of a telefcope which magnifies 200 times, we
are apt to imagine, that, on looking at any diftant ob¬
jed through it, we ftiould perceive it as dittindly as
we would with our naked eye at the 200th part of
the diftance. But this is by no means the cafe ;
neither is there any theory capable of diretting us in
this matter : we muft therefore depend entirely on ex¬
perience.
The heft method of trying the goodnefs of any te¬
lefcope is by obferving how much farther off you are
able to read with it than you can with the naked
eye. But that all deception may be avoided, it is
proper to choofe fomething to be read where the ima¬
gination cannot give any affiftance, fuch as a table of
logarithms, or fomething which confifts entirely of fi¬
gures ; and hence the truly ufeful power of the tele-
fc.ope is eaiily known. In this way Mr Short’s large
telefcope, which magnifies the diameter of objeds 1200
times, is yet unable to afford fufficient light for read¬
ing at more than 200 times the diftance at which we
can read with our naked eye.
With regard to the form of refleding telefcopes, itTheGrego*
is now pretty generally agreed, that when the Gre--rian tele-
gorian ones are well conftruded, they have the advan- e
tage of thofe of the Newtonian form. One advantage common
evident at firft fight is, that with the Gregorian tele- ufe to the
fcope an ©bjed is perceived by looking diredly through Newtonian,
it, and confequently is found with much greater cafe
than in the Newtonian telefcope, where we muft look
into the fide. The unavoidable imperfedion of the fpe-
cula common to both, alfo gives the Gregorian an ad¬
vantage over the Newtonian form. Notwithftanding
the utmoft care and labour of the workmen, it is found
impoffiLle to give the metals either a perfedtly fphe-
rical or a perfedtly parabolical form. Hence arifes
fosne
Part II. O P ^
Micro fome Indiftin£lnef» of the-image formed by the great
fcopesand {pecu]un^ which is frequently corrected by the little
compared* one> provided they are properly matched. But if this
u—v——'is not done, the error will be made much worfe ; and
hence many of the Gregorian telefcopes are far infe¬
rior to the Newtonian ones; namely, when the fpecula
have not been properly adapted to each, other. There
is no method by which the workman can know the
fpecula which will fit one another without a trial;
and therefore there is a neceffity for having many
fpecula ready made of each fort, that in fitting up a
telefcope thofe may be chokn which bell fuit each
other.
The brightnefs of any obje£t feen through a tele¬
fcope, in comparifon with its brightnefs when feen by
the naked eye, may in all cafes be eafily found by the
following formula. Let n reprefent the natural di-
flance of a vifible objedl, at which it can be diftindlly
feen ; and let r/reprefent its diftance from the objedl-
glafs of the inftrument. Let m be the magnifying
power of the inftrument; that is, let the vifual angle
fubtended at the eye by the objedt when at the di¬
ftance «, and viewed without the inftrument, be to the
ICS. . 359
vifual angle produced by the inflrument as I to m. Micro-
Let a be the diameter of the ohjecl-glafs, and p be ^c.°fer3 anc*
that of the pupil. Let the inftrument be fo con- compared!
ftrudted, that no parts of the pencils are interceptedi,—v —>
for want of fufficient apertures of the intermediate
glaffes. Laftly, let the light loft in reflettion or re-
fradiion be negledled.
The brightnefs of viiion thtough the inftrument will
“'N 2
be exprefted by the fradlion —?J1 > the brightnefs of
m p d
natural vifion being I. But although this fradlion may
exceed unity, the vifion through the inftrument will
not be brighter than natural vifion. For, when this
is the cafe, the pupil does not receive all the light
tranfmitted through the inftrument.
In microfcopes, n is the neareft limits of diftindl
vifion, nearly 8 inches. But a difference in this cir-
cumftance, arifing from a difference in the eye, makes
no change in the formula, becaufe m changes in the
fame proportion with n.
In teiefcopes, n and d may be accounted equal, and'
a}
the formula becomes —-r.
m p
INDEX-
ABERRATION, theory of,
n°25i. Evils of—remedy,
252. Light diftributed by,
over the fmalleft circle of dif-
fufion, 253. Contrary aber¬
rations corredl each other,
255-
ddam’s method of making glo¬
bules for large magnifiers,
110.
Aerial fpeculums mentioned by
Mr Gray, 47. Aerial ima¬
ges formed by concave mir¬
rors, 254.
Aethers, fuppofed, do not folve
the phenomena of inflection,
&c. 67.
Air, refradtive power of, 13,
14. Strongly refledts the rays
proceeding from beneath the
furface of water, 37.
Alembert (M. d’), his difcove-
ries concerning achromatic
telefcopes, 17.
Alhazen’s difcoveries concern¬
ing the refradtion of the at-
mofphere, 6. His conjec¬
tures about the caufe of it,
ib. He gave the firft hint
of the magnifying power of
glaffes, ib.
^/Z’tf/mefaltdiminifties the mean’
refr^dtion, but not the diL
perfive power of glafs, 18.
Angles, refracted tables of, pub*
liftredby Kepler and Kircher,
n0ii.
Antonio de Dominis, hiftiop of
Spalatro, difcovered the na¬
ture of the rainbow, 203.
Apparent place of objeCts feen
by reflection, firft difcovered
by Kepler, 27. Barrow’s
theory refpeCting, 210. M.
delaHire’sobfervations,2i f-
Berkeley’s hypothefis on di-
ftancebyconfufedvifion, 213.
ObjeCted to by Dr Smith,
2 14. The objection obviated
by Robins, 215. M. Bou-
guer adopts Barrow’s ma¬
xim, 216. Porterfield’s view
of this fubjeCt, 217.
Almofphere varies in its refrac¬
tive power at different times,
20. Illumination of the fha-
dow of the earth by the re-
fraCtion of the atmofphere,
§ 7> P-339. &c-
Attratiive force fuppofed to be
the caufe of reflection, 176.
The fuppofition objected to,
177. Obviated, 178. An¬
other hypothefis, 179; Sir
Ifaac Newton’s hypothefis,
180. Untenable, 181.
Azout (Mr) makes an objeCt-
glafsof an extraordinary focal
length, 93. On the apertures
of rcfraCling telefcopes, 96,.
B.
Bacon (Roger), his difcoveries,
n° 6, 8.
Bacon (Lord), his miftake con¬
cerning the poffibilityof ma¬
king images appear in the
air, 26.
Barker's (Dr) reflecting mi*-
crofcope, 113.
Barrow's theory refpeCting the
apparent place of objects,
210. Adopted by Bbuguer,
216.
Beams of light, the phenome¬
non of diverging, more fre¬
quent in fummerthan in win¬
ter, 241.
Beaume (Mr) cannot fire in¬
flammable liquids with hot
iron or a burning coal, un-
lefs thofe fubftances be of a
white heat, 45.
Berkeley's theory of viiion, 72.
His hypothefis concerning
the apparent place of ob¬
jects, 213. ObjeCted to by
Dr Smith, 214. The ob¬
jection obviated' by Mr Ro¬
bins, 2x5.
Binocular telefcope invented by
Father Rheita, 91.
Black marble in fome cafes re¬
flects very powerfully, 36.
Blair (Dr Robert) makes an
important difcovery, 19*.
Blair and Dollond’s reflect¬
ing telefcope fuperior to ali
others, n° 278.
Bodies which feem to touch one
another are notin aCtual con¬
tact:, 46; Eight hundred
pounds weight on every
fquare inch neceffary to bring
twobodies into apparent con¬
tact, 64.
Bouguer's experiments to dif-
cover the quantity of light
loft by reflection, 33. His
difcoveries concerning the
reflection of glafs and po-
liftied metal, 35. His ob-
fervations concerning theap-
parent place of objeCts, 2 16.
Throws great light on the
fubjeCt of fallacies of vifion,
220. Explains the pheno¬
mena of green and blue ftia-
dows feen in the iky, 234,,
235. Contrivances for mea-
furing light, 244. Calcula¬
tions concerning the light of
the moon, 248.
Boyle’s experiments concerning
the light of differently co*
loured fubftances, 28.
Briggs's folution of Tingle vifion
with two eyes, 1 59.
Brilliant, the cut in diamonds
produces total reflection*,
129,
360
Brijlle, curious appearance of
the fhadow ef one, n° 56.
Bujfon's experiments on the re-
fledtion of light, 34. Obfer-
ved green and blue fiiadows
in the Iky, 231, 232.
Burning-gUftts of the ancients
defcribed, 23.
C.
Campari?s telefcope, 92.
Candle, rays of light extended
from, in feveral dire&ions,
like the tails of comets, 51.
Cat (M. le) explains the mag¬
nifying of objedls by the in¬
flexion of light, 68. Ac¬
counts for the large appear¬
ance of objects in mill, 212.
Explains a remarkable decep¬
tion of vifxon, 225.
Chejl (Mr) made the fame dif-
covery with Dollond for the
improvement of refradting
telefcopes, 18.
Clairaufs calculations refpedt-
ing telefcopes, 17.
Cold, why moll intenfe on the
tops of mountains, 4^.
Colours difeovered to arife from
refradlion, 15. Suppofed by
Dechales to arife from the
inflexion of light, 50. Pro¬
duced by a mixture of fha-
dows, 58. Colours Ample or
compound, 196.
Concave glaffes, 74. An objeX
feen through a concave lens
is feen nearer, fmaller, and
lefs bright, than with the
naked eye, 170. Law of
refledlion from a concavefur-
face,i83. Proved, 185. Con¬
cave mirrors, p. 344.
Convex lens, an objeX feen
thro’ appeal s brighter, lar¬
ger, and more diftant, than
•when feen by the naked eye,
nc 168. In certain circum-
ilances it appears inverted
and pendulous in the air, 169.
Law of reflection from a
convex furface, 1 84. Proved
mathematically, » 85. Me¬
thod of finding the focal di-
ftance of rays refieXed from
a convex furface, 189. Con¬
vex mirrors, p. 344.
of bodies in many cafes
apparent without being real,
46. Eight hundred pounds
on every fquare inch necef-
fary to produceapparent eon-
taX, 64. Real contaX of
bodies perhaps never obfer-
ved, 66.
249.
OPT
Corona, p. 327.
Crxflal hath feme refraXive pro¬
perties different fiom other
trnnfparent fubftances, nJ 39.
Cylinders; experiments by Mi-
raldi concerning their fha-
dows, 54.
D.
Deception in vifion ; a remark¬
able one explained by M. 1c
Cat, 225.
Dechales’s obfervations on the
infleXion of light, 50.
Defcartes: his difeoveries con¬
cerning villon, 71. Account
of theinventionof telefeopes,
75-
Diamond, the brilliant cut in,
producestotalrefleXion, 129.
Dioptric inflruments: difficul¬
ties attending the cOnflrtic-
tion of them, x 20 Tele¬
fcopes why made fo long,
95-
Dljlance of objeXs, $ 3. p. 327,
&c. Berkeley’s account of
the judgment formed con¬
cerning diflance by confufed
vifion, 213. Smith’s account
214. ObjeXed to by Ro¬
bin’s, 2! 5’. Bouguer adopts
Barrow’s maxjm, 216. Por¬
terfield’s view of it, 217.
Dlvini, a celebrated maket of
telefcopes, 92. His rnicro-
fcope, 107.
Diverging beams more frequent
in fummer than in winter,
241.
Dollmd (Mr) difeovers a me¬
thod of correXing the errors
arifing from refraXion, 17.
He difeovers a miflake in
one of Newton’sexperiments,
ih. Difeovers the different
refraXive anddifperfive pow¬
er of glafs, ib. Difficulties
in the execution of his plan,
p. 238. His improvements
in the refraXing telefcope,
nJ 99, 100. Dollond and
Blair’s refraXing telefcope
fuperior to ail others, 27*.
Dominis (De) difeovered the
caufe of the colours of the
rainbow, 203.
E.
Edouards (Mr) improvements
in the refleXing telefcope,
98.
Emergent rays, the focus of,
found, 144.
Equatorial telefcope or portable
obfervatory, 102. New one
ivented by Ramfden, ib.
I c s.
Euler (Mr) firfl fuggefled the
thought of improving re-
fraXing telefcopes, n° »7.
His controverfy with Ciai-
raut, &c. ib. His fcheme
for introducing vifion by re¬
fieXed light into the folar
microfcope and magic lan¬
tern, 116, His theory of
undulation contrary to faX,
136; and therefore mifleads
artifts, 137.
Eye : the denfity and refraXive
powers of its humours fir ft
afeertained by Scheiner, 70.
Defcription of it, 147. Di-
menlions of the infenlible
fpot of it, 151. Eyes fei-
dotn both equally goad, 2 17.
Seat of vifion in, difpute a-
bout, 150. Arguments for
the retina being the feat of
viiion in, 152.
Eyes, Angle viAon with two,
158 Varioushypothefescon-
cerning it, 159, 163, 161,
&e. Brightnefs of objeXs
greater when feen with two
eyes than only with one,
163. When one eye is clo-
fed, the pupil of the other
is enlarged, 164.
F.
Fallacies, feveral, of viAon ex¬
plained, 219. Great light
thrown on this fubjeX by
M. Bonguer, 220.
Focus, the, of rays refraXed by
fpherical furfaces afeertain¬
ed, 141. Focus of parallel
rays falling perpendicular
upon any lens, 143. Focus
of emergent rays found, 144.
Proportional dillance of the
focus of rays refieXed from
a fpherical furface, 188. Me¬
thod of finding the focal di-
ftance of rays rtfleXed from
a convex furface, 189.
Fontana claims the honour of
inventing telefcopes, 79.
Force, repulAve, fuppofed to be
the caufe of refleXion, 174.
The fuppofition objeXed to,
175. AttraXive, fuppofed,
176. The fuppolition ob¬
jeXed to, 177. The objeXion
obviated, 178.
Funk ( Baron Alexander), his
obfervation concerning the
light in mines, 47.
G.
Galilean telefcope, more diffi-
Acult of conflmXion than
others, 86.
Index.
Galileo made a telefcope with¬
out a pattern, n° 80. An ac¬
count of his difeoveries with
it, 8x. Why called Lyn-
ceus, 82. Account of his
telefcqpes, 83. Was not ac-
quainted with their ratio-
«<a/e, 84. His telefcope, 269.
Magnifying power of, 270.
Glafs globes, their magnify¬
ing powers known to the
ancients, 3. Different kinds
of them, ib. Table of the
different compoAtions of
glafs for correXing the er¬
rors in refraXing telefcopes,
p- 240. Showsvariouscolours
when fplit into thin laminae,
n°3 r. Table of the quantities
of light refleXed from glafs
notquick-Alvered,atdifferent
angles of incidence, p. 249.
Glafs, multiplying, pheno¬
mena of, n° 256.
Glajfes, difference in their
powers of refraXion and dif-
perAon of the light, p. 239.
Globes have fhorter ffiadows
than cylinders, n0 55. And
more light in their ffia¬
dows, 57.
Globules, ufed for microfcopes
by Hartfocker, 108. Adam’s
method of making them,
in.
Gregory’s invention of the re¬
fleXing telefcope, 97. Gre¬
gorian telcf'-ope, 275. Mag¬
nifying power of, 276. Gre¬
gorian telefcope fuperior for
common ufes to the Newto¬
nian, 279.
Grey ( Mr), obfervation on aerial
fpeculums, 47. Temporary
microfeopes, 112.
Grimaldi Arfl obferves that co¬
lours arife from refraXion,
1 7. InfloXion of light flrfl
difeovered by him, p. 253.
His difeoveries concerning
infledlion, n^p.
H.
Hairs, remarkable appearance
of their fhadows, 52.
Hartfocker’s microfcope, 108.
Herfchel’s improvements in re¬
fleXing tdefcopes, 99.
Hire (M. de la), his reafon why
rays of light feem to proceed
from luminous bodies when
viewed with the eyes half
fliut, 51. Obfervations on
the apparent place of objeXs,
211.
Hooke (Dr), his difeoveries con-
2 cerning
Index.
cerning the inflexion of
light, n° 48.
Horizon^ an object fituated in,
appears above its true plane,
166. Extent of the vifible
horizon on a plane furfacc,
227.
Horizontal moon, Ptolemy’s
hypothefis concerning it, 5.
I Huygens greatly improves the
telefcopes of Scheiner and
Rheita, 89. fznproves the
Newtonian telefeope, 273.
I*. •
Janfen (Zacharias), the fh ft
inventor of telefcopes, 77
and 78. Made the lit ft mi-
crofcope, ior, 106.
Images, Lord Bacon’s millake
concerning the poffibility of
making them appear in the
air, 26. Another miftake
on the fame fnbjeft by Vi-
Itellio, ib. B. Porta’s me¬
thod of producing this ap¬
pearance, ib. Kircher’s me¬
thod, ib. Images, aerial,
formed by concave mirrors,
259. .
Jmpulfe, doubtful if it has ever
been obfcrved, 66.
Incidence, ratio of the fine of
to that of refraftion, 126.
Incident velocity, increafe of,
diminifhes refra£iion, 130.
Inflexion of light, difeoveries
concerning it, p. 253. Dr
Hooke’s difeoveries con¬
cerning it. n 48. Grimalli’s
obfervations, 49. Dechales’s
obfervations, 50. Newton’s
difeoveries, 52. Maraldi’s,
53, 54. Probably produced
by the fame forces with re¬
flexion and refraXion, 63.
Jnverfion, a curious inftance of
! % it obferved by Mr Grey,
47'
Irradiations of the fun’s light
appearing through the in-
terftices of the clouds, $ 6.
p. 337, &c. Converging ob¬
ferved by Dr Smith, na 238.
Explained by him, 239.
Not obferved by moon¬
light, 240.
yupiter's fatellites difeovered
by Janfen, 78 By Galileo,
and called by him Mediccan
planets, 81.
K.
Kepler firft difeovered the
true reafon of the apparent
place of objeXs feen by re-
-fleXing mirrors, 27. His
Vol. XIII. Fait I.
OPT
difeoveries concerning vi-
fion, n* 69. Improved the
conftruXion of telefcopes,
87, 87. His method firft
put in praXice by Scheiner,
88.
Kircber attempted a rational
theory of refraXion, ix.
L.
Lead increafes the difperfive
power of glafs, 1 7.
Lenfcs. their effeXs firft dif¬
eovered by Kepler, 88.
Lenfes, how many, 142.
The focus of parallel rays
falling perpendicular upon
any lens, 143. Convex, an
objeX feen through, appears
larger, brighter, and more
diftant, than by the naked
eye, 168. In fome cir-
cumftances it appears in¬
verted, and pendulous in the
sir, 169. An objeX feen
through a concave lens is
feen nearer, fmaller, and
lefs bright, than with the
naked eye, 170.
Leeuwenhoek’s mierofeope, 109.
Light, its phenomena difficult
to be accounted for, 1.
Difco^ered not to be homo-
geneal, 16. Quantity of,
refleXed by different fub-
ftances, 40. Quantity of it
abforbed by plafter of Paris,
41. By the moon, ib. Ob¬
fervations on the manner in
which bodies are heated by
it, 43. No heat produced
by it on a tranfparent me¬
dium, unlefs it is refieXed
from the furface, ib. New¬
ton’s experiments with re-
fpeX to its inflexion, 52.
RefleXed, refraXed, and in-
fltXtd by the fame forces,
63. Different opinions
concerning the nature of,
121. It iffues in ftraight
lines from each point of
a luminous furface, 122. In
what cafe the rays of light
deferibe a curve, 124. Its
motion accelerated or re¬
tarded by refraXion, 127.
Light of all kinds fubjeX
to the fame laws, 132. The
law of refraXion when ligh1
paffesout of one tranfparent
body into another contigu¬
ous to it, 133. Some por¬
tion of light always refieX¬
ed from tranfparent bodies,
171. Light is not refleX-
I c s.
ed by impinging on the fo-
lid parts of bodies at the
firft furface, 172. Norat the
fecond, 173. Light con-
fills of feveral forts of co¬
loured rays differently re¬
frangible, 194. RefleXed
light differently refrangible,
195, Bouguer’s contrivan¬
ces for meafuring light, 244.
Theft inftruments meafure
only the intenfity of light,
249. Great variation of the
light of the moon at different
altitudes, 246. Variation in
different parts of the diiks
of the fun and planets, 247.
Bouguer’s calculations con¬
cerning the light of the
moon, 248. Dr Smith’s,
249. Mr Miheli’s, 250.
Denfity of, in different
points of refraXion, 254.
Lignum nephriticum, remark¬
able properties of its infu-
fion, 29.
Lines can be feen under fmaller
angles than fpots, and why,
!57.
Liquid fubftances cannot be
fired by the folar rays con¬
centrated, 44.
Lcng-fightednefs, I 5 ?•
M.
Magic lantern, Mr Euler’s
attempt to introduce vifion
by refleXed light into, 116.
Magnitudes of objeXs, $ 3.
• P- 327> &c-
Mairan (M.), his obfervations
on the inflexion of light,
59*
Maraldi’s difeovenes concern¬
ing the inflexion of light,
53> 54» 55* Further pm-
fues Grimaldi’s and Sir I.
Newton’s experiments, 56,
57. His experiments with
a mixture of coloured fha-
dows, 58.
Martin’s (Mr) improvement
of the fular microfcope,
117*
Maurolycus, his difeoveries,
9> 69-
Mazias (Abbe), attempts an
explanation of the pheno¬
mena of green and blue
fhadows feen in the fky,
233-
Media, the various appearances
of objeXs through different,
ftated and inveftigated, 165.
An ohjtX feen through a
plane medium, appears
36*
nearer and brighter than
feen by the naked eye
n° 167.
Melville (Mr), his obfervations
on the heating of bodies by
light, 43. Difcovers that
bodies which feem to touch
are not in aXual contaX,
46. Explains a curious phe¬
nomenon of vifion, 226.
Explains the phenomena of
green and blue fhadows in
the fky, 234.
Mich ell’s (Mr), calculation
of the light of the moon,
2 50.
Microfcopes, theirLiftory, ic^.
Made by Janfen, 106. By
Divini, 107. By Hartfoc-
ker, ic8. By Leeuwenhoek,
it 9. By Wilfon, no.
Adam’s method of making
globules for large magnifiers,
111. Temporary micro¬
fcopes, by Mr Grey, 112.
Dr Barker’s refleXing mi¬
crofcope, 1 13. Smith’s re¬
fit Xing microfcope fuperior
to all others, 114. Solar
microfcopes and that for
opaque objeXs, 115. Mr
Euler’s fcheme of introdu¬
cing vifion by rtflefted light
into the folar microfcopc
and magic lantern, ii6.
Martin’s improvement, 117.
Di Torre’s extraordinary
magnifying microfcope, 1 18.
Could not be ufed by Mr
Baker, 119. Microfcope,
compound ufe of feveral
lenfes in, 260. Dr Smith’s,
magnifying power of, 261.
Eafy method of afeertaining
themagnifyingpowerof,262.
Further ohfervations on the
magnifying power of, 263.
Table of the magnify-
ing powers of glafies ufed
in, ib. Solar, magnify-
ing power of, 264. Merits
of, compared with the tele-
fcope, 277.
Mines better illuminated in
cloudy than in clear wea¬
ther, 47.
Mirrors, 2. p. 343, &c. Size
of, in which a man may fee
hiswholeirnag?,n°257. Why
three or four images of ob¬
jeXs are feen in plane mir¬
rors, 2c8. Aerial images
formed by concave mirrors,
2:9.
Mifl, account of the largcnefs
Z z o£
362
of objefts In, by M. le Cat,
nc 212.
Moon, Maraldi’s rrnftake con¬
cerning the ihadowofit, 56.
Why viiible when totally
eclipfed, 242. Why the
moon appears duller when
eclipfed in her peiigee than
in her apogre> 243. Great
variation of the light of the
moon at different altitudes
246. M. Bouguer’s calcula¬
tions concerning trie light
of, 248. Dr Smith’s, 249.
Mr Micheli’s, 250.
Motion produced without im-
pulfe, 6$, 66. Motion of
light accelerated or retarded
by refraction, 1 27.
Multiplying glafs, $ f. p. 342,
&c. Phenomena of, u0256.
N.
Ne-xuton (Sir I fane) liis difco-
very concerning colours, 16.
Miftaken in one of his expe¬
riments 18. His dif overies
concerning the inflection of
light, t2- Theory of refrac¬
tion ohjeCted to, 134. Thefe
objections are the neceiTary
confeqHences of the theory,
and therefore confirm it, 135.
Reflecting telefcope, 273.
Magnifying power of, 274.
laferior to Gregorian, 279.
"Nollet (Abbe) cannot fire in¬
flammable liquids by burn¬
ing glafies, 44.
O.
Objefts on the retina of the eye
appear inverted, 136. Why
feen upright, 147. An ob¬
ject when viewed with both
eyes does not appear double,
becaufe the optic nerve is
in.fenfible of light, 148. Pro¬
ved by experiments, 149,
Seen with both eyes bright¬
er than when feen only with
one, 163. The various ap¬
pearances of objeCts feen
through different media fta-
ted and inveftigated, 165.
An objeCt fltuated in the
horizon appears above its
true plane, 166. An off-
jeCt feen through a plane
medium appears nearer and
brighter than ften “by the
naked eye, 167. ObjeCt feen
through a convex lens ap¬
pears larger, brighter^ and
more diftant, 168. In fome
circumftances an objeCt thro’
a convex lens appears invert-
O P T
ed and pendulous in the air,
169. Barrow’s theory re-
fpeCting the apparent place
of objeCts, 2io, M. de la
Hire’s obfervations, 211.
M. le Cat’s account ef the
larg nefs of objects in miit,
212. Why objects feen from
a high building appear fnul-
h r than they are, 2 t N.DrPor-
terfitld’s account of objeCts
appearing to move to a gid¬
dy perfon when they are
both at reft, 221. Wells’s
account, 222. Upon what
data we judge vifible objects
to be in motion or at red,
223. Experiments to afeer-
tain it, 224.
O^vd/ glafles, improved by Dol-
lond, 17, and by Blair, 19.
Obfervatory (Portable). See
Equatorial Tclef cope.
Opake objects, microlcope for,
1 [5*
CPA-nerve infenfiblc of light ;
and therefore an objeCt view¬
ed by both eyes is not feen
double, 148. Proved by ex¬
periments, 149.
Optical inftruments, Seel. iv. p.
342, &c.
Optics (the firfl treatife of) by
Claudius Ptolemasus, 4. Vi-
tellio’s treatife, 7. Tieatife
attributed to Euclid, 24.
Definition of the theory of
optics, p. 278.
P.
Parallel rays falling perpendi¬
cular upon any lens, the fo¬
cus of, found, n° 143.
Parhelion, p. 327.
Plane medium, an objeCt feen
through appears nearer and
brighter than by the naked
eye, n° 167.
Plane furfaces, laws of refrac¬
tion in, 140. An objeCt fU
tuated in the horizon ap¬
pears above ita true plane,
1 65. Extent of the viiible
horizon on, 227.
Planets, more luminous at their
edges than in the middle of
their difks, 41, 247.
Plates. Maraldi’s experiments
concerning their lhadows,
57-
Porta (Joannes Baptifte) his
difeoveries, 10.
Porterfield's folution of Angle
vifion with two eyes, 160.
Of the judging of the di-
Itance of objeCts, 2x7, 218.
I c s.
Fallacies of vifion explain¬
ed, 218. Porterfield’s ac¬
count of ohjeCts appearing
to move to a giddy perfon
when they are both at reft,
221.
Primary rainbow never greater
than a femicircle, and whyr;
207. Its colours ftronger
than thofe of the fecondarv,
and ranged in contrary or¬
der, 209.
Prifns in fome cafes reflect as
llrongiy as quickfilver, 30.
Why the image of the fun by
heterogeneous rrvjs palling
thro’a prifm is oblong, 197.
Ptolemy firft treated of redac¬
tion feientifically, 4.
R.
Rainbow (knowledge of the na¬
ture of ) a modern difeovery,
201. App/oach towards it
by Fletcher of Brellaw, 2C2.
The difeovery of ma le by
Antonio de Domittis bifnop
ofSpalatro, 203. True caule
of its colours, 204. Pheno¬
mena of the rainbow explain¬
ed on the principles of Sir
I. Newton, 205. Two ram-
bows feen at once, 206. Why
the arc of the primary rain¬
bow is never greater than a
femicircle, 207. The fecen-
dary rainbow produced by
two reflections and two re-
fraCtions, 208. Why the co¬
lours of the fecondary rain¬
bow are fainter than thofe
of the primary, and ranged in
a contrary order, 209.
Ramj.ten’s (Mr) new equatorial
telefcope, 102.
Rays of light extinguilhed at
the furfaee of tranfparent
bodies, 38. Why they feem
to proceed from any lumi¬
nous objeCt when viewed
with the eyes half Ihut, 51.
Rays at a certain obliqui¬
ty are wholly reflected by
tranfparent fubftances, 12S.
The focus of rays refraCt-
ed by fpherical furfaces af-
certained, 141. The fo¬
cus of parallel rays falling
perpendicularly upon any
lens, 143. Emergent rays,
the focus of, found, 144.
Rays proceeding from one
point and falling on a para¬
bolic concave furface are all
reflected from one point, 187.
Proportional diilance of the
Index.
focus of rays reflected from
a fpherical furface, 188. Se¬
veral forts of coloured rays
differently refrangible, 194.
Why the image of the fun
by heterogeneous rays paf-
fing through a prifm is ob-
long, 197. Every homoge.
nial ray is refraded accord¬
ing to one and the fame lule,
200.
RflehtedW’ft, table of its quan¬
tity from different fubftances,
40.
Rflciting teltfcope of Newton,
273, Magnifying power of,
274. Improved by Dollond
and Blair, fuperior to all o-
thers, 278.
Rtfettion of light, opinions of
the ancients concerning it,
23. Bouguer’s experiments
concerning the quantity of
light loft by it, 33. Method
of afeertaining the quantity
loft in all the varieties of re¬
flection, ib. Buflon’s expe¬
riments on the fame fubject,
34. Bouguer’s difeoveries
concerning the reflection of
glafs, and of polifhed metal,
35. Great difference of the
quantity of light reflected at
different angles of incidence,
36. No reflection but at
the furface of a medium, 43.
Is not produced by impulfe,
65, 66. Rays at a certain
obliquity are wholly reflec¬
ted by tranfparent fubllances,
128. Total reflection pro¬
duced by the brilliant cut in
diamonds, 129. Some por¬
tion of light always reflec¬
ted from tranfpaicnt bodies,
171. Light is not reflected
by impinging on the folk!
parts of bodies at the firft
furface, 172. nor at the fe-
cond, 173. Fun jamental kw
of reflection, 1 82. Laws of,
from a concave furface, 1 83.
From a convex, 1 84. Thefe
preceding propoiltiona pro¬
ved mathematically, 185.
Reflected rays from a fphe¬
rical furfacc never proceed
from the fame point, 186.
Rays proceeding from one
point and failing on a para¬
bolic concave lurface are all
reflected from one point, 187.
Proportional diftance of the
focus of rays reflected from
a fpherical iurface, 188. Me¬
thod
Index,
thod of finding the focal di-
{lance of rays rcflcdled from
a convex furface, 189. The
appearance of ohjtdls reflec¬
ted from plane furfaceSjiyo.
from convex, 191, from
concave, 192. The appa¬
rent magnitude of an objedf
feen by refledtion from a
concave furface, 193 Re-
fiefted light difl'erently re¬
frangible, 193.
Rcjraainz telefcopes improved
by Mr Dollond, 17. By
Dr Blair, 19. Magnify in
proportion to their lengths,
271. Imperfedtions in, re¬
medied, 272.
Refraft'ton, known to the an¬
cients, 2* Its law difeo-
vered by Snellius, 1 r. Ex¬
plained by Defcartes, 12.
Fallacy of his hypothefis,
I Experiments of the
Royal Society for deter¬
mining the refradHve powers
of different iubftauces, ib.
M. de la Hire’s experiments
on the fame fubjedf, ib.
Refrafiion of air accurately
determined, 13, 14. Mi-
ftake of the Academy of
Sciences concerning the re-
fradlion of air, 13. Al¬
lowance for re fraction in
computing the height of
mountains, firft thought of
by Dr Hooke, 14. Mr
Dollend difeovers how to
corredl the errors of tele¬
fcopes arifing from refrac¬
tion, 17. The fame dif-
covery made by Mr Chelt,
18. Important difeovery
of Dr Blair for this purpole,
19. Refradlion defined, x 23.
Phenomena of refraction
folved by an attractive
power in the medium, 125.
Refraction explained and
illullrated, pages 279, 280.
Ratio of the fine of inci¬
dence to the fine of refrac¬
tion, n° 126. Refraction ac¬
celerates or retards the mo¬
tion of light, 127. Re¬
fraction diminiflies as the
incident velocity increafes,
130. Refraftion of a ftar
greater in the evening than
in the morning, 131. Laws
of refraction when light paf-
fes out of one traufparent
body into another contigu¬
ous to ity 133. The New-
O P T
Ionian theory of refra&ion
objefted to, 134. Which
objections, as they are the
neceffary confequences of
thattheory, confirm it, 135.
Laws of refraClion in plane
furfaces, 140. The focus
of rays refraCted by fpheri-
cal furfaces afeertained, 141.
Light confitts of feVeral
forts of coloured rays dif¬
ferently refrangible, 194.
Reflected light differently
refrangible, 195. Every
homogeneal ray is refraCted
according to one and the
fame rule, 200.
Reid’s foliation of Angle vifion
with two eyes, 161.
Repidjive force fuppofed to be
the caufe of reflection, 174.
Objected to, 175. Ano¬
ther hypothefis, 179. Sir
Ifaac Newton’s, 180. Un¬
tenable, i8i»
Retina of the eye, objeCts on,
inverted, 146. Why feen
upright, 147. When viewed
with both eyes, not feen
double becaufe the optic
nerve is infenfible of light,
14S. Arguments for the
retina's being the feat of vi¬
fion, 1 52
Rhelta’s telefcope improved by
Huygens, 89. His bino¬
cular telefcope, 91.
Robin’s (Mr) objection to
Smith’s account of the appa¬
rent place of objeCts, 215.
S
Saturn’s ring difeovered by
Galileo, 81.
Secondary rainbow produced by
two reflections and two re-
fraCtions, 208. Its colours,
why fainter than thofe of
the primary, and ranged in
Contrary order, 209.
Stbeiner completes the difeove-
ries concerning vifion, 70.
puts the improvements of
the telefcope by Kepler in
practice, 88.
Shadows of bodies, obferva-
tions Concerning them, 48,
49, 52. Green flxadows
obfevved by Buffon, 231.
Blue ones, 232. Explain¬
ed by Abbe Mazeas, 233.
Explained by Melville and
Bouguer, 234. Curious ob-
fervations x'dative to this
fubjeCt, 235. Blue Jhadows
not conffned to the morn-
I G S.
ings and evenings, 236. A-
nolherkind oiJhadows, 237.
Illumination of the Jhadow
of the earth by the refrac¬
tion of the atmofphere, § 7.
p. 339, &c.
Short's (Mr) equatorial tek-
fcope, 102.
.SVWx-iightednefs, 155.
Sky, concave figure of, § 4*
p. 324. &c. Extent of the
vifible horizon on a plane
furface, n°2 2 7. Why a long
row of objects appears cir¬
cular, 228. Why the con¬
cavity of the fky appears
lefs than a femicircle, 229.
Opinions of the ancients re-
fpeCting the colour of the
iky, 230. Green fliadows
obferved by M. Buffon, 231.
Blue ftudows obferved .by
him, 232. The phenome¬
na explained by Abbe Ma¬
zeas, 233. By Melville and
Bouguer, 234. Curious ob-
fervations relative to this
fubjeCt, 235.
St?iifh’s ^Mr Caleb) propofal
to fhorten telefcopes, 101.
Smith’s (Dr) reflecting micro-
fcope fuperior to all others,
x 14. Account of the appa¬
rent place of objeits, 214.
ObjeCted to, 215. Con¬
verging irradiations of the
fun obferved and explained
by, 238, 239. He never
obferved them by moon-
light, 24c. Diverging beams
more frequent in fummer
than in winter, 241. Cal¬
culation concerning the light
of the moon, 249. His
microfcope magnifyingpow-
er of, 261.
Solar microfcope, 115. Mr
Euler’s attempt to intro¬
duce vifion by reflected light
into the folar microfcope,
116. Martin’s improvement,
117. Magnifying power of,
264.
Speftacles, when flrit invented,
73-
Spots of the fun difeovered by
Galileo, 81. Not feen un¬
der fo imall an angle as lines,
CS7-
Stars, twinkling of, explained
by Mr Michell, 21. By
Mufchenbroek, 22. By o-
ther philofophers, ib. A mo¬
mentary change of colour
obfervable in iome ftars, ib.
Z z 2
3C3
Why vifible by day at the
bottom of a well, 32. How
to be obferved in the day¬
time, 103. The refraCtion
of a flar greater in the
evening than in the morn-
ing, 131.
Sun, image of, by heteroge¬
neous rays pafling through
a prifm, why oblong, 197.
The image of, by fimple and
homogeneous light, circu¬
lar, 198. Variation of light
in different parts of the
fun’s difk, 247.
Surfaces of tranfparent bodies
have the property of ex-
tinguifixing light, and why,
38. Suppofed to confilt of
fmall tranfparent planes, 40,
41, 42. Laws of refrac¬
tion in plane furfaces, 140.
The focus of rays refraCted
by fpherical furfaces afeer¬
tained, 141. Reflected rays
from a fpherical furface ne¬
ver proceed from the fame
point, x8(j. The appear¬
ance of objeCts from plane
furfaces, 190. From con- 1
vex, 191. From concave,
192. The apparent mag.
nitude of an object feen by
reflection from a concave
furface, 193.
Telefcopes, different compofi-
tions of glafs for correcting
the faults of the refracting
ones, 18. Dcfcartes’s ac¬
count of the invention of
them, 75. Other accounts,
76. Borellus’s account pro¬
bably the true one, 77.
The firff one exceeding
good, 78. Fontana claims
the honour of the invention,
79. Galileo made one
without a pattem, 80.
His difeoveries on this
head, 8 f. From which he
acquired the name of Lyn~
ecus, 82. Account of his
telefcopes, 83. Rationale
of the telefcope firft difeo¬
vered by Kepler, 84. Reafon
of the effeCts of tekfeopes,
85. Galilean tekfeope dif¬
ficult of conffmetion, 86.
Tekfeopes improved by
Kepler, 87. His method
firff praClifed by Scheiner,
88. Huygens improves the
telefcopes of Scheiner and
Rheita, 89. Vifion molt
diftinCt in the Galilean ones,
90.
364-
gc. Rhefta’s binocular te-
lefcope, n0 9 £. Telefcopes of
Campani and Divini, 92.
Azout makes a telefcope of
an extraordinary focallength,
93. Telefcopes ufed with¬
out tubes, 94. Dioptric
tekfcopes why fo long, 95.
On the apertures of refrac¬
ting telefcopes, 96. Hifto-
ry of the refledling tele¬
fcope, 97. Mr Edward’s
improvements in it, 98.
Elerfchers improvements, 99.
MrDollond’s improvements,
ico. Mr Smith’s propoful
to fhorten telefcope?, 101.
The equatorial ttlefcope,
102. How to obferve liars
in the day-time, 103. Mr
Epinus’s propofal for bend¬
ing the tubes of telefcopes,
104. Telefcope, agrono¬
mical, 265. Magnifying
power of, 266. Inverts ob¬
jects, 267. Common refrac¬
ting, Ihowsobjeftsereft, 268.
Galilean teiefcope, 269.
Magnifying power of, 270.
Refra&ing, magnify in pro¬
portion to their length, 271.
Their imperfe&ions reme-
O P T
died, n° 272. Reflecting te¬
lefcope of Newton, 273.
Magnifying power of, 274.
Gregorian telefcope, 279.
Magnifying power of, 276.
Merits of, compared with
microfcope, 277. Refrac¬
ting telefcopes improved by
Dnilond and Blair, fuperior
to all others, 278. Grego¬
rian telefcope fuperior for
common ufes to the New¬
tonian, 279.
Thin plates ; Mr Boyle’s ac¬
count of the colours obfer-
vable in them, 30. Dr
Hooke’s account, 31.
Trjrre (F. di), extraordinary
magnifying microfcope, 118.
Tour (M. de), his obfervations
on the inflexion of light,
60. The hypothefis by
which he accounted for the
phenomena, 61. Unfatis-
fadtory and ill-founded, 62.
Transparent bodies, a portion
of light always refleited from,
171.
V.
Variation of the intenflty of at¬
traction and repulfion un¬
known, 138. The law of
I c s.
variation in the a&ion of
many particles different from
that of one ; hut may be
known if it be known, 139.
Variation of the light of the
moon at different altitudes,
246. In different parts of
the difks of the fun and pla¬
nets, 247.
Vif ble objects how judged to
be in motion or at reft, 223.
Curious experiments to af-
certain it, 224. Vifrble ho¬
rizon on a plane furface, ex¬
tent of, 2:7.
Vifion: its nature firft difeo-
vered by Maurolycus, 9.
Difcoveries concerning it,
p.264, &c. Seat of, difpute
about, 150. Dimenfions of
the fpot in the eye where
there is no vifion, 151. Ar¬
guments for the retina’s be¬
ing the feat of vifion, 152.
Vifion bright and obfeure,
153. Diflindt at different
diliances, 154. Leaft angle
of vilion, 156, Of frngle vi¬
fion with two 'eyes, 158.
Briggs's folution, 159. Por¬
terfield’s, 1' o Reid’s, i6r.
Wells’s, 162. Vifion more
Index,
difllndt in homogeneal than
heterogeneous light, n°igg.
Several fallacies of vifion ex¬
plained, 219. Great light
thrown on this fubjeeb by
M. Bouguer, 220. -Y re¬
markable deception explain¬
ed by M. leCat, 225. Cu¬
rious phenomenon explained
by Mr Melville, 226.
I'itellio's difeeveries, 7.
,U-
Undulation, Euler’s theory of,
contrary to fad, 136; and
mifleads artifls, 137.
W.
Water in feme cafes refledts
more powerfully than quick-
filver, 36. Table of the
quantity of light reflected
from it at different angles,
p. 249. Remarkably ftrong
reflection into it from air,
n°37-
Wells's folution cf fingle vifion
with t*o eyes, 162. Ac¬
counts for objects appearing
to move to a. giddy perfon
when at reft, 222.
White bodies reflect more
than others, 28.
JVHjons microlcope, 110.
OPT
O P U
Optimate?, OPTIMATES, one of the divifions of the Ro-
Optio man people oppofed to populares. It is not eafy to
v“— v1 'afeertain the charadteriltic differences betwixt thtfe
two parties. Some fry the cptimates were warm fup-
porters of the dignity of the chief magiftrate, and
promoters of the grandeur of the ftate, who cared
not if the inferior members fuffered, provided the
commanding powers were advanced : Whereas the po-
pulares boldly flood up for the rights of the people,
pleaded for larger privileges, and:laboured to bring
matters nearer to a level. In fhort, they refembled,
according to this account, the court and country par¬
ties amongft the people of this ifland.
Tully fays, that the optirnates were the belt citi¬
zens, who wifhed to defirve the approbation of the
better fort; and that the populares courted the favour
of the populace, not fo much confidcring what was
right, as what would pleafe the people and gratify
their own thirft of vain glory and empty applaufe.
OPTIO, an officer in the Roman army, being an
affiftant or lieutenant to every centurion. The optio
was is> called becaufe he was the choice or option of
the centurion in later times; at firft, however, he had
been chofen by the tribune, or chief commander of
the legion. Mhefe optiones are alfo fometimes called
fucctnluriones and tergiduftores ; the lafl name was given
them becaufe their poll was in the rear of the com¬
pany. Some authors make mention offub-optioms or
fub-lieutenants.
It is proper however to add, that optiones were Opbon,
not peculiar to the camp, but were alfo ufed in a va- Opuntia,
riety of other offices of life. ‘ v
OPTION, the power or faculty of wifliing, or
choofing-; or the choice a perfon makes of any thing.
When a new fuffrrg m bifhop is confecrated, the
archbifhop of the province, by a cuftomary preroga¬
tive, claims the collation of the firft: vacant benefice,
or dignity, in that fee, according as he (hall ehoofe ;
which choice is called the archbifhop’s option.
But in cafe the bifhop dies, or is tranflated, before
the piefent incumbent of the promotion chofen by the
archbifhop (hall die or be removed, it is generally
fuppofed that the option is void ; inafmuch as the
granter, fingly and by himfelf, could not convey any
right or title beyond the term of his continuance in
that fee. And if the archbifhop dies before the avoid¬
ance ftnll happen, the right of filling up the vacancy
fhall go to his executors or adminiftrators.
OPUNTIA, a fpecies of caflus; fee Cactus. The
fruit of the opuntia is remarkable for colouring the
juices of living animals, though it appears not to be
poifonous or even hurtful to the body. In a letter
from Charleftown in South Carolina, which was pub-
liihed in the 5Cth volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, the author writes thus:—“ As you defired,
I tried the effects of the prickly pear in clearing the
urine. A few days after your letter, 1 went down to
one of the iftands, and gathered fome of the fruit,
and
4
ORA [
and gave four of the pears to a child of three years of
age, and fix pears to one of five. 1 he next morning
1 examined the urine of both, and it appeared of a
very lively red colour, as if tart-wine had been mixed
with water. I gave likewife fix pears to a negro-
wench, who was fuckling an infant, and tlndlly for¬
bade her to put the child to her breaft for fix or eight
hours; and then taking fome of her milk in a tea¬
cup, and fetting it by tor fome hours, the cream had
a reddifh luftre, though it was very faint.” From
the fame letter we learn, that the prickly pear grows
in great abundance about Carolina ; and rdfo that
the cochineal infetls are found upon it, though no at¬
tempt, that we know of, has hitherto been made to
cure them for ufe as the Spaniards do.
OR, the French word for gold, by which this me¬
tal is exprefted in heraldry. In engraving it.is deno¬
ted by fmall points all over the field or bearing. It
may be fuppofed to fignity of itfelf, generojity, fplen-
dor, or fohdity ; according to G. Leigh, if it is com¬
pounded with
Gul. 1 f Courage.
Azu. I ^ I Truft.
Yor. ^ \ Joy.
Pur. | 1 Charity.
Sab. J “ [Conftancy.
ORA, in antiquity, was a term equivalent to an
ounce ; but it lias been much debated among our an¬
tiquaries, whether the ora, the mention of which fo
often occurs, was a coin, or only money of account.
Dr Hickes obferves, that the mode of reckoning
money by marks and oras was never known in Eng¬
land till after the DaniOa fettlements; and by ex¬
amining the old nummulary effimates among the prin¬
cipal Gothic Hates upon the Babic, it appears, that
the ora and folidus were fynonymous terms, and that
the ora was the eighth part of the mark. From feve-
ral of the Danifh laws, it likewife appears, that the
Danifh ora, derived by corruption from aureus, was
the fame as the Frank fohdus of twelve pence. As a
weight the ora was regarded as the uncia or unit,
by which the Danifh mark was divided ; and in
Doomfday-book the ora is ufed for the ounce, or the
twelfth part of the nummulary Saxon pound, and the
fifteenth of the commercial : as a coin, it was an au¬
reus, or the Frank folidus of twelve pence. And
from the accidental coincidence of the I'rank aureus
with the eighth part of their mark, the Danes pio-
bably took occafion to give it the new name of era.
There was anothfr ora mentioned in the rolls of the
27th of Henry III. the value of which was iixtecn
pence; and this was probably derived from the half
manens of the Saxons. Such, in all appearance, was
the original of thefe two oras; as there were no aurei
of that period, to which thefe two denominations of
money of fixteen and twelve pence can poffibly be
aferibed. It is observed farther, that the name^v?
diftinguifhes the gold coins in feveral paits ol .cvu-
repe to this day. The Portuguefe moidore is.nothing
tile hut moeda d'oro, from the Latin rnoneta de auro ;
the French Louis dyores come from the fame ufe of the
word, and owe their appellation to the ora. See
Clarke on Coins.
ORACH. See Atriplex.
Wild Ozach. See Chenopodium.
ORACLE, among the heathens, was the anfwer
5 ] ORA
which the cede were Oppofed to give to thofe who
confulted them upon any affair of importance. It is
alfo uled for the god-who was thought to give the an-
fvver, and for the place where it was given.
The credit of oracles was fo great, that in all douVt
and difputes their determinations were held iacred and
inviolable : whence valt numbers flocked to them for
advice about the management of their affairs ; and no
bufinefs of any confequence was undertaken, fearce
any peace concluded, any war waged, or any new
form of government inflituted, without the advice and
aoprobatiqn of fome oracle. The anfwers were ufually
given by the intervcntioTi of the pried or priedefs ot
the god who was confulted ; and generally expreffed
in fuch daik and unintelligible phrafes, as might be
eafily wreded to prove the truth of the oracle what¬
ever was the event. It is not, therefore, to be won¬
dered at, that the prieds who delivered them were in
the highed credit and edeem, and that they managed
this reputation fo as greatly to promote their own
particular advantage. 1 hey accordingly allowed no
man to confult the gods, before he had offered coffly
facrifices, and made rich prefents to them. And to
keep up the veneration for their oracles, and to pre¬
vent their bring taken unprepared, they admitted per-
fons to confuit the gods only at certain dated titiKS ,
and fometimes they were fo cautious, that the great-
ed perfonages could obtain no anfwer at all. Thus
Alexander himfelt was peremptorily denied by the
Pythia, or prieftefs of Apollo, till die was by down¬
right force obliged to afeend the tripos; when, being
unable to refill any longer, fhe cried out,. Thou art
invincible: and thefe words were accepted indead ot
a farther oracle.
Of the ambiguity of oracles, the following, out ot
a great many examples, may be mentioned. Crcefu*
having received from the Pythonefs this anfwer, That
by palling the river Halys, he would dedroy a great
empire ; he underftood it to be the empire of his ene¬
my, whereas he dedroyed his own. — The oracle con¬
futed by Pyrrhus gave him an anfvver, which might
be equally underdood of the viftory of Pyrrhus, and
the victory of the Romms his enemies :
ylio te, JEacida, Romanos vinrere pojje.
The equivocation lies in the condruftion o^the La¬
tin tongue, which cannot be rendered m Enghlh ——
The Pythonefs advifed Croefus to guard againd the
mule. 1 he king of Lydia underdood nothing of the
oracle, which denoted Cyrus delcended from two dif¬
ferent nations; from the Medes, by Mandana his mo¬
ther, the daughter of Adyages; and from the Perfians,
by his father Cambyfes, whofe ra-e was by far iefs
grand and illudrious —Nero had for anfwer, from the
oracle of Delphos, that feventy-three might prove fa¬
tal to him. He believed he was fafe from ail danger
till that age ; but, finding him tel f deferted by every
one, and hearing Galba proclaimed emperor, who was
73 years of age, he was iemible ol the deceit of the
oracle.
When men began to be better inilrudled by the
lights philofophy had introduced into the world, the
falfe oracles inienfibly loll their credit. Chrylippus
filled an entire volume with ialle or doubtful oracles.
Oenomaus, to be revenged ol fome oracle that had
deceived him, made a compilation of oracles, to Ihow
theiy
Oracle.
O R
their ridiculous vanity, .,»» prcicrvea lomc
fragments of this criticifm on oracles by Oenomaus.
‘‘ I might (fays Origen) have recourfe to the autho¬
rity of Arillotle and the Peripatetics, to make the
Pythonefs much fufpe&ed ; I might extraft from the
writings of Epicurus and his fedators an abun¬
dance of things to difcredit oracles; and I might /how
that the Greeks themfelves made no great account of
them.,,
I he reputation of oracles was greatly leffened when
they became an artifice of politics. Themiftocles,
with a defign of engaging the Athenians to quit
Athens, and to embark, in order to be in a better
condition to refill Xerxes, made the*'Pythonefs deliver
an oracle, commanding them to take refuge in wooden
wads. Demofthenes faid, that the Pythonefs Philip,
pijed; to fignify that Ihe was gained over by Philip’s
prefents., 1
The celfation of oracles is attefted by feveral pro¬
fane authors ; as Strabo, Juvenal, Lucan, and others.
Plutarch accounts for it, by faying, that the bene¬
fits ol the gods are not eternal as themfelves are;
o ^  mtuiicivcs are
or that the genii, who prefided over oracles, are fub-
jed to death ; or that the exhalations of the earth had
been exhaulted. It appears that the laft reafon had
been alleged in the time of Cicero, who ridicules it
m his fecond book of Divination, as if the fpirit of
prophecy, fuppofed to be excited bv fubterraneous ef¬
fluvia, had evaporated by length of time, as wine or
pickle by being long kept.
Suidas, Nicephorus, and Cedrenus, relate, that
Auguftus, having confulted the oracle of Delphos
could obtain no other anfvver but this : “ The* He¬
brew child whom all the gods obey, drives me hence'
and fends me back to hell: get out of this temple
without ipcakmg one word.” Suidas adds, that Au-
guuus deuicated an altar in the Capitol, with this in-
tcription, “ To the eldeft Son of God.” Notwith-
ib.ndmg thefe teftimonies, the anfwer of the oracle
ot Delphos to Auguftus feems very fufpicious. Ce¬
drenus cites Eufebius for this oracle, which is not
now found in his works ; and Auguftus’s peregri-
uation iqto Greece was 18 years before the birth of
C . rift.
. and Cedrenus give an account alfo of an an¬
cient oracle dehveud toThuiis, a king of Egypt, which
they fay is well authenticated. The king havin’^ con¬
sulted the oiacle of Serapis, to knovy if there ever was,
or would be, one fo great as himfelf, received this
anfwer: “ Firft, God, next the Word, and the Spi¬
rit with them. They are equally eternal, and make
but one, whofe power will never end. But thou, mor¬
tal, go hence, and think that the end of the life of man
as uncertain.”
Van Dale, in his treatife of oracles, does not be¬
lieve that they ceafed at the coming of Chrift. He
relates itveral examples of oracles confulted till the
death of Theodofius the Great. He quotes the laws
o the emperors I heodofias, Gratian, and Valentinian,
again c thole who confulted oracles, as a certain proof
that the fuperftition of oracles ftill fubfifted in the time
ot thole emperors.
According to others, the opinion of thofe who be-
,eve that dsmons had no Ihare in the oracles, and
that the coming of the Mefliah made a, change in
A [ 366 1 Ora
Enfebins has preferred feme them, and the contrary opin.on of thofe who pretend 8r.de.
that the incarnation of the Word impofed a general' 
lilence on all oracles, fhould be equally rejeAed '1’hev
allege, that two forts of oracles ought to be diili/
gudhed : the one didated by the fpirits of darknefs
who deceived men by their obfeure and doubtful an'
n 5 °thfr'. the Purc and cheat of the
pnetts of falfe divinities As to the oracles given out
y demons, the reign of Satan was deftroyed by the
coming of the Saviour; truth (hut the mouth of lies;
out Satan continued his old craft among idolaters!
Ail the devils were not forced to filence at the fame
time by the coming of the Meffiah ; it was on parti-
cular occafions that the truth of Chriftianity, and the
vntue oi Chnftians, impofed filence on the devils St
Athanafius tells the Pagans, that they have been wit-
nefles thenifelves that the iign of the crofs puts the
devils to flight, filences oracles, and diflipates enchant¬
ments. I his power of filencing oracles, and putting-
the devils to flight, is alfo attefted by Arnobius, Lac-
tantms, Prudentius, Minutius Felix, and feveral others.
T,, 18 a 5ertain Proof that the coming of
the Melliah had nnf o   i ^
the Meffiah had not impofed a general filence on ora¬
cles.
Plutarch relates, that the pilot Thamus heard a
voice in the air, crying out, “ The great Pan ia
dead ; whereupon Eufebius obferves, that che ac¬
counts of the death of the demons were frequent in
t .e reign of 1 iberius, when Chrift drove out the wic¬
ked fpirits.
The fame judgment, it is faid, may be pafled on
oracles as on pojjejjions. It was on particular oeca-
iions by the divine permiffion, that the Chriftians call
out devils, or fileneed oracles, in the prefence, and
even by the cosfeffion, of the Pagans themfelves. And
thus it is we fiioald, it feems, underftand the paflhges
of StJerom, Eufebius, Cyril, Theodoret, Prudentius,
and other authors, who faid that the coming ofChriit
had impofed filence on the oracles.
As to the fecond fort of oracles, which were pure
artifices and cheats of the priefts of falfe divinities,
and which probably exceeded the number of thofe
that immediately proceeded from daemons, they did
not ceafe till idolatry was abolffhed, though they had
loft their credit for a confiderablc time before the
coming of Chrift. It was concerning this more com¬
mon and general fort of oracles that Minutius Felix
faid, they began to difeontinue their refponfes ac¬
cording as men began to be more polite. But, how¬
ever oracles were decried, impoftors always found
uupes, the grofteft cheats having never failed.
^ Daniel difeovered the impoiture of the priefts of
Bel, who had a private way of getting into the temple
to take away the offered meats, and who made the
king believe that the idol confumed them. Mundus
being in love with Paulina, the eldeft of the priefteflea
of Ifis, went and told her, that the god Anubis, be¬
ing pafhonately fond of her, commanded her to give
him a meeting. She ovas afterwards (hut up in a
dark room, where her lover Mundus, whom flic be¬
lieved to be the god Anubis, was concealed. This
impofture having been difeovered, Tiberius ordered
t‘ ofc deteftable priefts and prieftefTes to be crucified,
and with them Idea, Mundus’s free-woman, who had
conduced the whole intrigue. He alfo commanded
3 the
Oracle.
ORA [ 367 3 ORA
the temple of IGs to be levelled with the grotind, and
her ftatue to be thrown into the Tiber; and, as to
Mundus, he contented himfeif with fending him into
baniihment.
Theophilus, biihop of Alexandria, not only de-
ftroyed the temples of the falfe gods, but difcovered
the cheats of the prieds, by fhowing that the ftatues,
feme of which were of brafs, and others of wood, were
hollow within, and led into dark paffages made in the
wall.
JLucian, in difcOvering the impoflures of the falfe
prophet Alexander, fays, that the oracles were chiefly
afraid of the fuhtilties of the Epicureans and Chrifti-
*ms. The falfe prophet Alexander fometimes feigned
himfeif feized with a divine fury, and by means of the
herb fopewort, which he chewed, frothed at the mouth
in fo extraordinary a manner, that the ignorant people
attributed it to the ilrength of the god he was pof-
feiled by. He had long before prepared a head of a
dragon made of linen, which opened and fhut its
mouth by means of a hoi fe-hair. He went by night
to a place where the foundations of a temple were
digging ; and having found water, either of a fpring,
or rain that had fettled there, he hid in it a goofe-
egg, in which he had inclofed a little ferpent that had
been juft hatched. The next day, very early in the
morning, he came quite naked into the ftreet, having
only a fcarf about his middle, holding in his hand a
feythe, and lofting about his hair as the priefts of Cy-
bele; then getting a-top of a high altar, he fard that
the place was happy to be honoured by the birth of a
god. - Afterwards, running down to the place where
he had hid the goofe-egg, and going into the water,
he began to fing the praifes of Apollo and .dLfcula-
pius, and to invite the latter to come and fhow himfeif
to men. With thefe words, he dips a bowl into the
water, and takes out a myftsrious egg, which had a
god inci&fed in it ; and when he had it in his hand, he
began to fay that he held iEfculapius. Whilft all were
eager to have a fight of this fine myftery, he broke the
egg, and the little ferpent ftarting out, twifted itfelf
about his fingers.
Thefe examples fhow clearly, that both Chriftians
and Pagans were f© far agreed as to treat the greater
number of oracles as purely human impoftures.—That,
in fa&, all of them were fo, will be concluded by
thofe who give equal credit to daemoniacal infpiration,
and demoniacal p jfejfion. The moft ancient cracle
was that of Dodona (fee Dodona) ; but the moft
famous was that of Delphi, to which article we alfo
refer for further particulars on this fubjedt, fo famous
in Pagan antiquity. Another celebrated one was the
oracle of Trophonius, in the neighbourhood of Leba*
dia, a city of Boeotia, which was held in high tftima-
tion. It received its name fromTrophonius, brother of
Agamedes, who lived in a fubtenaneous dwelling near
iLebadia, and pretended to the faculty of foretelling
future events. He died in his cave, and was deified
as an oracular god. This oracle owed its reputation
to one Saon.
Thofe who repaired to this cave for information,
were required to ofl’er certain facrifices, to anoint
themfelves with oil, and to bathe in a certain river :
They were then clothed in a linen robe, took a ho.
neyed cake in their hands, and defeended into the fub-
terraneous chamber by a narrow paflage. Here it was
that futurity was unfolded to them, either by vifions
or extraordinary founds. The return from the cave
was by the fame paflage, but the perfons confulting
were obliged to walk backwards. They generally
came out aftoniftied, melancholy, and dejedted ; hence
the proverb, The priefts oa
their return placed them on an elevated feat, called
the feat cf Mnemofyne, where an account was taken
of what they had feen and heard. They were then
condudted to the chapel of good Genius by their com¬
panions, where, by degrees, they recovered their ufual
compofure and cheerfulnefs.
Befides thefe three principal oracles of Greece, it is
proper to take notice of that of Amphiaraus at Gro¬
pius in Attica. It was fo called from Amphiaraus,
the fon of Oicleus, a man {killed in magic, the inter¬
pretation of dreams, &c. and who after his death was
deified and delivered oracles in a temple eredfed to
his divinity. (See Amphiaraus.) They who ap¬
plied to him for information, were to purify them¬
felves, offer facrifice, fall twenty-four hours, abftain
from wine two days, and make an offering of a ram
to Amphiaraus ; on the fkin of which they were to
fleep, and fee their deftiny in a dream. Near the temple
was Amphiaraus’s fountain, which was facred, and the
waters ©f it forbidden to be ufed for ordinary pur-
pofes.
At Delos alfo there was an oracle of the Delian
Apollo : in Milefia was that of the Branchidse, with
others of lefs note, which require not a particular de-
feription, fuch as that of the camps at Lacedaemon,
that of Nabarcha, that of Chryfopolis, that of Claros
in Ionia, that of Mallos, that of Patarea, that of Pella,
that of Phafellides, that of Sinope, that of Orpheus’s
head, &c.
Though the Romans confulted the Grecian oracles
upon many occafions, and had few oracles in their own
country ; yet we mull not omit mentioning the Cu-
msean oracles, which were delivered by the Sibyl of Cu¬
mae. For an account of the Sibyls, fee the article
Sibyl. See alfo Daemon and Demoniac.
We have hitherto only confidered the oracles of falfe
gods, of which there was a far greater number than
our limits permit us to obferve, and before either
Greeks or Romr.ns had rifen to any diftinbtion. Ora¬
cle is in facred hiftory fometimes ufed for the mercy-
feat, or the cover of the ark of the covenant; and by
others it is taken for the funbluary, or for the moil
holy place, wherein the ark was depofited.
Among the Jews we may diftinguiftt feveral forts of
real oracles. They had firft oracles that were delivered
viva voce; as when God fpake to Mofes face to face,
and as one friend fpcaks to another, (Numb. xii. 8.)
Secondly, Prophetical dreams fent by God ; as the
dreams which God fent to Jofeph, and which foretold
his future greatnefs, (Gen. xxxvii. 5, 6.) Thirdly,
Vifions; as when a prophet in an ecttafy, being nei¬
ther properly afleep nor awake, had fupernatural reve¬
lations, (Gen. xv. i.xlvi. 2.) Fourthly, The oracle
of Urim and Thummim, which was accompanied with
the ephod or the pebloralworn by the high-prieft, and
which God had endued with the gift of foretelling
things
Oracle.
ORA I 368 1 ORA
Oracle. , things to come, (Numb, xii 6. JoeHi. 28.) This Chrlft and his ^ofpel became known to mankind? And Ofxa
^ manner of inquiring of the Lord was often made ufe that they did fo, Is moft certain from the concurrent II
of, from Jofhua’s time to the ere&ion of the temple teflimonies of the fathers, which, who ever would tn- 0ranS,:-
at Jerufalem. Fifthly, After the building of the deavour to Invalidate, may equally give up the moft re-' v
temple, they generally confulted the prophets, who fpedable traditions and relations of every kind,
were frequent in the kingdoms of Judah and Ifrael. idly. But did not Julian, the apoftate, confult
From Haggai, Zechanah, and Malachi, who are the thefe oracles ? we anfvver in the negative : he had in-
M of the prophets that have any of their writings deed recourfe to magical operations, but it was
remaining, the Jews pretend that God gave them what becaufe oracles had already ceafed ; for he bewailed
they call Bathcol, the daughter of the voice, which was the lofs of them, and affigned pitiful reafons for
a fupernatural manifeflation of the will of God, which it ; which St Cyril!'has viroroufiy refuted, adding
was performed either by a ftrong inflation or inter- that he never could have offered fuch, but from an un.
ral voice, or elfe by a fenfible and exter nal voice, ‘wdlingnefs to achioivledge, that when the world had re-
which was heard by a number of perfons fufficient to eeived the light of Chrijl, the dominion of the devil wat
bear teftimony of it. For example, fiich was the voice at an end.
that was heard at the baptifra of Jcfus Chrift, faying, . ^dly. The Chriftian emperors do indeed feem to
This is my beloved fon, &c. (Matth. iii. .7.) condemn the fuperftition and idolatry of thofe who
The fcripture affords us examples Hkewife of pro- were kill for confulting oracles ; but the edifts of thofe
fane oracles. Balaam, at the inftigation of his own princes do not prove that oracles a&ually exifled in
fpirit, and urged on by his avarice, fearing to lofe the their times, any more than that they ceafed in confe-
recompenfe that he was promifed by Balak king of quence of their laws. It is certain that they were for
the Moabites, fuggefts a diabolical expedient to this the moft part excind before the converfion of Con-
«. prince, of making the Ifraelites fall into idolatry and fhntine.
fornication (Numb, xxiv.^ 14. xxxi. 16.), by which he c^thly, Some Epicureans might make a je/l of this fu-
nffures him of a certain vidory, or at leaft of confrder- perjliiion : however the Epicurean philofopher Celfus,
able advantage againft the people of God. in the fecond century of the church,was for crying up*
Micaiah the fon of Imlah, a prophet of the Lord, the excellency of feveral oracles, as appears at lar-e
fays (1 Kings xxu. 21, &c.), that he faw the A\- from Origen’s feventh book againft him. °
mighty fitting upon his throne, and all the hoft of ORjEA, certain folemn facrifices of fruits which
heaven round about him ; and the Lord faid, Who were offered in the four feafons of the year, in order
fhall tempt Ahab king of Ifrael, that he may go to to obtain mild and temperate weather. They were
war with Ramoth-gilead, and fall in the battle ? One offered to the goddeffes who prefided over the feafons,
anfwered after, one manner, and another in another, who attended upon the fun, and who received' divine
At the fame time an evil fpirit prefented himfelf be- worfhip at Athens.
fore the Lord and faid,^ I will feduce him. And the ORAL, fomething delivered by word of mouth.
Lord afked him, How? Ip which Satan anfwered, I without being committed to writing; in which fenfe
will go and be a lying fpirit in the mouth of his pro- we fay oral law', oral tradition, &c.
phets. And the Lord laid, Go, and thou fhalt pre- ORAN, a very ftrong and important town of Afri-
vail. This dialogue clearly proves thefe two things, ca, in Barbary, and in the kingdom of Tremecen, with
that the devil could do nothing by his own power; feveral forts, and an excellent harbour. It is feated
and, fecondly, that with the permiffion of God, he partly on the fide of a hill, and partly on a plain,
could infpire the falfe prophets, forcerers, and magi- about a ftone-caft from the fea, almoft oppofite to Car¬
dans, and make them deliver falfe oracles. thagena in Spain. It is about a mile and an half in
Refpe&ing the ceffation of profane oracles there circumference, and well fortified, but commanded by
have been a variety of opinions; fome of which we the adjacent hills. It was taken by the Spaniards ia
have already remarked. It has been generally held, 1509, and retaken by the Algerines in 17 8 ; but in
indeed, that oracles ceafed at the birth of . Jefus 1.732 the Spaniards became matters of it, and have con-
Chrift : Yet foine have endeavoured to maintain the tinued fo ever fince. E. Long. o. 8. N. Lat. 36. 2
contrary, by {bowing that they were in being in the ORANG outang. See Sjmia. Alfo Compara-
days of Julian, commonly called the Apojlate, and that tive Anatomy, p. 250, ch. r. fe& 2.
this emperor himfclf confulted them ; nay, farther, ORANGE, a famous city, and capital of a pro¬
fay they, hiftory makes mention of feveral laws pub- vince of the fame name, united to Dauphiny, with a
11 filed by the Chriftian emperors Theodoiius, Gratian, univerfity and a biftiop’s fee, fuffragan of Arles. It
and Valentinian, to punifii perfons who interrogated is feated in a fine large plain, watered by a vaft num-
them, even in their days; and that the Epicureans her of little rivulets on the eaft fide of the river Rhone,
were the firft who made a jeft of this fuperftition, and It is a very large ancient place, and was confiderable
expo fed the roguery of its priefts to the people. As in the time of the Romans, who adorned it with fe-
we fuipeft moft of the fafts here affeited ftiould be veral buildings, of which there ate ftill fome ruins
under Hood in a qualified fenfe, we {hall endeavour to left, particularly of an amphitheatre, and a triumphal
difcufs this point of controverfy in as few words as arch, which is almoft entire, dedicated to Marius,
pofiible, although it is undoubtedly a matter of fome This town was formerly much larger than it is at pre-
confequence. ftrnt) as appears from the traces of the ancient walls.
1 u clueftlon’ Properly ftated, is not. Whether The wall was in 1682 entirely demolifhed by order of
orac es became extindt immediately upon the birth of Louis XIV. and the inhabitants were expofed to the
Chriff or from the very moment he was born ? but, fury of the foldiers. The town was reftored to King
If fell gradually into difefteera and ceafed, as William by the treaty of Ryfwick j but after his
N 2->0* death
ORA
Orange, death the French took it again, and expelled the pro-
‘“"■'V"”"’ teftant inhabitants. By the treaty of Utrecht it was
confirmed to the crown of France, though the title is
Bill retained in the houfe of Naflau. The title was
firft introduced into the family of NaOau by the mar¬
riage of Claude de Chalons, the prince of Orange’s
filter, with the count of Nafiau, 1530. The princi¬
pality is a very fmall dillridt, it being only twelve
miles in length and nine in breadth, and the reve¬
nue amounts to about 50001. a year. The country is
pleafant, and abounds with corn and fruit, but is ex-
pofed to violent winds. E. Long. 4. 49. N. Lat. 44. 9.
Maurice Prince of Ora^gu. See Maurice.
Orangu Tree, in botany. See the article Citrus.
—Orange-flowers are jultly efteemed one of the fineft
perfumes; and though little ufed in medicine, yet the
water diflilled from them is accounted ftomachic, cor¬
dial, and carminative. The fruit is cooling, and good
in feverilh diforders, and particularly in diarrhoeas.
Orange-peel is an agreeable aromatic, proper to repair
and ftrengthen the ftomach, and gives a very grateful
flavour to any infufions or tinctures into whofe com-
pofitions it enters. It is particularly ufeful in pre¬
parations of the bark : gives an agreeable warmth to
the infufion ; and, according to Dr Percival, confide-
rably increafts its virtue.
In the Philofophical Tranfaflions, n® 114, there is a
v#ry remarkable account of a tree Handing in a grove
near Florence, having an orange flock, which had been
fo grafted upon, that it became in its branches, leaves,
flower, and fruit, three-formed : fome emulating the
orange, fome the lemon or citron, and fome partaking
of both forms in one ; and what was very remarkable,
was, that tbefe mixed fruits never produced any per-
fe£l feeds; fometimes there were no feeds at all in
them, and fometimes only a few empty ones.
Orange^Peel. See Citrus and QRANGE-Tree.
Orange-Dcv:, a kind of dew which falls in the
fpring'time from the leaves of orange and lemon trees,
which is extremely fine and fubtile. M. de la Hire ob-
ferving this, placed fome flat pieces of glafs under the
leaves to receive it ; and having procured fome large
drops of it, was defirous of difeovering what it was.
He foon found that it was not a ttierely aqueous fluid,
beeaufe it did not evaporate in the air ; and that it was
not a refin, becaufe it readily and perfectly mixed with
water : it was natural then to fuppofe it a liquid gum ;
but neither did this, on examination, prove to he the
cafe ; for being laid on paper, it did not dry as the
other liquid gums do Its anfwcring to none of thefe
chara;iers, and its being of the confiftence of honey,
and of a fweet fugar-like tafte, gave a fufpicioa of its
being a kind of manna ; and whatever in the other
trials had proved it not a refin, a gum, &c. all equally
tends to prove that it is this fubftance.
Orange Sea, in natural hiftory, a name given by
Count Marfijdi to a very remarkable fpecies of marine
fubftance, which he denominates a f/ant. It is tough
and firm in its ftrufture, and in many things refembles
the common tucust but iuftead of growing into the
branched form which the generality of thofe fubftan-
ces have, it is round and hollow, and in every refpeift
refembles the (hape of an orange. It has, by way of
root, fome exceeding fine filaments, which faften them-
fclves to the rocks, or to fliells, ftones, or any thing elfe
|hat comes in the way. From thefe there grows no
Vol. XIII. Part L
r 369 i
ORA
Marfigli,
de la
Her.
pedicle; but the body of the orange, as it is called,
is fattened by them to the rock, or other folid fub-
ftance. The orange itfelf is ufualiy of about three or,
four inches in diameter; and while in the fea, is full
of water, and even retains it when taken up. In this
ftate it frequently weighs a pound and a half; but
when the water is let out, and it is dried, it becomes
a mere membrane, weighing fcarce any thing. It i*
Left preferved, by fluffing it with cotton as foon as
the water is let out of it, and then hanging it up to
dry. Its furface is irregular and rough, and its colour
a dulky green on the outtide, and a clearer but fome-
what bluilh green within ; and its thicknefs is about
an eighth part of an inch. When viewed by the mi-
crofcope, it is feen to be all over covered with fmall
glandules, or rather compofed of them ; for they ftand
fo thick one by another as to leave no fpace between,
and feem to make up the whole fubftance; fo that it
appeals very like the rough fhagreen fkm ufed to co¬
ver toys. Thefe are indeed fo many hollow dude,
through which the fea-water finds a pafiage into the
globe formed by this Ikin, and by this means it is
kept always full and diftended ; on cutting it with a
pair of feiffars, the w’ater immediately runs out,and the
fldns collapfe; but there is fomething extremely remark¬
able in this, for the whole fubftance, near the wounded
place, is in motion, and feems as if alive, and fenfibk
of the wound. The glandules are found full of water,
and refembling fmall tranfparent bottles; and what
goes to the ftiu&ure of the plant befide thefe, is an
affemblage of a vaft number of filaments, all which are
likewife hollow, and filled with a clear and tranfpa¬
rent fluid.
There is another fubftance of this kind, mentioned
and deferibed by Count Marfigli, Triumfetti, and
others, and called the ramofe or branched orange.
This is very much of the nature of the former ; but,
inftead of confiding of one round globule, it is formed
of ftveral oblong ones, all pined together, and repre-
fenting the branches of iotne of the fucufes, only they
are ftiorter ; and thefe are al! hollow and full of water,
in the fame manner as the fingle globes cf the com¬
mon kind. 1 his has, by way of root, certain fine
and flender filaments, which faften it to the Hones or
fhells near w hich it is produced ; and it is of a duflcy
greenifh colour on the lurface, and of a fine bluifti
green within. The furface, viewed by the microfeope,
appears rough, as in the other, and the glandules are
of the fame kind, and are always found full of clear
water. See Corallines.
ORA I ION, in rhetoric, a fpeech or harangue-,
compofed according to the rules of oratory, but fpoken
in public. Orations may be reduced to three kinds
viz. the demonftrative, deliberative, and judicial To
the demonftrative kind belong panegyrics, genethliaca,
epithalamia, congratulations, &c. To the deliberative
kind belong perfuafion, exhortation, &c. And to the
judicial kind belong accufation, confutation, &c.
Funera Oration. See Funeral Oration.
ORATOR, among the Romans, differed from
ap-itronus l ire latter was allowed only to plead cautea
onibshalt or his clients; wifereas the former might
quit the forum and af.end the roftra or tribunal, to
harangue the fenate or the people. The orator/had
rarely a profound knowledge of the law, but they
were eloquent, and their ftyle was generally correct
3 A and
Orange
ti
Orator.
jQrator.
a R A [ 3?o J ORA
and concife. They were employed in caufes of im¬
portance, inftead of the common patron^. Orators,
in the violence of elocution, ufed all the warmth of
gefture, and even walked backwards and forwards
with great heat and emotion. This it was which occa-
ftpned a witticifm of Flavius Virginius, who alked one
of thofe walking orators, §hiot miUia paffuum decLi-
majjet ? ‘‘ How many miles he had declaimed;”
Similar to the Roman orators were the GrecxanRhetons.
See Rhetores.
Public Okatox, an office of very confiderable dig¬
nity, and of feme emolument in the Englilh uni-
verfities.
The public orator is the principal, and in many cafes
the only oftenfible, agent for the univerfity in all thofe
matters or forms which are merely external. He carries
on or fuperintends all correfpondences which are calcu¬
lated to promote the dignity, or raife the utility, of
the feminary which conftitutes him. He has little to
do, indeed, with the internal government of the body,
for which a variety of officers in different departments
are appointed; but in all public affairs he is, as it were,
the mouth of the whole ; putting their deliberations
into proper form, and communicating or publifhing
them, according to the intention of the univerirty.
Thus, if the whole univerfity, or a committee ap¬
pointed by them, or by ftatute, or by the will of any
particular benefactor, have, after a comparative trial,
adjudged a prize to any perfon or peifons^t is the
bufinefs of the public orator to inform the fuccefsful
parties of the iffue of the trial. Again, if for hngular
learning, or for any remarkable o-ood will fhown to the
univerfity by any perfon or perfons, the fenate or con¬
vocation are pleafed to declare their grateful fenfe of it,
either by conferring degrees, or otherwife as they
think fit, the public orator is to notiry this intention
to the perfon or pei fons concerned ; and fo in other
cafes.
Another part of the public orator’s bufinefs is to
prefent young noblemen, or thofe who take honorary
degrees, tanquam nobiles^ to the vice-chancellor : this
he does in a Latin fpeech, which, according to cir-
cumftances, is either fnort or long ; and of which the
fubjed is generally a defence of that particular ftatute
which allows the fons of noblemen, and fome few Oratorio,
others, to proceed to degrees before what is called the“W-"-
Jlatutable time. In doing this, encomiums, often
ftronger than juft, are made upon the learning and
virtue of the noble candidate ; a view is taken of the
dignity of his ancient houfe ; the honour is mentioned
which has accrued to the univerfity from the aceeffion
of fuch a member ; and the oration concludes with
promifmg great credit from his future condudf, as well
as benefit from the influence of his rank in the ftate.
Thefe circumftances are deemed fufficient grounds for
exempting the fons of noblemen from that tedious
courfe of ftudy through which the duller fons of com¬
moners muft all pafs before they be thought worthy of
academical honours.
ORATORIO, in the Italian mufic, a fort of facred
drama of dialogues; containing recitativos, duettos,
trios, ritornellos, chorufes, &c. The fubjetts of thofe
pieces are ufually taken from feripture, or the life of
fome faint, &c. The mufie for the oratorios ihould be
in the fineft tafte and heft chofen ftrains. Thefe
oratorios are greatly ufed at Rome in the time of Lent,
and of late in England.
Meneftrier attributes the origin of oratorios to the
crufades,' and fays that the pilgrims returning from
Jerufakm and the Holy Land, &c. compofed fongs,
reciting the life and death of the Son of God, and the
myfteries of the Chriftian faith, and celebrating the ,
atchievements and conftancy of faints and martyrs.
Others, with more probability, obferve, that the ora¬
torio was an avowed imitation of the opera, with only
this difference, that the foundation of it was always
fome religious, or at leaft fome moral fubjedi. Crefcim-
beni aferibes its origin to San Filippo Neri, who was
born at Florence in 1515, and who, in his chapel,
after fermons, and other devotions, in order to allure
young people to pious offices, had hymns, pfalms,
and fuch like prayers, fung by one or more voices.
Among thefe fpiritual fongs were dialogues ; and thefe
entertainments becoming more frequent, and impro¬
ving every year, were the occafion that in the feven-
teenth century oratorios were firft invented, fo called
from the place of their origin. See Hawkins's Hjjlary
of Mujic.
O Pv A T O R Y;
Tke art of fpeaking well upon any fubject, in order to perluade.
INTRODUCTION.
§ I. Of the Rife and Pregrefs of Oratory.
HE invention of oratory is by the Egyptians,
and the fables of the poets, aferibed to Mercury.
And it is well known, that the Greeks made their dei-
j ties the authors likewife of other arts, and fuppofed
The origin that they prefided over them. Hence they gave Mer-
©f the art. cmy the titles of Aqj-j©- and both which names
of oratoiy. come from words that fignify “ to fpeak.” And An¬
ilides calls eloquence the gift of Mercury; and for the
fame reafon anciently the tongue was confecrated to
him. He was likewife faid to be the interpreter or
meffenger of the gods ; which office very well fuited
him, at he excelled in eloquence. Hence we read in
the Sacred Writings, that when the people of Lyftra
took Barnabas and Paul for gods in human fhape, be-
caufe of that fudden and furprifing cure which was
wrought upon the lame man, they called Barnabas
pitery and Paul Mercury ; for this reafon, as the in-
fpired writer tells us, ‘ becaufe he was the chief fpeak-
er,’ that is (as the fpedlators then thought], the inter¬
preter or fpokefman of Barnabas.
But to pafs over thefe fidlions of the heathen deities,
let us hear what Quintilian fays of the origin of this
art ; who feems to give a very probable account of it
in the following paffage. “ The faculty of fpeech
(fey*
37*
Intrctl. ORA!
(fays ihe) we derive from nature (a) } but the art from
obfervation. For as in phyfic, men, by feeing that
fome things promote health and others deftroy it, form¬
ed the art upon thofe obfervations; in like manner, by
perceiving that fome things in difcotirle are faid to
advantage, and others not, they accordingly marked
thofe things, in order to imitate the one and avoid
the other. They alfo added fome things from their
own reafon and judgment, which being confirmed by
ufe, they began to teach others what they knew therrt-
felves.” But no certain account can be given when,
or by whom, this method of obfervation fir'd began
to take place. And Ariftotle fuppofes, not without
reafon, that the firft lineaments of the art were very
rude and imperfect. Paufanias, indeed, in his Defcrip-
ilon of Greece, tells us, that Prttheus, the uncle of The-
feus, taught it at Trezene a city of Peloponnefus, and
wrote a book concerning it; which he read hiriifelf,
as it was publifhed by one of Epidaurus. But as Piu
thcus lived about ioc» years before Paufanias, who
flourifhed in the time of the emperor Hadrian, fome
are of opinion he might be impofed upon by the Epi-
daurian, who publifited this book under the name of
Pittheus. But be that as it will, it is very reafonable to
believe, that the Greeks had the principles of this art
fo early as the time of Pittheus. For Thefeus his ne¬
phew’ lived Hot long before the taking of Troy, which,
according to Sir Ifaac New ton, happened 904 years
before the birth of Chrift ; at which time Cicero
thought it was in much efteem among them. “ Homer
(fays he) would never have given tllyffes and Neftor
in the Trojan wars fo great commendations on account
of their fpeeches (to one of whom he attributes force,
and to the other fweetnefs of expreffion), if eloquence
hai not in thofe times been in great repute.” dind
Idt any one fiiould imagine, that in thofe days they
made ufe only of fuch helps as nature and practice
could afford them, the fame poet informs us, that Pe-
leus fent Phoenix with his ion Achilles to the Trojan
war, *0 indrufl him not only in the art of war, hut
likewife of eloquence. But who were the profeffors
of this art for fome ages following is not known. For
Quintilian fays, that afterwards Empedocles is the fird
upon record who attempted any thing concerning it.
And he, by Sir Ifaac Newton's account, flouviihed
about 500 years after Troy was taken. At which
time, as Cicero obferves, men being now fenfible of
the powerful charms of oratory, and the influence it
had upon the mind, there immediately ^rofe feveral
maflers of it ; the chief of whom are mentioned by
Quintilian, who tells us, that ‘ the olded wnuters up¬
on this art are Corax and Tifias, both of Sicily. After
them came Gorgias of Lecntium in the fame iflatid,
who is faid to have been the fcholar of Empedocles,
4 and by reafon of his great age (for he lived to be 109
Orators of years old) had many cotemporaries. Thrafymachus of
Greece. Chalcedon, Prodicus of Cea, Protagoras of Abdera*
Hippias of Elis, and Alcidamus of Elea, lived in his
O R Y.
time ; as likewife Antiphon, who ftfd wrote orations,
and alfo upon the art, and is faid to have ipoken ad¬
mirably well in his own defence ; and befide^ thefe,
-Polycrates* and Theodore of Byzantium.’ Thefe
perfons contributed different ways towards the im¬
provement of the art. Corax and Tifias gave rules
,for methodizing a dilcourfe, and adjufting its particu¬
lar parts; as maybe conjeitured from Cicero’s account
of them, who lays, “ Though fome had fpoke well
before thtir time, yet none with order and method,’*
But Gorgias feems to have excelled all the reft in fame
and reputation : for he was fo highly applauded by
all Greece, that a golden ftatue was credit'd to him at
Delphos, which was a diftinguifhing honour conferred
upon him only. And he is faid to have been fo great
a mafter of oratory, that in a public affembly he would
undertake to declaim immediately upon any fubjedl
propofed to him. Pie wrote, as Cicero informs us, in
the demonllrative or laudatory way ; which requires
moil of the fublime, and makes what Diodorus Siculus
fays of him the more probable, that “ he firft intro¬
duced the ftrongeft figures, members of periods oppo-
fite in fenfe, of an equal length) or ending with a like
found, and other ornaments of that nature.” And
hence thofe figures, which give the greatell force and
luftre to a difeourf?, were anciently called by his name.
Cicero tells us further, thac Thrafymachus and Gor¬
gias were the firit who introduced numbers into profe,
which Ifocrates afterwards brought to perfeftion.
Quintilian likewife mentions Protagoras) Gorgias, Pro¬
dicus, and Thrafymachus, as the firil who treated of
common places, and Ihowed the ufe of them for the in¬
vention of arguments. Nor muff we omit Plato*
whofe elegant dialogue upon this fubjedf is Rill extant*
wjjich he intitles Gorgias. For though he does not
lay down the common rules of the art; yet he very
well explains the nature of it, and maintains its true
end and ufe againft the generality of its profeffors, who
had greatly perverted the original defign of it. Thus
by the Rudy and induRry of fo many ingenious and
great men, the art of oratory was then carried to a
conliderable height among the Grecians. Though
many of thofe who profeffed it in thofe times em¬
ployed their ikill rather to promote their own reputa¬
tion and applaufe, than to ferve the real intereRs of
truth and virtue. “ For they propofed in an arro¬
gant manner (as Cicero fays) to teach how a bad
caufe might be fo managed, as to get the better of a
good one.” That is, they would undertake to charm
the ears and ftrike the paffions of their hearers in fo
powerful a manner, by lophiRical reafonings, turns
of wit, and line language, as to impofe falfc ♦ jod
upon them for truth ; than which nothing could be
either more difmgenuous in itfelf, or prejudicial to
fociety.
But thofe who fucceeded them feem to have con-
fulted better, both for their own honour and that of {
their profeffion. Ilocrates was the moR renowned of
3 A 2 all
(a) If Quintilian meant that the human race fpeck an articulate language by nature or InRintfH he cer¬
tainly deceived himfelf (fee Language) ; but if his meaning was only that men have from nature a capabi¬
lity of fpeeth, the obfervation is ttue, but not of much value. Parrots and other birds have a capability of
uttering articulate founds.
372 ©RAT
' all Gorglas’s fcholars, w!iom Cicero frequently ex¬
tols with the hightft commendations, as the greatefl
mafter arfd teacher of oratory ; “ whofe fchool (as he
f iys) like the Trojan horfe, fent forth abundance of
great men.” Ariftotle was chiefly induced to engage
in this province from an emulation of his glory ; and
would often fay in a verfe of Sophocles, fomewhat va¬
ried to his purpofe,
To be filent it is a fhame;
While Ifocrates gets fuch fame.
Quintilian fays they both wrote upon the art, though
there is no fyflem of the former now extant But that
of Ariffotle is efteemed the beft and moft complete
of any in the Greek language. In this age the Gre¬
cian eloquence appeared in its highefl perfedtion. De-
mofllienes was an hearer both of Ifocrates and Plato,
as alfo of Ifseus (ten of whofe orations are yet extant);
and by the .Aid a nee of a furprifing genius, joined
with indefatigable induftry, made that advantage of
their precepts, that he has been always edeemed by
the belt judges the prince of Grecian orators. His
great adverfary an 1 rival ^Sfchines, after his banifh-
tnent, is faid to have gone to Rhodes, and employed
his time there in teaching of rhetoric. Tbeode&es and
Theophraftus, both of them fcholars of Ariifotle, imi¬
tated their mafter in writing upon the art. And from
that time the philofophere, efpecially the ftoics and
peripatetics, applied themfelves to lay dowm the rules
of oratory ; which Socrates had before feparated from
the province of a philofopher. And there is yet pre-
ferved a treatife upon this fubjedt, which fame have
^ aferibed to Demetrius Phalereus the peripatetic, and
fcholar of Theophraftus, though others more probably
to Dionyfius of Ha'icarnafTus. Quintilian mentions fe-
veral other famous rhetoricians in the following ages,
who were likewife writers; as Hermagoras, Athcnaeus,
Apollonius Melon, Areus Caseilius, Dionyfius of Ha-
licarnafTus, Apollonius of Pergamus, and T' eodore of
Gadara. But of thefe nothing now remains upon the
fuhjeft of oratory, except fome trafts of Dionyfius,
who flburifhed in the reign of Auguftus Casfar. Nor
have there beeen wanting fome eminent writers of this
kind among the Greeks fince the time of Quintilian ;
two of whom we cannot omit to mention, Hermo-
genes, and Longinus the author of the incomparable
treatife Of the Sublime^ a book which can fcarce be too
3 much commended or too often read.
?.:fe and It was Jong before Rome received this art, and not
"’'tt10111 difficulty at firft. The reafon was, becaufe
the Romans were for feveral ages wholly addi&ed to
miliary affairs, and to enlarge their territories ; fo
that they not only neglecded to cultivate learning, but
thought the purfuit of it a thing of ill tendency, by
diverting the minds of their youth from the cares and
toi^s of war, to a more foft and indolent kind of life.
Therefore fo late as the year of their city 592, when
by the induftry of fome Grecians the liberal arts be¬
gan to flburilh in Italy, a decree paffed the fenate, by
which all philofophtrs and rhetoricians were ordered
to depart out of Rome. But in a few years after,
when C ' neades, Critolaus, and Diogenes, who were
not only philofophers but orators, came ambafladors
from Athens to Rome, the Roman youth were fo
charmed with the eloquence of their harangues, that
O R Y.
Introd.
©rat< ry in
2tome,
they could no longer be ftopt from purfuing the ffudy
of oratory. And by a further acquaintance with the
Greeks, it foon gained fuch eUeem, that perfons of the
firft quality employed their time and pains to acquire
it. And a young gentleman, who was ambitious to
advance himfelf in the fervice ol his country, could
have little hopes of fuccefs, unlefs he had laid the foun¬
dation of his future profpe&s in that ffudy.
Seneca tells us, that Lucius Plotius, a Gaul, was
the firft who taught the art of oratory at Rome in
Latin ; which Cicero fays, war tvhile he was a boy ;
and when the moft ftudious perfons went to hear him,
he lamented that he could not go with them ; being
prevented by the regard he paid to the opinion of fome
of his friends, who thought that greater improvements
were made by txercifes in the Greek language under
Grecian matters. Seneca adds, that this profeffion
continued for fome time in the hands of freedmen ;
and that the firft Roman who engaged in it was Blan-
dus of the equeftrian order, who was fucceeded by
others ; fome of whofe lives are yet extant, written by
Suetonius, as many of the Grecians are by Philoftra-
tus and Eunapius. Quintilian likewife gives us the
names of thofe among the Romans, who wrote upon
the art. The firft (fays he), as Far as I can learn,
who compofed any thing upon this argument, was M.
Cato the cenfor. After him Anthony the orator be¬
gan upon the fubjeft, which is the only work he has
left, and that imperfedL Then followed fome of lefs
note. But he who carried eloquence to its higheft
pitch among us, was Cicero; who has likewife by his
rules given the beft plan both to pradlife and teach the
art. After whom modefty would require us to men¬
tion no more, had he not told us himfelf, that his
books of rhetoric flipt out of his hands, while he was
but a youth. And thofe lefler things, which many
perfons want, he has purpofely omitted in his dif-
courfes of oratory Cornificius wrote largely upon the
fame fubjed! ; Stertinius and Gallio the father, each
of them fomething. But Cclfus and Lenas were more
accurate than Gallio ; and in our times VLginius,
Pliny, and Rutilius. And there are at this day fome
celebrated authors of the fame kind, who, if they had
taken in every thing, might have faved my pains.”
Time has fince deprived us of moft of the writers men¬
tioned here by Qiiintilian. Birt we have the lefs rea¬
fon to regret this lofs, fince it has preferved to us Ci¬
cero’s treatifes upon this fubjedt; which we may well
fuppofe to have been chiefly owing to their own excel¬
lency, and the great efteem they have always had in
the world Befides his Two Books of Invention^ which
Quintilian here calls his Books of Rhetoricy there are
extant of his. Three Books of an Orator; one Of famous
Orators; and another, which is called Tlx Orator; as
alfo his Topics, a preface Concerning the btfl fort of Ora¬
tors, and a treatife Of the parts of Oratory, Each of
which treatiTcs, whether we regard the juftnefs and
delicacy of the thoughts, the ufefulnefsof the rules, or
the elegance and beauty of the ftyle, deftrves to be
frequently perufed by all who are lovers of eloquence.
For who can be thought fo well qualified to give the
rules of any art, as he who exetlied ail mankind in the
pradbice of them ? But thofe Four books to Herenniuty
which are publifhed among Cicero’s works, feem with
good xeafon to be attributed to Cornificius, whora
Quin-.
I
371
Introd. O R A T
Quintilian here mentions. And Celfus is by fome af¬
firmed to have taught oratory, whom he alfo places
among the rhetoricians, and whofe Eight Boohs of Me¬
dicine are vet extant, written in fo beautiful a ftyle as
plainly (hows him to be a mailer of eloquence. But
Quintilian himfclf outdid all who went before him in
diligence and accuracy as a writer. His Injlitutions are
fo comprehenfive. and written with fuch great exa6t-
nefe and judgment, that thev are generally allowed to
be the mod: perfeft work of the kind- With this ex¬
cellent author we lhall finifh the account of the Latin
rhetoricians.
There were indeed fome others in the following
ages, whofe works are yet extant ; but as they con¬
tain nothing of moment which is not to be found in
thofe already mentioned, we fhall forbear to name
them. Much lefs (hall we defeend to that numerous
body of writers, who fince th;* revival of learning have
treated upon this fuhje£l, for the fame reafon And
* Archb. a very good judge* has not long fince given it as his
Cambray, Op;n;on, that the method of forming the belt fyftem
4*1/. p.313. of j8 to colleft it from the fineft precepts of
Ariftotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Longinus, and other
celebrated authors with proper examples taken from
the choiceft parts of the pureft antiquity. And this
is the method attempted to be purfued in the follow¬
ing treatife.
' § 2. 0/ the Nature of Oratory.
The terms rhetoric and oratory^ having no other dif¬
ference but that one is taken from the Greek language
and the other from the Latin, may be ufed promifeu-
cufly . but the cafe is not the fame with refpeft to the
words rhetorician and orator. For although the Gre¬
cians ufed the former, both to exprefs thofe who caught
the art, and fhofe who pra&ifed it; yet the Romans
afterward, when they took that word into their lan¬
guage, confined it to the teachers of the art, and call¬
ed the reft orators. And there feems to have been a
fufficient reafon for this diftin&ion, fince the art was
the fame in both, and might therefore go by either
name : but the different province of rhetoricians and
orators made it not improper that they fhould be call'
ed by different names. Befides, anciently, before rhe¬
toric was made a feparate and dillinft art from philo-
fophy, the fame perfons taught both And then they
were called not only rhetoricians but fophifls. But
becaufe they often employed their art rather to vindi¬
cate what was falfe and unju% than to fupport truth
and virtue : this difingenuous conduft, by which they
frequently impofed upon weak mind^, brought a dif-
credit both upon themfelves and their profefllon. And
therefore the name fophifi, or fophijier, has been more
generally ufed in an ill fenfe, to fignify one /killed ra¬
ther in the arts of cavilling, than qualified to fpeak
welt and accurately upon any fubjett.
•ratorv an 18 not neceHary to ujk many words, to prove that
art. oratory is an art. For it is comprifed under certain
rules, agreeable to reafon, delivered in a regular me¬
thod, and fuited to attain the end it propofes ; which
are ch,traders fufficient to denominate it an art. lo-
dted the cafe is the fame here as in moft other things,
that a good irenius is of itfelf more ferviceable than
the moil exad acquaintance with all the rules of art,
where that is waning- But it is fufficient that art
O R Y.
help nature, and car»y it farther than it can other-
wife advance without it. And he who is defirous to
gain the reputation of a good orator, will find the af-
fiftance of art very neceffary. t'cme perfons have
thought, that many of the common fyftems written up¬
on the fubjed of oratory have been attended with this
inconvenience, that, by burdening the mind with too
great a number of rules about things of lefs import¬
ance, they have oftentimes rather difeouraged than
promoted the ftudy of eloquence. This undoubtedly
is an extreme which ffiould be always carefully avoids
ed. But, however, an indifferent guide in a ftrange
road is better than none at all. It may be worth while
to hear Quintilian’s opinion upon this head. “I would
not (lays he) have young perfons think they are fuf-
ficiently inftrnded, if they have learned one of thofe
compends which are commonly handed about, and
fancy themfelves fafe in the decrees, as it were, of thefe
technical writers. 'The art of fpeaking requires much
labour, conftant ftudy, a variety of exercife, many
trials, the greateft prudence, and readinefs of thought.
However, thefe treatifes are ufeful. when they fee
you in a plain and open way, and do not confine you
to one narrow tradb, from which he who thinks it a
ctime *0 depart muft move as flowly as one that walks
upon a rope.” We fee he is not for having us confine
ourfelves too clofely to fyftems, though he thinks they
are of fervice at firft, till ufe and experience render
them lefs neceffary.
The bufinefs of oratory is to teach us to fpeak well; The
which, as Cicero explains it, is to fpeak jujlly> metho-Q^lX"
duallyy floridly) and copioufly.
Now, in order to fpeak jujlly, or pertinently, a per-
fon muft be mafter of his^fuhjedb, that he may be able
to fay all that is proper, and avoid whatever may ap¬
pear foreign and trifhng. And he muft clothe his
thoughts with fuch words and expreffions as are moft
fuited to the nature of the argument,.and will give it
the greateft force and evidence.
And as it teaches to fpeak jiiftly, fo likevvife metho¬
dically. This requires, that all the parts of a difeourfe
be placed in their proper order, and with fuch juft con-
nedbioH, as to reflect a light upon each other, and
thereby to render the whole both clear in itfelf, and
eafy to be retained. But the fame method is not pro¬
per for all difeourfes. And very frequently a different
manner is convenient in handling the fame fiibjedL
For it is plain, that art, as well as nature, loves va¬
riety ; and it difeovers the fpeaktr’s judgment, when
the difpofition of his difeourfe is fo framed, as to ap¬
pear eafy and natural, rather than the effeift of indu-
ftry and labour;, '
To fpeak floridlyy is fo peculiar a property of this
art, that fome have wholly confined it to the pomp
and ornaments of language. But that it extends far¬
ther, . and refpedts things as well as words, we (hill
have occafion to fhow hereafter. It contains indeed
the whole fubjedb of elocution, hut does not wholly
conflft in it. True and folrd eloquence requires not,
only the benuties and flowers f la igutge, but likewife
the heft fenfe and cleared: r fnning. Befides rheto¬
ric gives rules for the feveral forts of ftyie, and di-
re&s the ufr of them agreeably to the nature of the
fujeCt.
But the force of oratory appears in nothing more
than
.■374
O R A T
than a cop'ioufnefs of exprefilon, or a proper manner
of enlargement, fuited to the nature of the fuhjeft ;
which is of great ufe in perfuafion, and forms the laft
property* required by Cicero, of fpeaking well. A
fhort and concife account of things is often attended
with obfcurity, from an omiflion of fome neceflary cir-
cumftances relating to them. Or, however, where that
is not the cafe, yet for want of proper embelliihments
-to enliven the difcourfe, and thereby to excite and hx
the hearers attention, it is apt to flip through their
minds without leaving any imprefixon. But where the
images of things are drawn in their full proportion,
painted in their proper colours, fet in a clear light,
and reprefented in different views, with all the ftrength
and beauties of eloquence, they captivate the minds of
the audienae with the highelt pleafure, engage their
attention, and by an irreliftible force move and bend
them to the defign of the fpeaker.
The principal end and defign of oratory is to per-
fuade : for which reafon it is frequently called the art
of perfuajion. Indeed the orator has often other fub-
ordinate views; as when ‘he endeavours either to de¬
light his hearers with what is pleafant and agreeable,
or to conciliate their good opinion by a fmooth and
artful addrefs : but ftill both thefe are in order toper-
fuade and excite them to aftion.
An objeftion may, perhaps, hence be formed againft
eloquence, as an art which may be employed for per-
Xuading to ill as well as to good. There is no doubt
that it may ; and fo reafoning may alfo be, and too
often is, employed for leading men into error. But
who -would think of forming an argument from this
againft the cultivation of our reafoning powers ? Rea¬
fon, eloquence, and every art which ever has been ftu-
dted among mankind, may be abufed, and may prove
dangerous in the hands of bad men ; but it were per¬
fectly child.fh to contend, that upon this account they
ought to be abolifhed.
While the orator employs his art in purfiiing only
thofe ends for which it was at firft defigned, the per-
fuading men to good and virtuous actions, and dif-
° R Y- Partr.
fuading them from every thing that is ill and vicious ;
nothing can be more commendable in itfelf, or ufcful
to human focieties.
§ 3- Of the D'rvijton of Oratory.
Oratory confifts of four parts ; invention^ difpojl.Ox-wory
tioriy elocution, and pronunciation. This will appearconfifts
by confidering the nature of each of them, and what fourpa,ts‘
it contributes in forming an orator. Every one who
aims to fpeak well and accurately upon any fubje^t,
does naturally in the firft place inquire after and pur-
fue fuch thoughts as may feem moft proper to explain
and illuftrate the thing upon which he defioms to dif¬
courfe. And if the nature of it requires that’he fliould
bring reafons to confirm what he fays, fhe not only
feeks the ftrongeft, and fuch as are like to be beft re¬
ceived ; but alfo prepares to anfwer any thing which
may be offered to the contrary. This is invention 
After this he deliberates with himfelf in what method
to difpofe of thofe things which have occurred to his
min i, that they may appear in the plained light, and
not lofe their force by diforder and confufion. This
is the bufinefs o. dtj'pojition.-— His next concern is to
give his thoughts an agreeable drefs; by making
choice of the fitteft words, cleareft expreffions, fmooth
and harmonious periods, with other ornaments of ftyle,
as may beft fuit the nature of his fubjecft, brighten his
difcourfe, and render it mdft entertaining to his hear¬
ers. And this is called elocution.—The laft thing he
attends to, is to deliver what he has thus compofed,
with a juft and agreeable pronunciation. And daily
experience convinces us, how much this contributes
both to engage the attention and irtiprefs what is fpo*
ken upon the mind. This then is the method to which
nature dire&s, in order to qualify ourfejvea for difcour-
fing to the beft advantage : '1 hough by cuftom and
habit thefe things become fo fajniliar to us, that we
do not always attend to them feparately in their na¬
tural order. However, it is the bufinefs of art to fol¬
low nature, and to treat of things in that manner which
flie didtates.
PartI. Of INVENTION.
Chap.I. Of Invention in general; and particu¬
larly of Common Places, and State of a Caufe.
7 tNvention, confidered in general, is the difeovery
Invention 1 0f fuch things as are proper to perftiade. And
ver^of0" in or^er to attain this end, the orator propofesto him-
ffudi tilings felf three things; To prove or illuftrate the fubjedl up¬
as are fitted on which he treats; to conciliate the minds of his hear-
topeifuade. ers ; and to engage their paflionsin his favour. And
as thefe require different kinds of arguments or mo¬
tives, invention fur nifties him with a fupply for each
of them, as will be fliown in their order.
An argument, as defined by Cicero, is a reafon
which induces us to believe what berore we doubted
of.
And as different kinds of difeourfes require different
-arguments, rhetoricians have coniideted them two
ways ; in general, under certain heads, as a common
fund for all fubjetis; and in a more particular manner,
as they ere fuited to demon/}ra five, deliberative, or ju¬
dicial difeourfes. At prefent we (hall treat only uport
the former of thefe. And now, that one thing may
receive proof and confirmation from another, it is ne*
ceffary that there be fome relation between them ; fof
all things are not equally adapted to prove one ano¬
ther. Thus, in meafuring the quantity of two things
which we would fhow to be cither equal or unequal,
if they are of fuch a nature that one cannot be applied
to the other, then we take a third thing, which may
be applied to them both ; and that muft be equal at
leaft to one of the two, which if applied to the other
and found equal to that alfo, we prefently conclude
that thefe two things are equal; but if it be unequal
to the other, we fay that' thefe two things are un¬
equal. Becaufe it is the certain and known property
ot all quantities, that whatfoever two things are equal
to a third, are equal to one another; ancfwhere one
of any two things is equal to a third, and the other
unequal, thofe two things are Unequal to one another.
What has been fiid of quantities, will hold true in all
other cafes, that fo far ss any two things or ideas
5 agree
Tart T.
Invention.
ORATORY.
375
8
Thefe call
cd argu¬
ments.
*)
I,earning
neceffai y
an oratjr.
agree to a third, fo far they agree to one another.
So likewife, on the contrary, as far as one of any two
things or ideas does agree to a third, and the other
does not, fo far they difagree with one another; in
■which Tefpedd, one of them cannot be truly affirmed of
the other. Since, therefore, in every propofition, one
thing is fpnken of another, if we would find out whe¬
ther the two ideas agree to each other or not, where
this is not evident of itfelf, we muft find out fome
third thing, the idea of which agrees to one of them;
and then that being applied to the other, as it does
agree or difagree with it, fo we may conclude, that
the two things propofed do agree or difagree with
one another. This will be made more clear by an
example ot two. Should it be inquired, Whether
virtue is to beloved; the agreement between virtue and
love might be found by comparing them feparately
with happinefs, as a common meafure to both. For
fince the idea of happinefs agrees to that of love, and
the idea of virtue to that of happinefs ; it follows, .
that the ideas of virtue and love agree to one another :
and therefore it may be affirmed, That virtue is to bt
loved. But on the contrary, becaufe the idea of mi-
fery difagrees with that of love, but the idea of vice
agrees to that of mifery, the two ideas of vice and
love muft confequently difagree with one another;
and therefore it would be falfe to affirt, That vice is
, to fye loved. Now, this third thing logicians call the
medium, or middle term, Lecaufe it does as it were
conned two extremes ; that is, both parts of a pro¬
pofition. But rhetoricians call it an argument, be¬
caufe it is fo applied to what was before propofed, as
to become the inftrument of procuring our afi'ent to
it. Thus far as to the nature and ufe of arguments.
We (hall next explain by what methods they are to be
fought.
A lively imagination, and readinefs of thought, are
undoubtedly a very great help to invention. Some
perfons are naturally endued with that quicknefs of
fancy, and penetration of mind, that they are feUotn
at a lofs for arguments either to defend their own
opinions, or to attack their adverfaries. However,
thtfe things being the gift of natuie, and not to be
gained by art, do not properly fail under our prefent
confideration.
It will be readily granted, that great learning and
toextenfive knowledge are a noble fund for invention.
■ An orator therefore fhould be furnifhed with a flock of
important truths, folid maxims of reafon,and a variety
of knowledge, colle&ed and treafured up both from
obfervation and a large acquaintance with the liberal
arts : that he may not only be qualified to exprefs
him fell' in the moft agreeable manner, but likewife to
fupport what he fays with the llrongeft and cleareft
.arguments.
But becaufe all are not born with a like happy
genius, and have not the fame opportunity to cultivate
their minds with learning and knowledge ; and be¬
caufe nothing is more difficult than to dwell long
upon the confideration of one thing, in order to find
out the ftrongelt arguments which may be offered tor
and againft it; upon thefe accounts, art has preferibed
-a method to leffen, in fome meafure, theft mffkultie-,
and help every one to a fupply of arguments upon any
fubjea. And this is done by the contrivance of cow- Inve,'tl 'n-,
mon places, which Cicero calls the fiats or heads of
arguments, and by a Greek name topics. They are of
two forts, internal and external. 10
I. Internal Mies. Though things, with regard to Rules of art
their nature and properties, are exce5^'ni^y var*ous, 0y
yet they have certain common relations, by me^s exterif1Ve
whereof the truth of what is either affirmed or denied ]ea njng cr
concerning them in any refpedl may be evinced. The acute ge-
ancient Greek rhetoricians therefore reduced thefe re- nius.
lations to fome general heads, which are termed loci
or common places; becaufe the reafons or arguments
fuited to prove any propofition ate repofited in them,
as a common fund or receptacle. And they are call¬
ed internal heads, becaufe they arife from the fubjedt
upon which the orator treats; and are therefore di-
ftinguiffied from others named external, which he fetches
from without, and applies to his prefent purpofe, as
will be ffiown hereafter. Cicero and Quintilian make
them 16; three of which comprehend the whole
thing they are brought to prove, namely, dejinitton,
enumeration, and notation : of the remaining 13, iome
contain a part of it, and the reft its various pro-,
perties and circumftances, with other confiderations
relating to it; and thefe are, genus, fpecies, antecedents,
confequents, adjuncts, conjugates, caufe, effect, contraries,
oppo/ites.fimilkude, diffmilitude, and companfon.
Definition explains the nature of the thing defined,
and (hows what it is. And to whatfoever the defini¬
tion agrees, the thing defined does fo likewife. If
therefore Socrates be a rational creature, he is a man;
becaufe it is the definition of a man, that he is a ra¬
tional creature.
Enumeration takes in all the parts of a thing. And
from this we prove, that what agrees to all the parts
agrees to the whole ; and what does not agree to any¬
one or more parts, does not agree to the whole : As
when Cicero proves to Pifo that all the Roman ftate
hated him, by enumerating the feveral ranks and orders
of Roman citizens who all did lo.
Notation, or etymology, explains the meaning or
fignification of a word. From which we reafon thus ;
“ If he cannot pay his debts, he is infolventfor
that is the meaning of the word infolvent.
Genus is what contains under it two or more forts
of things, differing in nature. From this head logi¬
cians reafon thus : u Becaufe every animal is mortal,
and man is an animal, thereiore man is mortal.” But
orators make a further ufe of this argument, which
they call afe ending from the hypothefis to the tbefis ; that
is, from a particular to a general: As fhould a per-
fon, when fpeaking in praife of juftice, take occafion r
from thence to commend and fiiow the excellency of
virtue in general, with a view to render that particular
virtue more amiable. For fiace eveiy fpecies contains
in it the whole nature of the genus to which it relates,
befides what is peculiar to itfelf, whereby it is diftin-
guifhed from it; what is affirmed of the genus, muft
of neceffity be applicable to the fpecies.
Species is that which comprehends under it all the
individuals of the fame nature. From hence we may
argue, “ He is a man, therefore he has a rational
foul.” And orators fometin.es take occafion from
this head to dtfeend from the thefis to the hypothefis; .
that '
.TTS _ ORA
v> ’ ,0 tfiat Is, in treating upon what Is more general, to in¬
troduce feme particular contained under it, for the
greater illuflration of the general.
Antectdents are fuch things, as, being once allowed,
others nect ITarily, or very probably, follow. From this
head an infeparable property is proved from its fubjed:
as, It is material, and therefore corruptible.
Confequents are fuch things as, being allowed, necef*
farily or very probably infer their antecedents. Hence
the fubjed is proved from an infepflrable property, in
this manner: It is corruptible, and therefore material.
are feparable properties of things, ©r cir-
cumftances that attend them. Fhefe are very ntime-
flous, and afford a great variety of arguments, fome
of which ufually occur in every difeourfe. They do
not neceffarily infer their fubjed ; but, if fitly chofen,
render a thing credible, and are a fuffieient ground for
affent. The way of reafomng from them we fhall (how
prefently.
Conjugates are words deduced from the fame origin
with that of our fubjed By thefe the habit is proved
from its ads : as, He who does juftly is juft. He does
not ad wifely, therefore he is not wife. But this infe
rence will not hold, unlefs the adions appear continued
and conftant.
A caufe h that, by the force of which a thing does
exift. There are four kinds of caufcs, matter form,
efficient, and end, which afford a great variety of ar¬
guments. The way of reafoning from them is to in¬
fer the effed from the caufe: as, Man is endued with
reafon, therefore he. is capable of knowledge.
An ejfed is that which arifea dom a caufe, there¬
fore the caufe is proved by it: as, He is endued with
knowledge, therefore with reafon.
Contraries are things, which, under the fame genus,
are at the utmoft diftance from each other: fo that
what we grant to the one, we utterly deny the other :
as, Virtue ought to be embraced, therefore vice (hould
be avoided-
Oppofites are fuch things, which, though repugnant
to each other, yet are not diredly contradidory : as
To love and to injure, to hate and to commend. They
differ from contraries in this, that they do not abfo-
lutely exclude one another. A n argument is drawn
from things repugnant, thus : He will do a man a mif-
chief, therefore he does not love him. He loves a man,
therefore he -' ill not reproach him.
SimHituJe is an agreement of things in quality.
Thus C icero proves, that pernicious citizens ought to
be taken out of the ftate; by the likenefs they bear to
corrupted members, which are cut off to prevent fur¬
ther damage to the body.
Diffimilitude is a difagreement of things in quality.
From this head Cicero Ihows the preference of his own
exile to Fife’s government of Macedonia ; by the dif¬
ference between their condud, and the people’s efteem
of them.
Comparifon is made three ways: for either a thing
is compared with a greater, with a lefs, or with its
equal. 1 bis place, therefore, differs from that of
fimilitude on this account, that rhe quality was confi-
dered in that, but here the quantity. An argument
from the greater is thus drawn : If five legions could
not conquer-the enemy, much lefs will two.
We f.iffl juft give one example of the manner of
N° 250.
TORY. paltr.
reafoning from thefe heads, whereby the ufe of them Invention,
may further appear. If any one, therefore, ffiould v—
have endeavoured to perfuade Cicero not to accept of
his life upon the condition offered him by Antony, ,,er 0f Ie^.
That he would burn his Philippic orations which had foiling front
been fpoken again ft him, he might be fuppofed to thek
ufe fuch arguments as thefe ; partly taken from the
adjunds of Cicero, partly from thofe of Antony, and
partly from the thing itfelf. And firft with regard to
Cicero, it might be faid, That fo great a man ought
not to purchafe his life at fo dear a price a s'the lofsof
that immortal honour which by fo great pains and
labour he had acquired. And this might be confirm¬
ed by another argument, That now he was grown
old, and could not exped to live much longer. And
from the charader of Antony he might argue thus ;
That he was very crafty and deceitful; and only de¬
signed, by giving him hopes of life, to have the Phi¬
lippics firft burnt, which otherwile he knew would
tranfmit to pofterity an eternal brand of infamy upon
him -5 and then he would take off the author. And
this might be fhown by comparifort. For fince he
would not fpare others, who had not fo highly exaf’
perated him, and from whom he had not fo much to
fear; certainly he would not foigive Cicero, fince he
knew well enough, that fo long as he lived, he him-
felf could never be in fafety. And, laftly, an argu¬
ment might alfo be fetched from the nature of the
thing itfelf, in the following manner : That Cicero by
this adion would ftiamefully betray the ftate, and the
caufe of liberty, which he had through his whole life
moft courageoufiy defended, with fo great honour to
himfelf, and advantage to the public. Upon fuch an
account, a perfon might have ufed thefe or the like
arguments with Cicero, which anfe from the fore-
mentioned heads.
From this account of common places, it is eafy
to conceive what a large field of difeourfe they open
to the mind upon every fubjed. At the fame time, **
though we have mentioned them from our refped
for the orators of Greece and Rome, we heartily urihty un-
fubferibe to the opinion of a celebrated modern, who lefs there is
gives of them the following account. a previous
“The Grecian fophifts were the firft inventors of this foun^3t‘ori
artificial fyftem of Oratory ; and they /bowed a pro- andgeniuf.
digious fubtilty and fertility in the contrivance of
thefc loci. Succeeding rhetoricians, dazzled by the
plan, wrought them into fo regular a fyftem, that
one would think they meant to teach how a ptrfon
might mechanically become an orator, without any
genius at all. They gave him receipts for making Lie*
fpeeches on all manner of fubjeds. At the fame time,
it is evident, that though this ftudy of common places
might produce very fhowy academical declamations, it
could never produce ufeful difeourfes on real bufinefs.
The loci indeed fupplied a moft exuberant fecundity of
matter. One who had no other aim, but to talk co-
pioufly and pl?ufisly, by confulting them on every
fir jed, and laying hold of all that they fuggefted,
might difeourfe without end ; and that, too, though
he had none but the moft fuperficial knowledge of his
fubjed. But filch difeourfe could be no other than tri¬
vial. What is truly lolid and perfuafive, muft be
drawn ex vi/cenbus caufe, from a thorough knowledge
of the fubjed, and profound meditation on it. They
6 who
14
Reduced
to three
iparate'y
explained.
Parti. O R A T
invention. w}in would direct ftudents of oratory to any other
w'"'v fources of argumentation, only delude them ; and by
attempting to render rhetoric too perfeft an art, they
render it, in truth, a trifling and childiflx ftudy.”
Of externa] H- external topics. When the orator reafona from
topics, e;e- topics as do not arife from his fubject, but from
nerally call-things of a different nature, thefe are called external.
ed tejhmo- They are all taken from authorities, and are by one
general name called Tejlimanies.
Now a tellimony may be exprefled by writing,
fpeeeh, or any other lign proper to declare a perfon’s
mind. And all teftimonies may be diftinguifhed into
two forts, divine and human. A divine teftimony,
when certainly known to be fuch, is inconteftable,
and admits of no debate, but fliould be accpiiefced in
without hefitation. Indeed the ancient Greeks and
Romans efteemed the pretended oracles of their deities,
the anfwers of their augurs, and the like fallacies, di¬
vine teftimonies : but with us no one can be ignorant
of their true notion, though they do not fo dire&ly
come under our prefent confideration. Human tefli-
monies, confidered as furniihing the orator with ar¬
guments, may be reduced to three heads; ’writings,
’witnejfes, and contrails.
1. By Writings, here-, are to be underflood written
) i laws, wills, or other legal inflruments, exprefled and
f -paiat^y' cotlveyecl manner. And it is not fo much the
force and validity of fuch teltimonies, coniidered in
themfelves, that is here intended, as the occalion of
difpute which may at any time arife concerning their
true defign and import, when produced in proof upon
either fide of a controverfy. And thefe are five ; Am¬
biguity, Difagrcement between the words and inten¬
tion, Contrariety, Reafoning, and Interpretation.
A writing is then faid to he ambiguous, when it is
capable of two or more fenfes, which makes the wri¬
ter’s defign uncertain. Now ambiguity may arife ei¬
ther from Angle words, or the conftru&ion of fenten-
ces. From Angle words; as when either the fenfe of
•t word, or the application of it, is doubtful. As,
fliould it be q-:eftioned, whether ready money ought
to be included under the appellation of chattels left by
a will ; or, if a teftator bequeath a certain legacy to
his nephew Thomas, and he has two nephews of that
name. But ambiguity is alfo fometimes occafioned
from the conftruAion of a fentence ; as when feveral
things or perfons having been already mentioned, it
is doubtful to which of them that which follows ought
to be referred. For example, a perfon writes thus in
his will : ‘ Let my heir give as a legacy to Titius an
horfc out of my liable, which he plea^es., Here it
may be queflioned, whether the word he refers to the
heir or to Titius ; and confequently, whether the heir
be allowed to give Titius which horfe he pleafes, or
Titius may choofe which he likes heft. Now as to
controveiA.es of this kind, in the firft cn.fe above-men¬
tioned, the paity who claims the chattels may plead,
that all moveable goods come under that name, and
therefore that he has a right to the money. This he
will endeavour to prove from fome in-itances where
the w ord has been fo tifed. The bufinefs of the oppo-
fite party is to refute thi", by fhowing that money
is not there included. And if either Ade produce pre¬
cedents in his favour, the other may endeavour to fhow
that the cafes are not parallel. As to the fecond cafe,
Vok. Xlli. Part I.
O R Y. 377
irifing from an ambiguity in the itatne, if any other Invention •
words or expreflions in the will feem to countenance v-"''
either of the claimants, he will ndt fail to interpret
them to his advantage. So likewife, if any thing faid
by the teftator, in his lifetime, or any regard ftiown
to either of thefe nephews more than the other, may
help to determine which of them was intended, a pro¬
per ufe may be made of it. And the fame may be faid
with regard to the third cafe. In which the legatee
may reafon likewife from the common ufe oflanguage*
and fhow that in fuch expreflions it is ufual to make
the reference to the laft or next antecedent; and from
theace plead, that it was the deftgn of the teftator to
give him the optisn. But in anfwer to this, it may be
faid, that allowing it to be very often fo, yet in this
inftance it fettns more eafy and natural to repeat the
verb give after pleafes, and fo to fupply the fentence,
•which he pleafes to give him, referring it to the heir,
than to bring in the verb choofe, which w^s not in the
fentence before ; and fo, by fupplying the fenfe, •which
he pleafes to choofe, to give the option to Titius. But
where controverfies of this kind arife from a law, re-
courfe may be had to other laws where the fame thing
has been exprefled with greater clearnefs; which may
help to determine the fenfe of the paflage in difpute.
A fecond controverfy from writings is, when one
party adheres to the words, and the other to what he
aflerts was the writer’s intention. Now he who op-
pofes the literal fenfe, either contends, that what he
himfelf ofters is the f/mple and plain meaning of the
writing, or that it muft be fo underftood in the parti¬
cular cafe in difpute. An inftance of the former is
this, as we find it in Cicero. A perfon who died
without children, but left a widow, had made this
provifion in his will; “ If I have a fon born to me, he
Audi be my heir.” And a little after : “ If my fon
die before he comes of age, let Curius be my heir.”
There is no fon born : Curius therefore fues for the
eftate, and pleads the intention of the teftator, who
defigned him for his heir, if he fhould have no fon
who arrived at age; and fays, there can be no reafon
to fuppofe he did not intend the farce perfon for his
heir if he had no fon, as if he /hould have one who af¬
terwards died in his minority. But the heir at law in¬
fills upon the words of the will ; which, as he fays,
require, that firft a fon fhould be born, and afterwards
die under age, before Curius can fucceed to the inhe¬
ritance ; and there being no fon, a fubftituted heir,
as Curius was, can have no claim where the firft heir
does not exift, from whom he derives his pretenfion,
and was to fucceed by the appointment of the will.-I
Of the latter cafe, rhetoricians give this example s
“ It was forbidden by a law to open the city-gates in
the night.. A certain perfon notwithftanding, in time
of war, did open them in the night, and let in fome
auxiliary troops, to prevent their being cut off by the
enemy, who was polled near the town.” Afterwards,
when the war was pver, this perfon is arraigned, and
tried for his life on account of this aftion. Now, in
fuch a cafe, the profecutor founds his charge upon the
exprefs words of the law ; and pleads, that no fufff-
t ient i eafon can be afligned for going contrary to the
letter of it, which would be to make a new law, and
not to execute one already made. The defendant, on
the other hand, alleges, T hat the fact he is charged
3 B * * with
3?S
Jnventior.
ORATORY.
with cannot, however, come within the intention of
the law; fince he either could not, or ought not, to
have coir,plied with the letter of it in that particular
cafe, which muft therefore neceffarily be fuppofed to
have been excepted in the defign of that law when it
was made. But to this the profecutor may reply,
That all fuch exceptions as are intended by any law,
are ufually expreffed in it : and iniiances may be
brought of particular exceptions expreffed in fome
laws ; and if there be any fuch exception in the law
under debate, it fhould efpecially be mentioned. He
may further add. That to admit of exceptions not ex¬
preffed in the law itfelf, is to enervate the force of all
laws, by explaining them away, and in effeft to ren¬
der them ufflefs. And this he may further corroborate,
by comparing the law under debate with others, and
confidering its nature and importance, and how far the
public intereft ot the ftate is concerned in the due and
regular execution of it ; from whence he may infer,
that ihould exceptions be admitted in other laws of
lefs confeqnence, yet, however, they ought not in this.
jLallly, he may confider the reafon alleged by the de¬
fendant, on which he founds his plea, and fhow there
was not that neceffity of violating the law in the pre-
fent cafe, as is pretended. And this is often the more
requifite, becaufe the party who difputes againll the
words of the law, always endeavours to fupport his
allegations from the equity of the cafe. If, therefore,
this plea can be enervated, the main fupport of the
defendant’s caufe is removed. For as the former ar¬
guments are defigned to prevail with the judge, to de¬
termine the matter on this fide the queftion from the
nature of the cafe ; fo the intention of this argument
is to induce him to it, from the weaknefs of the de¬
fence made by the oppofite party. But the defendant
will, on the contrary, ufe fuch arguments as may beft
demonftrate the equity of his caufe, and endeavour to
vindicate the iaft from his good defign and intention
in doing it. lie will fay, That the laws have allotted
puniflunents for the commiffion of fuch fadfs as are
evil in themfelves, or prejudicial to others ; neither of
which can be charged upon the aftion for which he is
aceuftd : That no law can be rightly executed, if
more regard be had to the words and fyllables of the
writing, than to the intention of the legiflator. To
which purpofe, he may allege that dire&ion of the law
itfelf, which fays, “ The law ought not to he too ri,-
goroufly interpreted, nor the words of it ftrained ; but
the true intention and defign of each part of it duly
confidered.” As alfo that faying of Cicero, “ What
law may not be weakened and deftroyed, if we bend
the fenfe to the words, and do not regard the defign
and view of the legiflator ?” Hence he may take occa-
fion to complain of the hardfhip of fuch a procedure,
that no difference Ihould be made between an audacious
and wilful crime, and an honell or neceffary adiion,
which might happen to difagree with the letter vf the
law, though not with the intent of it. And as it was
obferved before to be of confiderable fervice to the ac-
cufer, if he could remove the defendant’s plea of
equity ; fo it will be of equal advantage to the defen¬
dant, if he can fix upon any words in the law, which
may in the leaft feem to countenance his cafe, fince this
will take eff the main force of the charge.
The third controverfy of this kind is, when two
writings happen to clalh with each other, or at leaft
Part F.
feem to do fo. Of this Henr.ogenes gives the fol- Invention,
lowing inftance. One law enjoins: “ He who con-‘—’'""v
tinues alone in a flffp during a tempeft, (hall have the
property of the (hip.” Another law fays, “ A diiin-
herited fon (hall enjoy no part of his father’s eftate.’*
Now a fon, who had been difinherited by his father,
happens to be in his father’s (hip in a tempeft, and
continues there alone, when every one elfe had de¬
ferred it. He claims the (hip by the former of thefe
laws, and his brother tries his right with him by the
latter. In fuch cafes, therefore, it may firft be con¬
fidered, “ Whether the two laws can be reconciled.
And if that cannot be done, then, Which of them ap¬
pears more equitable. Alfo, Whether one he po(i»
live, and the other negative : becaufe prohibitions
are a fort of exceptions to pofitive injun&ions. Or, If
one be a general law, and the other more particular,
and come nearer to the matter in queftion. Likewife,
Which was lad made : fince former laws are often
abrogated, either wholly or in part, by fubfequent
laws ; or at leaft were defigned to be fo. Laftly, it
may be obferved, Whether one of the laws be not
plain and exprefs ; and the other more dubious, or
has any ambiguity in it. All, or any of which things,
that party will not omit to improve for his advantage
whofe intereft is concerned in it.
The fourth controverfy is reafon'wg. As when
fomething, not exprefsly provided for by a law, is in¬
ferred by a fimilitude, or parity of reafon, from what
is contained in it. Quintilian mentions this inftance
of it. “ There was a law made at Tarentum, to pro¬
hibit the exportation of wool; but a certain perfon
exports (beep.” In this cafe, the profecutor may firft
compare the thing which occafions the charge, with
the words of the law, and (how their agreement, and
how unneceffary it was that particular thing fnould
have been exprefsly mentioned in the law, fince it is
plainly contained in it, or at leaft an evident confe-
quence from it. He may then plead, that many
things of a like nature are omitted in other laws for
the fame reafon. And, laftly, he may urge the rea-
fonablenefs and equity of the procedure. The de¬
fendant, on the other hand, will endeavour to (howi
the deficiency of the reafoning, and the difference lie-
tween the two cafes. He will infift upon the pla'n
and exprefs words of the law, and fet forth the ill
tendency of fuch inferences and conclufions drawn
from iimilitudes and coniparifons, fince there is fcarce
any thing but in fome refpevft may bear a refemblance
to another.
The laft controverfy under this head is interpreta¬
tion, in which the difpute turns upon the true mean¬
ing and explication of the law in reference to that
particular cafe. We have the following inftance of
this in the Pandedts : “ A man who had two fons,
both under age, fubftitutes Titius as heir to him who
(hould die laft, provided both of them died in their
minority. They both periflt together at fea before
they came to age. Here arifes a doubt, whether the
fubftitution can take place, or whether the inheiitance
devolves to the heir at law.” The latter pleads, 1’hat as
neither of them can be faid to have died laft, the
fubftitution cannot take place ^ which was fufpended,
upon the condition that one died after the other.
But to this it may be faid, It was the intention of the
teftator, that if both died in their nonage, Titius
(houlfl
Pure I* ORA’l
invention, fhould faceted t» the inheritance; and therefore it
makes no difference whether they uled together, or
one after the other: and fo the law determines it.
2. The fecond head of external arguments are IVit-
nejfcs. Thefe may either give their evidence, when ab-
fent, in wiiting fubferibed with their name ; or pre-
fent, by word of mouth. And what both of them
tellify, may either be from hearfay ; or what they
faw themftlves, and were prefent at the time it was
done. As the weight of the evidence may be thought
greater or lefs on each of thefe accounts, either party
will make fuch ufe of it as he finds for his advantage.
The chara&ers of the witneffes are alfo to be confi-
dered ; and if any thing be found in their lives or be¬
haviour that is juftly exceptionable, to invalidate their
evidence, it ought not to be omitted. And how they are
affetfed to the contending parties, or either of them,
may deferve confiderarion ; for fome allowances may
be judged reafonable in cafe of friendfhip, or enmity,
where there is no room for any other exception. But
regard fhould chiefly be had to what they teltify, and
how far the caufe is affe&ed by it. Cicero is very large
upon molt of thefe heads in his defence of Marcus Fon-
tcius, with a defign to weaken the evidence of the
Cauls again lb him. And where witneiTes are produ¬
ced on one fide only, as orators fometimes attempt to
leiTen the credit of this kind of proof, by pleading
that witnefies are liable to be corrupted, or biaffed by
fome prevailing intereft or pafiion, to which argu¬
ments taken from the nature and circumftances of
things are not fubjeft ; it may be anfvvered on the
other hand, that fophiftical arguments and falfe co¬
lourings are not expofed to infamy or punifhment,
whereas witnefi’es are reft rained by fhame and penalties,
nor would the lawrcquire them if they were notneceflary.
3. The third and lafb head of external arguments are
ContraQs ; which may be either public or private. By
public are meant the tranfadftions between dilferent
ilates, as leagues, alliances, and the like ; which de¬
pend on the laws of nations, and come more properly
under deli1 erative difeourfes, to which we fhall refer
them. Tbofe are called private, which relate to lefler
bodies or focieties of men, and iingle perfons ; and
may be either written or verbal. And it is not fo
much the true meaning and purport of them that is
here confidered, as their force and obligation. And,
as the Roman law declares, “ Nothing can be more
agreeable to human faith, than that perions Ihould
Band to their agreements.” Therefore, in controver-
fies of this k nd, the party whofe inttreft it is that the
contract fhould be maintained, will plead, that fuch co¬
venants have the force of private laws, and ought re-
ligioufly to be obftrved, tince the common affairs of
mankind are tranfadted in that manner; and therefore
to violate them, is to deflroy all commerce and fociety
among men. On the other fide it may be faid, that
juftice and equity are chiefly to be regarded, which are
immutable; and betides, that the pu lie laws are the
common rule to determine fuch differences, which are
deiigned to redrefs thofe who are aggrieved. And, in¬
deed, where a compact has bt en obtained by force or
fraud, it is in itfclf void, and has no effect either in
law or reafon. But on the other hand, the Roman
lawyers feem to have very rightly determined, that ail
fueh obligations as are founded on natural equity,
' O R Y. . 379
though not binding by national laws, and arc therefore Invention,
called nuda patia, ought, however, in honour and con-' v" l J
fcience to be performed.
III. Of the State of a Controverjy. The ancients, of thc\hte
obferving that the principal queltion or point ot dif-ofa con-ro-
pute in all controverlies might be referred to fome p:\r-ve'fy, or
ticular head, reduced thofe heads to a certain number, ^er“’eai”^r
that both the nature of the queftion might by thatthep^nci'-^
means be better known, and the arguments fuited to pal q ;eftion
it be difeovered with greater eafe. And thefe heads111 d!ft>ute
they call fates. to *°me;
By the ftate of a controverfy, then, we are to under-{^4 for
fland the principal point in difpute between contend-i-reater
ing parties, upon the proof ot which the whole caufeeaN of ar«
or controverfy depends. We find it exprefled by feve-&umeilt>
ral other names in ancient writers : as, the conjlitu-
tion of the caufe, the genera! head, and the chief quefion.
And as this is the principal thing to be attended to in
every i'uch difeourfe ; it is what firft requires the
conlideration of the fpeaker, and fhould be well fixed
and digefted in his mind, before he proceeds to look
for arguments proper to fupport it. Thus Anthony,
the Roman orator, fpeaking of his own method in his
pleading, fays: “ When I underftand the nature of
the caufe, and begin to confider it, the firfl thing I
endeavour to do is, to fettle with myfelf what that is
to which all my difconrfe relating to the matter in dif¬
pute ought to be referred : then 1 diligently attend to
theie other two things, How to recommend myfelf,
or thofe for whom I plead, to the good efteem of my
hearers ; and how to influence their minds, as may belt
fuit my deiign.” This way of proceeding appears very
agreeable to reafon and prudeace. For what can be
more abfurd, than for a perfon to attempt the proof
of any thing, before he has well fettled in his own
mind a clear and diftind notion what the thing is
which he would endeavour to prove ? Quintilian de-
feribes it to be, ‘ That kind of queftion which arifes
from the ffrit conflidft of caufes.’ In judicial cafes, it
immediately follows upon the charge of the plaintiff,
and plea of the defendant. Our common law ex-
prefles it by one word, namely the if/e. Which in¬
terpreters explain, by deferibing it to be, “ That
point of matter depending in fuit, whereupon the par¬
ties join, and put their caufe to ti.e trial.” Examples
will further help to illuftrate this, and render it more
evident. In the caufe of Milo, the charge of the Clo-
dian party is, Mi/o killed Olodius. Milo’s plea or de¬
fence, 1 killed him, but jufly. From hence arifes this
grand queftion, or ftate of the caufe, Whether it was
lawful for Mdo to kill Clodius P And that Clodius was
lawfully killed by Milo, is what Cicero in his defence
of Milo principally endeavours to prove. This is the
main fubjed of that fine and beautiful oration. f he
whole of his difeourfe is to be confidered as centering
at latl in this one point. Whatever different matters
are occafionally mentioned, will, if clofely attended
to, be found to have been introduced fome wav or
other the better to fupport and carry on this deiign.
Now in fuch cafes, where the fad is not denied, but
fomething is offered in its defence, the ftate of the
caule is taken from the defendant’s plea, who is obli¬
ged to make it good: As in the inltance here given,
the chief point in difpute was the lawfulnefs of Milo’s
adion, which it was Cicero s bufinefs to demomirate.
3^3 But
or.
ORATORY.
Part li
But when dife Jefenuant denies the fa&, the ftate of
the caufe arifes from the accufation ; the proof of
which then lies upon the plaintiff, and not, as in the
former cafe, upon the defendant. So in the caufe of
.Rofcius, the charge made againft him is, That lx
killed his father. But he denies the faff. The grand
queflion therefore to be argued is, Whether or not he
killed his father ? The proof of this lay upon his ac-
cufers. And Cicero’s defign in his defence of him is
to Qiovv, that they had not made good their charge.
But it fometimes happens, that the defendant neither
iibfolutely denies the fadt, nor attempts to juftify it ;
but only endeavours to qualify it, by denying that it
is a crime of that nature, or deferves that name, by
vhich it is expreffed in the charge. We have an ex¬
ample of this propofed by Cicero : “ A perfon is ac-
cufed of facrilege, for taking a thing, that was facred,
out of a private houfe. He owns the fadf, but denies
it to be facrilege; linee it was committed in a private
houfe, and not in a temple.” Hence this queftion
arifes, Whether to take a /cured thing out of a private
h'jufe, is to he deemed facrilege, or only fimple theft ? It
lies upon the accufer to prove what the other denies;
and therefore the ftate of the caufe is here alfo, as
well as in the preceding cafe, taken from the indict¬
ment.
But befides the principal queftion, there awe other
fubordinate queltions, which follow upon it in the
courfe of a difpute, and Ihould be carefully diftin-
guifhed from it. Particularly that which arifes from
the reafon, or argument, which is brought in preof of
the principal quellion. For the principal queftion
itfelf proves nothing, but is the thing to be proved,
and becomes at laft the conclufion of the difeourfe.
Thus, in the caufe of Milo, his argument is, / kill¬
ed Clodius jufly, becaufe he ajfajfmated me. Unlefs the
Clodian party be fuppofed to deny this, they give up
their caufe. From hence therefore this fubordinate
queilion follows, Whether Clodius a/fajfinated Milo ?
Now Cicero fpends much time in the proof of this,
as the hinge on which the firft queftion, and confe-
quently the whole caufe, depended. For if this was
once made to appear, the lawfulnefs of Milo’s killing
Clodtus, which was the grand queftion or thing to be
proved, might be inferred as an allowed confequeace
from it. This will be evident, by throwing Milo’s
argument, as ufed by Cicero, into the form of a fyl-
logifm.
Sin ajfajfin is lawfully killed:
Clodius was an ajfajfin:
Therefore he was lawfully killed by Miloy whom he
ajfajfmated.
If the minor propofition of this fyllogifm was granted,
no one would deny the conclufion : for the Roman
law allowed of felf-defence. But as Cicero was very
fenfible- this would not be admitted, fo he takes much
pains to bring the court into the belief of it. Now
where the argument brought in defence of the fecond
queftion is contefted, or the orator fuppofes that it
may be fo, and therefore fupports that with another
argument, this occafions a third queftion confequent
upon the former; and in like manner he may proceed
to a fourth. But be they more or fewer, they are to
be conlidered but as cue chain of lubordinate queftiona
dependent upon tnc firft. And though each of them Invention,
has its particular ftate, yet none of thefe is what rhe-
toricians call The fate of the Caufe, which is to he un«
derftood only of the principal queftion. And if, as it
frequently happens, the firft or principal queftion is
itfelf d iredlly proved from more than one argument ;
this makes ho other difference, but that each of thefe
arguments, fo far as they are followed by others to
fupport them, become a diftind feries of fubordinate
queftions, all dependent upon the firft. As when Ci¬
cero endeavours to prove, that Rofcius did not kill
h'.s father, from two reafons or arguments: Becaufe he
had neither any caufe to move him to j'uch a barbarous ac¬
tion, nor any opportunity for it.
Moreover, beftdes thefe fubordinate queftions, there
are alfo incidental ones often introduced, which have
fome reference to the principal queftion, and contri¬
bute towards the proof of it, though they are not ne-
ceffarily conne&ed with it, or dependent upon it. And
each of thefe alfo has its ftate, though different from
that of the caufe. For ’every queftion, or poi^t of
controverfy, muft be Hated, before it can be made the
fubjeft of deputation. And it is for this reafon, that
every new argument advanced by an orator is called a
quejlion ; becaufe it is conftdered as a frefh matter of
controverfy. In Cicero’s defence of Milo, we meet
with feveral of this fort of queftions, occafioned by
fome afperfions which had been thrown out by the
Clodian party to the prejudice of Milo. As, “ That
he was unworthy to fee the light, who owned he had
killed a man For Milo before his trial had openly
confeffed he killed Clodius. So likewife, “ That the
fenate had declared the killing of Clodius was an ille¬
gal aftion.” And further, “ That Pompey, by ma¬
king a new law to fettle the manner of Milo’s trial,
had given his judgment againft Milo.” Now to each
of’thefe Cicero replies, before he proceeds to the prin¬
cipal queftion. And therefore, though the queftion,
in which the rtate of a controverfy confifts, is faid by
Quintilian to arife from “ the firft conflict of caufes,’*
yet we find by this inftance of Cicero, that it is not
always the firft: queftion in order, upon which the ora¬
tor treats.
But it fometimes happens, that the fame caufe or
controverfy contains in it more than one ftate. Thus
injudicial caufes, every diftinCl charge occafions a new '
ftate. All Cicero’s orations againft Verres relate to
one caufe, founded upon a law of the Romans againft.
unjuft exa&ions made by their governors of provinces
upon the inhabitants; but as that profecution is made
up of as many charges as there are orations, every
charge, or indi&ment, has its different itate. So like¬
wife his oration in defence of Ccelius has two ftates, in
anfvvtr to a double charge mad^againfl: him by hia
adverfaries : one, “ for borrowing money of Clodia,
in order to bribe certain (laves to kill a foreign ambaf-
fadorand the other, “ for an attempt afterward to
poifon Clodia herfelf.” Befides which, there were fe¬
veral other matters of a lefs heinous nature, which had
been thrown upon him by his accufers, with a defign,
very likely, to render the two principal charges more
credible; to which Cicero firlt replies, in the fame
manner as in his defence of Milo.
Though all the examples we have hitherto brought
to iiluftrate this fubjedt have been taken from judicial
cafes;.
Parr T. ORA
invention.cafes; yet not only thefe, but very frequently dif-
-v—^ courfes of the deliberative: kmJ, and fomctimea thofe
of the demonftrative, are managed in a controverfial
way. And all controverfies have their ftate. And
therefore Quintilian very juftly obferves, that “ ftates
belong both to general ani particular queftions ; and
to all forts of caufes, demonftrative, deliberative, and
judicial.” In Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law,
this is the main point in difpute between him and
thofe who oppofed that law : “ Whether Pompey was
the fitteft perfon to be intmfted with the management
of the war againft Mithridates ?” This is a fubjeft of
the deliberative kind. And of the fame nature was
that debate in the fenate concerning the demolition
of Carthage. For the matter in difpute between Cato,
who argued for it, and thofe who were of the contrary
opinion, feems to have been this: “Whether it was for
the intereft of the Romans to demolifh Carthage ?”
And fo likewife in thofe two fine orations of Cato and
Caefar, given us by Salluft, relating to the confpira-
tors with Catiline, who were then in cuftody, the con-
troverfy turns upon this : “ Whether thofe prifoners
fhould be puniftied with death, or perpetual imprifon-
ment ?” Examples of the demonftrative kind are not
fo common ; but Cicero's oration concerning the ‘ An
fwers of the foothfayers,’ may afford us an inftance of
it. Several prodigies had lately happened at Rome ;
upon which the foothfayers being confulted, affigned
this as the reafon of them, Becaufe fome places confe-
crated to the gods had been afterwards converted to
civil ufes. Clodius charged this upon Cicero; whofe
houfe was rebuilt at the public expence, after it had
been demolilhed by Clodius, and the ground confe-
crated to the goddefs Liberty. C'cero in this ora¬
tion retorts the charge ; and ftiows that the prodigies
did not refpe& him, but Clodius. So that the queftion
in difpute was, “ To which of the two thofe prodi¬
gies related ?” This oration does not appear to have
been fpoken in a judicial way, and muft therefore be¬
long to the demonftrative kind. His invedtive againft
Fife is likewife much of the fame nature, wherein he
compares his own behaviour and conduct with that of
Pifo.
As to the number of thefe ftates, both Cicero and
Quintilian reduce them to three. “ We muft (fays
Quintilian) agree with thofe, whofe authority Cicero
follows, who tells ust that three things may be inqui¬
red into in all difputes : Whether a thing is ; what it
is ; and how it is. And thi* is the method which na¬
ture preferibes. For in the firft place, it is neceffary
the thing Ihould exift about which the difpute is: be¬
caufe no judgment can be made either of its nature or
quality till its exiftence be manifeft ; which is there¬
fore the firft queftion. But though it be manifeft that
a thing is, it does not prefently appear what it is ; and
when this is known, the quality yet remains : and af¬
ter thefe three are fettled, no further inquiry is necef¬
fary.” Now the firft ©f thefe three ftates is called the
conjeSural Jiate ; as if it be inquired, “ Whether one
perfon killed another ?” This always follows upon the
denial of a faft, by one of the parties ; as was the cafe
of Rofcius. And it receives its name from hence, that
the judge is left, as it were, to conje&ure, whether
the fa& was really committed or not, from the evi¬
dence produced on the other fide. The fecond is call-
TORY.' 381
ed the definitive Jiate, when the fa& is not denied ; but ^Jent‘ori'.
the difpute turns upon the nature of it, and what name
it is proper to give ic : as in that example of Cicero,
“ Whether to take a facred thing out of a private
houfe be theft, or facrilege ?” For in this cafe it is
neceffary to fettle the diftinsft notion of thofe two
crimes, and fhow their difference. The third is called
the fiate of quality; when the contending parties are
agreed both as to the fa£t, and the nature of it; but
the difpute is, “ Whether it be juft ©r unjuft, profit¬
able or unprofitable, and the like ;” as in the caufe of
Milo.
From what has been faid upon this fnbjedt, the ufe
of it may in a good meafure appear. For whoever en¬
gages in a controverfy, ought in the firft place to con-
lider with himfelf the main queftion in difpute, to fix
it well in his mind, and keep it conftantly in his view ;
without which he wall be very liable to ramble from
the point, and bewilder both himfelf and his hearers.
And it is no lefs the bufinefsof the hearers principally
to attend to this ; by which means they will be help¬
ed to diftinguifh and feparate from the principal que-
llion what is only incidental, and to. obferve how far
the principal queftion is affe&ed by it ; to perceive
what is offered in proof, and what is only brought in
for iliuftration ; not to be milled by digreffions, but to
difeern when the fpeaker goes oft’ from his fubjedl, and
when he returns to it again ; and, in a word, to ac¬
company him through the whole difeourfe, and carry
with them the principal chain of reafoning upon which
the caufe depends, fo as to judge upon the whole,
whether he has made out his point, and the conclufion
follows from the premifes.
x<?
Chap. II. Of Arguments fuited to Demonjlrative
Difcourjes.
These confift either in praife or difpraife ; and,of3rgu-
agreeably to the nature of aH contraries, one of them ments
will ferve to illuftrate the other. Anted to
Now we either praife perfons or things. ftrative
I. In praifing or drfpraifing perfons, rhetoricians
preferibe two methods. One is, to follow the order in
which every thing happened that is mentioned in the
difeourfe ; the other is, to reduce what is faid under
Certain general heads, without a ftfidl regard to the
order of time.
l. In purfuing the former method, the difeourfe
may be very conveniently divided into three periods.
The firft of which will contain what preceded the per-
fon's birth ; the fecond, the whole courfe of his life ; ■'
and the third what followed upon his death.
Under the firft of thefe may be comp^hended what
is proper to be faid concerning his country or family.
And therefore, if thefe were honourable, it may be
faid to his advantage, that he nowife difgraced them,
but aided fuitably to fuch a defeent. But if they were
not fo, they may be either wholly omitted ; or it may
be faid, that, inftead of deriving thence any advantage
to his chara&er, he has conferred a lading honour up¬
on them; and that it is not of fo much moment where,
or from whom, a perfon derives his birth, as how he
lives.
In the fecond period, which is that of his life, the
qualities both of his mind and body, with his circum- -
Itances in the world, may be feparately confidered.
3 . Though*,
38a ' ORA'
, ll1VtW?on. Though, as QuIntHian rightly obferves, “ All cxter-
vnal advantages are not praifes for themfelves, but ac*
cording to the ufe that is made of them. For riches,
and power, and intereft, as they have great influence,
and may be applied either to good or bad purpofes, are
a proof of the temper of our minds ; and therefore we
are either made better or worfe by them.” But thefe
things are a juil: ground for commendation, when they
are the reward of virtue or induftry. Bodily endow¬
ments are health, ftrength, beauty, aftivity, and the
like ; which are more or lefs commendable, according
as they are employed. And where thefe, or any of
them, are wanting, it may be fhown, that they arc
abundantly compenfited by the more valuable endow¬
ments of the mind. Nay, forretimes a defedl in thefe
may give an advantageous turn to a perfon’s charac¬
ter; lor any virtue appears greater, in proportion to
the difad vantages the perfon laboured under in exert¬
ing it. But the chief topics of praife are taken from
the virtues and qualifications of the mind. And here
the orator may confider the difpofition, education,
learning, and feveral virtues, which fhone through the
whole courfe of the perfon’s life. In doing which,
the preference fliould always be given to virtue above
knowledge or any other accomplifhment. And in ac¬
tions, thofe are mofi: confiderable, and will be heard
with greatdt approbation, which a perfon either did
alone, or firft, or whetein he had feweft affociates ; as
likewife thofe which exceeded expedbation, or were
done for the advantage of others rather than his own.
And further, as the laft fcene of a man’s life generally
commands the greateft regard, if any thing remark¬
able at that time was either faid or done, it ought par¬
ticularly to be mentioned. Nor Ihould the manner of
his death, or caufe of it, if accompanied with any com¬
mendable circumftances, be omitted ; as if he died in
the ftrvice of his country, or in the purfuit of any
other laudable defign.
The third and laft period relates to what followed
after the death of the perfon. And here the public
lofs, and public honours conferred upon the deceafed,
are proper to be mentioned. Sepulchres, ftatues, and
other monuments to perpetuate the memory of the
dead, at the expence of the public, were in common
ufe both among the Greeks and Romans. But in the
earlieft times, as thefe honours were more rare, fo they
were lefs collly. For as in one age it was thought a
fufficient reward for him who died in the defence of
his country, to have his name cut in a marble infcrip-
tion, with the caufe of his death ; fo in others it was
very common to fee the ftatues of gladiators, and per-
fons of the meaneft rank, erefted in public places.
And therefore a judgment is to be formed of thefe
things from the time, cuftom, and circumftances, of
different nations ; fince the frequency of them renders
them lefs honourable, and takes off from their evi¬
dence as the rewards of virtue. But, as Quintilian
fays, “ Children are an honour to their parents, ci¬
ties to their founders, laws to thofe who compiled them,
aits to their inventors, and ufeful cuftoms to the au¬
thors of them.”
And this may fuffice for the method of praifing
perfons, when we propofe to follow the order of time,
as Ifocrates lias done in his funeral oration upon Fva-
goras king of Salamis, and Pliny in liis panegyric
' O R Y. Parti,
upon the emperor Trajan, But as this method is Inveutim.
very plain and obvious, fo it requires the more agree- '-"'"v-*"'
able drefs to render it delightful; left otherwife it
feem rather like an hiftory than an oration : For
which reafon, we find, that epic poets, as Flomer,
Virgil, and others, begin with the middle of their
ftory, and afterwards take a proper occalion to intro¬
duce what preceded, to diverlify the fubject, and
give the greater pleafure and entertainment to their
readers.
2. The other method above hinted was, to reduce
the difeourfe to certain general heads without regard¬
ing the order of time. As if any one, in praifing the
elder Cato, fhould propofe to do it, by fliowing that
he was a moft prudent ftnator, an excellent orator,
and moft valiant general; all which commendations
are given him by Pliny. In like manner, the charac¬
ter of a good general may be cornprifed under four
heads ; flull in military affairs, courage, authority, and
fuo-efs: from all which Cicero commends Pompey.
And agreeably to this method Suetonius has written
the lives of the firft twelve Casfars.
But in the piaifing of perfons, care ftiouli always
be taken to fay nothing that may feern fi&itious or out
of character, which may call the orator’s judgment
or integrity in queftion. It was not without caufe,
therefore, that Lyfippus the ftatuary, as Plutarch
tells us, blamed Apelles for painting Alexander the
Great with thunder in his hand ; which could never
fuit his chara&er as a man, however he might boaft of
his divine defeent : for which realon Cyfippus himfelf
made an image of him holding a fpear, as the fign of a
warrior. Light and trivial things in commendations
are likewife to be avoided, and nothing mentioned
but what may carry in it the idea of fomething truly
valuable, and which the hearers may be fuppofed to
wifti for, and is proper to excite their emulation. Fhefc
are the principal heads of praife with relation to men.
In difpraife, the heads contrary to thefe are requiiite;
which being fufficiently clear from what has been laid,
need not particularly be infifted on.
II We proceed therefore to the other part of the
divifion, which refpedls things, as diftinguifhed from
perfons. By which we are to underftand all beings
inferior to man, whether animate or inanimate ; aa
likewife the habits and difpofitions of men, either good
or bad, when confidered feparately, and apart from
their fubjedfs, as arts and fciences, virtues and vices,
with whatever elfe may be a proper fubjedl for praife
or difpraife. Some writers, indeed, have, for their
own amufement and the diveriion of others, difplayed
their eloquence in a jocofe manner upon fubjedls of
this kind. So Lucian has written in praife of a fly,
and Syntfius an elegant encomium upon baldnefs.
Others, on the contrary, have done the like in a fa-
tyrical way. Such is Seneca’s apotheofis or confeera-
tion of the emperor Claudius ; and the Myfopugon
or beard-hater, written by Julian the emperor. Not
to mention feveral modern authors, who have imitated
them in fuch ludicrous compolitions. But as to thefe
things, and all of the like nature, the obfervation of
Antony in Cicero feems very juft : “ That it is not
neceffary to reduce every fubjedt we difeourfe upon to
rules of art.” For many are fo trivial, as not to de-
lerve it; and others fo plain and evident of themfeivea,
as
ORATOR
But fince it frequently comes in Chap, III.
Part I. *
Invention- as not to require it
V—^ the way both of orators and hiltoriana to defcribe
countries, cities, and fads, we (hall briefly mention the
principal heads of invention proper to illuftrate each
of thefe.
Countries, then, may be celebrated from the plea-
fantnefs of their fituation, the clemency and whole-
fomenefs of the air, and goodnefs of the foil; to which
lad may be referred the fprings, rivers, woods, plains,
mountains, and minerals. And to all thefe may be
added their extent, cities, the number and antiquity
of the inhabitants; their policy, laws, euftom?, wealth,
chara&er for cultivating the arts both of peace and
war ; their princes, and other eminent men they have
produced. Thus Kvcatus has given us a very elegant
defeription of Spain, in his panegyric upon the em¬
peror Theodofius, who was born there.
Cities are praifed from much the fame topics as
countries. And here, whatever contributes either to
their defence or ornament ought particularly to he
mentioned ; as the ftrength of the walls and fortifica¬
tions, the beauty and iplendor of the buildings, whe¬
ther facred or civil, public or private. We have in
Herodotus a very fine defeription of Babylon, which
was once the ftrongeft, largeft, and mod regular city
in the world. And Cicero has accurately deferibed
the city of Syracufe, in the illand Sicily, in one of his
orations againd Verres.
But fafts come much oftener under the cognizance
of an orator. And thefe receive their commendation
from their honour, judice, or advantage. But in de-
feribing them, all the circumdances (hould be related
in their proper order; and that in the mod lively and
adefting manner, fuited to their different nature. Li¬
vy has reprefented the demolition of Alba by the Ro¬
man army, which was fent thither to deftroy it, thro’
the whole courfe of that melancholy feene, in a Ilyle
fo moving and pathetic, that one can hardly forbear
condoling with the inhabitants, upon reading his ac-
• ' count. ' ,
But in difeourfes of this kind, whether of praife or
dupraife, the orator (hould (as he ought indeed upon
all occalions) well conlider where, and to whom, he
(peaTcs. For wife men often think veiy differently
both of perfons and things from the common people.
And wc find that learned and judicious men are fre¬
quently divided in their fentiments, from the feveral
ways of thinking to which they have been accuftom-
ed. Befides, different opinions prevail, and gain the
afeendant, at different times. While the Romans
continued a free nation, love of their country, liberty,
and public fpirit, were principles in the higheff elleem
among them. And therefore, when Cato killed him-
felf, that he might not fall into the hands of Casfar,
and furvive the liberty of his country, it was thought
an inftance of the greateft: heroic virtue ; but after¬
wards, when they had been accutlomed to an arbitrary
government, and the fpirit of liberty was now loft.', the
poet Martial could venture to fay,
Death to avoid ’tit madnefs Jure to die.
A prudent orator therefore will be cautious of oppo-
fing any fettled and prevailing notions of thofe to whom
he addreffes; unlcfs it be neceffary, and then he will
d© it in the fofteft and tnaft gentle manner.
Y< .... 383
0/ Arguments fuited ta Deliberative^vtnuou.
Difeourfes.
This kind of difeourfes muft certainly have been
very ancient; fince, doubtlefs, from the firft beginning rafive efif-
of mens converfing together, they deliberated upon C0lJrf2s, and
their common intereft, and offered their advice to each tllc arKu-
other. But neither thofe of the laudatory nor, judi-j t9
cial kind could have been introduced, till mankind them,
were fettled in communities, and found it neceifary to
encourage virtue by public rewards, and bring vice
under the reftraint of laws. The early practice of
fuafory difeourfes appears from facred writ, where we
find, that when Mofes was ordered upon an embaffy
into Egypt, he would have excufed himfelf for want
of eloquence. And Homer reprefents the Greeks at
the fiege of Troy, as flocking like a fwarm of bees to
hear their generals harangue them. Nor is this p irt
of oratory lefs confpicuous for its ufelulnefs to man¬
kind, than for its antiquity ; being highly beneficial ei¬
ther in councils, camps, or any focieties of men. How
many inftances have we upon record, where the fury
of an enraged multitude has been checked and appea¬
red by the prudent and artful perfuafion of fome par¬
ticular perfon ? The ftory of Agrippa Menenius, when
the commons of Rome withdrew from the fen Uors,
and retired out of the city, is too well known to need
reciting. And how often have armies been animated
and fired to the moft dangerous exploits, or recalled to
their duty, when ready to mutiny, by a moving fpeech
of their general ? many inftances of which we find in
hiftory.
All deliberation refpefts fomething future, for it is
in vain to confult about what is already pall. The
fubjecl-matter of it is, either things public or private,
facred or civil ; indeed all the valuable concerns of
mankind, both prefent and future, come under its re¬
gard. And the end propofed by this kind of dii-
courfes is chiefly profit or intereft. But fince nothing
is truly profitable, but what is in fome lefpedh good ;
and every thing which is good in itfelf may not irt-
all circumftances be for our advantage ; properly fpeak-
ing, what is both good and profitable, or beneficial
good, is the end here defigned. And therefore, as it
fometimes happens, that what appears profitable may
feem to interfere with that which is ftriftly juft and
honourable; in fuch cafes it is certainly moft adviie-
able to determine on the fafer fide of honour and juf-
tice, notwithfianding fome plaufible things may be of¬
fered to the contrary. But where the difpute lies ap¬
parently between what is truly honelt, and fome ex¬
ternal advantage propofed in oppoiition to it, all good
men cannot but agree in favour of honefty. Such was
the cafe of Regulus, who, being taken prifoner by the
Carthaginians, was permitted to go to Rome upon gi¬
ving his oath, that unlefs he could perfuade the ferrate
to fet at liberty fome young Carthaginian noblemen,
then prifoners at Rome, in exchange for him, he (honld
return again to Carthage. But Regulus, when he
came to Rome, was fo (ar from endeavouring to pre¬
vail with the fenate to comply with the de-fire of the
Carthaginians, that he ufed all his intereft to diffuade
them from hearkening to the propofal. Nor could ^
the moft earned intreaties of his neareft relations and
friends, nor any arguments they were able to offer,
engage him to continue at Rome, and not return again
7 ' tcu
3S4 O R A T
Invention, to Carthage. He had then plainly in his view, on the
one fide, eafe, fecurity, affluence, honours, and the en¬
joyment of his friends; and on the other, certain
death, attended with cruel torments. However, think¬
ing the former not confiftent with truth and juftice, he
chofe the latter. And he certainly adfed as became
an honeft and brave man, in choofmg death, rather
than to violate his oath. Though whether he did pru¬
dently in perfuading the fenate not to make the ex¬
change, or they in complying with him, we fflall leave
others to determine. Now, when it proves to he a
matter of debate, whether a thing upon the whole be
really beneficial or not; as here arife two parts, advice
and diffuafion, they will each require proper heads of
argument. But as they are contrary to each other,
he who is acquainted with one, cannot well be igno¬
rant of the other. We fflall therefore chiefly mention
ihofe proper for advice, from whence fuch as are flut¬
ed to difluade will eafily he perceived. Now the prin¬
cipal heads of this kind are thefe following, which are
taken from the nature and properties of the thing it-
felf under confideration.
1. Pieafure often affords a very cogent argument in
difeourfes of this nature. Every one knows what an
influence this has upon the generality of mankind.
Though as Quintilian remarks, pieafure ought not
, of itfelf to be propofed as a fit motive for adlion in
ferious difeourfes, but when it is defigned to recom¬
mend fomething ufeful, which is the cafe here. So,
would any one advife another to the purfuit of polite
literature, Cicero lias furniffled him with a very ftrong
inducement to it from the pieafure which attends that
ffudy, when he fays, “If pieafure only was propofed
by thefe fiudies, you would think them an entertain¬
ment becoming a man of fenfe and a gentleman. For
other purfuits neither agree with all times, all ages,
nor all places; but thefe itudies improve youth, de¬
light old age, adorn profperity, afford a refuge and
comfort in adverfity, divert us at home, are no hin-
derance abroad, fleep, travel, and retire with us into the
country.”
2. Projit) or advantage. This has no lefs influence
• upon many perfons than the former ; and when it re-
flpedls things truly valuable, it is a very juft and lau¬
dable motive. Thus Cictro, when he fends his boohs of
offices to his fon, which he wrote in Lttin for his ufe,
advifes him to make the heft advantage both of his
tutor’s inftru&ions, and the eonverfation at Athens,
where he then was ; but withal to perufe his philofa-
phical treatifes, which would he doubly ufeful to him,
not only upon account of the fubjefts, but likewife of
the language, as they would enable him to exprefs him-
felf upon thofe arguments in Latin, which before had
only been treated of in Greek.
3. Honour; than which no argument will fooner
prevail with generous minds, or infpire them with
greater ardour. Virgil has very beautifully deferited
Heftor’s ghoft appearing to ^Eneas the night Troy
was taken, and advifing him to depart, from this motive
of honour:
O goddefs-born, efcr.pe by timely flight
The flames and horrors of this fatal night.
The foes already have poffefs’d the wall;
Troy nods from high, and totters to her fall.
N° 250.
OU T. p;tni.
Enough is paid to Priam’s royal name} In vei'tlon.
More than enough to duty and to fame. u—y-—'
If by a mortal hand my father’s throne
Cou’d be defended, ’twas by mine alone.
The argument here made ufe of to perfuade vEneas to
leave Trey immediately, is, that he had done all that
could be expedbed from him, either as a good fubjedb
or brave foldier, both for his king and country ;
which were fufficient to fecure his honour : and now
there was nothing more to be expected from him when
the city was falling, and impofiible to be faved ; which
could it have been preferved by human pbwer, he him-
felf had done it.
But although a thing confidered in itfelf appear be¬
neficial if it could be attained, yet the expediency of
undertaking it may ftill be queftionable: in which cafe
the following heads, taken from the cireumftances
which attend it, will afford proper arguments to engage
in it.
(1.) The pojfib'illty of fucceeding may fomttimes be
argued, as one motive to this end. So Hannibal en¬
deavoured to convince king Antiochus, that it was
pofiible for him to conquer the Romans, if he made
Italy the feat of the war ; by obferviog to him, not
only that the Gauls had formerly deftroyed their city,
but that he had himfelf defeated them in every battle
he fought with them in that country.
(2.) But an argument founded upon prolability will
be much more likely to prevail. For in many affairs
of human life, men are determined either to profecute
them or not, as the profpetl of fuccefs appears more
or lefs probable. Hence Cicero, after the fatal battle
at Pharfalia, diffuades thofe of Pompey’s party, with,
whom he was engaged, from continuing the war any
longer againft CEefar ; becaufe it was highly impro¬
bable, after filch a defeat, by which their main ilrength
was broken, that they fflould be able to Hand their
ground, or meet with better fuccefs than they had be¬
fore.
(3.) But further, fince probability is not a motive
ftrong enough with many perfons to engage in the
profecution of a thing which is attended with confi-
derable difficulties, it is often nectffary to refprefent
the facility of doing it, as a further reafon to induce
them to it. And therefore Cicero makes ufe of this
argument to encourage the Roman citizens in oppo-
fing Mark Anthony (who upon the death of Caefar
had affumed an arbitrary power), by reprefentfng to
them, that his circumftances were then dd'perate, and
that he might eafily be vanquiflied.
(4 ) Again, if the thing advifed can be d own to
be in any refpeft neceffary, this will render the mo¬
tive ftill much ftronger for undertaking it. And there¬
fore Cicero joins this argument with the former, to
prevail with the Roman citizens to oppofe Anthony,
by telling them, that “ The conlideration before them
was, not in what circumftances they fflould live, but
whether they fliould live at all, or die with ignominy
and difgrace.” This way of reafoning will fiwnetimes
prevail when all others prove ineffectual. For fome
perfons ate not to be moved, till things are brought
to an extremity, and they find themfelves reduced to
the utmoft danger.
(5.) To thefe heads may Le added the confidera-
tioa
Part I. O R A T
Invention, tion of the event, which in fome cafes carries great
weight with it. As when we advife to the doing of
a thing from this motive, That whether it fucceed or
rot, it will yet be of fervice to undertake it. So after
the great vittory gained by Themiftocles over the
Perfian fleet at the flraits of Salamis, Mardonius ad-
vifed Xerxes to return into Afia himfelf, left the re¬
port of hie defeat ftiould occafton an infurreftion in his
abfence: but to leave behind him an army of 300,000
men under his command ; with which, if he fhould
conquer Greece, the chief glory of the conqueft would
redound to Xerxes; but if the defign mifcarried, the
difgra.ce would fall upon his generals.
Thefe are the principal heads which furnifh the ora¬
tor with proper arguments in giving advice. Cicero,
in his oration for the Manilian law, where he endea¬
vours to perfuade the Roman people to choofe Pom-
pey for their general in the Mith-idatic war, reafons
from three of thefe topics, into which he divides his
whole difeourfe ; namely, the necefiity of the war, the
greatnefs of it, and the choice of a proper general.
Under the fir ft of thefe he fhows, that the war was ne-
ceftary, from four confiderations ; the honour of the
Roman ftale, the fafety of their allies, their own reve¬
nues, and the fortunes of many of their fellow-citizens,
which were all highly concerned in it, and called
upon them to put a flop to the growing power of
king Mithridates, by which they were all greatly en¬
dangered. So-that this argument is taken from the
head of necejfity. The fecond, in which he treats of
the greatnefs of the war, is founded upon the topic of
pojjibllity. For though he .fhows the power of Mithri¬
dates to be very great, yet not fo formidable, but that
he might be fubdued ; as was evident from the many
advantages Lucullus had gained over him and his af-
fociates. In tire third head, he endeavours to prevail
with them to iutruft the management of the war in the
hands of Pompey, whom he defciibes as a confummate
general, for his fkill In military affairs, courage, au¬
thority, and fuccefs; in all which qualities he repre-
fents him as fuperioi4 to any other of their generals
whom they could at that time make choice of. The
defign of all which was, to perfuade them, that they
had very good reafon to hope for fuccefs, and a hap¬
py event of the war, under his conduft. So that the
whole force of his reafoning under this head is drawn
from prolability. Thefe are the three general topics
which make up that fine difeourfe. Each of which
is indeed fupported' by divers other arguments and con¬
fiderations, which will be obvious in periling the ora¬
tion itfelf, and therefore need not be here enumerated.
On the contrary, in another oration he endeavours to
diffuade the fenate from confenting to a peace with
Mark Antony, becaufe it was bafe, dangerous, and
impradlicable. .
But no fmnll {kill and addrefs are required in giving
advice. For fince the tempers and fentiments of man¬
kind, as well as their circumrtances, are very diffeient
and various ; it is often neceffary to accommodate the
difeourfe to their inclinations and opinions of things.
And therefore, the weightielt arguments are not al¬
ways tlie moft proper and heteft to be ufed on all oc-
calions. Cicero, who was an admirable mafter of this
art, and knew perfe&iy well how to fuit what he had
Vox-. XIII. Part I.
O R Y. 385
to the tafte and relifh of his hearers, in treating upon Invention,
this fubjetft, diflinguifhes mankind into two forts ; the
ignorant and unpolifhed, who always prefer profit to
honour; and fuch. as are more civilized and polite, who
prefer honour and reputation to all other things.
Wherefore they are to be moved by thefe different
views : Praile, glory, and virtue, influence tiie one ;
while the ether is only to be engaged by a profpedl of
gain and pleafure. Befides, it is plain, that the gene¬
rality are much more inclined to avoid evils than to pur-
fue what is good ; and to keep clear of fcandal and
difgrace, than to pradlife what is truly generous and
noble. Perfons likewife of a different age add from
different principles ; young men tor the moft part view
things in another light ’ from thofe who are older
and have had more experience, and confequently are
not to be influenced by the fame motives.
Chap. IV. Of Arguments fuited to Judicial
Difeourfe s.
In judicial controverfies there are two parties ; the Of judicial
plaintiff or profecutor, and the defendant or perfon dl^ou'fes>
charged. The fubjedd of them is always fomething
paft. And the end propofed by them Cicero calls fuited to
equity, or right and equity; the former of which arifesthem.
from the laws of the country, and the latter from rea¬
fon and the nature of things. For at Rome the prs-
tors had a court of equity', and were empowered, iu
many cafes relating to property, to relax the rigour of
the written laws. But as this fubjedd is very copious,
and caufes may arife from a great variety of things,
writers have reduced them to three heads, which they
call fates, to fome one of which all judicial proceed¬
ings may be referred ; namely, vuhelber a thing is, what
it is, or how it is. By the fate of a caufe therefore ig
meant the principal queftion in difpute, upon which
the whole affair depends. Which, if it ftops in the
firft inquiry, and the defendant denies the faft, the
ftate is called conjectural; but if the fa<ft be acknow¬
ledged, and yet denied to be what the adverfary calls
it, it is termed defnitive; but if there is no difpute ei¬
ther about the fadd or its name, but only the juflice
of it, it is called the flate of quality : as was fhown
more largely before (fee n° 15). But we there con-
fidered thefe ftates only in a general view, and deferred
the particular heads of argument proper for each of
them to this judicial kind of difeourfes ; where they
moft frequently occur, and from which examples may
eafily be accommodated to other fubjedds.
All judicial caufes are t\d\e.xprivate qxpublic. Thofe
are called private, which relate to the right of parti¬
cular perfons^ and they are likewi e called c/d//caufes,
as they are ronverfant about matters of property'.
Public caufes are thofe which relate to public juftice
and the government of the flate ; which are alfo called
criminal, becaufe by' them c.imes are profecured, whe¬
ther capital, or thofe of a lefs heinous nature. We
fhall take the heads of the arguments only from this
latter kind, becaufe they are more copious, and eafy
to be illuftrated by examples; from which fuch as
agree to the former, namely,c/W caufes, will fufficient- ,
ly appear.
1. i he eonjeSurat ftate. When the accufed perfon
3 C denies
386
ORA T
Invention. |jeni'es the faft, there are three things which the pro-
 'r~mJ fecutor has to confider ; whether he would have done
it, whether he could, and whether he did it. And
hence arife three topics; from the will, the power,
and the /Tjw or eircumflances which attended the
aftion. The affe&ions of the mind difeover the will ;
as, paffion, an old grudge, a define of revenge, a re-
fentment of an injury, and the like. Therefore Ci¬
cero argues from Clodius>s hatred of Milo, that he de¬
fined his death ; and from thence infers, that he was
the aggreffor the combat between them, wherein
Clodius was killed. This is what he principally endea¬
vours to prove, and comes properly under this tdate .
for Milo owned that he killed him, but alleged that
he did it in his own defence. So that in regard to this
point, Which of them afiaulted the other ? the charge
was mutual The profpea of advantage may alfo be
alleged to the fame purpofe- Hence it is faid of L.
Caffius, that whenever he fat as judge in a cafe of
murder, he ufed to advife and move the court to exa¬
mine to whom the advantage arofe from the oeath of
the deceafed. And Cicero puts this to Anthony con¬
cerning the death of Csefar. “ If any one (fays he)
fhould bring you upon trial, and ufe that faying of Caf¬
fius, Cui bono? i Who got by it ?’ look to it, T hefeech
you, that you are not confounded.’' . lo thefe argu¬
ments may be added, hope of impunity, taken either
from the circiimfiances of the accufed perfon, or of him
who fuffered the injury. lor perfons, who have the
advantage of interefi, friends, power, or money, are
apt to think they may eafily efcape ; as likewife fuch
who have formerly committed other crimes with impu¬
nity. Thus Cicero reprefents Clodius as hardened in
vice, and above all the reftraint of laws, from having
fo often efcaped punifhment upon committing the
higheft crimes. On the contrary, fuch a confidence
is fo retimes raifed from the condition of the injured
party, if he is indigent, obfeure, timorous, or defti-
tute of friends : much more if he has an ill reputa¬
tion, or is loaded with popular hatred and refentment.
It was this prefumption of the obfeurity of Rofcius,
who lived in the country, and his want of interefi: yit
Rome which encouraged his accufers to charge him
with killing his father, as Cicero fiiows in his defence
of him. Laftly, the temper of a perfon, his views,
and manner of life, are confiderations of great mo¬
ment in this matter For perfons of bad morals, and
fuch as are addi&ed to vice, are eafily thought ca¬
pable of committing any wickedncfs.. Hence Salluft
argues from the evil difpofition and vicious life of Ca-
tifine, that he affe&ed to raife himfelf upon the ruins
of his country.—The fecond head is the power of do-
ini; a thing : and there are three things which relate
to this, the place, the time, and opportunity.^ As if a
crime is faid to have been committed in a private place,
where no other perfon was prefent; or in the night ;
or when the injured perfon was unable to provide for
his defence. Under this head may likewife be brought
in the circumftances of the perfons ; as if the accufed
perfon v/as fironger, and fo able to overpower the
other ; or more adlive, and fo. could eafily make his
efcape. Cicero makes great ufe of this topic in the
cafe of Milo, and fhows, that Clodius had all the advan¬
tages of place} time, and opportunity, to execute his de-
O R Y. Part I.
fign of killing him. The third head comprehends Invention.
ihefegns and circumftances which either preceded, ac*
companied, or followed, the commifiion of the fad. So
threats, or the accufed perfon being feen at or near the
place before the fad was committed, are circumftances
that may probably precede murder; fighting, crying
out, bloodlhed, are fuch as accompany it ; palenefs,
trembling, inconfiftent anfwers, helitation, or falter¬
ing of the fpeech, fomething found upon the perfon
accufed which belonged to the deceafed, are fuch as
follow it. Thus Cicero proves, that Clodius had threat¬
ened the death of Milo, and given out that he fhould
not live above three days at the fartheft—Thefe argu¬
ments, taken from conjedures, are called prefumptions,
which, though they do not diredly prove that the ac¬
cufed perfon committed the fad with which he is
charged ; yet when laid together, they appeared very
ftrong, fentence by the Roman law might fometimes
be given upon them, to convid him.
Thefe are the topic? from which the profecutor
takes his arguments. Now the bufinefs of the defen¬
dant is to invalidate thefe. Therefore fuch as are
brought from the will, he either endeavours to fhow
are not true, or fo weak as to merit very little regard.
And he refutes thofe taken from the power, by proving
that he wanted either opportunity or ability : as, it
he can fhow, that neither the place nor time infilled
on was at all proper ; or that he was then in another
place. In like manner he will endeavour to confute
the circumjlances, if they cannot be diredly denied, by
fliowing that they are not fuch as do neceflarily ac¬
company the fad, but might have proceeded from
other caufes, though nothing of what is alleged had
been committed ; and it will be of great fervice to
affign fome other probable caufe. But fometimes the
defendant does not only deny that he did the fail,
but charges it upon another. Thus Cicero, in his
oration for Rofcius, nor only defends him fiom each
of thefe three heads, but likewife charges the fad upon
his accufers.
2. The definitive ftate, which is principally con¬
cerned in defining and fixing the name proper to the
fad: though orators feidom make ufe of exad defini¬
tions, but commonly choofe larger deferiptions, taken
from various propertiesof the fubjed or thing deferibed.
The heads of argument in this ftate are much the
fame to both parties. For each of them defines the
fad his own way, and endeavours to refute the other’s
definition. We may illuftrate this by an example
from Qriintilian : “ A peifon is accnfed of facrilege,
for ftealing money out of a temple, which belonged to
a private perfon.” The fad is owned; but the que-
ftion is, Whether it be properly facrilege P The profe¬
cutor calls it fo, becaufe it was taken out of a temple.
But fince the money belonged to a private perfon, the
defendant denies it to be facrilege, and fays it is only
fimple theft. Now the reafon why the defendant
ufes this plea, and infifts upon the diftindion, is, be¬
caufe by the Roman law the penalty of theft was only
four times the value of what was ftolen ; whereas fa¬
crilege was punifhed with death. The profecutor
then forms his definition agreeable to his charge, and
fays, “ To fteal any thing out of a facred place is
facrilege.” But the defendant excepts againft this
definition.
Part I. v) R A
Invention.definition, as defeaive ; and urges, that It does not
w-v ' amount to facrilege, unlefs the thing ftolen was like-
wife facred. And this cafe might once, perhaps,have
been a matt<arof controverfy, fince we find it exprefsly
determined In the Pandedls, that “ An aftion of fa*
crilege Ihould not lie, but only of theft, agalnft any
one who fitould fteal the goods of private perfons de-
pofited in a temple.”
The fecond thing is the proof brought by each
party to fupport his definition ; as in the example
given us by Cicero, of one “ who carried his caufe
by bribery, and was afterwards profecuted again up¬
on an adtion of prevarication.” Now, if the defen¬
dant was caft upon this adtion, he was, by the Ro¬
man law, fuhjedted to the penalty of the former pro-
fecution. Here the profecutor defines prevarication
to be, Any bribery or corruption in the defendant, with
a defign to pervert jvf ice. 1 he defendant, therefore,
on the other hand, retrains it to bribing only the pro¬
fecutor.
And if this latter fenfe agrees better with the com¬
mon acceptation of the word, the profecutor in the
third place pleads the intention of the law, which
was to comprehend all bribe: y in judicial matters
under the term of prevarication. In anfwer to which
the defendant endeavours to (how, either from the
head of contraries, that a real profecutor and a pre¬
varicator are ufed as oppofite terms in the kw ; or
from the etymology of the word, that a prevaricator
denotes one who pretends to appear in the profecution
of a caufe, while in reality he favours the contrary
fide; and confequently, that money given for this end
only can, in the fenfe of the law, be called prevarica-
tion. ■ . .
Laftly, the profecutor pleads, that it is unreafonable
that he who does not deny the fail fliould efcape by
a cavil about a word. But the defendant infills upon
his explication as agreeable to the law ; and fays, the
fad is mifreprefented and blackened, by affixing to it
a wrong name.
3. The third ftate is that of quality, in which the
difpute turns upon the jufiice of an a&ion. And here
the defendant does not deny he did the thing he is
charged with; but afierts it to be right and equitable,
from the circumftances of the cafe, and the motives
which induced him to it.
And, fir ft, he fometimes alleges, the reafon of doing
it was in order to prevent fome other thing of worfe
confequence, which would otherwife have happened.
We have an inftance of this in the life of Epaminon-
das, who, with two other generals joined in the com¬
mand with him, marched the Theban army into Pelo-
ponnefus againfl the Lacedemonians ; but by the in¬
fluence of a contrary fadftion at home, their commif-
fions were fuptrfeded, and other generals fent to com¬
mand the army. But Epaminondas, being feniible
that, if he obeyed this order at that time, it would be
attended with the lofs of the whole army, ansi confe¬
quently'the ruin of the ftate, refilled to do it; and
having perfuaded the other generals to do the like,
they happily finifhed the war in which they were en¬
gaged ; and upon their return home, Epaminondas
takin/ the whole matter upon himfelf, on his trial
was acquitted. The arguments proper in this cafe
are taken from thejuftice, ufefuinefs, or neceffity, of
TORY. 387
the a&ion. The accnfer therefore will plead, that the raven1 iom
fa6t was not juft, profitable, nor neceflary, confidered
either in itfelf or comparatively with that for thq
fake of which it is faid to have been done : and he
will endeavour to fhow, that what the defendant af-
figus for the reafon of what he did might not have
happened as he pretends. Befides, he will reprefent
of what ill confequence it muft be, if fuch crimes go
unpunifhed. The defendant, on the other hand, will
argue from the fame heads, and endeavour to prove
the faff was juft, ufeful, or necelkry. And he will
further urge, that no juft eftimate can be made of
any a&ion, but from the circumftances which attend
it ; as the defign, occaljon, and motives for doing it ;
which he will reprefent in the moft favourable light
to his own caufe, and endeavour to fet them in
fuch a view, as to induce others to think they could
not but have done the fame in the like circum¬
ftances.
Again, the cairfe of an aftion is fomecicnes charged
by the defendant upon the party who received the
damage, or fome other perfon, who either made it
neceflary, or injoined him to do it. The firft of thelc
was Milo’s plea for killing Clodius, becaufe he af-
faulted him with a defign to take away his life. Here
the fa£t is not denied, as in the cafe of Rofcius above-
mentioned, under the conjectural flate ; but juftiliei
from the reafon of doing it. For that an aflaflin might
be juftly killed, Cicero fliows both from law and rea¬
fon. The accufer, therefore, in fuch a cafe, will, if
there be room for it, deny the truth of this allega-
So the friends of Clodius affirmed that Milo
tion. ~~ —    
was the aggreflbr, and not Clodius ; which Cicero,
in his defence of Milo, principally labours to refute.
In the fecond cafe, the profecutor will fay, No one
ought to offend becaufe another hns offended firft ;
which defeats the courfe of public jultice, renders the
laws uftlefs, and deftroys the authority of the magi-
ftrate. The defendant, on the other hand, will en¬
deavour to reprefent the danger and neceffity of the
cafe, which required an immediate remedy, and in
that manner ; and urges,, that it was vain and im¬
practicable to wait for redrefs in the ordinary way, and
therefore no ill confequence can arife to the public.
Thus Cicero, in defending Sextius, who was profe¬
cuted for a riot in bringing armed men into the forum,
Ihows that his defign was only to repel force with
force; which was then neceffary, there being no other
means left for the people to affemble, who were ex¬
cluded by a mob of the contrary party. Of the third
cafe we have alfo an example in Cicero, who tells us,
that, £S in making a league between the Romans and
Samnites, a certain young nooleman was ordered by
the Roman gfneral to hold the fivine (defigned for a
ftcrifice) ; but the fenate afterwards dilapproving the
terms, and delivering up their general to the .Sam¬
nites, it was moved. Whether this young man ought
not likewife to be given up.” 1 hole who were for it
might fay, that, to allege the command of another,
is not a fufficient plea for doing an ill a tion ; and
this is what the Roman law now expreisly declares.
But in anf'wer to that, it might be replied, that it
was his duty to obey the command of hi> general,
who was anlwera'fte :or his own orders, and not thole
who were obliged to execute them ; and there.ore, to
,3 C 2 give
*
/
388
ORATORY.
Part I.
Invention. givc Up thic youn^ rK'b!em"'.n would be to punifh one
v perfon for the fault of another.
Laftly, a faft is fometimes rather excufed than de¬
fended, by pleading that it was not done designedly,
or with any ill intent. This is called conrejfion ; and
cenfifts of two parts, npology and ir,treaty 'The former
reprefents the matter as the tffecl of inadvertency,
chance, or necefficy. Ariftotle gives us an example
of inadvertency or imprudence in a woman at Athens,
who gave a young man a love-potion, which killed
him ; for which fire was tried, but acquitted : though
afterwards this was made criminal by the Roman
law. The cafe of Adraftus, as related by Herodotus,
is an inftance of chance; who beinr intrufted by
Croefus with the care of his fon, ns they were hunting,
killed him accidentally with a javelin which he threw
at a boar. It is neceffity, when a perfon excufes his
making a default, from ftrefs of weather, ficknefs, or
the like. Thus Cicero pleaded his illnefs, contracted
by he fatigue of a long journey, as an excufe for not
appearing in the fenate upon the fummons of Mark
Antony, who threatened to oblige him to it by pulling
his houfe down. But what the defendant here attri¬
butes to.inadvertency, chance, or neceflity, the oppo-
fite party will attribute to defign, negligence, or fome
other culpable reafon; and reprefent it as a matter in¬
jurious to the public to introduce fuch precedents ;
and alfo produce inftances, if that can be done, where
the like excufes have not been admitted. On the
ether hand, the defendant will infift on his innocence,
and (how the hardfhip and feverity of judging mens
aftions rather by the event, than from the intention :
that fuch a procedure makes no difference between
the innocent and the guilty ; but muff neceffarily in¬
volve many honeft men in ruin and deftru&ion, dif-
courage all virtuous and generous defigns, and turn
greatly to the prejudice of human fociety. He will
alfo confider the inftances alleged by the accufer, and
fhow the difference between them and his own cafe.
And, laftly, he will have recourfe to intreaty, or a
fubmiffive addref? to the equity and clemency of the
court, or party offended, -for pardon; as Cicero has
done in his oration to Caefar, in favour of Tiga-
rius.
Chap.V. Of the Character and Addrefs of an
Orator.
3 A
Propriety Having confideted and explained the firft part of
of manners invention, which furnifhes the orator with fuch argu-
neceflary inments as are ueceflary for the proof of his fubjeeft,
bmh^wbh we are next to ihovv what are the proper means tocon-
refj edi: to ciliate the minds of his hearers ; to gain their affec-
charader tion; and to recommend both himfelf, and what he
andaddiefs fiys, to their good opinion and efteem. For the parts
of invention are commonly thus diftinguiftied; that the
firft refpefts the fubjeQ of the difeourfe, the fecond the
. fpeaker, and the third the hearers. Now the fecond
of thefe, what we have at prefent to explain, is by
Quintilian called a propriety of manners. And in or¬
der to exprefs this, it is neceftary, as he tells us, “ that
every thing appear eafy and natural, and the difpoli-
tion or the tpeaker be difeovered by his words.” We
may form an eafy conception of this from the con duff
of fuch perfons as are mod nearly concerned ineach
others welfare. As when relations or friends converfe Invention
together upon any affairs of importance, the temper  v-—
and difpolition of the fpenker plainly ihows itfelf by
his words and manner of nddrefs. And what nature
here direffs to without colouring or difguife, the ora¬
tor is to endeavour to perform by his art. Though
indeed, if what a perfon fays be inconfxftent with his
ufuai conduct and behaviour at other times, he can¬
not expeff it ftiould gain much credit, or make any
deep itrpreftion upon his hearers : which may be one
reafon why the ancient rhetoricians make it fo necef-
fary a qualification in an orator, that he be a good
man ; fince he fhould always be confident with him¬
felf, and, as we fay, talk in charafler. And there¬
fore it is highly requifite, that he ihould not only gain
the fkiil of affuming thofe qualities which the nature
and circumftances oi his difeourfe require him to ex¬
prefs ; but likewife, that he fhould ufe his utmoft en¬
deavours to get the real habits implanted in his mind.
For as by this means they will be always expreffed
with greater eafe and facility fo, by appearing con*
ftantly in the courle of his life, they will have more
weight and influence upon particular occaflons.
Now there are four qualities, more efpecially fuited
to the character of an orator, which ihould always ap>-
pear in his difeourfes, in order to render what he fays
acceptable to his hearers ; and thefe are, auifdom, in-
tggriiy, benevolence, and modify.
1. Wifdom is neceffary; becaufe we eafily give into
thofe whom we efteem wifer and more knowing than
ourfelves. Knowledge is very agreeable and pleafant
to all, but few make very great improvements in it ;
either by reafon they are employed in other neceffary
affairs, and the mind of man cannot attend to many
things at once; or becaufe the way to knowledge at
firft is hard and difficult, fo that perfons either do not
care to enter upon the purfuitof it, or, if they do, they
are many times foon difeouraged, and drop it, for
want of fufficient refolution to furmount its difficulties.
Such, therefore, as either cannot, or do not care to
give themfelves the trouble of examining into things
themfeives, muft take up with the reprefentation of
others ; and it is an eafe to them to hear the opinion
of perfons whom they efteem wifer than themfelves.
No one loves to be deceived ; and thofe who are fear¬
ful of being mifled, are pleafed to meet with a perfoa,
in whofe wifdom, as they think, they can fafely truft.
The charadter of wifdom therefore is of gre?t fervice
to an orator, fince the greater part of mankind are
fwayed by authority rather than arguments.
2. But this of itfelf is not fufficient, unlefs the opi¬
nion of integrity be joined wfith it. Nay, fo far from
it, that the greater knowledge and underftanding a
man is fuppofed to have, unlefs he likewife have the
clnsradler of an honeft man, he is often the more fuf-
pedled. For knowledge without honefty, is generally
thought to difpofe a perfon, as well as qualify him, to
deceive.
3. And to both thefe qualities the appearance of
kindnefs and benevolence fhouid likewife be added. For
though a perfon have the reputation of wifdom and
honefty, yet if we apprehend he is either not well af-
fedted to us, or at leait regardless of our intereft, we
are in many cafes apt to be jealous of him. Mankind
are naturally fwajed by their affedtionsj and much in¬
fluenced
Part I. . ° R , A 1
Invention, fluenefd through love or frtendflrip; nnd therefore no-
*’ thing has a greater tendency to induce perfona to cre¬
dit what is faid, than intimations of affedtion and kind-
nefs. The bed orators have been always fenfiole
what great influence the exprefiions of kindnefs and
benevolence have upon the minds of others, to indue
them to believe the truth of what they fay; and there¬
fore they frequently endeavour to impreis them with
the opinion of it. Thus Demofthenes begins his cele¬
brated oration for Ctefiphon. “ It is my hearty prayer
(fays he) to all the deities, that this my defence may
be received by you with the fame ane£tion whicn 1
have always exprefled for you and your city.’' And
it is a very fine image of it which we have in Cicero,
where, in order to influence the judges in favour of
Milo, he introduces him fpeaking thus> as became a
brave man, and a patriot, even upon the fuppofition he
fhould be condemned by them : ‘‘ I bid my fellow ci¬
tizens adieu : may they continue flouriflnng and pro-
fperous; may tjns famous city be preferved, rny inoif
dear country, however it has treated me ; may my fel¬
low citizens enjoy peace and tranquillity without me,
fince I am net to enjoy it with them, though I have
procured it for them : I wall withdraw, I will be
gone.”
4. Modtjly. It is certain, that what is modeftly
fpoken is generally better received than what carries
in it an air of boldnefs and confidence. Mod perfons,
though ignorant of a thing, do not care to be thought
fo ; and would have fame deference paid to their un-
derftanding. But he who delivers himfelf in an arro¬
gant and afluming way feems to upbraid his hearers
with ignorance, while he does not leave them to
judge for themfelves, but diftates to them, and as it
were demands their aflent to what he fays ; which is
certainly a very improper method to win upon them.
For not a few, when convinced of an error in fuen a
way, will not own it ; but will rather adhere to their
former opinion, than feem forced to thinK right, when
it gives another the opportunity of a triumph. A
prudent orator therefore will behave himlelf with mo-
defty, that fie may not feem to infult his hearers; and
will fet things before them in fuch an engaging man¬
ner, as may remove all prejudice either from his per-
fon or what he aflerts. This is particularly neceflary
in the exordium of a difeourfe. T the orator fet out
with an air of arrogance and oftentation, the felf-
love and pride of the hearers will be prefentiy awaken¬
ed, and will follow him with a very f'lfpicious eye
throughout all his progrefs. His modefly fhould d;f-
cover itfeli not only in his exprefiions at the begin¬
ning, but in his whule manner ; in his looks, in his
gefttires, in the tone of his voice. Lveiy auditory
take in good part thofe marks of refpeft and awe,
which are paid to them by one who addrefles them.
Indeed the modefty of an introduction fhould never
betray any thing mean or abjeCt. It is always of
great ufe to an orator, that together with modefly
and deference to his hearers, he. ftiould fliow a certain
fenfe of dignity, arifing from a peifuaiion of the ju-
ftice or importance of the fubjeCt on which he is to
fpeak. For to fpeak timoroufly, and with hefitation,
deftroys the credit of what is offered; ami fo far as the
fpeaker feems to diftrnft what he fays kimfdi, he of¬
ten induces others to do the like.
' O R Y. 3S9
But, as has been faid already, great care is to be Invention,
taken that thefe characters do not appear feigned and
counterfeit. For what is fictitious can feldom be long
concealed. And if this be ©nee difeovered, it makes
all that is faid fufpeCted, how fpecious foever it may
otherwife appear.
It is further neceffary, that the orator fhould know
the world, and be well acquainted with the different
tempers and difpofitions of mankind. Nor indeed can
any one reafonably hope to fucceed in this province,
without well confidering the circumftances of time and
place, with the fentiments and difpofitions of thofe to
whom he fpeaks ; which, according to Ariflotle, may
be diftinguifhed four ways, as they difeover themfelvt*s
by the feveral affections, habits, ages, and fortunes of
mankind. And each of thefe require a different con-
ducl and manner of addrefs.
The affections denote certain emotions of the mind,
which, during their continuance, give a great turn to
the difpofition. For love prompts to one thing, and
hatred to another. The like may be faid of anger,
lenity, and the reft of them.
Perfons differ likewife according to the various ha~
bits of their mind. So ajuft man is inclined one way,
and an unjuft man another ; a temperate man to this,
and an intemperate man to the contrary.
And as to the feveral ages of men, Ariftotle has
deferibed them very accurately ; and how perfons are
differently affeCfed in each of them. He divides the
lives of men, confidered as hearers, into three ftages ;
youth, middle age, and old age.—Young men, lie fays,
have generally ftrong paffions, and are very eager to
obtain what they deiirc; but are likewife very mutable,
fo that the fame thing does not pleafe them long.
They are ambitious of praiie, and quick in their re-
fentments : lavifh of their money, as not having ex¬
perienced the want of hi frank and open, becaufp
they have not often been deceived ; and credulous for
the fame rea-foiv. They readily hope the belt, becaufe
they have not fuffered much, and are therefore not fo
fenfible of the uncertainty of human affairs; for which
reaibn they are likewife more eafily deceived. They
are modeft, from their little acquaintance with the
.world. They love company and cheerlulnefs, from
the brifknefs of their fpirks. In a word, they gene¬
rally exceed in what they do ; love violently, hate
violently, and a£t in the fame manner through the
reft of their conduft.—The difpofition of old men is-
generally contrary to the former. They are cautious,
and enter upon nothing haildy ; having in the courle
of many years been often impofed upon ; having of¬
ten erred, and experienced the prevailing corruption
of human affaiis; for which reafon they are iikewife
fufpieious, and moderate in their affecdons either of
love or hatred. They purfue nothing great and noble,
and regard only the ncceffaries of life They love
money ; having learnt by experience the difficulty of
getting it, and how eafily it is loft. They are fear¬
ful, which makes them provident. Commonly full of
complaints, from bodily infirmities,, and a deficiency
of fjiirits. They pleafe themfelves ratter with the
memory of what is pad, than with any future profpebt ;
having fo thort a view of life before them, in com¬
panion of what is already gone ; for which reaioa
alio, they love to talk of things paft j and preier
there
.
39® ORATORY. pan x
Inv ;ition. them to what is prefent, of which they have hut
U" v'~'^ little relilh, and know they muft fhortly leave them.
They are foon anyry, but not to excefs. Laftly,
they are compallionate, from a fcnfe of their own in¬
firmities, which makes them think themfelves of all
perfons mod expofed.—Perfons of a middle age, be¬
twixt thefe two extremes, as they are freed from the
rafhnefs and temerity of youth, fo they have not yet
fuffcred the decays of old Hence in every thing
they generally obferve a better conduft. They are
neither fo hady in their afient as the one, nor fo mi¬
nutely fcrupulous as the other, hut weigh the reafons
of things. They regard a decency in their actions ;
are careful and indultrious; and as they undertake
what appears juft and laudable upon better and more
deliberate conlideration than young perfons, fo they
purfue them with more vigour and refolution than
thofe who are older.
As to the different fortunes of mankind, they may
be Comideredas noble, rich, or powerful; and the con¬
trary to thefe.—Thofe oi high birth, and noble ex-
tra&ion, are generally very tender of their honour,
and ambitious to increafe it ; it being natural for all
perfons to defire an addition to thofe advantages of
which they find themfclves already poffeffed. And
they are apt to coniider all others as much their in¬
feriors, and therefore expert great regard and defe¬
rence Ihould be Ihown them.— Riches, when accom¬
panied with a generous temper, command refpebl
from the opportunities they give of being ufeful to
others ; but they ufually elate the mind, and occafion
pride. For as money is commonly faid to command
ail things, thofe who are poffeffed of a large fhare of
it, expect others (hould be at their beck ; fmee they
enjoy that which ail defire, and which mod: perfons
make the main purfuit of their lives to obtain.—But
nothing is more apt to fweil the mind than power.
This is what all men naturally covet, even when per¬
haps they would not ufe it. But the views of fuch
perfons are generally more noble and generous than
of thofe who only purfue riches and the heaping up
of money. A date contrary to thefe gives a contrary
turn or mind ; and in lower life, petfons difpofitiens
ufually differ according to their ftstion and circum-
ftanoes. A citizen and a courtier, a merchant and a
foldier, a fcholar and a peafant, as their purfuits are
different, fo is generally their turn and difpofkion of
mind.
It is the orator’s bufinefs, therefore, to confider thefe
feveral chara&ers and circumftances of life, with the
different bias and way of thinking they give to the
mind ; that he may fo conduct himfelf in his beha¬
viour and manner of {peaking, as will render him mod
acceptable, and gain him the good efteecn cf thofe
whom he addreffea.
Chap. VI. Of the Paffons.
20
It is r.ecef- As it is often highly neceffary for the orator, fo it
fary.though requires his greateft Ikiil, to engage the paftions in his
en^aa/thc *ntxrc^:- Quintilian calls this t/'e foul and fpiril of his
interdl of art' doubtlefs, nothing more difeovers its em-
the paf pire over the minds of men, than this power to excite,
iions. appeafe, and (way their pafiione, agreeably to the de-
fign of the fpeaker. Hence we meet with the charac¬
ters of admirable^ divine, and other fplendid titles, Invention,
aferibed to eloquence by ancient wiite.s. It has in-
deed been objefttd by fome, that whatever high enco¬
miums may be gwen of this art by the a Imirers of it,
it is however dilingenuous to deceive and impofe upon
mankind, as thofe feem to do, who, by engaging
their paffians, give a bias to their minds, and take
them off from the confideration of the truth ; whereas
every thing Ihould be judged of from the reafons
brought to fupport it, by the evidence of which it
ought to Hand or fall. But in anfwer to this, it may
be confidered that all fallacy is not culpable We
often deceive children for their good ; and phyficians
fometimes impofe on their patients, to come at a cure.
And why, therefore, when perfons will not be pre¬
vailed with by reafon and argument, may not an ora¬
tor endeavour, by engaging their paffions, to perfuade
them to that whic h is for their advantage ? Belides,
Quintilian makes it a neceffary qualification of an ora¬
tor, that he be an honeft man, and one who wall not
abufe his art But fitice thofe of a contrary charac¬
ter will leave no methods untried in order to carry
their point, it is requifite for thofe who defign well
to be acquainted with all their arts, without which
they will not be a match for them ; as in military
affairs it is highly advantageous for the general of an
army to get himfelf informed of all the defigns and
ftratagems of the enemy, in order to counteradt them.
Indeed this part of oratory is not neceffary at all times,
nor in ?.1I places. The better prepared perfons are to
confider truth, and adl upon the evidence of it, the
lefs occafion there appears for it. But the greater part
of mankind, either do not duly weigh the force of ar¬
guments, or retufe to add agreeably to their evidence.
And where this is the cafe, that pe.fons will neither
be convinced by reafon, nor moved by the authority
of the fpeaker, the only way left to put them upon ac¬
tion, is to engage their pillions. For the paffions are
to the mind, what the wind is to a fhip : they move,
and cany it forward ; and he who is without them, is
in a manner w.thout adlion, dull and lifelefs. There
is nothing great or noble to be performed in life,
wherein the paffions are not concerned The Stoics,
therefore, who were for eradicating the paffions, both
maintained a thing in itfelf impoffihle, and which, if it
was pofiible, would be of the greatell prejudice to man¬
kind. For while they appeared fuch zealous alfertors
of the government of reafon, they fcarce left it any
tiling to govern ; for the authority of reifon is prin¬
cipally exercifed in ruling and moderating the paffions,
which, when kept in a due regulation, are the fprings
and motives to virtue. Thus hope produces patience,
and tear induftry ; and the like might be Ihown of the
reft. T he paffions therefore are not to be extirpated,
as the Stoics afterted, but put under the direction and
conduit of reafon. indeed where they are ungovern¬
able, and refift the controul of reafon, they are, as
fome have fitly called them, difeafes of the mind; and
frequently hurry men into vice, and the greateft mif-
fortunes of life: juft as the wind, when it blows mo¬
derately, carries on the ftnp ; but if it be too boifte-
rous and violent may overict her. The charge there¬
fore brought againft this art, for giving rules to in¬
fluence the pallions, appears groundlefs and unjuft ;
fifice the proper ufe of the paffions is, not to hinder the
2 exercife
Part I. ORATOR Y. 391
Invention, exereife of reafon, but to engage iften to aft agreeably
'—v—r to reafon. And if an ill ufe be fometimes made of
this, it is not the fault of the art, but of the artift.
We fhall here confider the paffions, as they may be
feparately referred, either to demmflrative, delibera¬
tive, or judicial < urfes ; though they are not
wholly confined to of them.
; f al- 1. To the demon ive kind, we may refer joy and
fioii' whkhJbrroTV, love and hatt emulation and contempt.
may be re- Joy is an elation t the mind, arifing from a fenfe
ferred to Gf f0me prefent good. . Such a reflection naturally
<'Crn difra" Creates a pleafant agreeable fenfation, v/hich ends
<courfes. ,n a delightful calm and ferenity. This is heightened
by a defcription of former evils, and a comparifon be¬
tween them and the prefent felicity. Thus Cicero
endeavours to excite in the minds of his fellow-citizens
the highelt fenfe of joy and delight at Catiline’s de-
Iparture from Rome, by reprefen ting to them the im¬
minent danger which threatened both them and the
city while he continued among them.
Sorrow, oh the contrary, is an uneafinefs of mind
arifing from a fenfe of feme prefent evil. This paffion
has generally a place in funeral difeourfes. And it
may bt heightened, like the former, by comparifon,
when any part happinefs is fet in oppofition to a pre¬
fent calamity. Hence Cicero aggravates the furrow at
Rome occafioned by the death of Metellus, from
his charafter, and great fervices to the public, while
living.
Love excites us to efteem any perfon for fume ex¬
cellency, and to do him all the good in our power. It
is diftinguifhed from friendjhip, which is mutual; and
therefore love may continue where friendfhip is loft ;
that is, the affeftion may remain on one fide. And
when we nffift a perfbn from no other motive but to
do him a kindnefs, Arillotle calls thisLove
takes its rife from a variety of caufes. Generofity, be¬
nevolence, integrity,' gratitude, courtefy, and other
focial virtues, are great incitements to love any one
endued with fuch qualities. And perfons generally
love thofe who are of a like difpoiition with them-
felves and purfue the fame views. It is therefore the
chief art of a flatterer to fuit himfelf in every thing to
the inclination of the perfon whofe good grates he
courts. When the orator would excite this affeftion
towards any perfon, it is proper to fliow, that he is
poffeffcd of at leaft fome, if not all, of thefe agreeable
qualities. When the confpirators with Catiline were
to be brought to juftice, Cicero was very fenfible of
the envy he ftiould contraft on that account, and how
neceffary it was for him to fecure the love of the Ro¬
man fenate for h:s fupport and protection in that cri¬
tical junfture. And this he endeavours to do in his
fourth oration againft Catiline, by reprefenting to
them in the moil pathetic manner, that all the la¬
bours he underwent, the difficulties he confiifted with,
and the dangers to which he was expofed on that ac¬
count, were not for his own fake, but for their fafety,
quiet, and happinefs.
Hatred is oppofed to love, and produced by the
contrary difpofitions. And therefore perfons hate
thofe who never did them any injury, from the ill
opinion they have of their bafe and vicious inclina-
■tions. So that the way to excite this paffion is, by
fhowing that any one has committed fomc heinous
faft with an ill intent. And the more nearly affefted invention.
peffons are by fuch aftions, in what they account of r”'v”'
the greatefi: concern, the higher in proportion their ha¬
tred rifes. Since life therefore is efteemed the moft
valuable good, Cicero endeavours to render Mark An¬
tony odious to the citizens of Rome, by deferibing
his cruelty.
Emulation is a difquiet, occafioned by the felicity
of another, not becaufe he enjoys it, but becaufe we
defite the like for ourfelves. So that this paffion is in
itfelf good and laudable, as it engages men to purfue
thofe things which are fo. For the proper objefts of
emulation are any advantages of mind, body, or for¬
tune, acquired by ftudy or labour.
Emulation therefore is excited by a lively reprefen-
tation of any defirable advantages which appear to be
attainable, from the example of others who are or
have been pofleffed of them. Rut where the felicity of
another occaiions an uneafinefs, not from the want of
it, but becaufe he enjoys it, this paffion is called envy,
which the ancients deferibe as an hideous monfter,
feeding upon itfelf, and being its own tormentor.
Ariftotle juftly obferves, that it moft ufually affefts
fuch perfons as were once upon a level with thofe they
envy. For moll men naturally think fo well of them-
felves, that they are uncafy to fee thofe who were for¬
merly their equals advanced above them. But, as this
is a bafe and vicious psffion, the orator is not to be in¬
formed how to excite it, but how to leffm or remove
it. And the method preferibed by Cicero for this
purpofe is, to fnovv that the things which occafioned
it have not happened to the envied perfon undeferved-
ly, but are the juft reward of his induftry or virtue ;
that lie does not fo much convert them to his own pro¬
fit or pie?fin e, as to the benefit of others; and that
the fame pains and difficulties are neceffary to pre-
lerve them with which they were at firfl acquired.
Contempt is oppofed to emulation, and arifes from
mifeonduft in things not of themfelves vicious : As
where a perfon either afts below his llation and cha¬
rafter, or affefts to do that for which he is not qua¬
lified. Thus Cicero endeavours to expofe Ctecilius,
and bring him into contempt of the court, for pre¬
tending to rival him in the accufation pf Verres, for
which he was altogether unfit.
2. To deliberative difcourles may be refeired fear,Oi the paf-
hope, and Jhame. lions which
Fear ariles from the apprehenfion of fome great and,niay !>c le*
impending evil. For the greateft evils, while they^bcrltive
appear at a diftance, do not much affeft us. Such difcomfes.
perlons occafion fear, who are poffeffed of power,
efpecially if they have been injured, or apprehend fo:
likewife thofe who are addifted to do injuries, or who
bear us an ill will. And the examples of others, who
have fuffered in a like cafe, or from the fame perfons,
help to excite fear. From the circumilances therefore
either of the thing or perfon, it will not be difficult
for the orator to offer fuch arguments as may be pro¬
per to awaken this paffion. So Demofthenes, when
he would perfuade the Athenians to put themfelves in
a condition of defence againft king Philip, enumerates
the feveral afts of hoftility already committed by him
againft the neighbouring ftates. And becaufe mens
private concerns generally more affeft; them than
what relates to the public, it is proper fometimes
u -'
I
392 O R A T
Invention. f0 {^o^r t^e necefTary connexion tliefe have with each
ot:her, and how the ruin of one draws the other af¬
ter it.
The contrary paffion to fear is hope ; which arifes
fither from a profpefl of feme future good, or the ap-
prehenfion of fafety from thofe things which occafion
our fear- Young perfons are eafily induced to hope
the heft, from the vigour of their fpirits. And thofe
who have efcaped former dangers are encouraged to
hope for the like fuccefs for the future. The examples
of others alfo, efpecially of wife and confiderate men,
have often the fame good effeft. To find them calm
and fedate when expofed to the like dangers, natu¬
rally creates confidence and the hopes of fafety. But
nothing gives perfons fuch firmnefs and lleadinefs of
mind, under the apprehenfion of any difficulties, as a
confcioufnefs of their own integrity and innocence.
Let dangers come from what quarter they will, they
are heft prepared to receive them. They can calmly
view an impending tempeft, obferve the way of its ap¬
proach, and prepare themfelves in the bell manner to
avoid it. In Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law,
he encourages the Roman citizens to hope for fuccefs
againft Mithridates, if they chofe Pompey for their
general, from the many inftances of his former fuc-
cefles, which he there enumerates.
Shame arifes from the apprehtmfion of thofe things
that hurt a perfon’s charadler. Mcdejly has been wife¬
ly implanted in mankind by the great Author of na¬
ture, as a guardian of virtue, whfch ought for this
reafon to be cherifhed with the greateft care ; becaufe,
*s Seneca has well obferved, ‘‘ if it be once loft, it is
fcarce ever to be recovered.” Therefore the true caufe
or foundation of ftiame is any thing bafe or vicious ;
for this wounds the character, and will not bear re¬
flexion. And he muft arrive at no fmall degree of
in fen Ability, who can Hand again!! fuch a charge, if
he be confeious to himfelf that it is juft. Therefore, to
deter perfons from vicious aXions, or to expofe them
for the coinmiffion of them, the orator endeavours to
fet them in fuch a light as may moft awaken this paf¬
fion, and give them the greateft uneafinefs by the re-
fleXion. And becaufe the bare reprefentation of the
thing itfelf is not always fufficient for this purpofe,
he fometimes enforces it by enlarging the view, and
introducing thofe perfons as witnefies of the taX for
whom they are fuppofed to have the greateft regard.
Thus, when fome of the Athenians, in an arbitration
about certain lands which had been referred to them
by the contending parties, propofed it as the fhorteft
way of deciding the controverfy, to take the pofTef-
fion of them into their own hands ; Cydias, a member
of the affembly, to diffuade them from fuch an unjuft
aXion, defired them to imagine themfelves at that
time in the general affembly of the ftates of Greece
(who would all hear of it fnortly), and then coniider
how it was proper to aX. But where perfons labour
under an excefs of modefty, which prevents them from
exerting themfelves in things fit and laudable, it may
fometimes be necefiary to (how that it is faulty and ill
grounded. On the other hand, hnmodejly, or impu¬
dence, which conlifts in a contempt of fuch things as
affeX the reputation, can never be too much diCcou-
raged and expofed. And the way of doing this is
to make life of fuch arguments as are moft proper to
250.
o R V Partt,
excite ftiame. We have a very remarkable inftance of Invention.
it in Cicero’s fecond Philippic, wherein he affixes this 1 3
charaXer upon Mark Antony through every feene
of his life.
3. To judicial difeourfes, may be referred anger and of the paf.
lenity, pity, and indignation. fions which
Anger is a refentment, occafioned by fome affrontAlay be rc-
or injury, done without any juft reafon. Now men^h^.z/^
are mere inclined to refent fuch a conduX, as they courfes.
think they lefs deferve it. Therefore perfons of di-
ftinXion and figure, who expeX a regard fhouid be
paid to their charaXer, can the lefs bear any indica¬
tions of contempt. And thofe who are eminent in
any profeffion or faculty, are apt to be offended if
refleXions are call either upon their reputation or art.
Magiftrates alfo, and perfons in public Rations, fame-
times think it incumbent on them to refent indigni¬
ties, for the fupport of their office. But nothing
fooner inflames this paffion, than if good fervices are
rewarded with flights and negkX. The inftance of
Narfes, the Roman general, is remarkable in this
kind; who, after he had been fuccefsful in his wars
w ith the Goths, falling under the difpleafure of the
emperor Juflin, was removed from the government of
Italy, and received by the emprefs with this taunt,
That he mujl he fent to weave among the girls ; which
fo provoked him, that he faid he would weave fuch a
W'eb as they fhouid never he able to unravel. And
accordingly, he foon after brought down the Longo-
bards, a people of Germany, into Italy; where they fet¬
tled themfelves in that part of the country, which from
them is now called(SeeNARSEs). The time
and place in which an injury was done, and other cir-
cumilances that attended it, may likewife contribute ve¬
ry much to heighten the faX. Hence Demofthenes, in
his oration againft Midias, endeavours to aggravate the
injury of being ftruck by him, both as he was then a
magiftrate, and becaufe it w'as done at a public fefti-
val. From hence it appears, that the perfons who
rnoft ufually occafion this paffion are fuch as negleX
the rules of decency, contemn and infult others, or
oppofe their inclinations : as likewife the ungrateful,
and thofe who violate the ties of friendihip, or requite
favours with injuries. But when the orator endea¬
vours to excite anger, he ihould be careful not to ex¬
ceed due bounds in aggravating the charge, left what
he fays appear rather to proceed from piejudice, than
a ftriX regard to the demerit of the aXion.
Lenity is the remiffion of anger The defigns of
mens aXions are principally to be regarded ; and there¬
fore what is done ignorantly, or through inadvertency,
is fooner forgiven. Alfo to acknowledge a fault, fub-
mit, and afk pardon, are the ready means to take off
refentment. For a generous mind is foon cooled by fub-
miffion. Befides, he who repents of his fault, does real¬
ly give the injured party fome fatisfaXion, by punifti-
ing himfeif; as all repentance is attended with grief
and uneafinefs' of mind, and this is apt very much to
abate the defire of revenge. As, on the contrary, no¬
thing is more provoking, than when the ofiender ei¬
ther audacioufly juftifies the faX, or confidently de¬
nies it. Men are likewife wont to lay afide their re¬
fentment, when their adverfaries happen by fome
other means to fufftr what they think a fufficient fa¬
tisfaXion. JLaftly, eafy circumltance?, a lucky inci-
1 dent,
partL ORA
Invention, dent, ot any thing which gives the mind a turn to
mirth and pleafure, has a natural tendency to remove
anger. _ For anger is accompanied with pain and un-
eafinefs, which very ill fuit joy and eheerfulnefs. The
orator, therefore, in order to affuage and pacify the
minds of his auditors, will endeavour to leffen their
opinion of the fault, and by that means to take off
- the edge of their refentment. And to this purpofe, it
will be proper either to reprefent that the thing was
not defigned, or that the party is forry for it; or to
mention his former fervices; as alfo to (how the credit
and reputation which will be gained by a generous
forgivenefs. And this lall topic is very artfully
wrought up by Cicero, in his addrefs to Csefar, in fa¬
vour of Ligarius.
Pify arifes from the calamities of others, by reflec¬
ting, that we ourfelves are liable to the like misfor¬
tunes. So that evils, confidered as the common lot of
humrn nature, are principally the caufe of pity. And
this makes the difference between pity and good-willy
which arifes merely from a regard to the circumfiances
of thofe who want our afiiftance. But confidering
the uncertainty of every thing about us, he muft feem
in a manner diverted of humanity, who has no com-
pafllon for the calamities of others; fince there is no
aflli'ftion which happens to any man, but either that,
or fome other as great, may fall upon htmfelf. But
thefe perfons are generally fooneft touched with this
pafllon, who have met with misfortunes themfelves. And
by how much greater the dirtrefs is, or by how much the
perfon appears lefs defervlng it, the higher pity does it
excite : for which reafon, perfons are generally moft
moved at the misfortunes of their relations and friends,
or thofe of the beft figure and chara&er. The orator,
therefore, in order to excite the greater pity, will en¬
deavour to heighten the idea of the calamity, from the
feveral circumftances both of the thing itfelf and the
perfon who labours under it. A fine example of this
may be feen in Cicero’s defence of Murtena, cap. 40. &c.
Indignation, as oppofed to pity, is an uneafinefs at
the felicity of another who does not feem to deferve
it. But this refpedls only external advantages, fuch
as riches, honours, and the like ; for virtues cannot be
the objeft of this paflion, Ariftotle therefore fays,
4‘ that pity and indignation are generally to be found
in the fame perfens, and are both evidences of a good
dirpofition.” Now the orator excites this paflion, by
TORY. ‘ m
fhowing the perfon to be unworthy of that^felicity Invention,
which he enjoys. And as, in order to move compaf-
fion, it is fometirnes of ufe to compare the former hap¬
py ftate of the perfon with his prefent Calamity ; fo
here, the greater indignation is r^ifed, by comparing
his former mean circumftances with his prefeiit ad¬
vancement : as Cicero doe« in the cafe of Vatinius.
Thefe are the paflions with which an orator is
principally concerned. In addrefling to which, not
only the greateft warmth and force of expreflion is of¬
ten ntceflary ; but he mull likewife firft endeavour to
imprefs his own mind with the fame pallion he would
excite in others.
A man may convince, and even perfuade others to
a£t, by mere reafon and argument. But that degree
of eloquence which gains the admi ttion of mankind,
and properly denominates one an orator, is never found
without warmth or paflion. Paflion, when in fuch a
degree as to roufe and kindle the mind, without throw¬
ing it out of the pofleflion of itfelf, is univerfally
found t© exalt all the human powers. It renders the
mind infinitely more enlightened, more penetrating*
more vigorous and mafterly, than it is in its calm mo¬
ments. A man, actuated by a ftrong paflion, becomes
much greater than he is at other times. He is confci-
ous of more ftrength and force ; he utters greater fen-
timents, conceives higher defigns, and executes them
with a boldnefs and a felicity of which on other occa-
fions he could not think himfelf capable. But chiefly,
with refpe£t to perfuaiion, is the power of pnflion felt.
Almoft every man in paflion is eloquent. Then he is
at no lofs for words and arguments He tranfmits to
others, by a fort of contagious fympathy, the warm
fentiments which he feels ; his looks and geftures are
all perfuafive ; and nature: here ftiows herfelf infinitely
more powerful than art. This is the foundation of
that juft and noted rule. Si vis me jlere, dolendum ejl
primum ipji tibi.
The warmth, however, which we exprefs, muft be
fuited to the occafion and the fubjeft ; for nothing can
be more prepofterous than an attempt to introduce
great vehemence into a fubjedt, which is either of flight
importance, or which, by its nature, requires to be
treated of calmly. A temperate tone of fpeech is that
for which there is moft frequent occafion ; and he who
is on every fubjedt paflionate and vehement, will be
confidered as a blufterer, and meet with little regard.
Part II. Of DISPOSITION.
S Invention fupplies the orator with neceflary ma¬
terials, fo Difpojition diredts him how to place
them in the moft proper and fuitable order. Difpofi-
tion therefore, confidered as a part of oratory, natu¬
rally follows invention. And what is here chiefly in¬
tended'by it is, the placing the feveral parts of a dif-
courfe in a juft method and dependence upon one an¬
other.
Writers are not all agreed in determining the parts
of an oration ; though the difference is rather in the
manner of confidering them, than in the things them-
fclves. But Cicero, whom wc fhaU here follow, men»
Vol. XIII. Fart 1. ,
tions fix, namely, Introduction, Narration, Prcpofttion.
Confirmation, Confutation, and Conclufion.
Chap. I. Of the Introduction.
The defign of this is to prepare the minds of theIntroduc-
hearers for a fuitable reception of the remaining parts tion gains
that are to follow. And for this end, three thingsthe hearts
are requifite ; that the orator gain the good opinion of^ of^the
his hearers, that he fecure their attention, and give them audience,
fome general notion of his fubjedt. aed gives a
i. Good opinion, When the orator introduces his£enera* n0*
-SD difeourfe^^
^<)4 O R A T
pifjifififior. ^{fcourfe with his own perfon.he will be careful to (lo
'■"v—7 it with modefty, and feem rather to extenuate his vir¬
tues and abilities, than to magnify them. And where
the nature of the fubjeft may feem to require it, he
will endeavour to (how, that fome juft and good rea-
fon induced him to engage in it. We have a very fine
example of this in Cicero’s oration for the poet Au-
lus Licinius Archias, which begins thus : “ If I have
any natural genius, wh’‘ch I am fenfible is very fmall,
or any ability in fpeaking, wherein I own I have
been very converfant 5 or any (kill acquired from the
ftudy and precepts of the beft arts, to which my whole
life has been devoted ; this Aulus Licinius has, in a
particular manner, a right to demand of me the fruit
of all thefe things. For as far back as 1 can remem¬
ber, and call to mind what paffed in my youth to the
prefent time, he has been my chief advifer and encou-
rager both to undertake and purfue this courfe of
ftudies.” When the orator fets out with the perfons
of thofe to whom the difeourfe is made, it is not un-
ufual to commend them for their virtues, and thofe
efpecially which have a more immediate relation to the
prefent fubjeef. Thus Cicero begins his oration of
thanks for the pardon of Marcellas, with an enco¬
mium upon the mildnefs, clemency, and wifdom of
Caefar, to whom it was addreffed. But fometimes the
orator expreffes his gratitude for paft favours ; as Ci¬
cero has done in his orations, both to the people and
fenate of Rome, after his return from banilhment.—
And at other times he declares his concern for them
and their intereft ; in which manner Cicero begins his
fourth oration againft Catiline, which was made in the
fenate. “ I perceive (fays he) that all your countenan¬
ces and eyes are turned on me ; I perceive that you are
felicitous, not only for your own danger, and that of
the ftate, but for mine likewife, if that fhould be re¬
moved. Your affeftion for me is pleafant in misfor¬
tunes, and grateful in forrow ; but I adjure you to
lay it afide, and, forgetting my fafety, confider your-
felves and your children.” But injudicial cafes, both
the charafter of the perfon whofe caufe he efpoufes,
and that of the adverfe party likewife, furnifh the
orator with arguments for exciting the good will of
his hearers : The former, by commemorating his vir'
tues, dignity, or merits, and fometimes his misfor¬
tunes and calamities. So Cicero, in his defence of
Flaccus, begins his oration in commending him on the
account of his fcrvices done to the public, the dignity
of his family, and his love to his country. And De-
mofthenes, in his oration againft Midias, fets out with
a recital of his vices, in order to recommend his own
caufe to the favourable opinion of the court.
2. Attention. On this head, Cicero fays, We
lhall be heard attentively on one of thefe three things ;
if we propofe what is great, neceflary, or for the in¬
tereft of thofe to whom the difcoui fe is addreffed.” So
that,, according to him, the topics of attention are
much the fame with thofe of good opinion, when ta¬
ken from the fubjeft. And indeed, people are natu¬
rally led to attend either to thofe things or perfons
of which they have entertained a favourable opinion.
But in order to gain this point, the orator fometimes
thinks it proper to requeft the attention of his audi-
«nce. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Cluentius, af-
paving fhow® the heinoufnefs of the charge againft
O R Y.
Part IF.
him, concludes his introduction in the following man-Difpofition.
ner, fpeaking to the judges : “ Wherefore 1 intreat, u—
that while I briefly and clearly reply to a charge of
many years Handing, you will, according to your
nfual cuftom, give me a kind and attentive hearing.”
And again, in his fecond Philippic, addreffmg hitn-
felf to the fenate : “ But as I muft fay fomething for
myfelf, and many things againft Mark Antony ; one
of thefe I beg of you, that you will hear me kindly,
while I fpeak for myfelf; and the other I will under¬
take for, that when I fpeak againft him, you fhali
hear me with attention.” But though the introduaiou
be the moft ufual and proper place for gaining atten¬
tion, yet the orator finds it convenient fometimes to
quicken and excite his hearers in other parts of hia
difeourfe, when he obferves they flag, or has fome¬
thing of moment to offer.
3. Some general account of the fuhjeff of the dif¬
eourfe. This is always neceffary, which the two o»hers
are not. And therefore it muft be left to the pru¬
dence of the orator when to ufe or omit them as he
fhali judge proper, from the nature of his difeourfe,
the circumftance of his hearers, and how he ftanda
with them. But fome account of the fubjeft is what
cannot be negleded. For every one expeds to be
foon informed of the defign of the fpeaker, and what
he propofes to treat of. Nor when they are all made
ufe of, is it neceffary they Ihould always Hand in the
order we have here placed them. Cicero fometimes
enters immediately upon his fubjed, and introduces the
other heads afterwards. As in his third oration
againft Catiline, made to the body of the Roman
people, which begins thus : ** You ice that the ftate,
all your lives, eftates, fortunes, wives and children,
and this feat of the greateft empire, the moft flouriih-
ing and beautiful city, having by the favour of hea¬
ven towards you, and my labours, counfels, and dan¬
gers, been this day refeued from fire and fword and
the very jaws of defttudion, arepreferved and reftored
to you.” And then he proceeds to recommend him-
felf to their efteem and benevolence, from the coniide-
ration of thefe benefits. #
Thefe are the heads which commonly furnifli m*tter
for this part of a difeourfe. But orators often taketion is not
occafion from the time, place, largenefs of the affem-confined to
bly, or fome other proper circumftance, to compliment heads,
their hearers, recommend themfelves, or introduce the mitofothe-
fubjed upon which they are about to treat Inftancesmatter, if
of each of thefe may be met with in feveral of Cicero'sfumifhed
orations. And fometimes they fet out with fome com-^7^=^
parifon, fimilitude, or other ornament, which they ac*of thecafe,
commodate to the occafion of their difcom fe.^ 1 hus
Ifocrates enters upon his celebrated panegyric in praife
of his countrymen the Athenians with the following
companion : “ I have often wondered what could be
their defign who brought together thefe affemblies, and
inftituted the gymnaftic fports, to pro^ofe fo great re¬
wards for bodily ftrength ; and to vouchfafe no ho¬
nour to thofe who applied their private labours to
ferve the public, and fo cultivated their minds as to
be ferviceable to others, to whom they ought to have
fliown greater regard. For although the ftrength of a
champion was doubled, no benefit would from thence
accrue to others; but all enjoy the prudence of one
manj wh® will hearken to his advice.” In fome cafes,
oratorsu
Part II. ORATORY. 395
DiCpofidnn. ©rators have recourfe to a more covert and artful way
1_ » of opening their fubjeft, endeavour to remove jealou-
fies, apologir.e for what they are about to fay, and feem
to refer it to the candour of the hearers to judge of it
as they pleafe. Cicero appears to have been a perfect
mafter of this art, and ufed it with great fuccefs. Thus
in his feventh Bhilippic, where he feems to exprefs the
grcateft concern, left what he was about to fay fhould
give any offence to the fenate to whom he was fpeak-
ihg : “ I (fays he) who always declared for peace, and
to whom peace among ourfelves, as it is wifhed for by
all good men, was in a particular manner defirable ;
who have employed all my induftry in the forum, in
the fenate, and in the defence of my friends, whence
I have arrived to the higheft honours, a moderate for¬
tune, and what reputation I enjoy ; I therefore, who
owe what I am to peace, and without it could not have
been the perfon I am, be that what it will, for I would
arrogate nothing to myfelf; I fpealc with concern and
fear, hew you will receive what I am going to fay ;
but I beg and intreat you, from the great regard I
have always expreffed for the fupport and advancement
of your honour, that if any thing faid by me ftiould
st firft appear harfti or unfit to be received, you will
fiotwithftanding pleafe to hear it without offence, and
Siot rejetfi it till I have explained myfelf: I then, for
I muff repeat it again, who have always approved of
peace, and promoted it, am againft a peace with Mark
Antony.” This is called injinuation; and may be ne-
eeffary, where a caufe is in itfelf doubtful, or may be
thought fo from the received notions of the hearers,
or the impreffions already made upon them by the
contrary fide. An honeft man would not knowingly
engage in a bad canfe ; and yet, through prevailing
prejudice, that may be fo efteemed which is not fo in
itfelf. In thefe cafes, therefore, great caution and
prudence are neceffary to give fuch a turn to things,
and place them in that view as may be leaft liable to
offence. And becaufe it fometimes happens that the
hearers are not fo much difpleafed at the fubjeft as the
perfon, Quintilian’s rule feems very proper, when he
fays, “ if the fubjeft difpleafes, the charafter of the
perfon ftiould fupport it; and when the perfon gives
offence, he ftvotild be helped by the caufe.”
Chap. II. Of Narration.
36 ...
Narration The orator having prepared his hearers to receive
hrinps for- his difeourfe# with candour and attention, and ac-
ward all quainted them with his general defign in the intro-
cumftances <lu<^i°n> before he proceeds direftly to his fubjedt,
ofacafe,8cc often finds it neceffary to give fome account of what
hi their prr>preceded, accompanied, or followed upon it. And
pet and na-^jg he f>oes jn orcjer to enlarge the view of the parti-
lur)*,or<'er’fciilar point in difpute, and place it in a clearer light,
calculated This is called narration ; which is a recital or lome-
to fet it in thing done, in the order and banner in which it was
a juft <>r a done. Hence it is eafy to perceive what thofe things
ftronglight. are which properly enter into a narration. And fuch
are the caufe, manner, time, place, and confequences
of an a&ion ; with the temper, fortune, views, abi¬
lity, affociates, and other cireumftances of thofe con*
rerned in it. Not that each of thefe particulars is ne-
•ceffary in every narration ; but fo many of them at
kail as are requifite to fet the matter in a juft light,
and make it appear credible. Be (ides, in relating a blifpofuion,
fadl, the orator does not content himfelf with fuch an ''“"■'V"'1
account of it as is barely fufficient to ren ler what he
fays intelligible to his hearers ; but deferibes it in fo-
ftrong and lively a manner, as may give the greateft
evidence to his relation, and make the*deepeft impref-
fion upon their minds. And if any part of it appears
at prtfent lefs probable, he promifes to clear up and
remove any remaining doubts in the progrefs of his
difeourfe. For the foundation of his reafoning after¬
wards is laid in the narration, from whence he takes
his arguments for the confirmation. And therefore it
is a matter of no fmall importance that this part be
well managed, fince the fuccefs of the whole difeourfe
fo much depends upon it. See Narration.
There are four properties required in a good narra¬
tion ; that it be ftiort, clear, probable, and pleafant.
1. The brevity of a narration is not to be judged
of barely from its length : for that may be too long,
which contains but a little; and that too ftiort, which
comprehends a great deal. Wherefore this depends
upon the nature of the fubjeft, fince fome things re¬
quire more words to give a juft reprefentation of them,
and others fewer. That may properly therefore be
called a Jlort narration^ which contains nothing that
could .well have been omitted, nor omits any thing
which was neceffary to be faid. Now, in order to
avoid both thefe extremes, care ftiould be taken not
to go farther back in the account of things, nor to
trace them down lower, than the fubjedt requires; to
fay that only in the general, which does not need a
more particular explication ; not to afiign the caufes
of things, when it is enough to ftiow they were done;
and to omit fuch things as are fufficiently underftood,
from what either preceded, or was confequent upon
them. But the orator ftiould be careful, left, while
he endeavours to avoid prolixity, he run into obfeu-
rity. Horace was very fenfible of this danger, when
he faid:
By driving to be ftiort, I grow cbfcure.
2, Perfpicuity. This may juftly be efteemed the
chief excellency of language. For as the defign of
fpeech is to communicate our thoughts to others, that
muft be its greateft excellence which contributes moft
to this end; and that, doubtlefs, is perfpicuity. As
perfpicuity therefore is requifite in all difeourfe, fo it
is particularly ferviceable in a narration, which con¬
tains the fubftance of all that is to be faid afterwards.
Wherefore, if this be not fufficiently underftood, much
lefs can thofe things which receive their light from it.
Now the following things render a narration clear and
plain : Proper and fignificant words, whofe meaning
is well known and determined ; ftiort fentences, though
full and explicit, whofe parts are not perplexed, but
placed in their juft order ; proper particles to join the
fentences, and ftiow their conneftion and dependence
on each other; a due regard to the order of time, and
other circumftances neceffary to be expreffed ; and,
laftly, fuitable tranfitions.
3. Probability. Things appear probable when the
caufes affigned for them appear natural; the manner
in which they are deferibed is eafy to be conceived ;
the eonfequences are fuch as might be expe&ed;
the characters of the perfons are juftly reprefented;
3D 2 and
396
ORATORY.
TJifpofitlon. and the whole account is well attefted, confiftent v/!th
itfelf, and agreeable t j the general opinion. Simpli¬
city Likewife in the manner of relating a fadf, as well
in the ftyle, without any referve or appearance of
art, contributes very much to its credibility. For
truth loves to appear naked and open, ftript of all
colouring or difguife. The Confpiracy of Catiline
was fo daring and extravagant, that no one but fuch
a defperado could ever have undertaken it with any
hopes offuccefs. However, Cicero’s account of it to
the fenate was fo full and exaft, and fo well fuited to
the chara&er of the perfon, that it prefently gained
credit. And therefore, when, upon the conclufion of
Cicero’s fpeech, Catiline, who was prefent, imme¬
diately flood up, and defired they would not entertain
. fuch hard thoughts of him, but confider how much his
family had always been attached to the public intereft,
and the great fervices they had done the ftate ; their
refentments rofe fo high, that he could not be heard:
upon which he immediately left the city, and went to
his affociates.
4. The laft thing required in a narration is, that it
he pleafant and entertaining. And this is more diffi¬
cult, becaufe it doe* not admit of that accurate com-
pofition and pompous drefs which delight the ear,
and recommend feme other parts of a difeourfe. For
it certainly requires no fmall fkill in the fpeaker, while
he endeavours to exprefs every thing in the moft na¬
tural, plain, and eafy manner, not to grow flat and
tirefome. For Quintilian’s remark is very juft, that
the moft experienced orators find nothing in elo¬
quence more difficult, than what all who hear it fancy
they could have faid themfelves.” And the reafon of
this feems very obvious. For as all art is an imitation
of nature, the nearer it refembles that, the more per¬
fect it is in its kind. Hence unexperienced perfons
often imagine that to be eafieft which fuits beft with
thofe natural ideas to which they have been accuf-
tomed ; till, upon trial, they are convinced of their
miftake. Wherefore, to render this part of a difeourfe
pleafant and agreeable, recourfe muft be had to va¬
riety both in the choice of words and turns of the ex-
preffion. And therefore queftions, admirations, inter¬
locutions, imagery, and other familiar figures, help
very much to diverfify and enliven a narration, and
prevent it from becoming dull and tedious, efpecially
when it is carried on to any confiderable length.
Theufes of Having given a brief account of the nature and
narration, properties of a narration, we fhall now proceed to con¬
fider the ufes of it.
Laudatory orations are ufually as it were a fort of
continued narration, fet off and adorned with florid
language and fine images proper to grace the fubjtdf,
which is naturally fo well lilted to afford pltafure and
entertainment. Wherefore a fiparate narration is
more fuited to dtliberatme and judicial difeourfes. In
Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law (which is of the
former kind), the defign of the narration is to (how
the Roman people the neceffity of giving Pompey the
command ot the army againft king Mithridatee, by
reprefenting the nature of that war, which is done in
the following manner: “ A great and dangerous war
(fays he) threatens your revenues and allies from two
very powerful kings, Mithridates and Tigranes ; one
of whom not being puriutd after his defeat, and the
'Part If,
other provoked, they think they have an opportunity Oifpofitioru
to feize Afia. Letters are daily brought frona thofe —
parts to worthy gentlemen of the equeftriau order,
who have large concerns there in farming your reve¬
nues: they acquaint me, as friends, with the ftate of
the public affairs, and danger of their own ; that many
villages in Bithynia, which is now your province, are
burnt down; that the kingdom of Ariobarzanes, which
borders upon your revenues, is entirely in the enemy’s
power ; that Lucullus, after feveral great vi£tories, is
withdrawn from the war ; that he who fucceeds him
is not able to manage it; that all the allies and Ro¬
man citizens wifh and delire the command of that war
may be given to one particular perfon ; and that he
alone, and no other, is dreaded by the enemies. You
fee the ftate of the cafe ; now coniider what ought to
be done.” Here is an unhappy feene of affairs, which
feemed to call for immediate reurefs. T he caufes and
reafons of it are affigned in a very probable manner,
and the account well attefted by perfons of charadter
and figure. And what the confequences would be, if
not timely prevented, no one could Wj.11 be ignorant.
The only probable remedy fuggefted in general is, the
committing that affair to one certain perfon, which
he afterwards fhows at large could be no other than
Pompey. But in Cicero’s defence of Milo (which is
of the judicial kind), the dtfign of the narration,
which is greatly commended by Qjj’ntilian, is to prove
that, in the combat between Clodius and Milo, the
former was the aggreflbr. And in order to make this
appear, he gives a fummary account of the condudi of
Clodius the preceding year ; and from the courfe of
his adlions and behaviour, {how's the inveterate hatred
he bore to Milo, who obftru&cd him in his wicked
dtfigns. For which caufe he had often threatened to
kill him, and given out that he fhould not live be¬
yond fuch a time : and accordingly he went from
Rome without any other apparent reafon, hut that he
might have an opportunity to attack him in a conve¬
nient place near his own houfe, by which he knew
Milo was then obliged to paffi. Milo was in the fe¬
nate that day, where he ftaid till they broke up, then
went home, and afterwards fet forward on his journey.
When he came to the place in which he was to be
aflaulted, Cloiius appeared every way prepared for
fuch a defign, being on horfeback, and attended with
a company of defperate ruffians ready to execute his .
commands; whereas Milo was with his wife in a cha¬
riot, wrapped up in his cloak, and attended with fer-
vants of both fexes. Thefe were all circumitancee
which preceded the fadf. And as t*» the adtion itfclf,
with the event of it, the attack, as Cicero lays, was
begun by the attendants of C lodius from an higher
ground, who killed Mi o’s coachman : upon v* hich
Milo, throwing off his cloak, leaped out, and made a
brave defence againft Clodius’s men, who were got
about the chariot.. But Clodius, in the heat of the
fkirmifti, giving out that Milo was killed, was himt.lf
flain by the fervants ®f Milo, to avenge, as they
thought, the death of their mafter. Here fetms to
be all the requilites proper to n.ake this account cre¬
dible. Clodius’s open and avowed hatred of Milo,
which proceeded fo far as to threaten his lire ; the
time of his leaving Rome; the convenience of the
place ; his habit and company fo d.fiertnt irom thofe
of
part II. O R A T
Difpofition of Milo; joined with his known charafter of a moft
u M pro0igate und audacious wretch, could not but render
it very probable that he had formed that defign to
kill Milo. And which of them began the attack
might very reafonably be credited from the advanced
ground on which Clodius and his men were placed ;
the death of Milo's coa hinan at the leginning of the
combat ; the fkirmilh afterwards at the chariot ; and
the reafon of Clodius s own death at la ft, which does
not appear to have been imended, till he had given out
that Milo was killed.
But a diftindt and feparate narration is not always
xieceflary in any kind of difeourfe. For if the matter
be well known before, a fet and formal narrative will
be tedious to the hearers. Or if one pafty has done
it already, it is needlefs for the other to repeat it.
But there are three occafions efpecially, in which it
may feem very requifiter, when it will bring light to
the fubjedl; when different accounts have already been
given out concerning it ; or when it has been milre-
pieferted by the adverfe party. If the point in con-
troverfy be of a dubious nature, or not fufficiently
known to the hearers, a diftindb account 01 the matter,
with the particuiar circumftances attending it, muft
be very ferviceable, in order to let them into a true
ftate of the cafe, and enable them to judge of it with
greater certainty.
Moreover, where the oppefrte party has fet the
matter in a falfe light by iome artlui and invidious
turn, or loaded it with any odious circumftancts, it
feems no lefs necefiaty that endeavours fhouki be ufed
to remove any ill imprefiions, which otherwife might
remain upon the minus of the hearers, by a different
and more favourable reprefentation. And if any thing
can be fixed upon to make the contrary account ap¬
pear abfurd or incredible, it ought particularly to be
remarked. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Sextus
Rofcius, fhows that he was many miles diftunt from
Rome at the time he was charged with having killed
his father there. “ Now (fays he), while Sextus Ro¬
fcius w'as at / -meria, and this 1 itus Rofcius [his ac~
CMfer'] at Rome, Sextus Rofcius [the jut her] was killed
at the baths on Mount Palatine, returning from fupper.
From whence 1 hope there can be no doubt who ought
to be fufpe&ed of the murder And, were not the
thing plain of itfelf, there is this farther fufpicion to
fix it upon the profecutor ; that, atterthe fadt was
committod, one Manlius Glam ia, an obfcure fellow,
the frecdrmn, client, and famili r, of this Titus Ro.
feius, tirft carried the account of it to Ameria, not to
the fon of the deceafed, but to the houfe of Titus
Capito his enemy with more to the fame purpofe.
But what we bring it for is, to fhow the ufe which
Cicero makes of this narration lor retorting the crime
Upon the profecutors.
But the oratoi fhonld be very careful, in condudfing
this part, to avoid everything which may prejudice the
caufe he efpoufes. Falkhood, and a nnlr< preientation
of fadts, are not to ! e jutbikd ; hut no one is obliged
to fay thofe thirn s whicn may hurt hirrfelf. Wt fhajl
juft mention one inftance ot this from Cicero, where
he has fhown great fkili in this teipedf, in pie,ding
before Caelar lor the pardon ol Iffgarius, who had
joined with Pompey id the civil war. For Ligarius,
having been repreiented by the advtrle party as an
o r y. 397
enemy to Csefar, and fo efteemed by Csefar hrmfelf; Difyofuion.
Cicero very artfully endeavours in his narration to
take off the force of this charge, by (bowing, that,
when the war firll broke out, he refufed to engage in
it; which he would not have done- had he borne any
peifonal hatred to Caefar. “Quintus Ligarius (fays
he), before there was any fufpicion oi a war, went into
Africa as a legate to the proconful Caius Confidius ;
in which he fo approved himfelt, both to tae Roman
citizens and allies, that, when Confidius left the pro¬
vince, the inhabitants would not be fatisfied he (hould
leave the government in the hands of any other per-
fon. Therefore Quintus Ligarius having excufed him-
fclf in vain for feme time, accepted oi the government,
againft his will; which he fo managed curing the
peace, that both the citizens and allies were greatly
pleafed with his integrity and jurtice. The war broke
out on a fudden, which thofe in Africa did not hear
of till it was begun : but upon the news of it, partly
through inconfiderate hafte, and partly from blind
fear, they looked out for a leader, firft for their own
fa ety, and then as tin y were affe&ed; when Ligarius,
thinking of home, and dtfuous to return to his friends^
would not he prevailed on to engage in any affairs.
In the mean time, Publius Ac< ius Varus, the praetor,,
who w s formerly governor of Africa, coming to Lti-
ca, recoutfe was immediately had to him, who very
eagerly took upon himfelf the government; if that ^
can be called a which was conferred on a
private man by the clamour of the ignorant multitude,
without any public authority. Ligarius, tnerefore,
who endeavoured to avoid every thing of that kind,
ceafed to a£t foon after the arrival of Varus.’ Here
Cicero ends his narrative. For though Ligai ius after¬
wards joined with Pompey's party, yet to have men»
tioned that, which was nothing more than what many
others had done, whom Csefar had already pardoned,
could have ferved only to increafe his difpieafure
againft. him. And therefore he doubtiefs (bowed
great (kill in fo managing Ivs account, as te take
off the main force of the acculation, and by that
means make way for his pardon, which he accordingly
obtained.
Chap. III. Of the Propofition.
In every juft and regular difeourfc, the fpeaker propo*
.intention is to prove or illuftrate fomething. And^h^^®
when he lays down the fubjeft upon which he defignsex, rt^s
to treatj in a diftindt and exprefs manner, tnis is calledrnan er 0f
the proportion. laying
Orators ufe fcveral ways in laying down the fnljeAdown die
of their difeourfes. Sometimes they do it in one ge-^j^^
neral propofiuon. We have an inftance of this in0/at0
Cicero’s fpeech to the fenate, the day alter CaeLr was means
killed (as it is given us by Dion Caffius), in whichticat*
his defign was to perfuade them to peace and unani¬
mity. “ ibis (fays he) being the ftate of our
affairs, I think it neceffary that we lay alide all the
difcord and enmity which have been among us, and
return again to our iormer peace and agreement.”
And then he proceeds to offer his reafons for this
advice.
At other times, to give a clearer and more diftinfF
view ol their difeourfe, they fubjoin to the propofition
, th&-
398 ORATORY.
pfpt-fuion.tlie genmllieads of argument by which they endea- them in the order at firfl: laid down
This method Cicero ufes in his
19
When the
fubjedt re¬
fers to feve
is called a
partition.
vour to fupport it. This method Cicero ufes
feventh Philippic, where he fays, “ I who have always
commended and advifed to peace, am againft a peace
with Mark Antony. But why am I averfe to peace?
Becaufe it is bafe, becaufe it is dangerous, and becaufe
it is impra&icable. And I befeech you to hear me
with your ufual candour, while I make out thefe three
things.”
But when the fubjeft relates to feveral different
things, which require each of them to be feparately
rai'differerttaid down in diftindt propofitions, it is called a parti-
things, and tion ; though fome have made two kinds of partition,
requires to one 0f which they call feparation, and the other enu-
eTw i'n aeration. By the former of thefe, the orator fhows
diftimft pro- *n what he agrees with his adveffary, and wherein he
pofitions, itdiffers from him. So, in the cafe formerly mentioned,
of a perfon accufed of facrilege for Healing private
money out of a temple, he who pleads for the defen¬
dant fays, “ He owns the fadt; hut it being private
money, the point in queftion is, Whether this be facri¬
lege ?” And in the caufe of Milo, Cicero fpeaking of
Clodius, fays, “ The point which now comes before
the court, is not, Whether he was killed or not ; that
we confefs : but, Whether juftly or unjuftly.” Now
in reality here is no partition, fmee the former branch
of the propofition is what is agreed upon, and given
up ; and confequently it is only the latter that remains
to be difputed. It is called enumeration, when the ora¬
tor acquaints his hearers with the feveral parts of his
difeourfe upon which he defigns to treat. And this
alone, properly fpeaking, is a partition. Thus Cicero
Hates his plea in his defence of Muraena : “ 1 perceive
the accufation confiHs of three parts: the firH refpedls
-the conduft of his life ; the fecond his dignity; and
the third contains a charge of bribery.”
There are three things requifite in a good parti¬
tion ; that it be Jhort, complete, and confift but of a Jew
inemlers.
A partition is faid to be Jhort, when each propofi-
tion contains in it nothing more than what is neceffary.
So that the brevity here required is different from that
of a narration ; for that confiHs chiefly in things, this
in words. And, as Quintilian juftly obferves, brevity
feems very proper here, where the orator does not fhow
what he is then fpeaking of, but what he defigns to
difeourfe upon.
Again, it ought to be complete and perfedl. And
for this end, care muH be taken to omit no neceflary
part in the enumeration.
But, however, there fhould be as few heads as is
confiflent with the nature of the fubjedt. The ancient
rhetoricians preferibe three or four at the moft. And
we do not remember that Cicero ever exceeds that
number. But it is certain, the fewer they are, the
better, provided nothing necefiary be omitted For
too large a number is both difficult of retention, and
apt to introduce that confufion which partition is de-
figned to prevent.
Hitherto we have been fpeaking only of thofe heads
into which the fubjeft or general argument of the dif¬
eourfe is at firft divided. For it is fometfmes conve¬
nient to divide thefe again, or at leafl fome of them,
into feveral parts or members. And when this hap¬
pens, it is bell done, as the fpeaker conies to each of
Part II.
by which*'means Oi'pofltien.
the memory of the hearers will be lefs burdened than —--Y——1
by a multitude of particulars at one and the fame time.
Thus Cicero, in his oration for the Manilian law, com-
prifes what he defigns to fay under three general heads.
“ FirH (fays he) I ftrall fpeak of the nature of the
war, then of its greatnefs, and laftly about the choice
of a general,” And when he comes to the firH of
thefe, he divides it again into four branches ; and
Hiows, “ how much the glory of the Romans, the
fafety of their allies, their greateH revenues, and the
fortunes of many of their citizens, were all concerned
in that war.” The fecond head, in which he confiderl
the greatnefs of the war, has no divilion. But when
he comes to the third head, concerning the choice of
a general, he divides that likewife into four parts ;
and fhows, that fo many virtues arc neceflary in a con-
fummate general, fuch an one as was proper to have
the management of that war, namely,^//in military
affairs, courage, authority, and fuccefs t all which he at¬
tributes to Pompey. And this is the fcheme of that
celebrated oration. <
This fubdividing, however, flrould never have place
but when it is abfolutely neceffary. To fplit a fub-
jeft into a great many minute parts, by divifions and
fubdivifions without end, has always a bad effedt in
fpeaking. It may be proper in a logical treatife ; but
it makes an oration appear hard and dry, and unne-
ceflarily fatigues the memory. In a fermon, there
may be from three to five, or fix heads, including
fubdivifions j feldom ftiould there be more.
Further, fome divide their fubjed into two parts, Neg^e
and propofe to treat upon it negatively and pojitively; ar.ci pofi-
by fliowing firft what it is not, and then what it is. hvc divi-
But while they are employed to prove what it is not,
they are not properly treating upon that, but fome- ^
thing elfe ; which feems as irregular as it is unnecef-
fary. For he who proves what a thing is, does at the
fame time Alow what it is not. However, in fad,
there is a fort of divifion by affirmation and negation,
which may fometimes be conveniently ufed. As if a
perfon, charged with killing another, Ihould thus Hate
his defence : I had done right if / had killed him, but
I did not kill him. Here indeed, if the latter can be
plainly made to appear, it may feem needlcfs to infill
upon the former. But if that cannot be fo fully pro¬
ved, but there may be room left for fufpicion, it may
be proper to make ufe of both : for all perfons do
not fee things in the fame light, and he who believes
the fad, may likewife think it juft; while he who
thinks it unjuft, may not believe it, but rather fup-
pofe, had it really been committed by the party, he
w'ould not have denied it, fince he looked upon it as
defenfible. And this method of proceeding, Quinti¬
lian compares to a cuftom often ufed in traffic, when
perfons make a large demand at firft, in order to gain
a reafonable price. Cicero ufts this way of reafoning
in his defence of Milo; but in the contrary order:
that is, he firft anfwers the charge ; and then juftifiea
the fad, upon the fuppofition that the charge was
true. For he proves, firfl, that Clochus was the ag-
greflbr; and not Milo, as the contrary party had af-
ferted : and then to give the greater advantage to his
caufe, he proceeds to ftrow, that if Milo had been the
aggreflbr, it would however have been a glorious ac-
4 tion
Partll. ORATORY.
p;rp.r,tion.tion to take off fuch an abandoned wretch, who wat thod different front them both.
w-y—^ not only a common enemy to mankind, but had hke-
wife often threatened his life.
A good and juft partition is attended with conhde-
rable advantages. For it gives both light and orna¬
ment to a difcourfe. And it is alfo a great relief to
the hearers, who, by means of thefe ftops and reits,
are much better enabled to keep p-jce with the fpeaker
without confufion, and by carting their thoughts
either way, from what has been faid, both know and
are prepared for what is to follow. And as perfons,
in travelling a road with which they are acquainted,
go on with greater pleafure and lefs fatigue, becaufe
they know how far it is to their journey’s end ; to to
be apprifed of the fpeaker’s defxgn, and the feveral
parts of his difcourfe which he propofes to treat on,
contributes very much to relieve the hearer, and keep
up his attention. This muft appear very evident to
all who confider how difficult it is to attend long and
clofely to one tiling, efpecially when we do not know
how long it may be before we are like to be releafed.
Whereas, when we are before-hand acquainted with
the fcheme, and the fpeaker proceeds regularly from
one thing to another, opportunity is given to eale the
mind, by relaxing the attention, and recalling it again
when neceflary. In a fermon, or in a pleading at
the bar, few things are of greater confequence than
a proper or happy divifton. It ffiould be ftudied with
much accuracy and care; for if one take a wrong
method at firlt fetting out, it will lead them aftray in
all that follows. It will render the whole difcourfe
either perplexed or languid ; and though the hearers
may not be able to tell where the fault or diforder
lies, they will be fenfible there is a diforder fome-
where, and find themfelves little affeded by what it
fpokcn. The French writers of fermons ftudy neat-
nefs and elegance in the divifion of their fubjedts
much more than the Engliffi do ; whofe diftributions,
though fenfible and juft, yet are often inartificial and
verbofe.
Chap. IV. Of Confirmation.
Confirms- The orator having acquainted his hearers, in the
♦.ion isufed propofition. with the fubjeft on which he dehgns to
•or the ar- jifcourfe, ufually proceeds either to prove or illuftrate
what he has there laid down. For fome difcourfes
require nothing more than an enlargement or ill nitra¬
tion, to fet them in a proper light, and recommend
them to the hearers; for which reafon, hkewife,
they have often no diftina propofition. But where
arguments are brought in defence of the fubjeft, this
is properly confirmation For, as Cicero defines it,
“ confirmation is that which gives proof, authority,
and fupport to a caufe, by reafoning.” And for this
end, if any thing in the propofition feems oblcure, or
liable to be mifunderftood, the orator firft takes care
to explain it, and then goes on to offer fuch arguments
for the proof of it, and reprefent them in fuch a
light, as may be moft proper to gain the affent of his
hearers.
But here it is proper to obferve, that there are
different ways of reafoning fuited to different arts.
The mathematician treats his fubjed after another
wanner than the logician^ and the orator in a me*
for the ar
guments
brought in
defence of
a fubjedt.
'396
Two methods of Difpofition.
reafoning are employed by orators, the fynthetic and l_" v
analytic. . Svnthetie
I. Every piece of fynthetic reafoning m ay be re- rJafon;nj,
folved into a fyllogifm or feries of fyllogifms, (fee To- may alway®-
gic.) Thus we may reduce Cicero’s argument, byberefolved
which he endeavours to prove that Clodius affaulted imo a fyJo-
Mil©, and not Milo Clodius, to a fyllogifm in thi8^esoffyll0~
manner: gifms.
He ivas the aggrejfor, ivhofe advantage it was to hid
the other.
But it was the advantage of Clodius to kill Miloy and
not Milo to hill him. rr i a
Therefore Clodius was the aggrejfor, or he ajjaultcd'
Milo.
The thing to he proved was, that Clodius affaulted
Milo, which therefore comes in the conclufion : and
the argument, by which it is proved, is taken from
the head of profit or advantage. Thus the logician,
would treat this argument ; and if either of the pre-
mifes were queftioned, he would fupport it with ano¬
ther fyllogifm. But this fliort and dry way of rea-
foning does not at all fuit the orator : who not only
for variety changes the order of the parts, beginning
fometimes with the minor, and at other times with the
conclufion, and ending with the major ; but likewife
clothes each part with fuch ornaments of expreffion
as are proper to enliven the fubjedt, and render it
more agreeable and entertaining. And he frequently
fubjoins, either to the major propofition, or minor*,
and fometimes to both, one or more arguments to fup¬
port them ; and perhaps others to confirm or illuftrate
them as he thinks it requifite. Therefore, as a logi¬
cal fyllogifm conlifts of three parts or propofitions*
a rhetorical fyllogifm frequently contains four, and
many times five parts. And Cicero reckons this laffc
the moft complete. But all that is faid in confirma¬
tion of either of the premifes is accounted but as one
part. This will appear more evident by examples.
By a ftiort fyllogifm Cicero thus proves, that the
Carthaginians were not to be trufted : “ Thofe who.
have often deceived ns, by violating their engage¬
ments, ought not to be trufted. For if we receive
any damage by their treachery, we can blame no
body but ourfelves. But the Carthaginians have often
fo deceived us. T herefore it is madnefs to truft them.
Here the major propofition is fupported by a reafon.
The minor needed none ; becaufe the treachery of the
Carthaginians was well known. So that this fyllogifm
confifts of four parts. But by a fyllogifm of five parts
he proves fomewhat more largely and elegantly, that-
the world is under the direaion of a wife governor.
The major is this : “ Thofe things are better governed
which ate under the ditedtion of witdom, than thofe
which are not.” This he proves by fevtral inftances ?
« A houfe managed with prudence has every thing in
better order, and more convenient) than that which
is undei no regulation. An army commanded by a
wife and fkilful general is in all refpe&s better go¬
verned than one which has a fool or a madman at the
head of it. And the like is to be faid of a ffiip, which
performs her courfe bell under the dire&ion of a fkil¬
ful pilot.” I hen he proceeds to the minor thus s
But nothing is better governed than the univerfe.”
400 O II A T
Difytifiticn, Which he proved m thia manner: “ The'rifing and fet-
- ting af the heavenly bodies keep a certain determined
order ; and the fevetal feafons of the year do not only
necefTarily return in the fame manner, but are fuited
to the advantage of the whole ; nor did the viciffi-
tudes of night and day ever yet become prejudicial,
by altering their courfe.” From all which he con¬
cludes, “ That the world mull be under the direction
of a wife governor.” In both thefe examples, the
regular order of the parts is obferved. We (hall
therefore produce another, in which the order is di-
reftly contrary ; for beginning with the eonclufion,
he proceeds next to the minor propofition, and fo
ends with the major. In his defence of Coelius, his
delign is to prove that Ceelius had not led a loofe and
vicious life, with which his enemies had charged
him. And this he does, by fhowing he had dofely
followed his ftudies, and was a good orator. This
may probably at firll fight appear but« weak argu¬
ment ; though to him who confiders what Cicero
everywhere declares necelfary to gain that chara&er,
it may perhaps be thought otherwife. The fenfe of
what he fays here may be reduced to this fyllogifm.
Thofe who have purfued the jhidy of oratoryt fo as
to excel in it, cannot have led a loofe and vicious
life
But Ccelius has done this.
Therefore his enemies charge him wrongfully.
° R Y. Part II.
ters perfons from the labour and ftudy of oratory} notfli'pofidon.
their want of genius or education.”
2. By Enthymem. But orators do not often ufe 0 33
complete fyllogifms, but moft commonly enthymems. noToften*
An enthymem, as is (hows eifewbere, is an Imperfe&ufc com-
fyllogifm, confiding of two parts ; the conclufion,Plete
and one of the premifes. And in this kind of fyllo-
gifm, that propofition is omitted, whether it be themooly
major or minor, which is fufficiently manifeft of it*Perfe&
felf, and may cafily be fupplied by the hearers. Buton<ps’ call«i
the propoficion that is expreffed is ufually called
antecedent, and .the conclufion the confequeni. So if the
major of that, fyllogifm be omitted, by which Cicero
endeavours to prove that Clodius affaulted Milo, it
will make this enthymem :
The death of Milo would have been an advantage to
Clodius.
Therefore Clodius was the aggrejfor; or, therefore
he affaulted Milo.
In like manner that other fyllogifm above-mentioned,
by which he {hows that the Carthaginians ought not
to be trufted, by omitting the minor, may be reduced
to the following enthymem :
Thfe who have often broke their faith ought not to
be trufied.
For which reafon the Carthaginians ought not to be
trufled.
But let us hear Cicero himfelf. He begins with the
conclufion, thus : “ Ccelius is not chargeable with
-profufenefs, extravagancy, contrafting of debts, or
intemperance, a vice which age is fo far from abating,
■that it rather increafes it. Nay, he never engaged in
amours, and thofe pleafures of youth, as they are
called, which are foon thrown off, as reafon prevails.”
Then he proceeds to the minor, and {hows from the
effefls, that Ccelius had clofely applied himfelf to the
beft arts, by which he means thofe neceffary for an
orator: “You have now heard him make his own
defence, and you formerly heard him engaged in a
-profecution (I fpeak this to vindicate, not to applaud
him), you could not but perceive his manner of
fpeaktng, his ability, his good fenfe, and command
of language. Nor did he only difeover a good genius,
which will oftentimes do much of itfelf when it is
aot improved by induflry ; but what he faid (if my
affection for h did not bias my judgment) appeared
to be the effeA of learning, application, and ftudy.”
And then he comes to the major: “But be affured, that
thofe vices charged upon Coelius, and the iludies upon
which I am now difeourfing, cannot meet in the fame
perfon. For it is not poffible that a mind, difturbed by
fuch irregular padfrons, Ihould be able to go through
what we orators do, I do not mean only in fpeaking,
but even in thinking.” And this he proves by an
argument taken from the fcarcity of good orators.
“ Can any other reafon be imagined, why fo few,
both now, and at all times, have engaged in this
province, when the rewards of eloquence are fo mag¬
nificent, and it is attended with fo great delight, ap-
plaufe, glory, and honour ? All pleafures muft be ne¬
glected ; diverfions, recreations, and entertainments
omitted ; and even the converfation of all our friends
rouil in a manner be laid afute. This it is which dc-
N? 25c.
Every one would readily fupply the minor, fince the
perfidioufnefs of the Carthaginians was known to a
proverb. But it is reckoned a beauty in enthymems,
when they confift of contrary parts: becaufe the
turn of them rs moft acute and pungent. Such is that
of Micipfa in Salluft: “ What ftranger will be faith¬
ful to you who are an enemy to your friends ?” And
fo likewife that of Cicero for Milo, fpeaking of Go*
dius : “ You fit as avengers of his death ; whole life
you would not reftore, did you think it in your
power.” Orators manage enthymems ia the fame
manner they do fyllogifms; that is, they invert the
order of the parts, and confirm the propofition by one
or more reafons : and therefore a rhetorical enthymem
frequently confifts of three parts, as a fyllogifm loes
of five. Though, ftri&ly fpeaking, a fyllogifm can
confift of no more than three parts, and an ^nthymem
but of tiyo : and the arguments brought to fupport
either of the propofitions con dilute lb many new
enthymems, of which the part they are defigned to
prove is the conclufion. To illuftrate this by an
example:
An honejl man thinks himfelf under the highejl obligam
tion to his country.
Therefore he fhouldfhun no danger to ferve it.
In this enthymem the major is wanting, which would
run thus : “ He who is under the higheft obligations
to another, ftiould ftmn no danger in order to ferve him.”
This laft propofition is founded upon the common
principle of gratitude } which requires that, to the
utmoft of our power, a return {hould be made in pro¬
portion to the kindnefs received. And this being a
maxim generally allowed, it is omitted by the orator.
But now this enthymem, confifting of the minor and
concluiion, might be managed in fome fuch manner
aa
Part If. ORA
lijfpofition a3 this, beginning with the conclufion : “ An honeft
man ought to fhun no danger, but readily expofe his
life for the fafety and prelervation of his country.”
Then the reafon of this conduft might be added,
which is the antecedent of the enthymem, or minor
of the fyllogifm : “ For he is fenfible, that his obliga“
tions to his country are fo many, and fo great, that
he can never fully requite them.” And this again
might be confirmed by an enumeration of particulars :
“ He looks upon himfelf as indebted to his country for
every thing he enjoys ; for his friends, relations, all
the pleafures of life, and even for life itfelf.” Now
the orator calls this one enthymem, though in reality
there are two : For the fecond reafon, or argument,
added to the firft, becomes the antecedent of a new
enthymem, of which the firft reafon is the confequent.
And if thefe two enthymems were expreffed feparately
in the natural order of the parts, the former would
ftand thus : “ An honeft man thinks himfelf under
the higheft obligations to his country ; therefore he
ought to Ihun no danger for its prefervation.” The
latter thus : “An honeft man efteems himfelf in¬
debted to his country for every thing he enjeys ;
therefore he thinks he is under the higheft obligations
to it.” 1 he fame thing might be proved in the like
way of reafoning, by arguments of a different kind,
brom .comparifon, thus: “ As it would be thought
bafe and ungrateful in a fbn not to hazard himfelf for
the prefervation of his father ; an honeft man muft
certainly efteem it fo when his country is in danger.”
Or from an example, in this manner ; “ An honeft
man in like circumftances would propofe to himfelf
the example of Decius, who freely gave up his life
for the fervice of his country. He gave up his life
indeed, but did not lofe it ; for he cannot be faid to
have loft his life, who lives in immottal honour.”
Orators frequently intermix fuch arguments to adorn
and illuftrate their fubjeft with others'taken from the
nature and circumftances of things. And now, if we
con fid er a little this method of reafoning, we fhall
find it the moft plain and eafy imaginable. For when
any propofition is laid down, and one or more reafons
fubjoined to prove it, each reafon joined with the pro¬
pofition makes a diftindf enthymem, of which the pro-
pofition is the conclufion. Thus Cicero, in his feventlr
Philippic, lays down this as the foundation of his dif-
courfe, “ 1‘hat he is againft a peace with Mark An¬
tony for which he gives three reafons : “ Becaufe
it is bafe, becaufe it is dangerous, and becaufe it is
imprafticable.” Thefe feverally joined with the pro¬
pofition, form three enthymems ; and upon each of
thefe he difcourfes feparately, which make up that
oration. And this method is what perfons for the
moft part naturally fall into, who know nothing of
the terms fyl/ogifm or enthymem. They advance fome-
thing, and think of a reafon to prove it, and another
perhaps to fupport that; and, fo far as their invention
will affift them, or they are matters of language, they
endeavour to fet what they fay in the plaineft light,
give it the beft drefs, embellifh it with proper figures
and different turns of expreffion ; and, as they think
convenient, illuftrate it with fimilitudes, comparifons,
and the like ornaments, to render it meft agreeable,
till they think what they have advanced fufficiently
proved. As this method of arguing therefore is the
V®L. XIII. Part II.
T O R Y. 4or
moft plain, eafy, and natural; fo it is what is moft Difpofition
commonly ufed in oratory. Whereas a ftrift fyllo-'—  '
, giftical way of difeourfing is dry and jejune, cramps
the mind, and does not admit of thofe embellifhments
of language which are a great advantage to the ora¬
tor : for which reafon he feldom ufes complete fyllo-
gifms ; and when he does, it is with great latitude.
In every difeourfe care fhould be taken not to blend
arguments confufedly together that are ofafeparate
nature. “ All arguments (fays the elegant Dr Blair)
are direfted to prove one or other of thefe three thino-s;
that fomething is true ; that it is morally right or fit;
or that it is profitable and good. Thefe make the
three great fubjefts of difeuffion among mankind ;
truth, duty, and intereft. But the arguments directed
towards any one of them are generically diftin<ft ; and
he who blends them all under one topic, which he calls
his argument, as, in fermons efpecially, is too often
done, will render his reafoning indiftindl and inele¬
gant. Suppofe, for inftance, that I am recommend¬
ing to an audience benevolence, or the love of our
neighbour; and that I take my firft argument from ■
the inward fatisfadlion which a benevolent temper af¬
fords ; my fecond, from the obligation which the ex¬
ample of Chrift lays upon us to this duty; and my
third, from its tendency to procure us the good-will
of all around us ; my arguments are good, but I have
arranged them wrong : for my firft "and third argu¬
ments are taken from confiderations of intereft, inter¬
nal peace, and external advantages; and between
thefe, I have introduced one, which refts wholly up¬
on duty. I fhould have kept thofe clafles of argu¬
ments, which are addreffed to different principles in
human nature, feparate and diPcinft.” " ri
II- The other method of reafoning is the analytic,The analg¬
in which the orator conceals his intention concerningtic metho<i
the point he is to prove, till he has gradually brought
his hearers to the defigned conclufion. They are led the far?'//
on, ftep by itep, from one known truth to another, with the
till the conclufion be ftolen upon them, as the naturalSocratic'
confequence of a chain of propofitions. As, for in¬
ftance, when one intending to prove the being of a
Crod, fets out with obferving that every thing which
we fee in the world has had a beginning; that what¬
ever has had a beginning, muft have had a prior caufe ;
that in human productions, art ihown in the effeCt,
neccfiarily infers defign in the caufe ; and proceeds
leading you on from one caufe to another, till you ar¬
rive at one fupreme firft caufe, from whom is derived
all the order and defign vifible in his works. This is
much the fame with the Socratic method, by which
that philofopher filenced the fophifls of his age.
He proceeded by feveral queftions, which being fe¬
parately granted, the thing defigned to be inferred^was
afterwards put, which, by reafon of its fimilitude with
feveral cafes allowed before, could not be denied. But
this is a captious way of reafoning; for while the re-
fpondent is not aware of what is defigned to be infer¬
red, he is eafily induced to make thofe conceffions,
which otherwife he would not: Befides, it is not fo
well Anted to continued difcourfes, as to thofe which
are interlocutor) ; and therefore we meet with it bf-
teneft in the Socratic dialogues both of Plato and
Xenophon. However, it may be made ufe of in ora¬
tory by a figure called Jnljettwn, when the fame per-
3 E fon
402
0 R A T
35
May com¬
prehend
reafoning
■by example.
Difpofitior* fon fir ft, puts tfie quefiion, and then makes the anfwer.
go jn thc famous caufe of Epaminondas, general of
the Thebans, who was accufed for refufing to furren-
der his command to his fuccefibr appointed by the
ftate, till after he had engaged the enemy, and given
them a total defeat, Cicero thus reprefents his accu-
fer pleading for the words of the law againft Epami-
nondas, who alleged the intention of it in his defence:
“ Should Epaminondns add that exception to the law,
which, he fays, was the intention of the waiter, name-
ly, Except any one refufe to give up his command nvhen it
is for the inter eft of the public he Jhould not; would you
admit of it ? I believe not. S*%uld you yourfelves,
which is a thing moll remote from your juftice and
wifdom, in order to fereen him, order this exception
to be added to the law, without the command of the
people ; would the Thebans fuflfer it to be done ? No
certainly. Can it be right then to come into that,
as if it was written, which it would be a crime to
write ? I know it cannot be agreeable to your wifdom
to think fo.”
Under the analytic method may be comprehended
reafoning by example. Rhetoricians ufe this word in a
different fenfe from the common acceptation. For
that is ufually called an example, which is brought ei¬
ther to prove or illuftrate fome general affertion : As
if any one fhould fay, that human bodies may be brought
to fuftain the greatejl labours by ufe and exercife ; and in
order to prove this fhould relate what is faid of Milo
of Croton, that “ by the conflant praaice of carrying
a calf feveral furlongs every day, he could carry it as
far after it had grown to its full fize.” But in oratory
the word example is ufed for any kind of fimilitude ;
or, as Vofixus defines it, “ When one thing is inferred
from another, by reafon of the likenefs which appears
between them.” Hence it is called an imperfeS induc¬
tion, which infers fomething from feveral others of a
like nature, and has always the greatefl force when
the examples are taken from fadfs. Now fadls may
be compared with refpedt to fome agreement or fimi¬
litude between them, which in themfelves are either
equal or unequal. Of the former kind this is an in¬
fiance : “ Cato added as became a patriot and a lover
of his country’s liberty, in oppofing the arms of Cae-
far : and therefore fo did Cicero.” The reafon of the
inference is founded in the parity of the cafe, which
equally concerned all good fubjefts of th£ Roman go¬
vernment at that time. For all were alike obliged to
oppofe a common enemy, who endeavoured to fubveit
the conftitution, and fubjeft them to his own arbi¬
trary power. But though an example confifts in the
comparifon of two Angle fafts, yTet feveral perfons may
be concerned in each £a6l. Of this kind is that which
follows i 44 As Pompty, Csefar, and Crafius, afted il¬
legally in the firft triumvirate, by engroffing the foie
power into their own hands, and by that means vio¬
lating the public liberty; fo likewife did Auguftus,
Mark Antony, and Lepidus, in the fecond triumvi¬
rate, by purfuing the fame meafures.” But when Ci¬
cero defends Milo for killing Clodius, from the like
inftances of Ahala Servilius, Scipio Nafica, Lucius
Opimius, and others ; that is not an example, but an
induction : becaufe one thing is there inferred from its
fimilitude to feveral ethers. But when a comparifon is
O It Y. Part IF.
made between two fa£s that arc unequal, the inference Dlfpofition.
may be either from the greater to the lefs, or from the
lefs to the greater. From the greater to the lefs in this
manner: “ Csefar had no juil pretenfions to the Roman
government, and therefore much lefs had Antony.”
The reafon lies in the difference between the two per¬
fons. Csefar had very much enlarged the bounds of the
Roman empire by his conquefts, and greatly obliged
the populace by his generoiity ; but as he had always
a died by an authority from the fenate and people of
Rome, thefe things gave him no claim to a power
over them. Much lefs then had Antony any fuch
pretence, who always adled under Caefar, and had ne¬
ver performed any fignal fervices himfelf. Cicero has
deferibed the difference between them in a very beau¬
tiful manner in his fecond Philippic, thus fpeaking to
Antony : 44 Are you in any thing to be compared to
him ? He had a genius, fagacity, memory, learnings
care, thought, diligence ; he had performed great
things in war, though detrimental to the ftate ; he
had for many years defigned to get the government
into his hands, and obtained his end by much labour
and many dangers ; he gained over the ignorant mul¬
titude by public fhows, buildings, congiaiies, and
feafts i obliged his friends by rewards, and his ene¬
mies by a (how of clemency. In a word, he fuojeCled
a free ftate to flavery, partly through fear, and partly
compliance. I can liken you to him for ambition ot
power ; but in other things you are in no rcfptdl to
be compared with him.” By a comparifon from the
lefs to the greater, Cicero thus argues againft Cati¬
line : 44 Did the brave Scipio, when a private man, kill
Tiberius Gracchus, for attempting to weaken the
ftate ; and fhall we confuls bear with Catiline endea¬
vouring to deftroy the world by fire and fword ? T. nc
circuraftances of thefe two cafes were very different,
and the comparifon runs between a private man, and
a conful intruded with the higheft authority ; between
a defign only to raife a tumult, and a plot to deftroy
the government: whence the orator jutlly infers, that
what was efteemed lawful in one cafe, was much more
fo in the other. The like way of reafoning is fome-
times ufed from other fimilitudes, which may be^ ta-
ken from things of all kinds, whether animate or ina¬
nimate. Of the former fort is that of Cicero fpeak-
ing of Muraena, when candidate for the confulflaip, af¬
ter he had himfelf gone through that office : 44 If it is
ufual (fays he) for fuch perfons as are fafely arrived
in port, to give thofe who are going out the bed ac-
count they can with relation to the weather, pirates,
and coafts; becaufe thus nature diredls us to aflitt thofe
who are entering upon the lame dangers which we
ourfelves have efcaped : how ought I, who now after
a great ftorm am brought within a near profpect of
land, to be affefted towards him, who, I perceive, muff
be expofed to the greateft tempefts of the ftate ?” He
alludes to the late diiturbances and tumults occafioneii
by the confpiracy of Catiline, which had been fo hap¬
pily fuppreffed by him in the time of his confulate.
Of the latter kind is that of Quintilian: 44 As the
ground is made better and more fruitful by culture, to
is the mind by inftruaion.” There is both a beauty
and juftnefs in this fimile.
But comparifona are femetimes made between
Part II. ORA
Bifpofmon. and other things, in order to infer fome difference or
v—  oppofition between them. In comparing two fa&s,
on account of lorne dif'.greement and linlikenefs, the
inference is made from the difference between one and
the other in that particular refpeft only. As thus j
“ Though it was not efteemed cruelty in Brutus to
put his two fons to death, for endeavouring to betray
their country ; it might be fo in Manlius, who put
his fon to death, only for engaging the enemy with¬
out orders, though he gained the vi&ory.” The dif¬
ference between the two fa&s lies in the different na¬
ture of the crime. The fons of Brutus entered into a
confpiracy to betray their country ; and though they
mifcarried in it, yet the intention and endeavours they
ufed toaccomplifh it were criminal in the higheft de¬
gree. But young Manlius could only be charged
with rafhnefs. His defign was honourable, and in¬
tended for the intereft of his country ; only it was ir¬
regular, and might have proved of ill confequence to
military difcipline. Now in ail fuch cafes, the force
of the argument is the ftfonger the greater the diffe¬
rence appears. But the fame fads which differ in one
refpedl may agree in many others ; as in the exam¬
ple here mentioned. Brutus and Manlius were both
magiflrates as well as fathers ; they both killed their
fons, and that for a capital crime by the Roman law.
In any of which refpedfs they may be compared in a
' way of fimilitude . as, “ If Brutus might lawfully
put his fon to death for a capital crime, fo might
Manlius.” But now contrary fafts do not only differ
in fome certain refpeft, but are wholly oppofite to
each other; fo that what is affirmed of the one
mufi be denied of the other ; and if one be a virtue,
the other is a vice. Thus Cicero compares the con-
duff of Marcellus and VerreS in a way of oppofition.
Marcellus (fays he), who had engaged, if he took
Syracufe, to creff two temples at Rome, would not
beautify them with the fpoijs he had taken : Verres,
who had made no vows to Honour and Virtue, but
to Venus and Cupid, endeavoured to plunder the
temple of Minerva. The former would not adorn
the gods with the fpoils of other deities: the latter
carried the ornaments of Minerva, a virgin, into the
l.oufe of a {trumpet.” If therefore the condudt of
Marcellus was laudable and virtuous, that of Verres
muff bear the contrary character. But this way of
reafoning has likewife place in other refpefts. Thus
Cicero, in the quarrel between Casfar and Pompey, ad<-
vifed to peace from the difference between a foreign
and domeffic war: “ That the former might prove
beneficial to the ftate ; but in the latter, whichever
fide conquered, the public muff fuffer.” And thus
the ill efteffs of intemperance may be fhown in a way
of oppofition : “ That as temperance preferves the
health of the body, keeps up the vigour of the mind,
and prolongs life ; fo cxcefs muft neceffarily have the
contrary effeffs.”
Thus we have given a brief accwunt of the principal
ways of reafoning commonly made ufe of by orators.
As to the difpofition of arguments, or the order of pla¬
cing them, fome advil'e to put the weaker, which can¬
not wholly be omitted, in the middle: and fuch as are
ftronger, partly in the beginning, to gain the etteem
of the hearers and render them more attentive; and
partly at the end, becaufe what is laft heard is likely
TORY. 405
to be retained longell: But if there are hut two argu-Difpofnion,
ments, to place the ftronger firft, and then the wea- '■ v—■
ker ; and after that to return again to the former,and
infill principally upon that. But this muft be left to
the prudence of the fpeaker, and the nature of the
fubjeft. Though to begin with the ftrongeft, and fo
gradually defeend to the weakeft, can never be proper,
for the reafon laft mentioned. Nor ought arguments
to be crowded too clofe upon one another ; for that
takes off from their force, as it breaks in upon the at¬
tention of the hearers, and does not leave them fuffi-
cient time duly to confider them. Nor indeed fhould
more be ufed than are neceflary ; becaufe the fewet
they are, the more ealily they are remembered. And
the obfervation of a great mailer of eloquence upon
this fubjedl is certainly very juft, that arguments ought
rather to be weighed than numbered.
Chap. V. Of Confutation.
The forms of reafoning here are the fame as haveF°rms
been already explained under confrmation. Confuta- c°n^^“orl
tion, however, is often the more difficult tafk ; be-
eaufe he who is to prove a thing comes ufualiy pre- 0f confir-
pared ; but he who is to confute it is frequently left mat!on, but
to a fudden anfvver. For which reafon, in judicialmoTC^x~
cafes, Qumtilian fays, “ It is as much eafier to accufeCUl£’
than defend, as it is to make a wound than to heal it.”
Therefore, not only a good judgment, but a readinefs
of thought alfo, feems neceflary for this province.
But, in all diiputef, it is of the greateft confequence
to obferve where the ftrefs of the controverfy lies.
For without attending to this, perfons may cavil about
different matters without underftanding each other,
or deciding any thing. And in confutation, what the
adverfary has advanced ought carefully to be confider-
ed, and in what manner he has expreffed himfelf. As
to the things themfelves, whether they immediately
relate to the matter in difpute, or are foreign to it.
Thofe things that are foreign to the fubjedl may ei¬
ther be paft over in filence, or in a very few words
fhown to be infignificant. And there ought likewife
to be a diftin&ion made between fuch things as relate
to the fubjeil, according to their importance. TRcfe
that appear to have no great weight fhould be {light¬
ly remarked. For to infill largely upon fuch matters
is both tirefome to the hearers, and apt to bring the
judgment of the fpeakor into queftion. And there¬
fore things of that nature are generally better turned
off with an air of negleft, a pungent queftion, or an
agreeable jell, than confuted by a ferious and laboured
an fiver. But thofe things, which relate to the me¬
rits of the caufe, may be confuted either by contra-
diding them, or by {bowing fome mifake in the reafon¬
ing, or their invalidity when granted.
Things may be contradided feveral ways. What is
apparently falfe may be expreftly denied. Thus Cicero
in his defence of Cluentius : “ When the accufer had
faid, that the man fell down dead after he had drunk off
his cup, denies that he died that dayd’ And things
which the adverfary cannot prove, may likewife be
denied. Of which we have alfo an inftance in Cicero,
who firft upbraids Mark Antony as guilty of a breach
not only of good breeding, but likewife of friendfhip,
£pr reading publicly a private letter he had fent him.
3 E 2 And
4o4 oratory.
Difpofition. And then adds, “Bat what will you % now, if I
rJ fhould deny that ever 1 fent you that letter ? How will
you prove it ? By the hand-writing ? In which I con-
fefs you have a peculiar fkill, and have found the_ be
Riir hnw can vou make it out ? For it ii
nefit of it. But how can you make it out ? For it is
in my fecretary’s hand. I cannot but envy your maf-
ter who had fo great a reward for teaching you to un¬
derhand jult nothing. For what can be more unbe¬
coming not only an orator, but even a man? than for
any one to offer fuch things, which if the adverfary
denies, he has nothing more to fay ?” It is an hand-
fome way of cpntradidling a thing, by {bowing that
the adverfary himfelf maintained the contrary. So
when Oppius was charged with defrauding the fol-
diers of their provifions, Cicero refutes it, by proving,
that the fame perfons charged Oppius with a defign
to corrupt the army by his liberality. An adverfary
is never more effe&ually file need than when you can
fatten contradictions upon him ; for this is {tabbing
him with his pwn weapon. Sometimes a thing is not
in exprefs terms denied, but reprefented to be utterly
incredible. And this method expofes the adverfary
more than a bare denial. So when fome perfons re¬
proached Cicero with cowardice, and a fhametul fear
of death, he recites their reafons in fuch a manner,
that any one would be inclined to think the charge
entirely falfe. “ Was it becoming me (fays he) to
cxpeCt death with that compofednefs of mind as fome
have imagined ? Well, and did I then avoid it ? Nay,
was there any thing in the world that I could appre¬
hend more defirable ? Or when I had done the greatett
things in fuch a crowd of ill minded perfons about me,
do you think banilhment and death were not always
in my view, and continually founding in my ears as
my certain fate, while I was fo employed ? Was life
defirable when all my friends were in fuch forrow, and
myfelf in fo great diftrefs, deprived of all the gifts
both of nature and fortune ? Was I fo unexperienced,
fo ignorant, fo void of reafon and prudence? Had I
never feen nor heard any thing in my whole life ? Did
all I had read and ftudied avail nothing ? What ! did
not I know that life is (hort, but the glory of gene¬
rous a&ions permanent ? When death is appointed for
all, does it not feem eligible, that life, which mutt be
wrefted from us, fhould rather be freely devoted to the
fervice of our country, than referved to be worn out by
the decays of nature ? Was not 1 fenfible, there has
been this controverfy among the wifeft men, that fome
fay, the minds of men and their confciences utterly
perifh at death; and others, that the minds of wife
and brave men are then in their greateft ftrength and
vigour, when they are fet free from the body ? The
firft ftate is not greatly to be dreaded, to be void of
fenfe : but the other, of enjoying larger capacities, is
areally to be defired. Therefore, fince 1 always aimed
at dignity, and thought nothing was worth living for
without it ; how ttiould I, who am paft the conful-
(hip, and did fo great things in it, be afraid to die ? ’
Thus far Cicero. There is likewife an ironical way of
contradi&ing a thing, by retorting that and other
things of the like nature upon the adverfe party. Thus
Cicero, in his oration againft Vatinius, fays : “ You
have objefted to me, that I defended Cornelius, my
old friend, and your acquaintance. But ptay why
fhould I not have defended him ? Has Cornelius car-
Part IL.
ried any law contrary to the omens ? Has he violated Difpofition.
any law ? Has he affaulted the conful ? Did he take —
poffeffion of a temple by force of arms ? Did he drive
away the tribune, who oppofed the patting a law ? Has
he thrown contempt upon religion ? Has he plunder¬
ed the treafury ? Has he pillaged the ftate ? No, thefe,
all thefe, are your doings." Such an unexpected re¬
turn is fometimes of great fervice to abate the contt-
dence of an advetfary.
A fecond way of confutation is, by obferving fome
Jlanv in the reafouing of the adverfe party. We {hall
endeavour to iiluftrate this from the feveral kinds of
reafoning treated of before under confirmation. And
firft, as to fyllogifms ; they may be refuted, either by
{bowing fome miftake in the premifes, or tiiat the
conclufion is not juftly deduced from them. So when
the Clodian party contended, that Milo ought to fuf-
fer death for this reafon, Becaufe he had confetted that
he had killed Clodius ; that argument, reduced to a
fyllogifm, would ftand thus :
He who confsjes he has hilled another^ ought not to be
allowed to fee the light.
But Milo confeffes this.
Therefore he ought not to live.
Now the force of this argument lies in the major
or firft propofition ; which Cicero refutes, by proving,
that the Roman people had already determined con¬
trary t© what is there afferted : “ In what city (fays
he) do thefe men difpute after this weak manner ? In
that wherein the firft capital trial was in the cafe of the
brave Horatius, who, before the city enjoyed perfe&
freedom, was faved by the fuffrages of the Roman
people, though he confeffed that he killed his filler
with his own hand.” But when Cicero accufed Ver-
res for mal-adminiftration in his government of Sici¬
ly, Hortenfius, who defended him, being fenfible the
allegations brought againft him could not be denied,
had no ether way left to bring him off, but by plead¬
ing his military virtues in abatement, which at that
time were much wanted, and very ferviceabie to the
ftate. The form of the argument was this :
That the Romans then wanted good generals.
That Verres was fuch.
And confequentlyi that it was for the interejl of the
public that he Jhould not be condemned.
But Cicero, who knew his defign, ftates the argument
for him in his charge; and then anfwers it by deny¬
ing the confequence, iince the crimes ©f Verres were
of fo heinous a nature, that he ought by no means to
be pardoned on the account of any other qualifica¬
tions : Though indeed he afterwards refutes the mi¬
nor or fecond propofition, and {hows that he had not
merited the character of a good general. Enthymems
may be refuted, either by {bowing that the antecedent
is falfe, or the confequent not juftly inferred from it.
As thus, with refped to the former cafe :
A (IriS. adherence to virtue has often proved detriment
tat. , ,
Therefore virtue ought not conjantly to be embraced.
Here the antecedent may be denied. For virtue is al-
way beneficial to thofe who ftrialy adhere to it, both
in the prefent fatisfaftion it affords them, and the fu-
6 tme
Part H. ^
Difpofuion. ture rewards they may certainly expert from it
  v 1 as to the latter cafe, in this manner :
She is a mother.
Therefore foe loves her children.
Now as the certainty of that inference depends upon
this general affertion, That all mothers love their chil¬
dren, which is not true, the miftake of the reafoning
may be fhown from the inftance of Medea and others,
who deftroyed their own children. As to induction
and example, by which the truth or equity of a thing
is proved from its likenefs to one or more other things;
the reafoning in either is invalid, if the things fo com¬
pared can be fhown not to have that hmilitude, or
agreement on which the inference is founded. One in-
hance therefore may ferve for both. Asy^hen Cicero,
after the death of Csefar, pleaded for the continuance
of his laws, but not of thofe which were made after¬
wards by Mark Antony : Becaufe, though both were
in themfelves invalid, and impoiitions upon the public
liberty ; yet fome of Ciefar’s were ufeiul, and others
could not be fet afide without dillurbance to the ftnte,
and injuring particular perfona ; but thofe of Antony
were all detrimental to the public.
The laft method of confutation before-mentioned
was, when the orator does in Tome fenfe grant the ad-
verfary his argument, and at the fame time fliows its
invalidity. And this is done by a variety of ways, ac¬
cording to the different nature of the fubjefl. Some¬
times he allows what was faid may be true ; but pleads,
that what he contends for is neceffary. This was the
method by which Hortenfius pijopofed to bring off
Verres, as we have alteady fhown from Cicero, whofe
words are thefe, addreffing himfelf to the judges :
“ What fhall I do ? which way fhall I bring in my
accufation ? where fhall I turn myfelf ? for the charac¬
ter of a brave general is placed like a wall againft all
the attacks I can make. I know the place, I per¬
ceive where Hortenfius intends to difplay himfelf. He
will recount the hazards of war, the neceffities of the
flate, the fcarcity of commanders ; and then he will
intreat you, and do his utmoft to perfuade you, not
to fuffer the Roman people to be deprived of fuch a
commander upon the teftimony of the Sicilians, nor
the glory of his arms to be fullied by a charge of ava¬
rice.” At other times the orator pleads, that although
the contrary opinion may feem to be attended with
advantage, yet that his own is more juft or honour¬
able. Such was the cafe of Regulus, when his friends
endeavoured to prevail with him to continue at Rome,
and not return to Carthage, where he knew he mutt
undergo a cruel death. But as this could not be done
without violating his oath, he refufed to hearken to
their perfuafions. Another way of confutation is, by
retorting upon the adverfary his own argument. Thus
Cicero, in his defence of Ligarius, fays: “ You have,
Tubero, that which is moft defirable to an accufer, the
confeffion of the accufed party ; but yet fuch a con-
feffion, that he was on the fame fide that you, Tu-
bexo, chofe yourfelf, and your father too,, a man wor¬
thy of the higheff praife. Wherefore, if there was any
vume in this, you ought firft to confefs your own be¬
fore you attempt to fallen any upon Ligarius.” The
orator takes this advantage where an argument proves
A T O R Y. 405
And too much, that is, more than the perfon defigned itBifyobtion,
for, who made ufe of it. Not much unlike this is ’ v J
what they call inverjion, by which the orator fhows,
that the reafons offered by the oppofite party make for
him. So when Csecilius urged, that the province of
accufmg Verres ought to be granted to him, and not
to Cicero, becaufe he had been his treafurer in Sicily
at the time thofe crimes were committed with which
he was charged, and confequently knew moil of that
affair ; Cicero turns the argument upon him, and
fhows, for that very reafon he was the moft unfit of
any man to be intrufted with his profecution ; fince
having been concerned with him in his crimes, he
would certainly do all in his power to conceal or leffen
thei4r. Again, fometimesthe charge is acknowledged,
but the crime fhifted off to another. Thus, when Sex-
tius was accufed of fedition, becaufe he had got toge¬
ther a body of gladiators, and brought them into the
forum, where a warm engagement happened between
them and Clodius’s faction ; Cicero owns the fail, but
charges the crime of fedition upon Clodius's party in
being the aggreffors. Another method made ufe of
for the fame purpofe is, to alleviate the charge, and
take off the force of it, by fhowing, that the thing
was not done with that intention which the adverfary
infinuates. Thus Cicero, in his defence of king De-
jotarus, owns he had raifed fome forces, though not.
to invade the Roman territories, as had been alleged,
Hit only to defend his own borders, and fend aid to
the Roman generals.
We have hitherto been fpeaking of the methods of
confutation ufed by orators, in anfwering thofe argu¬
ments which are brought by the contrary party. But
fometimes they raife fuch objections thernfelves to
what they have faid, as they imagine may be made by
others ; which they afterwards anfvver, the better to
induce their hearers to think, that nothing confider-
able can be offered againft what they have advanced,
but what will admit of an eafy reply. Thus, when Ci¬
cero, at the requeft of the Sicilians, had undertaken
the accufation of Verres, it came under debate, whe¬
ther he, or Caecilius, who had been Verres’s quaeftor in
Sicily, fhould be admitted to that province. Cicero,
therefore, in order to fet him afide, among other ar¬
guments, fhows his incapacity for fuch an underta¬
king, and for that end recounts at large the qualifica¬
tions neceffary for an orator. Which he reprefents to
be fo many and great, that he thought it neceffary to
flart the following objection to what he had himfelf
Lid upon that fubjeCt. “ But you will fay perhaps.
Have you all thefe qualifications ?” To which he thus
replies : “ I wifk I had ; but it has been my conftant
ftudy from my youth to gain them. And if, from
their greatnefs and difficulty, I have not been able
to attain them, who have done nothing elfe through
my whole life ; how far, do you imagine, you muff
be from it,, who never thought of them before ; and
even now, when you are entering upon them, have
no apprehenfion, what, and how great, they are i”*
This is an effectual way of defeating an adverfary,
when the objection is well founded, and clearly an-
fwered. But we fhall have occafion to confider this
matter more largely hereafter, under the figure prokp-
Jis, to which it properly relates.
C t+ilta
406
Difpoflilon.
O R A
Chap, VI. Of the Conclvfon.
^ ^ Part IT,
The nature of the war ajralnft king Mithri- Difp fitimi.
The conclu- Rhetoricians make the conclvfwn of a difcourfe to
n is a re-confiit of two parts: recapitulation, and an addrefs to
capitula¬
tion and
addrefs
to the
psdilons.
the pajjions.
i. Recapitulation is a fummary account of what the
fpeaker has before offered in maintenance of his fub-
jeft ; and is defigned both to refrefh the memory of
the hearers, and to bring the principal arguments to¬
gether into a narrow compafs, that they may appear
in a ftronger liy'ht. Now there are feveral things ne-
ceffary to a good repetition.
And firft, it muff be fhort and concife; fince it is
designed to refrefh the memory, and not to burden it.
For this end, therefore, the chief things only are to
be touched upon ; thofe on which the caufe principal¬
ly depends, and which the orator is moff delirous
ffiould be regarded by his hearers. Now thefe are, The
general heads of the difcourfe, with the main argu¬
ments brought to fupport them. But either to infiPc
particulary upon every minute circumitance, or to en¬
large upon thofe heads which it may be thought proper
to mention, carries in it not fo much the appearance of
a repetition, as of a new difcourfe.
Again, it is convenient in a repetition to recite
things in the fame order in which they were at firff
laid down. By this means the hearers will be enabled
much better to keep pace with the fpeaker as he goes
along; and if they happen to have forgot any thing,
they will the more readily recal it. And befides, this
method appears moft fimple and open, when the
fpeaker reviews what he has faid in the fame manner
it was before delivered, and fets it in the cleared: light
for others to judge of it. But though a repetition
contains only the fame things which had been more
largely t • ated of before ; yet it is not neceffary they
(hould be expreffe&l in the fame words. Nay, this
would many times be tirefome and unpleafant to the
hearers ; whereas a variety of expreffion is grateful,
provided the fenfe be the fame. Befides, every thing
ought now to be reprefented in the itrongeft terms,
and in fo lively a manner, as may at the fame time both
entertain the audience, and make the deepeft impref-
fion upon their minds. We have a very exadt and ac¬
curate example of repetition in Cicero’s oration for
Quintius. Cicero was then a young man, and feems
to have kept more clofely to the rules of art, than af¬
terwards, when by ufe and practice he had gained a
greater freedom of fpeaking. We formerly cited the
partition ot this fpeech, upon another occaiion, which
runs thus : “ We deny, Sextus Nevius, that you were
put into the pofftffion of the eftate of P. Quintius, by
the pros tor’s edidt. This is the difpute between us.
1 will therefore fhow, firff, that you had no juft caufe
to apply to the pnetor for the poffeffion of the eftate
of P. Quintius; then, that you could not poffefs it
by the edidt ; and laftly, that you did not poffefs it.
’When I have proved thefe three things, I will con¬
clude.” Now Cicero begins his conclufion with a repe¬
tition of thofe three heads, and a fummary account of
the feveral arguments he made ufe of under each of
them. But they are too long to be here exhibited. In
his oration for the Manilian law, his repetition is very
ihort. He propofed in the partition to fpeak to three
T Q
things
dates, the greatneis of it, and what fort of geneial
was proper to be intruded with it. And when he has
gone through each of thefe heads, and treated upon
them very largely, he reduces the fubftanee of what he
has faid to this genetal and jfhort account: “ Since
therefore the war is fo neceffary, that it cannot be
negledted ; and fo great, that it requires a very care¬
ful management ; and you can intruft it with a general
of admirable ikiil in military affairs, of Angular cou¬
rage, the greateft authority, and eminent fuccefs : do
you doubt to make ufe of this fo great a blefling, con¬
ferred and bellowed upon you by heaven, for the pie-
fervation and enlargement of the Roman ftate ?” In¬
deed this repetition is made by Cicero, before he pro¬
ceeds to the confutation ; and not at the end of his
difeomfe, where it is ufually longer and more particu¬
lar : however, this may ferve to fliow the nature of
fuch a recital.
But fometimes a repetition is made, by running a
companion between the fpeaker’s own arguments and
thofe of the adverfe party ; and placing them in op-
po fit ion to each other And this method Cicero takes
in the conclufion of his third oration upon the Agra¬
rian law. And here fometimes the orator takes oeca-
fion to find fault with his adverfary’s management, in
thefe and fuch like expreffions : “ This part he has
entirely dropt. To that he has given an. invidious
turn, or a falfe colouring. He leaves arguments, and
flies to intreaties; and not without good realbri, if we
confider the weaknefs of his caufe.”
But when the difcourfe is very long, and the argu¬
ments infilled on have been many, to prevent the
hearers growing out of patience by a more particular
recital, the oiator fometimes only juft mentions fuch
tilings, which he thinks of leaft confequence, by fay¬
ing, that he omits or pafles over them, till he comes
to what is of greater moment, which he reprefents
more fully. This method Cicero has taken in his
defence oi Cluentius; where, having run over feveral
leffer heads in the manner now deferibed, he then
alters his expreffion, and introduces what was of more
importance, by faying, “ What I firft complain of,
is that wickednefs, which is now difeovered.” And
fo he proceeds more particularly to recite thofe things
which immediately related to Cluentius. And this is
what the writers upon this art preterition. But this
much may ferve for repetition or recapitulation.
2. Wt now proceed to the other part of the con¬
clufion, which conliits in an addrefs to the pajjions. In¬
deed the orator fometimes endeavours occalionally to
v/ork upon the paffions of his hearers in other parts of
his dilcourfe, but more efpecially in the conclulion,
where he is warmeft himfdf, and labours to make
them fo. For the main defign of the introdudfion is
to conciliate the hearers, and gain their attention ; of
the narration, propofition, and confirmation, to inform
them ; and of the conclufion, to move them. And
therefore, to ufe Quintilian’s words, “ Here all the
fprings of eloquence are to tie opened. It is here we
fecure the minds of the hearers, if what went before
was well managed. Now we are paft the rocks and
fhailows, all the fails may be hoiited. And as the
greateft part of the conclufion confiffs in iliuftration,
the moft pompous language and'ilrongeft figures have
5 place
Part II. ° R A T
Difpofition. place here.” Now the paffions, to which the orator
‘ —v-—' more particularly addreffes, differ according to^ the
nature of the difcourfe. In demonfirative orations,
when laudatory,—love, admiration, and emulation, are
ufually exerted ; but in inveftives,—hatred, envy,
and contempt. In deliberative fubje&s,. either the
hope of gratifying fome defne is fet in view, or the
fear of fome impending evil. And in judicial dii-
courfes, almofl all the paffions have place, but more
efpecially refencment and pity ; infomuch that mod of
the ancient rhetoricians mention only thefe two. But
having treated upon the nature of the pafijons, and
the methods fuited both to excite and allay them, in
a former chapter, we fhall at prefent only add a few
general obfervations, which may not be improper in
this place, where the (kill of the orator in addrefbng
to them is more efpecially required.
The orator will obferve what circumftances either
of things, or perfons, or both, will furnifh him with
motives proper to apply to thofe paffions he defires to
excite in the minds of his hearers. Thus Cicero, m
his orations for Plancus and Sylla, moves his hearers
from the circnmftanees of the men ; hut in his accufa-
tion of Verres, very frequently from the barbarity and
horrid nature of his crimes ; and from both, in his de¬
fence of Quintius.
But the fame paffion may be excited by very diffe¬
rent methods. This is plain from the writings of
thofe Roman fatyrifts which are yet extant; for they
have all the fame defign, and that is to engage men
to a love of virtue, and hatred of vice : but their
manner is very different, fuited to the genius of each
writer. Horace endeavours to recommend virtue, by
laughing vice out of countenance ; Perfius moves us
to an abhorrence and deteftation of vice, with the
gravity and feverity of a philofopher ; and Juvenal,
by open and vehement inveftives. So orators- make
irfe of all thefe methods in exciting the paffions ; as
may be feen by their difeourfes, and particularly thofe
of Cicero. But it is not convenient to dwell long
upon the fame paffion. For the image thus wrought
up in the minds of the hearers does not laft a great
while, but they foon return to refleftion. When the
emotion, therefore, is once carried as high as it well
can be, they fhould be left under its influence, and
the fpeaker proceed to fome new matter, before it de¬
clines again.
Moreover, orators fometimes endeavour to raife
contrary paffions to each other, as they are concerned
for oppofite parties. So the accnfer excites anger and
refentment, but the defendant pity and compaffion.
At other times, one thinks it fufficient to allay and
take off that paffion which the other has raifed, and
bring the hearers to a calm and fedate confideration of
the matter before them.
But this efpecially is to be regarded, that the
orator exprefs the fame paffion himfelf with which he
endeavours to affeft others ; and that not only in his
aftion and voice, hut likewife in his laneruage : and
therefore his words, and manner of expreffion, fhould
be fuited to that perturbation and diforder of mind
which he defigns to reprefent. However, a decency
and propriety of character is always carefully to be
obferve A; for, as Cicero very well remarks, “ A nc*
O R Y. 407
gle£t of this is not only very culpable in life, but like- Difpofition-
wife in difcourfe. Nor do the fame things equally
become every fpeaker, or every audience ; nor every
time, and every place.” And therefore he greatly
commends that painter, who, defigning to reprefent
in a pitlure the facrifice of Iphigenia, Agamemnon's
daughter, drew Calchas the priefl with a fad counte¬
nance ; Ulyffes, her father’s great friend, more de-
jefted ; and her uncle Menelaus, mofl difconfolate ;
but threw a veil over the face of Agamemnon himfelf,
as being unable to exprefs that excefs of forrow which
he thought was proper to appear in his countenance.
And this juftnefs of charafter is admirably well ob-
ferved by Cicero himfelf, in his defence of Milo ; for
as Milo was always known to be a man of thegreateft
refolution, and moil undaunted courage, it was very
improper to introduce him (as the ufual method then
was in capital cafes) moving pity, and begging for
mercy. Cicero therefore takes this part upon himftlf;
and what he could not do with any propriety in the
perfon of Milo, he performs in his own, and thus ad¬
dreffes the judges : “ What remains, but that I in¬
treat and befeech you, that you would fnow that com¬
paffion to this brave man, for which he himfelf does
not folicit, but I, againff his inclination, earneftly
implore and requeft. Do not be lefs inclined to ac¬
quit him, if in this our common forrow, you fee no
tear fall from Milo’s eyes ; but perceive in him the
fame countenance, voice, and language, as at other
times, Heady and unmoved. Nay, I know not whe¬
ther for this reafon you ought not much fooner to fa¬
vour him : For if, in the contells of gladiators (per¬
fons of the lowed condition and fortune in life), we
are wont to be difpleafed with the timorous and fup-
pliant, and thofe who beg for their life ; but inter-
pofe in favour of the brave and courageous, and fuch
as expofe themfelves to death ; and we ffiow more
compaffion to thofe who do not fue for it, than to
thofe who do : with how much greater reafon ought
we to a£t in-the fame manner towards the braved, of
our fellow-citizens ?” And as thefe words were agree¬
able to his own charadler, while foliciting in behalf of
another ; fo, immediately after, he introduces Milo
fpeaking like himfelf, with a generous and undaunted
air : “ Thefe words of Milo (fays he) quite fink and
difpirit me, which I daily hear from him. Farewel,
farcwel, my fellow-citizens, farewel! may you be
happy, douriffi, and profper; may this renowned city
be preferved, my mod dear country, however it has
treated me ; may it continue in peace, though I can¬
not continue in it, to whom it owes its peace. I will
retire ; I will be gone.”
But as perfons are commonly more affe&ed with
what they fee than with what they hear, orators fome¬
times call in the affidance of that fenfe in moving the
paffions. For this reafon it was ufual among the Ro¬
mans, in judicial cafes, for accufed perfons to appear
with a deje&ed air and a fordid garb, attended by
their parents, children, or other relations and friends,
W1"th the like drefs and afpe£l; as likewife to firow their
fears, wounds, bloody garments, and other things of
the like nature, in open court. So when, upon the
death of Csefar, Mark Antony harangued the popu¬
lace, he at the fame time expofed to their view the
garment
4o8 O R A T
^ifpofuion. garment !o which he was flabbe^l, fixed upon a pole ;
1"1" — V J at which fi^ht they were fo enraged, that immediately
they ran with lighted torches to fet fire to the houfes
of the confpirators. But this cuftom at laft became
fo common, and was fometimes fo ill conduced, that
fhe force of it was greatly abated, as we learn from
Quintilian. However, if the Romans proceeded to
an excefs on the one hand, the llriftnefs of the Areo-
pagites at Athens may perhaps be thought too rigid
on the other; for in that court, if the orator began to
fey any thing which was moving, an officer immedi¬
ately flood up, and bade him be filent. There is cer¬
tainly a medium between thefe two extremes, wdiich
is fometimes not only nfeful, but even neceffary: for,
us Quintilian very juhly fays, “ It is necelfary to ap¬
ply to the paffions, when thofe things which are true,
jull, and of common benefit, cannot be come at any
®ther way.,,
Chap. VII. Qf DtgrejJion, Tranfttion, and
Amplification*
38 The number, order, and nature of the parts vchich
Dig, fliion, conftitute a complete and regular oration, we have en-
ai'd am°!li deavourecl to explain ia feveral preceding chapters,
fitation' there are two or three things yet remaining, very
defined and neceffary to be known by an orator, which feem moll
explained, properly to come under the fecond branch of his art.—
And thefe are, Digrtfiion, Tranfition, and Amplification.
I. Digrejfixn, as defined by Quintilian, is, “ A
going off from the fubjedt we are upon to fome diffe¬
rent thing, which may however be of fervice to it.”
We have a very beautiful inffance of this in Cicero’s
defence of Ccelius, who was accufed of having firft
borrowed money of Clodia, and then engaging her
fcrvants to poifon her. Now, as the proof of the fadl
depended upon feveral circumftances, the orator ex¬
amines them feparately ; and ffiows them to be all
highly improbable. “ How (fays he) was the de-
fign of this poifon laid ? Whence came it ? how did
they get it ? by whofe affiftance, to whom, cr where,
was it delivered ?” Now to the firft of thefe qifieries
he makes the accufer give this anfwer: “ They fay
Coelius had it at home, and tried the force of it upon
a Have provided on purpofe, whofe fudden death
proved the ftrength of the poifon.” Now as Cicero
reprefents the whole charge againft Ccelius as a fiftion
of Clodia, invented out of revenge for fome flights he
had put upon her; to make this the more probable, he
infinuates that ffie had |poifoned her hufband, and
takes this opportunity to hint it, that he might Ihow
how eafy it was for her to charge another with poifon-
ing a fervant, who had done the fame to her own
hufband. But not contented with this, he fteps out
of his way, and introduces fome of the laft words of
her hufband Metellus, to render the fadl more bar¬
barous and ffiocking, from the admirable charsfiler of
the man. “ O immortal gods ! why do you fome¬
times wink at the greateft crimes of mankind, or de¬
lay the punilhment of them toj'uturity ? For I faw, I
myfelf faw (and it was the moft doleful fcene of my
whole life) when Q^ Metellus was taken from the
bofom of his country ; and when he, who thought
himfelf born to be ferviceable to this ftate, within
three clays after he had appeared with fuch advantage
N® *51.
O R Y. PsrtH.
in the fen ate, in the forum, and everywhere in public, IHpofition.
was matched from us in the flower of his age, and—'v'——*
prime of his ftrength and vigour. At which time,
when he was about to expire, and his mind had loft
the fenfe of other things, ftill retaining a concern for
the public, he looked upon me, as I was all in tears,
and intimated in broken and dying words, how great
a ftorm hung over the city and threatened the whole
ftate.; often linking the w'all which feparated his
houfe from that of Quintus Catulus, and frequently
calling both upon him and me, and feeming to grieve
not fo much at the approach of his own death, as that
both his country and I ffiould be deprived of his
affiftance. Had he not been wickedly taken off on a
fudden, how would he after his confullhip have with-
ftood the fury of his kinfman Publius Clodius, who,
while in that office, threatened, in the hearing of the
fenate, to kill him with his own hand, when he firft
began to break out ? And wu‘11 this woman dare to
come out of thofe doors, and talk of the force of
poifon ? will not ffie fear, left the houfe itfelf ffiould
fpeak the villany ? will not five dread the confcious
walls, nor that fad and mournful night ? But I re¬
turn to the accufation.” And then he proceeds to
confider and refute the feveral circumftances of the
accufation. All this wras no part of his argument;
but having mentioned the charge of poifon, he im¬
mediately takes occafion to introduce it, in order to
excite the indignation of the hearers againft Clodia,
and invalidate the pi-ofecution as coming from a per-
fon of her chara&er. Digreffion cannot properly be
faid to be a neceffary part of a difeourfe ; but it may
fometimes be very convenient, and that upon feveral
accounts.
As firft, where a fubjedl is of itfelf flat and dry, or
requires clofe attention, it is of ufe to relieve and un¬
bend the mind by fomething agreeable and entertain¬
ing. For which reafon Quintilian obferves, that the
orators of his time generally made an excurfion in their
harangues upon fome pleafing topic, between the nar¬
ration and the proof. But he condemns the pra&ice,
as too general; for while they feemed to think it ne¬
ceffary, it obliged them fometimes to bring in things
trifling and foreign to the purpofe. Befides, a di¬
greffion is confined to no one part of a difeourfe, but
may come in anywhere, as occafion offers; provided
it fall in naturally with the fubjefil, and be made fome
way fubfervient to it. We never meet with it in
Cicero, without fome evident and good reafon. So
in his profecution of Verres for his barbarous and in¬
human outrages againft the Sicilians, he takes an oc¬
cafion to launch out in a beautiful defeription ef the
ifland, and to recount the advantages which accrued
from it to the Romans. His fubjedl did not neceffa-
rily lead him to this, but his view in it was to heighten
and aggravate the charge againft Verres.
Again, as a digretfion ought not to be made with¬
out fufficient reafon, fo neither ffiould it be too fre¬
quent. And he who never does it but where it is
proper and ufeful, will not often fee occafion for it.
Frequently to leave the fubjedl, and go off to other
things, breaks the thread of the difeourfe, and is apt
to introduce confufion. Indeed fome kinds of writing
admit of a more frequent ufe of digreffions than others.
In hiftory they are often very ferviceable. For as
that
part II. ORATORY. 409
Difpofition. tlirt con fills of a fcries of fa&s, and a long continued
narrative without variety, is apt to grow dull and
tedious ; it is neceflary at proper diftances to throw
in fomething entertaining, in order to enliven it, and
keep up the attention. And accordingly we finchthe
belt hillorians often embellilh their writings with de-
fcriptions of cities, rivers, and countries, as likewife
with the fpeeches of eminent perfons upon important
occafions, and other ornaments, to render them the
more plealing and delightful. Poets take a Itill
greater liberty in this refpedt : for as their principal
view is mod commonly to pleafe, they do not attend
fo ciofely to connexion ; but as an image offers itfelf,
which may be agreeably wrought up, they bring it in,
and go off more frequently to different things, than
Other writers.
Another property of a digrejfion is, that it ought
not to be too long, left the hearers forget what pre¬
ceded, before the fpeaker returns again to his fubjedt.
For a digreffion being no principal part of a dif-
courfe, nor of any further ufe than as it ferves fome
way or other to enforce or illuftrate the main fubjetf ;
it cannot anfvver this end, if it be carried to fuch a
length, as to caufe that either to be forgotten or ne-
gledled. And every one’s memory will not ferve him
to connedl together two parts of a difeourfe, which
lie at a wide difiance from each other. The better
therefore to guard againft this, it is not unufual with
orators, before they enter upon a digrefiion of any
confiderable length, to prepci e their hearers, by giving
them notice of it, and fometimes defiring le ave to di¬
vert a little from the fubjedt. And fo Lkevvife at the
conchifion they introduce the fubjedt again by a fhort
tranfition. Thus Cicero in the example cited above,
when he has finifhed his digreffion concerning the
death of Metellus, proceeds to his fubjedl again with
thefe words: “ But I return to the accufation.”
Indeed we find orators fometimes, when forepreffed,
and the caufe will not bear a clofe ferutinv, artfully
run into digreffions with a ddfign to divert the at¬
tention of the hearers from the fubjedl, and turn
them to a different view. And in fuch cafes, as they
endeavour to be unobferved, fo they do it tacitly
without nny tranfition or intimation of their defign ;
their bufinefs being only to get clear of a difficulty,
till they have an opportunity of entering upon fome
39 frefh topic.
TYan'iitions II. Tranfiuons are often ufed not only after a di-
efttn ufed greffion, but likewife upon other occafions. A tran-
<on various fltion is, “ A form of fpeech, by which the fpeaker
in a few words tells his hearers both what he has faid
already, and what he next defigns to fay.” Where a
difeourfe confifts of feveral parts, this is often very
proper in palling from one to another, efpecially
when the parts are of a confiderable length ; for it
affifts the hearers to carry on the feries of the difeourfe
in their mind, which is a great advantage to the me¬
mory. It is likewife a great relief to the attention,
to lie told when an argument is finifhed, and what is
to l e expedlcd next. And therefore we meet with it
very frequently in hiftory. But we confider it at pre-
fent only as made ufe of by orators. Cicero, in his
fecond oration againft Catiline, who had then left
Rome, having at large deferibed his condiuft and de¬
figns, he adds : “ But why do 1 talk fo long concern-
Vol.XIII. ParcII.
mg one enemy, and fuch ah ofte ) who owns himfelf ^ifp»fition.
an enemy, and whom I do not fear, fince, what 1 al- ^
ways defired, there is now a wall between us ; and fay
nothing of thofe, who conceal themfelves, who remain
at Rome, and among us.” And then he proceeds to
give an account of the other.confpirators.
But fometimes, in palling from one thing to another,
a general hint of it is thought fufficient to prepare
the heareis, without particularly fpecifying what has
been faid, or is next to follow. Thus Cicero in his
fecond Philippic fays, “ But thofe things are old*
this is yet frefh.” And again : “ But I have inlifted
too long upon trifles, let us come to things of greater
moment.” And at other times, for greater brevity,
the tranfition is imperfe<5l, and mention made only
of the following head, without any intimation of what
has been faid already. As in Cicero’s defence of
Muraenu, where he fays: “ 1 muft now proceed to
the third part of my oration concerning the charge of
bribery.” And foon after: “ I come naw to Cato,
who is the fupport and ftrength of this charge.” 40
III. The third and laft head is, Amplification. Now AmPjmca*
by amplification is meant, not barely a method of -en-^j
larging upon a thing ; but fo to reprefent it in the explained,
fulleft and moft comprehenfive view, as that it may in
the livelieft manner ilrike the mind, and influence the
paffions. Cicero, fpeaking of this, calls it the greaiejl
commendation of eloquence ; and obferves, “ that it con¬
fifts not only in magnifying and heightening a thing,
but likewife in extenuating and leffening it ” But
though it confifts of thefe twx> parts, and may be ap¬
plied either way; yet to amplify, is not to fet things
in a falfe light, but to paint them in their juft pro¬
portion and proper colours, fuitable to their nature
and qualities. Rhetoricians have obferved feveral ways
of doing this.
One is to afeend from a particular thing to a gene¬
ral. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Archias, having
commended him as an excellent poet, and likewife ob¬
ferved, that all the liberal arts have a connexion with
each other, and a mutual relation between them, in
order to raife a juft efteem of him in the minds of his
hearers, takes occafion to fay many things in praife
of polite literature in general, and the great advantages
that may be received from it. “ Yon will aik me,
(fays he), why we are fo delighted with this man?
Becaufe he fupplies us with thofe things, which both
refrefh our minds after the noife of the forum, and
delight our ears when wearied with contention. Do
you think we could either be furnifhed with matter for
fuch a variety of fuhje£ls, if we did not cultivate our
minds with learning ; or bear fuch a conllant fatigue,
without affording them that refreshment ? I own I
have always purfued thefe iludies; let thofe be aihamed,
who have fo given up themfelves to learning, as nei¬
ther to be able to convert it to any common benefit,
nor difeover it in public. But why fliould it fhame
me, who have fo lived for many years, that no ad¬
vantage or eafe has ever diverted me, no pleafure
allured, me, nor deep retarded me, from this purfuit.
Who then can blame me, or who can juilly be dif-
pleafed with me, if I have employed that time in re¬
viewing thefe Undies, which has been fpent by others
in managing their affairs, in the celebration of fefti-
vals, or other diverfions, in refreshments of mind and
3 F body5
4t©
ORATORY.
Part II
Difpofition. body, in unfenfonaMe banquets, in dice, or tennis ?
And this ought the rather to be allowed me, be-
caufe my ability as an orator has been improved by
thofe purfuits, which, fuch as it is, was never want'
ing to affift my friends. And if it be efteemed but
fmall, yet X am fenfible from what fpring I muil
draw thofe things which are of the greateft impor¬
tance.” With more to the fame purpofe; from which
he draws this inference : “ Shall 1 not therefore love
this man ? ihall I not admire him ? ihall I not by all
means defend him ?”
A contrary method to the former is, to defeend
from a general to a particular. As if any one, while
fpeaking in commendation of eloquence, fhould illu-
ftrate what he fays from the example of Cicero, and
ihow the great fervices he did his country, and the
honours he gained to himfelf, by his admirable Ikill in
oratory. Our common way of judging of the nature
of things is from what we obferve in particular in-
ftances, by which we form general notions concerning
them. When therefore we confider the character of
Cicero, and the figure he made in the world, it leads
us to conclude, there muft be fomething very admi¬
rable in that art by which he became fo celebrated.
And this tnethod he has taken himfelf in his oration
for the Manilian law, where having firft intimated the
fcarcity of good generals at that time among the Ro¬
mans, he then deferibes the virtues of a complete com¬
mander as a proof of it, and fhows how many and
great qualifications are necelfary to form fuch a cha-
rafter, as courage, prudence, experience, and fuccefs :
all which he afterwards applies to Pompey.
A third method is by an enumeration of parts. So
when Cicero, upon the defeat of Mark Antony before
Mutina, propofed that a funeral monument Ihould be
erefted in honour of the foldiers who were killed in
that battle, as a comfort to their furviving relations ;
he does it in this way, to give it the greater weight:
“ Since (fays he) the tribute of glory is paid to the
heft and mod valiant citizens by the honour of a mo¬
nument, let us thus comfort their relations, who will
receive the greateft confolation in this manner : their
parents, who produced fuch brave defenders of the
ftate ; their children, who will enjoy thefe domeftic
examples of fortitude ; their wives, for the lofs of
fuch hufhands, whom it will be more fitting to extol
than lament ; their brethren, who will hope to re-
femble them no lefs in their virtues than their afpe<ft.
And I wifti we may be able to remove the grief of all
thefe by our refolutions.” Such reprefentations greatly
enlarge the image of a thing, and afford the mind a
much clearer view of it than if it were contra&ed into
one fingle propofition.
Again, another method not much unlike the former
is, when any thing is illuftrated from a variety of
caufes. Thus Cicero juftifies his behaviour in retiring,
ancl not oppofing his enemies, when they fpirited up
the mob in order to banifti him, from the following
reafons, which at that time determined him to fuch a
conduft : “ When (fays he) unlefs I was given up,
fo many armed fleets feemed ready to attack this fingle
Ihip of the ftate, toffed with the tempefts of feditions
and difeords, and the fenate was now removed from
the helm ; when banifhment, murder, and outrage,
were threatened j when fome, from an apprehenflon of
their own danger, would not defend me; others wereDifpofitkm,
incited by an inveterate hatred to all good men, others ■—
thought I flood in the way, others took this oppor¬
tunity to exprefs their refentment, others envied the
peace and tranquillity^of the ftate; and upon all thefe
accounts I was particularly ftruck at: fhould I have
chofen rather to oppofe them (I will not fay to my
own certain deftruflion, but to the greateft danger
both of you and your children), than alone to fubmit
to and undergo what threatened us all in common ?'*
Such a number of reafons brought together, muft fet
a thing in a very ftrong and clear light.
The like may be faid of a number and variety of
effefts. Thus Cicero deferibes the force and excel¬
lence of oratory from its great and furprifing effects,
when he fays, “ Nothing feems to be more excellent-,
than by difeourfe to draw the attention of a whole
affembly, delight them, and fway their inclinations
different ways at pleafure. This, in every free ftate,
and efpecially in times of peace and tranquillity, has
been always in the higheft efteem and reputation.
For what is either fo admirable, as for one only, or a
very few, out of a vaft multitude, to be able to do
that which all have a natural power of doing? or fo
delightful to hear, as a judicious and folid difeourfe
in florid and polite language ? or fo powerful and
grand, as to influence the populace, the judges, the
fenate, by the charms of eloquence ? Nay, what is fo
noble, fo generous, fo munificent, as to aftord aid to-
fupplicants, to fupport the afflicted, give fafety, deliver
from dangers, and preferve from exile? Or what is fo
neceffary as to be always furnilhed with arms to guard
yourfelf, affert your right, or repel injuries ? And,
not to confine our thoughts wholly to the courts of
juftice or the fenate, what is there in the arts of
peace more agreeable and entertaining than good lan¬
guage and a fine way of fpeaking ? For it is this efpe¬
cially wherein we excel other animals, that we can
difeourfe together, and convey our thoughts to each
other by words. Who therefore would not efteem,
and in a particular manner endeavour to furpafs others
in that wherein mankind principally excels brute
beafts ? But to proceed to its chief advantages: What
elfe would have drawn men into focieties, or taken
them off from a wild and favage life, and ioften them
into a polite and civilized behaviour; or, when fettled
in communities, have reftrained them by laws ?” Who
but, after fuch a defeription, muft conceive the ftrong-
eft paffion for an art attended with fo many great and
good effefts ?
A thing may likewife be illuftrated by its oppofite^
So the bleflings and advantages of peace may be re¬
commended from the miferies and calamities of war;
and thus Cicero endeavours to throw contempt upon
Catiline and his party, by comparing them with the
contrary fide: “ But if, omitting all thefe things
with which we abound, and they want, the fenate, the
knights, the populace, the city, treafury, revenues, all
Italy, the provinces, and foreign nations; if, 1 fay,
omitting thefe things, we compare the caufes them-
felves in which each fide is engaged, we may learn
from thence how defpicable they are.—lor on this
fide modefty is engaged, on that impudence ; on this
chaftity, on that lewdnefs; on this integrity, on that
fraud j on this piety, on that profanenefs; on this
con-
Part If. ORA
Elocution, conftancy, on that fury; on this honour, on that bafe-
A“’—nefs ; on this moderation, on that unbridled paffion :
In a word, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence,
and all virtues, contend with injuftice, luxury, cow¬
ardice, rafhnefs, and all vices; plenty with want; rea-
fon with folly ; fobriety with madnefs; and, laftly,
good hope with defpair. In fuch a conteft, did men
defect us, would not heaven ordain that fo many and
fo great vices fliould be defeated by thefe moil excel¬
lent virtues
Gradation is another beautiful way of doing this.
So when Cicero would aggravate the cruelty and bar¬
barity of Verres for cracifying a Roman citizen, which
was a fort of punifhment only infli&ed upon flaves,
he choofes this way of doing it. “ It is a crime (fays
he) to bind a Roman citizen, wickednefs to whip him,
and a fort of parricide to kill him ; what then muft I
call it to crucify him ? No name can fufficiently ex-
prefs fuch a villany.” And the images of thin<s may
be thus heightened, either by afcending, as in this in-
ftance; or defcending, as in that which follows, re-
TORY.
4U
lating to the fame aftion of Verres: “ Was I not to Elecution.
complain of or bewail thefe things to Roman citizens,1
nor the friends of our hate, nor thofe who had heard
of the Roman name ; nay, if not to men, but hearts ;
or, to go yet further, if in the moft defect wildernefs,
to ftones and rocks; even all mute and inanimate
creatures would be moved by fo great and heinous
cruelty.”
And, to name no more, facts may be amplified from
their circumftances; as time, place, manner, event,
and the like. But inftances of this would carry us
too far ; and therefore we rtiall only add, that, as the
defign ol amplification is not barely to prove or evince
the truth of things, but alfo to adorn and illuftrate
them, it requires a florid and beautiful ftyle, confifting
ef ftrong and emphatical words, flowing periods, har¬
monious numbers, lively tropes, and bright figures.
But the confideration of thefe things come under the
third part of oratory, upon which we arc now to
enter.
Part III. O f ELOCUTION.
LOCUTION dire&s us to fuit both the words
JL -J and expreflions of a difctmrfe to the nature of the
fubjeft, or to fpeak with propriety and decency. This
faculty is in one word called eloquence ; and thofe per-
fons who are poflefled of it are therefore ftyled elo-
quent.
Elocution is twofold, general and particular. The
former treats of the feveral properties and ornaments
of language in common ; the latter confiders them
as they are made ufe of to form different forts of
ftylc.
I. GENERAL ELOCUTION.
4*
'General This, according to rhetoricians, confifts of three
defined011 Parts» Elegance, Compqfitwn, and Dignity. A difeourfe
which has all thefe properties fuitably adjuited, muft,
with refpeft to the language, be perfeft in its kind,
and delightful to the hearers.
Chap. I. Of Elegance.
Elegance confifts in two things, Purity and Per-
fpicuity : And both thefe as well with refpeft to fingle
words, as their conftruftion in fentences. Thefe pro¬
perties in language give it the name of elegant, for a
like reafon that we call other things fo which are clean
and neat in their kind. But in the common ufe of
our tongue, we are apt to confound elegance with elo¬
quence ; and fay, a difeourfe is elegant, when we mean
by the expreflion, that it has all the properties of line
language.
§ I. Purity.
4*
Purity ex- By this we are to underftand the choice of fuch
plained andWords and phrafes as are fuited and agreeable to the
nJui iated. ufe tjie ]ailguage in which we fpeak : And fo gram¬
marians reduce the faults they oppofe to it to two
forts, which they call barbarifm and folecifni; the for¬
mer of which refpefts fingle words, and the latter their
conftru&ion. But we lhall confider them jointly, and
in a manner different from grammarians; for with them
all words are efteemed pure which are once adopted
into a language, and authorifed by ufe. And as to
phrafes, or forms of expreflion, they allow them all the
fame claim, which are agreeable to the analogy of the
tongue. But in oratory, neither all words nor all ex¬
preflions are fo called which occur in language ; but
fuch only as come recommended by the authority of
thofe who fpeak or write with accuracy and politenefs.
indeed it is a common faying, that <we fhould think with
the learned, andfpeak with the vulgar. But the meaning
of that expreflion is no more than that we fliould fpeak
agreeably to the common ufage of the tongue, that
every one may underftand us; and not choofe fuch
words or exprefiions as are either difficult to be under-
flood, or may carry in them an appearance of affecta¬
tion and Angularity. But in order to fet this matter
in a clearer light, we ftiall here recount the principal
things which vitiate the purity of language.
And firft, it often happens, that fuch words and
forms of fpeaking as were introduced by the learned
are afterwards dropped by them as mean and fordid,
from a feeming bale nefs contracted by vulgar ufe.
1’or polite and elegant fpeakers diftinguiffi themfelves
by their difeourfe, as perfons of figure do by their
garb ; one being the drefs of the mind, as the other
is of the body. And hence it comes to pafs, that
both have their different faffiions, which are often
changed ; and as the vulgar affeCt to imitate thofe
above them in both, this frequently occafions an alte¬
ration when either becomes too trite and common.
But befide thefe fordid words and expreffions, which
are rendered fo by the life of the vulgar, there is an¬
other fort firft introduced by them, which is carefully
to fie avoided by all thofe who are defirous to fpeak
well. For the vulgar have their peculiar words and
phrafes, fuited to their circumftances, and taken from
fuch things as ufually occur in their way of life. Thus
in the old comedians, many things are fpoken by fer-
vants, agreeable to their charader, which would be
3 F 2 very
432
elocution,
O R A T
very unbecoming from the mouth of a gentleman.
And we cannot but daily obferve the like inftances
among ourfelves. ,
A^ain, this is common to language with all other
human produ&ions, that it is in its own nature liable
to a conftant change and alteration. For, as Horace
has juitly obferved,
All human works fhall wrafte ;
Then how can feeble words pretend to laft.
Nothing could ever pleafe all perfons, or at lead for
any length of time. And there is nothing from which
this can lefs be expe&ed than language. For as the
thoughts of men are exceedingly various, and words
are the figns of their thoughts, they will be conftant-
Jy inventing new figns to exprefs them by, in order to
convey their ideas with more clearnefs or greater
beauty. If we look into the different ages of the La¬
tin writers, what great alterations and changes do wre
find in their language ? How few now underftand the
remaining fragments of the twelve tables ? Nay, how
many words do we meet with even in Plautus, the
meaning of which has not yet been fixed with certain¬
ty by the {kill of the beft critics ? And if we confider
our own language, it will appear to have been in a
manner entirely changed from what it was a few ages
fmce. To mention no others, our celebrated Chaucer
is to moft perfons now almoft unintelligible, and wants
an expofitor. Anl even fin e our own memory, we
cannot but have obferved, that many words and ex
prefiions, which a few years ago were in common ul
are now in a manner laid afide and antiquated ; and
that others have conflai.tly fucceeded, and daily do fuc
ceed, in their room. So true is that obfervation ot
the fame poet:
#
Some words that have or elfe will "eel decay
Shall be reftor’d, and come again in play ;
And words now fam’d fhall not be fancied long ;
They fhall not ; leafe the ear, nor move the tongue:
As ufe fhall thefe approve, and thofe condemn ;
Ufe, the foie rule of fpecch, and judge fuprerne.
We muff therefore no lefs abftain from antiquated or
ohfolete words and phrafes, than from fordid ones.
Though all old words are not to be thought antiqua
ted. By the fo.rmer we mean fuch as, though of an
ancient ftanding, are not yet entirely difufed nor their
fignification loft. And from the life of thefe we are
not tod e wholly debarred, efpeci illy when they appear
more fignificant than any others we can fix upon. But
as to phrafes or exprtffions, greater caution feems ffill
neceffiry : and fuch as are old fhould doubtlefs, if at
ail; be ufed more fparinyly. The Latin tongue was
brought to its greateft perfe&ion in the reign of Au-
guflus, or fomewhat fooner ; and he h mfclf ibuditd it
very carefully. For, as Suetonius tells us, “ He ap¬
plied himfelf to eloquence, and the ffudy of the libe¬
ral arts, from his childhood, with great diligence and
labour. He chofe a m nner of fpeaking which was
frr.ooth and elegant : he avoided the ill favour, as he
nfed to cell it, of antiquated words; and he was wont
to blame Tiberius for his affedfation of them.” In
our own language, fueh words are to be efleeme an¬
tiquated, which the moft polite petfons have dropped,
both in their difeourfe and writings; whole example
O It Y. Partin.
we fhould follow, unlefs we would be thought to con- Elocution,
verfe rather with the dead than the living. J
But further: As on the one hand we muft avoid ob-
folece words and phrafes ; fo, on the other, we fhould
refrain from new ones, or fuch whofe ufe has not
yet been fufficiently eftablifhed, at leaft among thofe
of the beft tafte. Words may be confidered as new in
two refpedds ; either when they are firft brought into
a language, or when they are ui'ed in a new fenfe. As
the former of thefe may fometimes leave us in the
dark by not being underftoOd, fo the latter are moft
apt to miftead us ; for when we hear a word that has
been familiar to us, wre are prefently led to fix that
idea to it with which it has ufualiy been attended..’
And therefore, in both cafes, fome previous intima¬
tion may be-neceflary. Cicero, who perhaps enlarged
the furniture of the Ihoman tongue more than any one
perfon belides, appear* always very cautious how he
introduces any thing new, and generally gives notice
of it when he attempts it, as appears in many inftan¬
ces fcattered through his works. Wh it bounds we
are now to fix to the purity of the Latin tongue in
the ufe of it, the learned are not well agreed. It is cer¬
tain, our furniture is much lets thai^whe^i it was a li¬
ving language, and therefore the greater liberty muft
of neceffity be fometimes taken. So that their opi¬
nion feems not unadvifablt, who direft us to make
choice principally of what we are furnifhed with from
the writers of the Auguitan age; and, where we can¬
not be fupplied Irom them, to make ufe of fuch au¬
thors as lived neareft to them, either before or fince.
And a to our own tongue, it is certainly prudent to
be as careful how v. e admit any thing into it that is
uncoi th or difagreeable to its genius, as the ancient
Romans were into theirs ; for the perfection of a lan¬
guage does in a great meafuie confilt in’a certain ana¬
logy and harmony running through the whole, by
wliich it may be capable of being brought to a Itan—
dard.
But befides thofe things already mentioned, any mt--
ftake in the fenie of words, or their conitrudtion, is op¬
posed to purity For to fpeak purely, is to fpeak
corredlly And fuch is the nature ot thtfe faults in
elocution, that they are often not fo eafy to be obfer¬
ved by heaiing as by reading. Whence it is, that
many perions are thought to fpeak better than they
write; for while they are fpeaking, many flips and in¬
accuracies efcape difregarded, which in reading would
prefcntly appear And this is more efpecially tire cafe,
ot perfons una quainted with arts and hteiature ; who,
by the affiftance ot a lively fancy and flow ot words,
often fpe k with great eale and freedom, and by that
means ; leafe the ear ; w, en, at the fame time, what
they fay, would not fo well bear reading.
We fhali only add, that a diftimftion ought likewife
to be made bet ween a poetic dieftioa and that of profe
writers. For poets in all languages have a fort of pe¬
culiar dialeft, and take greater liberties, not only in
their figures, but alfo in their choice and difpofition of
words ; fo tnat what is a beauty in them would often
appear unnatural and a fit died in profe.
§ 2. Of Pnfuuity.
43
Perspicuity, as well as purity, confifts partly in Eerfpicuity
Jingle words, and partly in their conjlridlion. avd illu-
Fare III. ORATORY.
mocuio.L I. As to Jingle words, thofe are generally cleared to a criminal, and pity te one And m tl.e
' /—and bed underftood which are ufed in their proper like manner, verbs are d.dmgmfhed, by being joined to
A 44 rtnfei But it rcqU;res no fmall attention and flcili to fome certain nouns, and not to others. So a perlon
words ng C *>e well acquainted with the force and propriety of is faid te command an inferior, to intreai a fupenor, and
words; which ought to be duly regarded, fince the to deftre an equal Adjea.ves alfo, jvhich denote the
perfpicuity of a difeourfe depends fo much upon it.
Caefar feems plainly to have been of this mind, when
lie tells us, “ The foundation of eloquence confids in
the choice of words.” It may not be amifs, therefore,
Elocution.
properties of things, have their fignification deter¬
mined by thofe fubjedts to which they mod properly
relate. Thus we fay, an honejl mlnd9 and a healthful
body ; a wife mm;, and a fine houfe. Another way of
L'afily he per
into proper words and tropes. 1 h.cfe are called proper
words, which are expreffed in their proper and ufual
fenfe. And tropes are fuch words as are applied to
fome other thing than whit they properly denote,
by reafon of fome fimilitude, relation, or contrariety
between the two things. So, when a fubtle artful man
is called a fox. the reafon of the name is founded in a
fimilitude of qualities. If we fay, Cicero will always
live, meaning his works, the caufe is transferred to the
effed. And when we are told, Cafar conqu 'ed the
Gauls, we underhand that he did it with the afliltance
of his army ; where a part is put for the whole, from
the relation between them. And when Ciccio calls
Antony a fine guardian of the fate, every one per¬
ceives he means the contrary. 4 But the nature and ufe
of tropes will be explained more fully hereafter in
their proper p’a. e All words mud at firft have had
one original and primary fignification, which, ftriftly
fpeaktng, may be called their proper fen 'e But it
fometimes happens through length of time, that words
lofe their original fignific .tion, and affume a new one,
which then becomes thtir proper fenfe. So hoft/s in
the Latin tongue at rit fignified a f ranger ; but af¬
terwards that fenfe of the word was entirely laid afide,
and it was ufed to denote a public enemy And in our
language, it is well known, that the word knave an¬
ciently fignified a fervant. The reafon of the change
feems to be much the fame, as in that of the Latin
word It 0 ; which fir it fignified a fotdier, but after¬
wards a robber. Bcfides, in all languages it has fre¬
quently happened, that many words have gradually
varied from their firft fenfe to others fomewhrat diffe¬
rent ; which may, notwithftanding, all of them, when
rightly applied, be looked upon as proper. Nay, in
procefs of t me, it is often difficult to fay which is the
original, or mol proper fenfe. Again, fometimes two
or more words may appear to have the f me fig: ifica-
tion with each other, and may therefore be ufed in¬
differently ; uniefs the beauty of the peri d, or fome
other particular re fon, determine to the choice of one
rather than another. O: th s kind are the words enfis
and giadius in the Latin tongue ; and in ours, pity and
compajfion. And there are other words of io near an
affinity to each other, or at haft appear fo from vulgar
ufe, that they are commonly thought to be fynony-
incus. Such are the word:- mert.y and pity ; though
mercy in its ftrift fenfe is exeve fed towards an ofien-
dei, and pity refpcdls one in didrefs. s this pecu¬
liar force and dittinddion of words is carefully to ! e
r.tten ed to, fo it may be known fcveral ways. Thus
the proper fignific tisn of fubftantrves may be feen
by their appliesi-ion to other fubftantives. As in the
uifiance jutl now given, a perlon is faid to ffiew mercy
pajjions. The proper fenfe of words may bkewife be
known by obferving to what other words they are ei¬
ther oppofed, or ufed as equivalent. So in that paf-
fage of Cicero, where he fays, “ I cannot perceive
why you fhould be angry with me : If it be becaufe I
defend him whom you accufe, why may not I be dif-
pleafed with you for accufing him whom I defend ?
You fay, I accufe my enemy ; and I fay, I defend my
friend.” Here the words accufe and defend, friend and
enemy, are oppofed ; and to be angry and dijpleaf’d, are
ufed as terms equivalent. Lafily, the derivation of
words contributes very much to determine thtir true
meaning. Thus becaufe the word manners comes from
the word man, it may propeily be applied either to
that or any other put for it. And therefore we fay,
the manners cf men, and the manners of the age, becaufe
the word age is there ufed for the men of the age. But-
if we apply the word manners to any other animal, it
is a trope-. By thefe and fuch like obfervations we
may perceive the proper fenfe and peculiar force of
words, either by their connexion with other wards*
difliudlion from them, oppolition to them, equivalency
with them, or derv-tion. And by thus fixing their
true and genuine fignification, we lhall eafily fee when
they become tropes. But though words, when taken
in their proper fignification, generally convey the
plaineft and clcardl fenfe; yet fome are more forcible,
ionorous, or beautiful, than others. And by thefe con-
fidcrations we muft often be determined in our choice
of them So whether we fay, he got, or he obtained,•
the vitdory, the fenfe is the lame; but the latter is more
full and fonorous. In Latin, timeo ligmfies / fear;
pertimeo is moie full and fignificant; and pertnr.efco more
fonorous th n either of the former. The Latin and
Greek languages have much the advantage of ours in
this refpedt, hy reafon of their comp fitions ; by the
h Ip of which they can often exprelb that in one word
lor which we are obliged to put two word5, and fome¬
times mot e. So pertimeo cannot be fully expreffed in
our language by one word ; but we are forced to ]oini
one or two p rtieles to the verb, to convey its juft idea,
and fay, I greatly, or very much fear: and yet even
then w'e fearce feem to reach its full force. As to
tropes, though generally fpeaking they are not to be
choicn where plainnels and perfpicuity of expreffioa
is only defigned. and proper words may be found; yet
through tiie penury of ail languages, the ufe of them
is often ma !e neceffary And fome of them, efpecially
metaphors, w'hich are taken from the fimilitude of
things, may, wdien cuftotn has rendered them familiar,
be conlidertd as proper woids, and ufed in their lb ad.
Thus, w hether w’e fay, 1 fee your meaning, or, 7 under’-
fandyour meaning, the fenfe is equally clear, though.
the-
4i4
Elocution, the latter expreffion is proper, and the former meta-
phorical, by which the aftion of feeing is transferred
45 from the eyes to the mind.
A-othe II. But per/picuily arifes not only from a choice
tion of fen- ftnS^ r^ordh but likewife from the conjlruaion
tences. of them in fentences. For the meaning of all the
words in a fentence, confidered by themfelves, may be
very plain and evident; and yet, by reafon of a difor-
derly placing them, or confuiion of the parts, the
fenfe of the whole may be very dark and obfcure.
Now it is certain, that the moft natural order is the
plaineft ; that is, when both the words and parts of a
fentence are fo difpofed, as bell agrees with their mu¬
tual relation and dependence upon each other- And
where this is changed, as is ufually done, efpecially
in the ancient languages, for the greater beauty and
harmony of the periods ; yet due regard is had by the
beft writers to the evidence and perfpicuity of the ex-
prefiion.
But to fet this fubjeft in a clearer light, on which
the per left ion of language fo much depends, we fhall
mention fame few things which chiefly occaiion obfeu-
rity ; and this either with refpeft to Angle words, or
their conflruftion.
And firft, all ambiguity of expreffion is one caufe
of obfeurity. This fometimes arifes from the different
f'enfes in which a word is capable of being taken. So
we are told, that upon Cicero’s addrefling himfelf to
Oftavius Csefar, when he thought himfelf in danger
from his refentment, and reminding him of the many
fervices he had done him, Oftavius replied, He came
the UJl of his friends. But there was a defigned am¬
biguity in the word lafl, as it might either refpeft the
time of his coming, or the opinion he had oj^^is
friendfhip. And this ufe of ambiguous words we fome*
times meet with, not only in poetry, where the turn
and wit of an epigram often rcfls upon it ; but like¬
wife in pxofe, either for pleafantry or ridicule. Thus
Cicero calls Sextus Clodius the light of the fenate;
which is a compliment he pays to feveral great men,
who had diftinguifhed themfelves by their public fer¬
vices to their country. But'Sextus, who had a con¬
trary charafter, was a relation of P. Clodius, whofe
dead body, after he had been killed by Milo, he car¬
ried in a tumultuous manner into the fenate-houfe, and
there burnt it with the fenators benches, in order to
inflame the populace againft Milo. And it is in allu-
flon to that riotous aftion, that Cicero, ufing this am¬
biguous expreffion, calls him the light of the fenate. In
fuch inflances, therefore, it is a beauty, and not the
fault we are cautioning againff : as the fame thing may
be either good or bad, as it is differently applied.—
Though even in fueh defigned ambiguities, where one
fenfe is aimed at, it ought to be fufliciently plain,
otherwife they lofe their intention. And in all ferious
difeourfes they ought carefully to be avoided. But ob¬
feurity more frequently arifes from the ambiguous con-
ilruftion of words, which renders it difficult to deter¬
mine in what fenfe they are to be taken. Quintilian
gives us this example of it: “A certain man ordered
in his will, that his heir fhould ereft for him a ftatue
bolding a fpear made of gold.” A queltion arifes here,
of great confequence to the heir from the ambiguity
of the exprtffion, whether the words made of gold are
to be applied to the Jlatue or the fpear j that is, whe-
Part IIP
ther it was the defign of the teflator by this appoint- Elocution,
ment, that the whole ftatue, or only the fpear, fhould1"* v-11'*
be made of gold. A fmallnoteof diflinftion, different¬
ly placed between the parts of this fentence, would
clear up the doubt, and determine the fenfe either way.
For if one comma be put after the word Jlatue, and
another after Jpeary the words made of gold muff be
referred to the ftatue, as if it bad been faid, a Jlatue%
made of gold, holding a fpear. But if there be only
the fir ft comma placed after Jlatue, it will limit the
words made of gold to the Jpear only; in the fame
fenfe as if it had been faid, A Jlatue holding a golden
fpear. And either of thefe ways of expreffion would
in this cafe have been preferable, for avoiding the am¬
biguity, according to the intention of the teftator.
The ancient heathen bracks were generally delivered in
fuch ambiguous terms. Which, without doubt, were fo
contrived on purpofe, that ,thofe who gave out the an-
fwers might have room left for an evafion. See Oracle.
Again, obfeurity is occafioned either by too fhort
and concife a manner of fpeaking, or by fentences too
long and prolix j either of thefe extremes have fome¬
times this bad confequence. We find an inflance of
the former in Pliny the elder, where fpeaking of hel¬
lebore, he fays, “ They forbid it to be given to aged
perfons and children, and lefs to women than men.”
The verb is wanting in the latter part of the fentence,
and lefs to women than men s which in fuch cafes being
ufually fupplied from what went before, would here
ftand thus ; and they forbid it to be given lefs to women
than men. But this is direftly contrary to the fenfe
of the writer, whofe meaning is, either that it is or¬
dered to be given in a lefs quantity to women than
men, or not fo frequently to women as men. And
therefore the word order is here to be fupplied, which
being of a contrary fignification to forbid, exprefled in
the iormer part of the fentence, occafions the obfeu¬
rity. That long periods are often attended with the
fame ill effeft, muft be fo obvious to every one’s expe¬
rience, that it would be entirely necdlefs to produce
any examples in order to evince the truth of it. And
therefore we fhall only obferve, that the beft way of
preventing this feems to be by dividing fuch fentences
as exceed a proper length into two or more; which
may generally be done without much trouble.
Another caufe of obfeurity, not inferior to any yet
mentioned, isparenthefis, when it is either too long or
too frequent. This of Cicero, in his oration for Syl-
la, is longer than we ufually find in him : “ O im¬
mortal gods ! (for I muft attribute to you what is your
own ; nor indeed can I claim fo much to my own abi¬
lities, as to have been able of myfelf to go through fo
many, fo great, fuch different affairs, with that ex¬
pedition, in that boifterous tempeft of the ftate), you
inflamed my mind with a defire to fave my country.”
But where any obfeurity arifes from fuch fentences,
they may frequently be remedied by much the fame
means as was juft now hinted concerning long and
prolix periods; that is, by feparating the parenthefia
from the reft of the fentence, and placing it either be¬
fore or after. So in this fentence of Cicero, the pa¬
renthefis may Hand lull, in the following manner :—.
“ O immortal gods! you inflamed my mind with a
defire to fave my country : for I muft attribute to you
what is your own; nor indeed can I claim fo much to
my
ORA T O R
Part HT# O R A T
Kloentirtn. my own abilities, m to have been able of myfclf to go
'—-’V"’--' through fo many, fo great, fuch different affairs, with
that expedition, in that boifterous temped of the date.”
This order of the fentence is very plain, and lefs in¬
volved than the former.
Chap. II. Of Compcftion-
45 . .
Compofi- Composition, in the fenfe it is here ufed, gives
ti< n de- rules for the ftru&ure of fentences, with the feveral
iivided1^ members, words, and fyllables, of which they confitt,
in fuch a manner as may bed contribute to the force,
beauty, and evidence of the whole.
Compofition confills of four parts, which rhetori¬
cians call period, order, junclure, and number. The
fird of thefe treats of the drudhire of fentences; the
fecond, of the parts of fentences, which are words and
members; and the two lad, of the parts of words,
which are letters and fyllables. For all articulate
founds, and even the mod minute parts of language,
come under the cognizance of oratory.
(> i. Of Period.
47 V .
Period de- In every fentence or propofinon, fometbmg is laid
fined and Qf fomething. That of which fomething is faid, logi-
txpainei. cjang caj2 ang that which is laid of it, the
predicate: but in grammatical terms, the former is a
noun fubjlantive of the nominative cafe, and the latter
a fnite verb, denoting affirmation, and feme date of
being, adling, or fuffering. Thefe two parts may of
themlelves conffitute a fentence : As when we fay,
‘The fun Jhines, or The clock jlrikes, the word fun and
clock are the fubjedt in thefe expreffions, fines andJlrikes
imply each the copula and predicate. Mod common¬
ly, however, the noun and the verb are accompanied
with other words, which in grammatical condrudtion
are faid either to be connedled with or to depend up¬
on them ; but in a logical confideration they denote
feme property or circumdance relating to them. As
in the following fentence : A good man loves virtue fr
itfelf The fubjedt of this fentence is a good man;
and the predicate, or thing affirmed of him, that he
loves virtue for itfelf. But the two principal or necef-
fary words, on which all the red depend, are man and
loves. Now a Ample fentence confids of one fuch
noun and verb, with whatever elfe is joined to either or
both of them. And a compound fentence contains
two or more of them ; and maybe divided into fo many
didincl propofitions, as there are fuch nouns and verbs,
either expreffed or underdood. So in the following
fentence, Compliance gains Jiriends, but truth procures
hatred, there are two members, each of which contains
in it an entire propofition. For, Compliance gains friends
is one complete fentence, and Truth procures hatred is
another ; which are connedted into one compound fen¬
tence by the particle but. • Moreover, it frequently
happens, that compound fentences are made up of fuch
parts or members, fome if not all of which are them-
felves compounded, and contain in them two or more
limple members. Such is that of Sallud : “ Ambition
Has betrayed many perfons into deceit; to fay one
thing, and to mean another; to found friendfhip and
enmity, not upon reafon, but intered ; and to be more
careful to appear honed, than really to be fo.” This
fentence confids of lour members; the laft of which
7
O R Y. 415
three, confiding of oppofite parts, are all compound- Elocution,
ed, as will appear by expreffing them at length in thev“"''‘v J
following manner : Ambition has betrayed many perfons
into deceit; [that is, ambition^ has betrayed them to fay
one thing, and to mean another; it has betrayed them to
found friendjhip and enmity, not upon reafon, but interefl;
and it has betrayed them to be more careful to appear honefl,
than really to be fo. The three lad of thefe member#,
beginning with the words it betrays, are all of them
compounded, and confid of two oppolite members;
which might each of them be expreffed at length in
the fame manner, by fupplying the ellipfis. As, Am¬
bition has betrayed many perfons to fay one thing, and it
has betrayed them to mean another. And fo of the red.
From this indance we fee how much is left to be fup-
plied by the mind in all difeourfe, which if expreffed
would both dedroy its harmony and render it exceed¬
ingly tedious. But dill regard mud be had to that
which is omitted, fo as to render what is faid confident
with it ; otherwife there can be no propriety in what 18-
fpoken. Nor can the members of a fentence be didin-
guifhed and duly ranged in their proper order, without
this. But to proceed: Some fentences con/id either
wholly, or in part, of fuch members as contain in them
two or more compound ones, which may therefore,
for didinction’s fake, be called decompound members 
Of this kind is that of Cicero,, in his'defence of Milo :
Great is the force of confcience, great either way 1
that thofe petfons are not afraid who have committed
mo offence ; and thofe who have offended always think
punifhment prefent before their eyes.” The latter
member of this fentence, which begins with the word
that, contains in it two compound members, which re-
prefent the different date of mind between innocent
and guilty perfons. And it is in the proper didin&ion
and feparation of the members in fuch complex fen¬
tences, that the art of pointing chiefly confids. For
the principal ufe of a comma is to divide the Ample
members, a femicolon the compound ones, a colon fuch
as are decompounded, and a period the whole from the
following fentence. We mention this the rather, to
fhow the different acceptation of thefe terms by gram¬
marians, from that of the ancient writers upon ora¬
tory. For thefe latter apply them to the fenfe, and
not to any points of diftindtion. A very fhort mem¬
ber, whether Ample or compound, with them is a
comma, and a longer a colon ; for they have no fuch
term as a femicolon. BeAdes, they call a very flrort
fentence, whether Ample or compound, a comma, and
one of fome what a greater length, z.co/on. And there¬
fore, if a perfon expreffed himfelf either of thefe ways
in any confiderable number of fentences together, he
was faid to fpeak by commas or colons. But a fen¬
tence containing more words than will conAfl with
either of thefe terms, they call a Ample period; the
lead compound period with them requiring the length
of two colons. However, this way of denominating
fentences, and the parts of them, rather from their
length than the nature of them, appearing not fo fuit-
able, we have chofen rather to make ufe of the terms
fmple and compound members ; and to call all thofe com-
pound periods, which contain two or more members,
whether Ample or compounded.
But to proceed : Sentences, with refpeft to their
form or compofition, are diftinguilhed into two forts,
called
416
O R A T
Elocution called by Cicero traBci, “ ftraight or direftand
lj " contorta, “ bent or winding.” By the former are
meant thofe whofe members follow each other in a di-
red: order, without any infle&ion ; -and by the tatter,
thofe which ftridly fpeakirg are c-illed periods. For
■a piot®- in Greek figniiies a circuit or circle. And fo
the Latins call it circuitus and ambitus. By which both
of them mean a fentenqe confiding of correfpondent
parts, fo framed, that the voice in pronouncing them
may have a proper elevation and cadency, and didin-
gulth them by its inflexion ; and as the latter part
• returns back, and unices with the former, the period,
like a circle, furrounds and inclofes the whole fenfe.
This elevation of the voice in the former part of the
period, is by the Greeks called TrpoTcuns, and by the
Latins propojitio ; and the depreflion of it in the bit¬
ter part, by the one K*°£o<rti, and by the other red-
ditio.
Now as fimple fentences have not thefe correfpon¬
dent parts, which require any inflexion of the voice ;
nor a circular form, by reafon of their brevity ; they
are not properly periods, in the ftrifl fenfe of the
word : though in common fpeech, the words fcntence
and period are often ufed as equivalent terms. Thu*,
if we fay, Generous minds are incited to the performance
of noble exploits from motives of glory ; here is no di-
ftin&ion of parts, nor inflexion of the voice in this
fentence. And indeed there is not any thing which
relates to the ftru&ure of thefe fentences, but what
will more properly be taken notice of in the fecond
part of compqfition, which is order.
And as to thofe compound ftntences, whofe mem¬
bers follow each other in a direft order, without any
inflexion, there is little art required in their compo-
fition. We fliall produce one example of this kind
from Cicero: “ Natural reafon inclines men to mu¬
tual converfe and fociety ; and implants in them a
flrong affe&ion for thofe who fpring from them ; and
excites them to form communities, and join in public
affemblies ; and, for thefe ends, to endeavour to pro¬
cure both the necefiaries and conveniences of life ; and
that not for themfelves only,but likewife for theirwives,
children, and others who are dear to them, and have
a right to their affiilance.” Here are five fhort mem¬
bers in this fenten^e, placed in a feries, without any
inflexion of the parts, or orbit of the whole. And as
fuch fentences have no other boundary but the conclu-
fion of the fenfe, fuited to the breath of the fpeaker,
he may either contract or lengthen them at pleafure,
without offending the ear. So, fhould the fentence
lafl mentioned conclude with the firfl member in this
manner, Natural reafon inclines men to mutual ccn-
verfe and fociety ; the fenfe would be perfeft, and the
ear fatisfied. The cafe would be the fame at the end
of the fecond member, thus : Natural reafon inclines
men to mutual converfe and fociety, and implants in them
ajlrong aff-tlion for thefe no ho fpring from them. And
the like may be faid of the reft. Since fuch fentences
therefore may be thus limited at pleafure, it feems
more convenient both for the fpeaker and hearers to
confine them to a moderate length.
But becaufe the principal art relating to this part
of compohtion lies in the frame and ftrudture of luch
compound fentences as are properly called periods^ we
iliall treat upon thefe foxnewhat more largely. In the
N° 251.
O R Y. pare HI.
formation of thefe periods, two things are chiefly to Elocution,
be regarded 5 their length, and cadency. As the length
ought to be fuited to the breath of the fpeaktr, the
ancient rhetoricians fcarce admit of more than four
colons ; by which we may here underftand compound
members of a moderate fize, which will be generally
found a fuitable and proportionate length. For to ex¬
tend them farther than the voice can well manage mull
be painful to the fpeaker, and of confequence unpka*
fant to the hearers. As to the cadency, what Cicero
hap obferved, is found true by experience, that the
ears judge what is full and what is deficient ; and di-
re£t us to fill up our periods, that nothing be want¬
ing of what they expeft. When the voice is raifed
at the beginning of a fentence, they are in fufpence
till it be finifhed ; and are pleafed with a full and juft
cadency, but are fenfible of any defedt, and are dif-
pleafed with redundancy. Therefore care muft be ta¬
ken that periods be neither deficient, and as it were
maimed, that is, that they do not drop before their
time, and defraud the ears of what feemed to be pro-
mifed them ; nor, on the other hand, offend them by
too long and immoderate excurfions. This rife and
cadency of the voice in pronunciation, depend on the
nature and fituation of the members, as we fhall en¬
deavour to (how by particular inftances ; in the expli¬
cation of which, by the word members, are to be un-
derftood fuch as are uncompounded. In a period of two
member-s, the turn of the voice begins with the latter
member. Of this kind is the following fentence of
Cicero : “ If impudence prevailed as much in the fo¬
rum and courts of jufttce, as infolence does in the
country and places of lefs refort; Aulus Crecina would
fubmit as much to the impudence of Sextus FJjutius in
this caufe, as he did before to his infolence when af-
faulted by him.” Here the cadency begins at the
words Aulus Ccccina. If a fentence confift of three
members, the inflexion is bed made at the end of the
fecond member: tor if it begin immediately after the
firft, the voice will be either apt to fink too low, and
not to be heard, before it reach the end ; or elfe be pre¬
cipitated, in order to prevent it. Cicero begins his
oration for Milo with a fentence of this form : “ Al¬
though I fear, it may be a (hame to be difmayed at
the entrance of my difeourfe in defence of a moft va¬
liant man ; and that it nowife becomes me, while Mi¬
lo is more concerned for the fafety of the ftate than for
himfelf, not to (how the fame greatnefs of mind in hia
behalf: yet this new form of profecution terrifies my
eyes, which, whatever way they turn, want the an¬
cient cuftom of the forum, and former manner of
trials.” Here the cadency beginning at the third
member with the word yet, makes a proper divifion of
the fentence, and eafy for the fpeaker. But a period
of four members is reckoned the moft complete and
perfedf, where the inflection begins at the middle,
that is, with the third member. Nor is it the fame
cafe here, as if, in a fentence of three members, the
cadency be made at the fecohd. For in proportion to
the tim’e of raifing the voice may the fpace be allow¬
ed for its finking. The following fentence of Cicero
gives us an inftance of this, where he fpeaks to his
(on : “ Although, fon Mark, having now been an
hearer of Cratippus for a year, and this at Athens,
you ought to abound in the precepts and doClrines of
8 philofophy,
PartlH. O R A T
Elocution, philofophy, by reafon of the great charadler both of
  * your inftruftor and the city ; one of which can fur-
nifh you with knowledge, and the other with ex¬
amples : yet, as I always to my advantage joined the
Latin tongue with the Greek, and have done it not
only in oratory, but likewife in philofophy ; I think
you ought to do'the fame, that you may be equally
converfant in both languages.” The turn in this pe¬
riod begins at the word yet ; which Handing near the
middle, the voice is raifed to that pitch in pronoun¬
cing the former part, as to admit of a gradual caden¬
cy, without being loft before the conclufion of the
fentence. But where the fenfe does not fuit with this
divifton at the entrance upon the third member, it is
bell made at the fourth. Such is the fallowing fen¬
tence of Cicero : “ If I have liny genius, which I
am fenfible is very final! ; or any readinefs in fpeak-
ing, wherein I do not deny but I have been much
converfant ; or any Ikill in oratory, from an acquaint-
O R Y,
4^7
of If aerates, contain the fubjeift of this fentence, with Elocutn n.
what relates to it; and all thole which follow, excited
Ar'ijlotle to the profjjlan of oratory, make up the predi¬
cate and its dependants. And in both parts each word
grammatically confidered Hands in its proper order of
conftruhlion. And this feems agreeable to the natu¬
ral way of conveying our thoughts, which leads us
Hr ft to exprefs the fubjeft or thing of which fome other
thing is laid, before the predicate or that which is faid
concerning it ; and with refpebl to both, as every idea
fucceeds another-in the order of our conceptions, to
range it in the fame order when we communicate
them to others. «Our language in the general keeps
pretty much to this method. But in one thing par¬
ticularly it recedes from it ; and that is, in placing
adjectives, which denote the properties of things, be¬
fore their fubftantives or fubjech, whofe properties
they are •• As when it is fait', Evil communication cor¬
rupts good manners. And this we always do, except
ance with the heft arts, to which I confefs I have been fomething follows which depends upon the adjedltve.
always inclined: no one has a better right to demand
of me the fruit of all thefe things, than this Aulus
Lrecinius.” The cadency of this fentence does not
begin till the words no one ; yet it ends handfomely,
and without difappointing the ear. Though indeed
the three firft members having each of them an inflec¬
tion, check the elevation of the voice, and by that va¬
riety in the pronunciation add to the harmony of the
fentence. An equality of the members Ihould like¬
wife be attended to in the compofition of a period, the
better to adjuft their rife and cadency. And for this
reafon, in fentences of three members, where the ca¬
dency begins with the third ; or in thofe of four mem¬
bers, where it begins at the fourth ; it promotes the
haimony to make the laft member longeft. This is
properly the nature of rhetorical periods, which when
rightly formed have both an equal beauty and digni¬
ty in their compofition.
But as all difeourfe is made up of diftinfl fenten-
•ces, and whenever we exprefs our thoughts it is in
fome of the forms above-mentioned ; fo the ufe of them
is not promifeuous, but fuited to anfwer ditferent de-
fignsin fpeaking. And in this view they are Confider¬
ed and made ufe of by the orator, as will be Ihown
hereafter.
$ 2. Of Order.
48
Order de-
fined and
illuilrated.
bo we fay, He ‘was a man eminent for his virtue ; not
an eminent man.
Artificial order, as it refpects Ample fentences, has
little or no regard to the natural conftru&ion of
words ; but difpoics them in fuch a manner as will be
moft agreeable to the ear, and beft anfwer the defign
of the fpeaker. The Latins take a much greater li¬
berty in this refpeft than we do, or than the nature
of our language will permit. Quintilian fays, it is
beft tor the verb to Hand laft, when there is no parti¬
cular reafon co the contrary-. And he gives this ica-
fon for it, becaufe the force of the fentence lies in the verb.
So that, according to him, they feem to have had this
view in putting the verb at the end; that as the whole
fentence is imperfect without the verb, the mind be¬
ing thus held in fufpenfe might receive the deeper im-
prefiion from it at laft. They likewife feparate fuch
words as have an immediate relation between them or
dependence one upon another, and place any of them
firft or laft as they pleafe. In ftiort, their order feems
in a manner arbitrary, if it does not break in upon
perfpicuity, to which they ufually attend. But moft
of thefe things are unfuitable to the genius of our
language. One might fay indeed, Convince him you .
cannot y in Head of faying, 7 ou cannot convince him ;
Or, IVuh my own eyes I fiw it; for, I faw -it with my
And again : In proportion to the increafe of
own eyes
By order, rhetoricians mean the placing each word luxury the Roman fate declined; for, The Roman fate
.1 l— -c - r - r"-L - as will declined in proportion to the increafe of luxury. But this
— inverfion of words is proper in Englifh compofition
only when it gives force to the expreflion ; as in the
higher ilyle it often does. It ierves to imprefs known
truths upon the mind, but is unfit for communicating
the fiHl principles of knowledge.
As to compound fentences, that is, fuch as confift
of two or more members, either Ample or compound¬
ed ; what relates to the words in each member fepa-
rately is the fame as in Ample fentences But with
regard to the difpofition of the feveral members, that
m.-.y be called t.ie natui al order, which io places them
as they mutually depend on each other. Thus the
antecedent member naturally precedes the relative •
as in this expreffion, Men are apt to forgive themfelves
what they blame in others. In hypothetical fentences
the conditional member naturally Hands firft. Thus :
If hoc rates be a rational creature, he is a man. That
3 G member
and member ot a fentence in fucb a manner
moft contribute to the force, beauty, or evidence of
the whole.
Order is of two kinds, natural and artificial. And
each of thefe may be confidered with refpedt to the
parts either of Ample or compound fentences.
As to Ample fentences, we mayT call that order na¬
tural, when all the words in a fentence are fo placed,
as they are connefted with or follow each other in a
grammatical confirm!-! ion. And It may properly
enough admit of this name, as it is founded in the na¬
ture of a propofition, and the relation of the feveral
words of which it confifts to each other. This we
explained in the lad chapter, and iiluftrated by proper
examples ; and fliall therefore only give one inftance
of it here, to introduce the fubjecl we are now upon.
And it is this : The fame of Ifocrates excited Arfotleto
the profejjion of oratory. Here thefe words, the fame
Vol. XIII. Pan II.
4i8 O R A T
Elocution. ember which exprefTes the effe& of an a£lion na-
turaiiy comes laft ; as, Though you ojfer ever fo good
reafons, you will not prevail with him. The like may¬
be faid of time, with regard to things done in it ;
as, The Roman eloquence foon declined, when Cicero was
dead. And to name no more, the reafon of a thing
naturally follows that of which it is the reafon ; as
thus : yld the pleafures of life rmfl be uncertain, fince life
if elf is not fecure.
When this order is inverted, it may be llyled arti-
jicial. So to keep to the inftances already given, the
two members in the firft fentence may be thus invert¬
ed : IVhat they blame in others men are apt to forgive
themfelves. In the fecond, in this manner : Socrates is
a man, if he be a rational creature. In the third, thus:
Toil will not prevail with him, though you offer ever fo
good reafons. And fo in the reft : As, When Cicero
was dead, the Roman eloquence foon declined; and, Since
life ifelf is not fecure, all the pleafures of life muft be un¬
certain. The variety of inverfions in a fentence may
generally be greater or lefs in proportion to the num¬
ber of its members, in the following fentence of Ci¬
cero, the natural order feems to be this: If that great-
nefs of mind be void of jufice, which JJjows itfelf in dan¬
gers and labours, it is blameable. Which may be varied
by changing the place of the firft and third member,
in the following manner : That greatnefs of mind is
llameable which fhows itfelf in dangers and labours, if it
want jufice. Or by altering the place of all the three
members thus : That greatnefs of mind is llameable, if it
be void of juf ice, which fhows itfelf in dangers and la¬
bours. But oftentimes one member may be included
in another, as in the inftance here given: If that great¬
nefs of mind, which fhows itfelf in dangers and labours,
be void of jufice, it is llameable. Here the relative mem¬
ber is included in the conditional, which is placed firft,
and the antecedent member follows both. But in Ci¬
cero it Hands thus: That greatnefs of mind, whichfhows
itfelf in dangers and labours, if it want jufice, is blame-
able j where the relative and conditional members are
both included in the antecedent member. The -La¬
tin tongue commonly admits of a much greater va¬
riety in the traiifpolition of members, as well as in
that of fingle words, than fuits with our idiom. In
the following fentence the natural order is much pre¬
ferable, as it bell fuits with the proper elevation and
cadency of the voice in its pronunciation : I am wil¬
ling to remit all that is paf, provided it may be done with
fafety. But Ihould we invert the members, and fay,
Provided it may be done with fajety, I am willing to re¬
mit all that is paf ; the harmony of the cadency would
be loft. And if the latter member be included in the
former, the alteration will Hill be worfe; as, / am
willing, provided it may be done with fnfrfy, to forgive all
that is puf. Here the inflection of the voice falls up¬
on the fame member as before, and deftroys the beau¬
ty of the period by its elevation afterwards. Some
lentences admit of no involution of their members.
Such are thofe whofe members are conne£led by con¬
junctive or disjundtive particles. As, Virtue furn'Jhes
the mind with the truijl -pie a jure in profperity, and affords
it the greatef comfort in adverfty. r\ nd, si wife man is
neither elated by profperity, nor depreffed by adverfty. And
the like may be faid of thofe where the latter mem-
o R Y. Part Ilf.
her begins with fome illative or redditive particle. Elocution.
As in thefe inftances: The chief thing to he regarded in —J
life is virtue, for all other things are vain and uncertain.
And, Though fortune is always inconfant, yet foe has
many votaries. Neither of the members in any of
thefe ways of expreffion, and fome others which might
be named, can be included one in the other. In all
the examples hitherto given, the fentences confift on¬
ly of fimple members; and indeed compound mem¬
bers are not fo often inverted, nor included one in
another, by reafon of their length. However, we
lhall here produce one inftance of each : Whoever con-
fders the uncertainty of human a fairs, and how frequent¬
ly the great eft hopes are fruf rated ; he will fee juf reafon
to be always on his guard, and not place too much depen¬
dence upon things fo precarious. This fentence confifts of
two compound members, which here {land in their na¬
tural order, but may be thus inverted : He will fee juf
reafon to be always on his guard, and not place too much
dependence on things fo precarious; whoever confders the
uncertainty of human afairs, and how often the greatef
hopes are fruf rated. In the following fentence one
compound member is included in another : Let us not
conclude, while dangers are at a dfance, and do not im¬
mediately approach us, that we are fecure ; un/efs we ufe
all necejfary precaution to prevent them. Here the na¬
tural order would be: While dangers are at a dfance,
and do not immediately approach us; let us not conclude,
that we are fecure, unlefs we ufe all necejfary precaution to
prevent them.
But there are fome other confiderations relating to
order, which, being taken from the nature of things,
equally fuit all languages. So, in amplifying, there
fhould be a conftant gradation from a lefs to a greater;
as when Cicero fays, Ambition creates hatred, /hynfs,
difeords, feditions, and wars. On the contrary, in ex¬
tenuating, we Ihould defeend from a greater to a lefs ;
as if, fpeaking of the ancient laws of Rome, one (hould
fay, They were fo far from fufering a Roman citi%en to
be put to death, that they would not allow him to be whipt,
or even to be bound, in conftituting any whole, we
put the parts firft ; as, Invention, difprft'ion, elocution,
and pronunciation, makeup the art of oratory. But in fe-
parating any whole, the parts follow : as, The art of
oratory may be divided into thefe four parts ; invention,
difpofition, elocution, and pronunciation. In every enu¬
meration care mull be taken not to mix the whole
with the parts ; but if it be mentioned at all, it muft
either be put firtl or laft. So it would be wrong to
fay, He was a man of the greatef prudence, virtue^
jufice, and modejly : for the word virtue here contains
in it the other, three, and therefore fhould not be in-
ferted among them. See Language, n° 17.
$3.0/’ Juncture and Number.
Quintilian, fpeaking of compofition, reprefents-
a difeourfe as very happy in that refpefl, when the
order, juncture, aiid number, are all juft; and proper.
The firtl of thefe, which gives rules for the due pla¬
cing of the words and members of a fentence, has
been already explained. We now proceed to the other
two, which relate to letters and fyllables ; the former
treating of their connection, and the latter of their
quantity.
I. As
and illu
firated.
Part in. ORA
Elocution. I, As to jur.Bure. A due attention is to be paid
’ ^ to the nature of the vowels, confonants, and fyl-
The na- labks in the connection of words, with regaid to the
ture and ufe found.
cijuntfure As to the frj}, when a word ends with a vowel,
cxp ained an(j t^e next fcegjns either with a different vowel, or
the fame repeated, it ufually renders the pronunciation
hollow and unpleafant. For, as Quintilian hasjuftly
obferved, “ This makes a chafm in the fentence, and
flops the courfe of it.” For there muft be fome paufe,
in order to pronounce them both,orotherwife thefound
of one will be loft. So, for inftance, in pronouncing
thefe words, the other */ay,unlefa you flop a little after
the word they the found of e will not be heard ; and if
it is dropt, it will occalion a rougher found, from the
afpiration of th twice repeated fo near together, as
th’ other day. Therefore to prevent both thefe incon¬
veniences, we ufually fay, t’ other day. But the dif¬
ferent confonants, which together with the vowels
make up thofe fyllables, often caufe a confiderable dif¬
ference in the pronunciation, fo as to render it more
or lefs agreeable. As, if we fay, he overdid it, the
words he over have not fo harlh a found, as the other;
though ftill they require fome paufe to keep them di-
ftindt. Befides, fome vowels meet more amicably,
and admit of a fofter pronunciation, than others.
Thofe which have the weakeft and fmalleft found,
follow heft ; becaufe they occalion the lead: alteration
of the organ in forming the two founds. Such are e
and i; and therefore, without any chafm in the found,
or hefitation of the voice, we fay, he is. But where
the aftion of the organs is greater, and the found
ftronger, the pronunciation is more difficult : as when
we fay, tho’ all. For here is a contrary motion of the
lips, which are lirft put forward in founding the o, and
then drawn backward to pronounce the a; and there¬
fore the found is much fofter to fay, tho* every, where
their a&ion is lefs. And the like ill effect commonly
happens from the repetition of the lame vowel: as if
we fay, go on; or, you ujually ahi thus. There is a con¬
fiderable difference between thefe two expreffions, in
repeating the found of the vowel, and where either of
them is doubled in a fingle word. For then the fame
found only is protra&ed by one continued motion of
the organ ; as in the words and deem. But here
the found is repeated again by a new adtion of the or¬
gan ; which, if precipitated, obfcures the found of one
of the vowels; and, if too much retarded, makes a
chafm in the pronunciation ; either of which is un¬
pleafant to the ear.
But as the coalition of two vowels occafions an hol¬
low and obfcure found, fo the meeting of fome confo-
rants renders it very harffi and rough. Thus the
words king Xerxes, and public good, when fo placed have
not only a roughnefs, but likewife a difficulty in their
pronunciation, from the contrary adtion of the lips ;
which in the former are firft drawn back and then for¬
ward, but in the latter the contrary way, and in both
of them with fome conliderable force. But this may
very eafily be avoided, by faying, with a little altera¬
tion in the words, Xerxes the king, and the good of the
public. So likewife the words ill company, have a fofter
found than lad company, for the fame reafon. To
multiply inftances of this kind feems unneceflary, which
ib frequently occur in all difeourfes.
a
T O R Y. 4,9
The repetition of the lame fytlable, at the end and Elocution,
beginning of words, is the lall thing to be confidered. L -r-v—«—
And a little obfervation will convince us, that where
this happens, it generally renders the found either con-
fufed or unpleafaitt. Cicero was often rallied on ac¬
count of this verfe:
0 fortunatam natam me confute Romam. v
Lvery one will eafily perceive a difagrecable found in
the following expreffion : “ A man many times does
that unadvifedly, of which he afterwards repents.”
I he chime of the words man many hath feems affec¬
ted, and difpleafes the ear. But this will foon be re¬
medied, if we feparate thofe two words, and fay, “ A
man does that many times unadvifedly.”
From the ffiort account here given of this paVt of
compolition, it is eafy to perceive what things are
neceffary to render it moft complete and accurate ;
which are thefe following. If a word end with a vowel,
the next ought to begin with a confonant, or fuch a
vowel whofe found may agree well with the former.
But if a word conclude with a confonant, either a
vowel fhould follow, or fuch a confonant whofe pro¬
nunciation will fuit with it. And laftly, the fame
fyllable ought not to be repeated at the end of one
word, and the beginning of the next. It has been
obferved by fome critics, that the following verfe at
the beginning of Virgil’s Aineid has all thefe pro¬
perties :
Xrma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ah oris.
Where any word in this verfe ends with a vowel, the
next begins with a confonant ; and where any one
ends with a confonant, the next begins with a vowel;
and there is no repetition of the fame found through¬
out the whole. But this is what rarely happens,
efpecially in our language, which abounds with con¬
fonants. And what Quintilian fays of the coalition
of vowels, in treating upon this fubjedl, feems ap¬
plicable to the whole. “ This (fays he) is a thing
not much to be dreaded ; and 1 know not whether the
negled of it, or too great a concern about it, be
worfe. It neceffarily checks the vigour of the mind,
and diverts it from matters of greater importance. And
therefore, as it fhows negligence to permit it, fo to
be in conftant fear of it difcovers a low' genius.” This
was the opinion of that judicious writer., And as
thefe things cannot always be attended to, it may be
fufficient to avoid them, where they prove very offen-
five to the ear, and it may be done without fonie
greater inconvenience. So in this fentence, Honefty
is the bejl poficy, the coalition of t and p in the two lail
words lejl policy produces a roughnefs in their pro¬
nunciation ; but as the expreffion is ftrong, and can¬
not perhaps be well altered for the better, the found
here ought to give way to the fenfe,
II. Number. This refpefts the quantity of fyl- 50
lables, as Jundure does their quality. In the Greek l-16113-
and Roman languages every fyllable has its d.ftin& n'rf fnd
quantity ; and is either long, ffiort, or common : two ' ' °
or more of which joined together in a certain order
make a foot, and a determinate number of thefe in a
different order conftitute their feveral forts of metre.
This variety of founds gives a much greater harmony
to their poetry, than what can arife only from the
3 G 2 feat
420 0 R A T
Elocution. feat of the accent, and the fimilitude of found at the
' i end of two verfes, which chiefly regulate our metre.
And although their profe was not fo confined with
regard to the feet, either as to the kind or place of
them, as their metrical compoiitions; yet it had a fort
of meafure, more efpecinlly in the rife and cadency of
their periods. This they call rhetorical number. And
accordingly the ancient writers upon this art acquaint
us what feet are beft fuited to the beginning, middle,
or conclufion of a fentence. Such rules are not ap¬
plicable to our language, which has not that accurate
diftin&ion of quantity in its fyllables. For we are
apt to confound accent with quantity, and pronounce
thofe fyllables longeft on which we lay the accent,
though in their nature they are not fo. As in the
word admirable, where none but the firft fyllable ad
is pronounced long ; though that is only rendered fo
by pofition, and the two following are fo by nature.
And again, in the word avarice, we found the firft a
long for the fame reafon, and the fecond lliort; con¬
trary to the nature of both thofe vowels. However,
we fliall offer a few things that may be of fome ufe to
modulate our periods and adjuft their cadency.
A great number of monofyllables do not ftand well
together. For as there ought to be a greater diftance
In the pronunciation between one word and another,
than between the fyllables of the fame word ; fuch
paufes, though fhort, yet, when too frequent, make
the found rough and uneven, and by that means ipoil
its harmony. ' And this may feem more neceffary to
be attended to, becaufe the Enghih language abounds
fo much with monofyllables. On the contrary, a con¬
tinuation of many long words makes a fentence move
too flow and heavily. And therefore fuch periods
generally run beft, which have a proper mixture of
words of a different length. Befides, as every word
has its accent, which with us Hands for quantity, a
number either of monofyllables, or long words, coming
together, fo far abates the harmony, as it leflens the
variety.
Again, feveral words of the fame ending do not
fland well together, efpecially where the accent falls
upon the fame fyllable in each of them, for this
creates too great a jingle by the fimilitude of found ;
and is apt to difpleafe, from an appearance of affec¬
tation. Of this kind is the following fentence : No-
thing is more ‘welcome, delightfome, or ‘whchjome, than
rejl to a ‘wearied man. In fuch exprefiions therefore,
if the order of the words cannot well be altered,
fome other word fhould be fubftituted in the room of
one of them at leaft, to diverfify the found. So in
the example here given, the found might be varied
by faying, Nothing is more welcome, pkafant, or <wh6le-
fome.
But to add no more, if a fentence end with a mo-
nofyllable, it is apt to hurt the cadency, and difap-
point the ear ; whereas words of a moderate length
carry a greater force with them, by the fulnefs of
their found, and afford the ear what it expected. And
there is one fort of monofyllables more efpecially,
which never ftand well at the conclufion of a period,
though we frequently find them there ; and thefe are
the figns of cafes. Thus we fay, Avarice is a crime,
which wife men are too often guilty bf. But the cadency
I
O R Y. Part III.
would doubtlefs be more agreeable if it was altered Elocution,
thus : Avarice is a crime, of which wife men are too of- ^ ‘
ten guilty. Every one muft perceive, when the ac¬
cent falls upon the laft fyllable in the fentence, as it
does if it end with of, the found is not fo plcafant as
when it refts upon the preceding fyllable in the word
guilty. Nor are very long words well fuited either
to the beginning or conclufion of a period; for they
retard the pronunciation at firft, and fall too heavy at
the end.
Chap. III. Of Dignity.
51
Dignity confifts in the right ufe of tropes and The necef-
figures. It is not fufficient for an orator to exprefsfi.rJ 0.f dlg-
hirnfelf with propriety and clearnefs, or in fmooth and^TJ^11
harmonious periods; but his language muft likewife
be fuited to the nature and importance of the fubject.
And therefore, as elegance gives rules for the firft of
thefe, and compojition for the iecond; fo does dignity for
the laft of them. It is very evident, that different
fubjeebs requite a different ftyle and manner of ex-
preflion ; fince, as Quintilian fays, “ What is magni¬
ficent in one difeourfe would be turgid in another ;
and thofe exprefiions which appear low upon a fu-
blime fubjeft, would fuit leffer matters : and as in a
florid harangue a mean word is remarkable, and like
a blemifh ; fo any thing lofty and bright upon a tri¬
vial argument is difproportionate, and htce a tumour
upon an even furface.” Now this variety in the man¬
ner of exprefiion arifes in a great meafure from tropes
2lX\&figures, which not only enliven and beautify a dif¬
eourfe, but give it likewife force and grandeur; for
which reafon this part of elocution feems to have been
called dignity.
'Propeg and figures are diftinguifhed from each other
in feveral refpe&s. Tropes moftly affedf Angle words,
but figures whole fentences. A trope conveys two
ideas to the mind by means of one word; but a figure
throws the fentence into a different form from the com¬
mon and ufual manner of exprefiion. Befides, tropes
are chiefly defigned to reprefent our thoughts, bat
figures our paflions.
§ i. Tropes.
52
N trope, which is a figure of words, has been ufually Tropes,
defined to be the change of a word from its proper figm-what.
fcation to fome other with advantage, either as to beauty or
firength. The words, with advantage, are added in
the definition, becaufe a trope ought not to be cho-
fen, unlefs there is fome good reafon for ufing it ra¬
ther than the proper w'ard. But in what manner, or
how far, it can be faid of all tropes in general, that
they change the proper fignification of words, wull
beft appear by ccnfidering the nature of each kind of
them feparately. Now in every trope a reference is
had to two things, which occafions two ideas ; one of
the thing exprefled, and another of that thing to which
it has a refpeft, and is fupplied by the mind. For all
tropes are taken either from things internally related,
as the whole and a part ; or externally, as caufe and
effect, fubjeCl and adjunft; or from fome fimilitude
that is found between them; or from a contrariety. The
firft of thefe is called fyntcdoche, the fecond metonymy,
the
Partlll. ORA
Elocution the third metaphor, and the laft irony. We thall endea-
v ' vour to illuftrate this by examples. When we fay,
Hannibal beat the Romans ; the meaning is, that Han¬
nibal and his army did this. So that although in
fome fenfe a part may here be laid to (land for the
whole, which makes it a fynecdoche ; yet, ftriaiy ipeak-
ing, the word Hannibal does not alter its fenfe, hut
there is an ellipfis in the expreflion, Hannibal being
put for himfelf and his army. But if we fay, Cicero
fhould be read by all lovers of eloquence ; here indeed the
word Cicero appears to be changed from its proper
fenfe, and to fignify the looks of Cicero ; which is
a metonymy, the author being put for his works;
and therefore fuch exprefiions need not be deemed
elliptical. Again, if any one fpeaking of a fubtle and
crafty man, fhould fay he is a fox ; the meaning is, he
is like a fox ; which is a metaphor; where the word/ox
retains its proper fenfe, and denotes that animal, to
which the man is compared on account of his craft.
Laltly, if a perfon fay to another, Well done; mean¬
ing that the thing was ill done, the word nvell keeps
its own fenfe ; but from the manner of its pronun¬
ciation, or fome other circumftance attending the ex-
preffion, it will be evident that the contrary is intend¬
ed J which is called an irony. From thefe inftances it
may appear in what latitude we muft underftand the
common definition of a trope, which makes it to confilt
in the change of a word from its proper fe'hfe into
fome other. But though in reality there are but four
kinds of tropes, which are diftirigutfiied by fo many
different refpefts which things bear one to another
yet as thefe feveral refpects are found in a variety ot
iubjects, and attended with different circumftances,
the names of tropes have from hence been greatly mul¬
tiplied ; which, however, may all be referred to fome
or other of thofe already mentioned, as will be fhown
when we come to treat of them in their order. And for
diftin&ion fake we Ihall call the former primary, and
the latter fecondary, tropes.
We now proceed to confider the reafons which have
occafioned the introduction of tropes. And thefe, as
Quintilian obferves, are three ; necejfty, emphajis, and
beauty.
i. Tropes were firft introduced from necejfity, de¬
riving their origin unqueftionably in a conliderable
degree from the barrennefs of language, becaufe no
language which we know contains a lufficient num¬
ber of proper words to exprefs all the different con¬
ceptions of our minds: but the principal caufe of
their introduction feems to be that extenlive influence
which imagination poffeffes over every kind of fpeech.
The mind confiders the fame thing various ways;
views it in different lights ; compares it with other
things ; and obferves their feverai relations and affec¬
tions ; wherein they agree, and in what they differ.
From all which refleftions, it is futnifhed with almoft
an infinite number of ideas ; which cannot all of them
be diffinguifhed and expreffed by proper words, fince
new ones occur daily. And were this poffible, yet
would it be impraaicable ; becaufe the multitude of
words muft be fo vaftly great, that the memory could
not retain them, nor be able to recal them as occa-
fiou required. Tropes have in a good meafure re-
dreffed both thefe inconveniences; for by means of them
TORY. 421
the mind is not burdened with a mimberlefs (lock of Elocution.^
different words, and yet nothing feems to want a
name. Thus fometimes, where a word is wanting
to exprefs any particular thing, it is clearly enough
leprefented by the name of fome other thing, by rea-
fon of the fimilitude between them. At other times,
the caufe is fignified by the effed ; the fubjefl by the
adjunct ; or the contrary. And the whole is often
underftood by a part, or a part by the whole. And
thus by the ufe of tropes, the mind is helped to con¬
ceive of fomething not expreffed, from that which
is expreffed. It is much the fame cafe, as when we
have occafion to fpeak of a perfon, whofe name we
are either unacquainted with, or have forgot ; for
by deferibing his perfon, abode, or fome other cir¬
cumftances relating to him, thofe we converfe with as
well underftand whom we mean, as if we mentioned
his name. So the ftiepherd in Virgil, when he could
not think of the name of Archimedes, deferibes him
by his works:
53
Why in¬
troduced.
And what’s his name who form’d the fphere,
And (bow’d the feafons of the Aiding year ?
Befides, it fometimes happens in a difeourfe, that thofe
things are neceffary to be faid, which, if exprehed in
their proper terms, would be offenfive ; but being clo¬
thed with metaphors, may be conveyed to the mind
with decency. Thus then the imagination never con-
templates anyone idea fingle and alone,butalwaysalong
with other ideas, which may be called its accejfones,
and which often operate more forcibly upon the mind
than the principal idea itfelf does. In their nature,
they are often more agreeable, and frequently alfo
more familiar, to our conceptions; or perhaps they re¬
mind us of a greater variety of important circum¬
ftances. Hence the name of the acceffory is often
preferred, as, e.g. when we want to point out the time
in which a date enjoyed its chiel reputation, &c. the
proper words might do, but the imagination fuggeils
the flourifhing period of a plant or tree ; and we fay
“ the Roman "empire flouriihed moft under Augu-
ftusCatiline, we fay, was tne /(’erze/inftead ot the
leader of his party, becaufe the head is the principal
part of the human figure. '
2. A fecond reafon above-mentioned for the ufe of
tropes was, emphafs. I ropes do many times expie.s
things with greater force and evidence than can be
done by proper words. We receive much the greater
part of our knowledge by our fenfes. And fimilitudi.3
taken fromfenfible things, as in metaphors, very much
afiift the mind in its reflections upon thofe things which
do net come under the cognizance of the fenies. For
it is certain, that we are fooner and more ftrongly af-
feded with fenfible obje&s, than with things of which
we can have no ideas but from the internal operations
of our own minds. Nay, fometimes one bright and
lively trope (hall convey a fuller and more juft idea of
a thing than a large periphrafis. So when Virgil calls
the Scipios two thunderbolts of war, he gives a more
lively image of the rapid force and fpeedy fuccefs of
their arms, than could have been conveyed by a long
defeription in plain words. And in many cafes the
tropical ufe of words is fo emphatical, and failed to
the idea we defign to excite, that in this refped it
may
422 ORA
Elocution, may be juftly efteemed the raoft proper. So, incenfed
7 with anger, inflamed -with dejire, fallen into an error, are
all metaphorical expreffions, ufed in a way of fimili-
tude ; and yet perhaps no proper words can be made
ufe of, which will convey a more lively image of the
thing we defign to reprefent by them.
But beauty and ornament, as was obferved before,
have been another caufe of the ufe of tropes. Some
fubje&s require a more florid and elegant drefs than
others. When we defcribe or applaud, ornaments of
fpeech and a gaiety of expreflion are requifite. And
it is the bufinefs of an orator to entertain his hearers
at the fame time that he inilruifts them. Now Cicero,
who was an admirable judge of the force and power
of eloquence, has obferved, that tropical expreffions
give the mind the greatefl delight and entertainment.
s‘ I have often wondered (fays he) why tropes fliould
give greater pleafure than proper words. 1 imagine
the reafon mud be, either that there is an appearance
of wit in negle&ing what is at hand, and making
choice of fomething at a diftance ; or that the hearer
is furniihed with a different thought, without being
led into a millake, which affords a very agreeable
pleafure; or that a whole fimihtude is conveyed to the
mind by a Angle word ; or that, particularly in the
belt and moft lively metaphor, the image is prefented
to our fight, which is the quickeft of ourfenfes.” And
therefore he fuppofes, that “ as garments were firft
invented fiom neceffity, to fecure us from the injuries
of the weather, but improved afterwards for ornament
and diftinftion; fio the poverty of language firff intro¬
duced tropes, which w'ere afterwards increafed for de¬
light.” Befides, a variety of expreffion is pleafing in
a difeourfe. It is many times neceffary that the fame
thing fliould be repeated ; and if this be done in the
fame words, it will grow tirefome to the hearers, and
fink their efteem of the fpeaker’s ability. Therefore,
'to prevent this, it is proper the expreffion fliould be
varied*, that although the fenfe be the fame, it may
give the mind a new pleafure by its different drefs.
, We come now, in the laft place, to lay down fome
direftions proper to be obferved in the choice of
tropes.
And firft, as every trope gives us two ideas; one, of
the word expreffed; and another, which, by means of
that, the mind conne&s with it; it is neceffary, that
the relation between thefe two appear very plain and
evident. For an obfeure trope is always faulty, un-
lefs where fome particular reafon makes it neceffary.
And therefore tropes ought not to be too far-fetched,
left that Ihould render them dark. For which reafon
Cicero fays, he ftiould not choofe to call any thing
deftruftive to a perfon’s fortune, the Syrtis of his patri¬
mony, but rather the rock of it; nor the Charybdis of
his ejlate, but the gulph of it. For thofe who either did
not Know that the Syrtes were two quickfands upon
tne coaft of Africa, or that Charybdis was a gulph in
the ftrait of Sicily, both of them very deftrudfive to
manneis, would be at a lofs to underftand the mean¬
ing of the metaphor. Befides, metaphors taken from
things we have feen, afTetfc the mind more forcibly
than thofe which are taken from fuch things as we
have only heard of. Now there is fcarce any one who
haa not feen a rocK or a gulph ; but there are very
few perfons, comparatively, who have been either at
T 0 R Y- Part TIL
Charybdis or the Syrtes. It is neceffary therefore in Elocution.*
a good trope, not only that there be a near affinity 1    
between the two ideas, but likewife that this affinity
be very obvious and generally known, fo that the word
be no fooner pronounced but both images do immedi¬
ately prefent themfelves to the mind.
Again, as a trope ought to be very plain and evi-
dent, fo likewife fliould it bear a due proportion to
the thing it is defigned to reprefent, fo as neither to
heighten nor diminifh the juft idea of it. Indeed
fometimes when we fpeak of things indefinitely, we
fay too much, left we ffiould feem to fay too little.
And this manner of fpeaking is called an hyperbole
which is not uncommon in the facred writings. So*,
for inftance, Saul and Jonathan are faid to be fwifter
than eagles, and Jlronger than lions. But even in this
way of expreffion a proportion is to be obferved. For
fome very confiderable and unufual excefs of the'thing
in its kind is at lead defigned by it; which, perhaps,
cannot, or however is not neceffary to be defined. And
therefore Quintilian blames Cato for calling the top
of an hill * <wart; becaufe the proportion between the
two ideas is nowife adequate. And fo, on the con¬
trary, Ariftotle cenfures Euripides for calling rowing
the empire of the oar. Poets indeed are allowed a greater
liberty in thisrefpea; but an orator Ihould be modeft
in his expreffions, and take care that he neither fo
heighten nor diminifli the natural ideas of things by
tropes, as to lead his hearers into miftakes.
But further; As a moderate ufe of tropes, juftly ap¬
plied, beautifies and enlivens a difeourfe; fo an excefs
of them caufes obfeurity, by running it into abftrufe
allegories and riddles. Tropes are not the common
and ordinary drefs of our thoughts, but a foreign ha¬
bit : and therefore he who fills his difeourfe with a
continued feries of them, feems to a<ft like one who
appears in pnl lie in a ftrange drefs ; which no man of
chara&er would choofe to do.
Moreover, as one ufe of tropes is pleafure and en¬
tertainment, we fliould endeavour to make choice of
fuch as are fmooth and eafy But if at any time we
think it neceffary to ufe a harfli trope, it is proper to
foften it by fome precaution. For, as Cicero very
handfomely fays, a tropeJhould be modejl, Jince itJlands
in a place which does not belong to it; for which reafon it
Jhould feem to come thither by permifflon, and not by force.
And therefore, when he thought it harfli to fay, The
death of Cato made the fenate an orphan ; he guards the
expreffion by faying, The death of Cato has (if I may
be allowed to fay fo) rendered the fenate an orphan.
And, to add no more, care fliould be taken how
we transfer 'tropes from one language into another.
For as they are frequently taken not only from natural
things, or fuch notions as are common to the gene¬
rality of mankind, but likewife from the manners, cu-
ftoms, and occurrences of particular nations ; fo they
may be very plain and obvious to thofe among whom
they took their rife, but altogether unintelligible to
others who are unacquainted with the reafon of them.
It was cuftomary for the Roman fsldiers to carry their
money in their girdles ; hence it was the fame thing
with them to fay, aperfon had lojl his girdle, as that
he had lojl his money. And hecaufe the Romans wore
the toga, which was a long gown, in time of peace,
and a different garb when engaged in war, their wri¬
ter*
Part IN. ORA
Elocution, ters fometlmes ufe tlie word toga to tignify peace. But
as neither of thefe cuftoms is in ufe among us> fo nei¬
ther would the tropes fuit our language, or he gene¬
rally underftood by us. And even in fuch tropes as
are taken from the common nature of things, lan¬
guages very much differ. There is a very beautiful
trope in the account of St Paul’s fh ip wreck, where it
is faid, The /hip was caught, and could not hear up into
the wind. The original word, that we tranflate bear
up, is . and properly fignifies, to look or keep
its eyes againjl it; which is a very ftrong and lively
image, taken from animate beings, and when applied
to men often fignifies to withjland or rejijl: as,
a-.lofbco.ft&v txoKsy.iw to refijl an enemy; and Plutarch fays
of Demofthenes, that he could not ado^Sax^v -xa a,Qyvpia>,
look againjl or rejijl the power of money. Nothing is
more common with Latin writers, than to call men of
a public fpirit and true patriots, lumina et ornamenta rei-
publica, that is, the lights and ornaments of the (late. And
wc have borrowed from them the ufe of both thefe
metaphors. But becaufe tropes and figures illuftrate
and heighten the flyle, they call them alfo, lumina ora-
tionis, or the lights of a difcourfe. It fometimes hap¬
pens, that only the tropical fenfe of a word is taken
from one language into another, and not the proper
fignification of the fame word. So fcrvpulus in Latin
properly fignifies a little fcne, which getting into the fhoe
hurts a perfon as he walks ; hence it is applied to the
mind, and ufed to exprefs a doubt, or uneafy thought that
gives it pain. We have borrowed this latter fenfe of
the word, but not the former. .
Art. I. Primary Tropes.
54
Metaphor, L Metaphor. A metaphor, as ufually defined, is,
what. A trope, which changes words from their proper Jtgnifica-
tion to another (liferent from it, by reafon of Jomefimilitude
between them. But that a word, when ufed metapho¬
rically, does not alter its fignification, but retains its
proper fenfe, was fhown above. However, it may not
be amifs to explain this matter more fully, and fet it
in a clearer light. Every metaphor, then, is nothing
elfe but a fhort fimilitude. Cicero calls it, a fimilitude
reduced to a (ingle word. And Quintilian to the fame
purpofe fays, that “ a metaphor is a fhort fimilitude,
and differs from it only in this, that the former is com¬
pared to the thing we defign to exprefs, and the latter
is put for it. It is a fimilitude, when I fay of a man,
he has afted like a lion ; and a metaphor, when l
fay, he is a lion.” Thus far Quintilian. Now in
every fimilitude three things are requisite ; two things
that are compared together; and a third, in which the
fimilitude or likenefs between them confifls. And
therefore, to keep to this example, when Horace calls
a Roman foldier a lion, if the word lion did not retain
its proper fenfe, there could be no fimilitude; becaufe
there would not be two things to be compared toge¬
ther with refpeil to a third, which is neceffary in every
fimilitude, and was defigned by this expreffion. The
fenfe of which is plainly this: That as a lion feizes
his prey with the greateji fercenefs, fo a Reman foldier
with like rage and jury attacked his enemies. In the
fame manner, when Cicero calls Pifo the vulture of the
province, his meaning is, that he was like a vulture, or
a&ed in fuch a manner as a vulture afts, that is, rapa-
cioully. So that the real difference between a meta-
T 0 R J. 433
phor and a fimilitude confifls in this; that a metaphor Elocution,
has not thofe figns of cemparifon which are expreffed * ' v'” #
in a fimilitude. But fome perfons have run into mi-
flakes in reafoning from tropes of this kind. For they
have fo argued from metaphorical words, as if all the
affecSlions and properties of the things expreffed by
them might be attributed to thofe other things to
which they are applied, and by that means have flrain-
ed the comparifon (which has ufually but one parti¬
cular view), in order to make it tally in other refpe&s,
where there is not that fimilitude of ideas. We will
endeavour to make this evident by another example
from Cicero, where he calls M. Antony the torch of the
fate.' The fimilitude between Antony and a torch
lay in this : That os ci torch burns ond dcjlroys every
thing within its reach, fo Antony brought devajlation
and ruin wherever he came. Nqw a torch has not on¬
ly a property to burn, but alfo to give light ; but tjie
fimililude would not hold in this refpedb, nor was it
at all defigned. For Cicero never calls a wicked pro¬
fligate man, as Antony was, the light of the fate;
though he often gives that charafter to good and vir¬
tuous men, who by their examples do as it were en¬
lighten others, and fhow them the way to be h^ppy
themfelves and ufeful to others. But though meta- '
phors are ufually taken from a fimilitude between two
things, as in the inflances here mentioned ; yet fome¬
times they are founded in the fimilitude which two
things bear to two others in fome particular refpect,
by means whereof what properly belongs to one of
them is transferred to the other : the former of which
are called fimple metaphors, and the latter analogous.
Hence the rudder of a fhip may be called its reins; for
what the reins are to a horfe, that the rudder is to a
fhip in guiding and directing it. So that here is a
double fimilitude, one between a fhip and an horfe,
and another between the rudder of the former and the
reins of the latter ; and from the analogy between the
ufe of the rudder to the one and reins to the other,,
the reins, which belong properly to the horfe, are ap¬
plied to the fhip. Again, fome metaphors are recipro¬
cal, in which the fimilitude holds either way. Thus to
fleer and to govern are ufed reciprocally both of a fhip
and a ftate : the proper expreffions being, to feer a
faip, and. govern a fate; and the contrary metaphori¬
cal. But though we fay, the foot of a mountain, bor¬
rowing the fimilitude from animals; yet we do not fay,
on the contrary, the bottom of an animal, meaning his
feet; and therefore that metaphor is not reciprocal.
From this account therefore of the nature of a meta¬
phor, it may be faid to be, 1 he application of a word
by way of fmilitude to fome other thing than what it pro-
perly fignifies. And the plainer this fimilitude appears, ',
the greater beauty there is in the trope.
rl he ufe of metaphors is very exteniive, as large as
univerfal nature. For there are fcarce any two thin-Ts
which have not fome fimilitude between them. How¬
ever, they may all be reduced to four kinds; which waa^
the fecond thing propofed to be confidered.
1 he firff kind of metaphors therefore may be taken t
from fimilitudes between animate beings. As where
thofe things, which properly relate to brutes, aie ac¬
commodated to men ; or thofe which belong to men
are applied to brutes. Of the former fort is that joke<-
of Cicero » My brother being af;ed by Rhilip, why he
larked'-
424
'Elocution, larked foP anfVered, Eccaufe he faw a thief. Here
—' barking, the property of a dog, is applied to a man :
And the reply does not feem to carry more feverity or
harfhnefs with it than the queftion. By the latter fort
we fay, a crafty fox, and a generous horfe ; which are
affe&ions that propeily relate to men. And to this
kind of metaphors may thofe likewife be referred, when
that which properly belongs to the fenfes is applied
to the mind. Thus we often fay that <we fee a thing,
when we mean that nve underjiand or apprehend it. And
in the fame fenfe we fay, that nve hear fuch a thing, or
perfon. And by the like manner of expreffion, a per-
fon is faid to pvell out a thing. And thole who have a
genius or difpofition for any art or fcience, are faid
to have a tajie for it; and fuch as have entered upon
the iludy of it, are faid to have a touch of it. Thefe
are common ways of fp.eaking in moft languages, and
very exprefilve of what is intended by them. And we
may alfo bring thofe metaphors under this head, by
which the properties and affe&ions of men are attri¬
buted to the Deity : as, when God is faid to hear, fee,
be angry, retent, and the like ; which are forms of ex-
pieffions very frequent in the facred writings.
A fecond kind of metaphors lies between inanimate
things, whether natural or artificial, which bear fomc
fimilitude to each other. And this head is very ex-
tenfive. Thus we fay, floods of fre, and clouds offmoke,
for large quantities. And fo likewife, to inflame an
account, that is, to heighten or increafe it; with in-
numerable others of the like fort. In the two firft of
thefe inftances, the terms proper to one element are
applied to another ; and as thofe elements of fire and
W’ater are oppofite to each other, they Ihow the exten-
fivenefs of this trope, that there are no things in na¬
ture fo contrary, but may come within the limits of it,
and be accommodated to each other in a way of fimi¬
litude. In the.laft example, a natural a&ion is applied
to what is artificial.
A third fort of metaphors is, when inanimate things
are applied to animals, on account of fome like pro¬
perties between them. Thus Homer calls Ajax, the
bulwark of the Greeks, on account of his valour, which
like a wall defended them from the Trojans. And
nothing is more common with Cicero, than to brand ill
men with the charafter of being the pefl of the fate, by
reafon of the mifehief which they bring to the public.
So likewife he calls Zeno the philofopher an acute man,
for his great difeernment and quick perception of
things; fetching the allulion from metals when brought
to an edge or a point. As, on the contrary, old Chre-
mes in Terence calls himfelf a fane, for want of nppre-
henfion. And we fay, a gay perfon, and a bright genius,
by this kind of metaphor.
The fourth and lafi: kind of metaphors is that by
which the aftions and other attributes of animals are
accommodated to inanimate things. Thus Cicero,
fpeaking of Clodius, fays : “ 1 he very altars, when
they faw that monfter fall, feemed to move themfelves
and affert their right againft him. Here the words
fanv, move, and ajfert, are all metaphors taken from
the properties of animals. And Virgil, when he would
reprefent the impetuous force and rapidity of the river
A raxes, fays, it difdained a bridge. And it is a very
ufual epithet, which Homer gives to words, to call
IT 251.
Part III,
them ^Vpo;hix, or winged, to intimate the fwlftnefs of Elocution.
Laftly, as to the choice of metaphors, thofe are
efteemed the fineft and ftrongeft, which give life and
adion to inanimate things. 1 he reafon of which is,
becaufe they do as it were invigorate all nature, intro¬
duce new forms of beings, and reprefent their images
to the fight, which of all the fenfes is the quickeft,
moft a&ive, and yet moft unwearied. What can be
more moving, or in ftronger terms exprefs the villany
of Clodius, than when Cicero fays, “ The very altars
of the gods feemed to exult at his death.” And the
fame great orator particularly commends thofe meta¬
phors, for their fprightlinefs and vivacity, which are
taken from the fenfe of feeing; as when ue fay a
bright thought or a gay expreffion.
However, care muft be taken not to venture upon
too bold and daring metaphors. Poets indeed claim
greater liberty in this refpedt, whofe view is often to
amufe, terrify, or delight, by heightening the juft
and natural images of things. But it is expe&ed the
orator Ihould reafon coolly, though ftrongly and for¬
cibly ; and not by theatrical reprefentations fo tranf-
port the mind, as to^take ic off from refleftion, unlefs
perhaps on fome particular occafion. And yet, on the
other hand, metaphors ought not to fink below the
dignity of what they are defigned to exprefs; but the
idea they convey Ihould at leaft be equal to the proper
word in the place of which they are fubilituted.
But there is a very great difference in the choice of
metaphors, as they are defigned either to praife or
difpraife. One thing may be compared to another in
a great variety of refpedls. And the fame thing may
be made to appear either noble or bafe, virtuous or
vicious, by confidering it in a different light. Such
metaphors, therefore, as are chofen to commend, muft
be taken from great and laudable things; and on the
contrary, thofe which are defigned to difeommend,
from things vile and contemptible. Ariftotle gives us
a very pleafant example of this in the poet Simonides.
A certain perfon, who had carried the prize at a race
of mules, offered him a reward to write a poem in ho¬
nour of that adfion. Simonides thought he did not
bid high enough ; and therefore put him off with fay¬
ing, the fubjedt was too mean to write in praife of
mules, which were the offspring of affes. But upon
his being offered a larger fum, he undertook the talk ;
and, as Arillode obferves, when he has occafion to
fpeak of the mules in that poem, he does not mention
them by that name, but calls them the daughters of
feet and generous horfes, though he might with as
much propriety have called them the daughters of dull
af'es. But it was the poet’s bufinefs, in prailing, to
take the moft advantageous part of the charadler.
Where things are capable of fuch different turns, me¬
taphorical expreflions are generally moll beautiful.
And fomettmes the fame metaphor may be applied
contrary ways, both in praife and difpraife, as it will
fiat diffeient properties of the thing to which it refers.
So a dove, in a metaphorical fenie, may reprefent either
innocence or fear ; and an iron heart may denote either
courage or cruelty ; as an hard head, frength or weak-
nefs of thought. And this ambiguity in the applica¬
tion of metaphorical words often affords occafion for
ORATORY,
55
Metonymy
Part HI.
Elocution, jells and concife wit.
cero never culls ill men, fights of the Jlate. But he
once in this manner calls Sextius Clodius the light of
the fenate. For when his kinfman Publius Clodius
had been killed’by Milo, and his corpfe was brought
to Rome, Sextius raifed the mob, and in a tumultuous
manner carried it into the fenate-houfe, v/here they
burnt it, and by that means fet the building on fire:
For which feditious aftion Cicero pafies that joke up¬
on him, under the metaphor, of light, which elfewhere
he always ufes in a good fenfe.
But to proceed : All forced and harlh metaphors
fliould be avoided ; the one being no lefs difagreeable
to the mind than the other to the ear. Nor fhould they
come too thick in a difeourfe. In a word, they ought
not to be ufed, but either where a proper word is
wanting, or they are more fignificant or beautiful than
the proper word.
II. Metonymy. This, as defined by Qm'ntilian, is,
defined and the putting one word for another. But Voffius dtferibes
«plained. it more fully, when he calls it, “A trope, which
changes the name of things that are naturally united,
but in fuch a manner as that one is not of the elfence
of the other.” That a metonymy is thus diltinguilh-
ed from the other tropes, has been fufficiently ihown
already in the two laft chapters. When it is faid, to
put one word for another^ or, to change the names of
things, the meaning is, that the word fo ufed changes
ks fenfe, and denotes fomething different from its pro¬
per fignification. Thus, when Mars is put for wary
and Ceres for corn, they lofe their perfonal fenfe, and
Hand for the effedts of which thofe deities were faid
to be the caufe. So liktwife, when Virgil fays.
He drank the frothing bowl,
the word bowl mull neceffarily figaify the liquor in the
bowl. And when in another place, deferibing the
temple of Juno at Carthage, in which the adlions of
the Trojan war were reprefented, and the images of
the heroes, he rrtakes ^Eneas, upon difeovering that of
Priam among the reft, cry out,
Lo here is Priam ;
k is plain the wo-rd Priam there mull Hand not for his
perfon, but his image or figure. And this property
of changing the fenfe of the word appears peculiar to
metonymy. In treating upon a metaphor, we obfer-
ved the miftake of thofe who teach, that a word ufed
metaphorically lofes its proper fignification ; whereas
it only changes its place, but not its fenfe; being ap¬
plied to a thing to which it does not naturally belong,
by way of fimilitude. And as the not attending to
this has run fomc perfons into very great abfurdities,
in treating upon metaphorical exprelfions, and reafon-
ing from them in the tropical fenfe ; fo the like has
happened to others in fome inftances of a metonymy,
whefie, by mifapprehending their true nature, they
have reafoned from them in the literal fenfe, as we
fhall Ihow prefently. A metonymy is not fo extenfive
as a metaphor, nor altogether fo neceffary: becaufe
nothing is faid by a metonymy, which cannot be ex-
preffed in proper words; whereas metaphors are often
ufed for want of proper words to exprefs fome ideas.
However, metonymies are very ufeful in language; for
they enrich a difeourfe with an agreeable variety, and
Vot. XIII. Part II.
ORATORY. 42s
We obferved before, that Ci- give both force and be?.nty to an expreffion. And what Elocution. 1
we obferved with relation to a metaphor, is true alfo
of this trope ; that fome metonymies, even in commori
difeourfe, are more frequently made ufe of than the
proper words in whofe room they are put. So, pale- ~
death, a blind way, and a happy fiate, are very com¬
mon expreflions with us. And it is more ufual to fay,
Phis is fuch a perfon’s hand, or I know his hand, than
his writing, when we intend this latter fenfe of the
word.
We now proceed to the divifion of metonymies;
which are commonly diftinguilhed into four kinds,
from the different manner in which things are natu¬
rally, but externally, united to one another. Now*
things are thus united, or one thing depends upon
another, either with refpedl to its production, or in the
manner of its exillence when produced. In the for¬
mer way the effeCl depends upon its caufe, and in
the latter the adjundt upon its fubjedts. And lienee
arife four forts of metonymies, which receive their
names from the caufe and effed, the fubjeft and the ad-
junU.
It is called a metonymy of the caufe, when the exter¬
nal caufe is put for the effeft. The external caufe is
twofold, the agent and end, which are ufually called
the efficient and final caufe. Of the former kind are
fuch metonymies, where the inventor ©r author is put
for what was invented or effefted by him. Thus, as
we faid before, Ceres is fometimes put for corn, the ufe
of which Ihe was faid firft to have introduced ; and
Mars for war, over which he was thought to prefide.
And by this way of fpeaking, any artift or writer is
put for his work. So Juvenal, blaming the luxury and
profufenefs of the Romans, fays. There are few tables
without Mentor; that is, which were not made by him*
or after his manner. And our Saviour fays, in the pa¬
rable of the rich man and Lazarus, They have Mofes
and the prophets, meaning the books of Mofes and the
prophets. But under this fort of metonymy is inclu¬
ded not only the agent, ftridly fo called/but alfo any
means or inllruments made ufe of in the doing of
thing, when put for the thing done. Thus, polite li¬
terature is called humanity, becaufe it cultivates and im¬
proves the human mind. And in that expreftion of
Cicero, Words move nobody but him who underfiands the
tongue ; the word tongue, which is the inltrument of
fpeech, is put iox fpeech or language. And in the like
fenfe, arms are fometimes put for war, and the fword
forfiaughter. By the fame kind of metonymy likewife
any affeclion or quality is put for itseffedh As when
it is faid, the end of government is to maintain jufiice ; that
is, fuch mutual offices among men as are the effetls of jufiice.
And fo likewife in that of Cicero, It is the budnefs of
magifirates to check the levity of the multitude, by which
he means tumults occafioned by their levity. Moreover
as human affeftions are attributed to the Deity in a
metaphorical fenfe, fo feveral parts of the human body
are likewife aferibed to him by this kind of metony¬
my. Ihus, his hand and his arm are ufed to exprefs
his power, as his ear and eye, his care and providence,
thefc being the inftruments of fuch effeds in mankind.
"Metonymies of the final caule are thofe by which the
end in doing a thing is put for the thing done. As
when we fay, The watch is fet, meaning the watchmen,
who are appointed for that purpofe. And fo likewife
3 that
426 O R A T
elocution, that expreffions to make an example, as it figniiies to pu-
; fajk, in order to deter others from the like crimes by
fuch an example. As alfo that of Virgil,
Phillis fhoald garlands crop;
by which are meant Jloiuers to make garlands.
The fecond kind of metonymy puts the effeA for
the efficient cauft, whether the agent, or only the
means and indrument. So Virgil calls the two Sci-
pios the (hjlrvSlon of Libya, becaufe they were the
agents who effect'd it. And Horace compliments his
patron Maecenas with the titles of being his guard and
honour; that is, his guardian, and the author of his
honour, ffiut when Cicero tells the citizens of Rome,
that the death of Clodius -was their ffety, he means
the occafion only of their fafety. And elfewhere he
calls that a dark hope and blind expectation, the effeht
of which was dubious and uncertain to thofe who en¬
tertained it. And in like manner, the fons of the pro¬
phets, when they were eating the pottage which E*
hfha had ordered to be fet before them, cried out,
There is death in the pot; that is, fame deadly thing, as
is prefently after explained. And thus fweat, which
is the effeft of labour, is fometimes put for labour. As
in the threat denounced againft Adam, In the fweat of
thy faceJhalt thou eat bread, that is, by labour in cultiva¬
ting the ground. And, in allufion to this way of fpcak-
ing. Antony the orator tells Craffus, “ the improve¬
ment of the ftyle by conftant exercife, as he preferibed,
was a thing of much fweat.” And virtue is faid to be
gained by fluent, that is, continued care and exercife
in fubduing the pafftons, and bringing them to a pro¬
per regulation. But in thefe two expreffions there is
likewife a metaphor, the effe£l of bodily labour being
applied to that of the mind. In all thefe inftances, the
effeft is put for the efficient caufe.
The third kind of metonymy is, when the fubjeft
is put for the adjunft. By fubjeft here, in a large
fenfe of the word, may be underftood that wherein
fome other thing is contained, or about which it is
converfant ; as likewife the poffeffor with refpeft to the
thing he poffeffes ; and the thing fignified, when put
for the fign of it. Now, by the firft of thefe ways of
fpeaking, the feat of any faculty or affe&ion is ufed
for the faculty or afreffcion itfelf. So it is ufual to fay,
a man of a clear head, when we mean a clear mind or
underftanding; the feat of the mind being fuppofed tobe
in the head. And a perfon is faid to have a warm heart,
becanfe the heart has been thought the feat of the
affeftions. In like manner, the place where any ac¬
tions are performed is put for the a&ions done in it.
As when Cicero fays, “ Do not always think of the
forum, the benches, the roltra, and the fenate
meaning the difeourfes which were ufually made in
thofe places. So likewife the country, or place of
refidence, is put for the inhabitants, as in that paffage
of Cicero : “ And to omit Greece, which always
claimed the pre-eminence for eloquence, and Athens,
the inventrefs of all fciences, where the art of fpeak¬
ing was invented and perfected; in this city of ours,
(meaning Rome), no ftudies have prevailed more than
that of eloquence where the words Greece and
Athens (land to denote the inhabitants of thofe places.
And hither may alfo be referred thofe expreffions in
which the time is put for the perfons living in it j as,
o R V. Part lit.
the degeneracy of the prefent age, the virtue offormer times. Elocution.
In the fecond way above-mentioned, the objeft is ufed ‘ -y—*
for the perfon or thing employed about it: As when
Cicero fays, “ In time of battle the laws are filent
where by/tfws he intends the judges, vSffio pronounce
fentence according to law. By the third of thefe ways,
in which the poffeffor is put for the thing he poffelles,
we fay, to devour, defray, or ruin a man, meaning not
his petfon but his efate. And mythologilfs explain the
fable of A ft®on by this trope, who is faid to have
been devoured by his dogs : for by dogs they under-
ftand flatterers and paralites, who confirmed his ettate,
and brought him to beggary. By the lalt way before
recited, which puts the thing fignified for the fign,
ftatues and piftures are called by the names of the
perfons which they reprefent ; as in that jeft of Cicero
upon his brother Quintus, when, as Macrobius relates,
“ being in the province which his brother had govern¬
ed, and feeing a large portrait of part of his body,
holding a fhield, though Quintus was but a little man,
he faid. My half brother is bigger than my whole bro¬
ther.” The Popifh doftrine of tranfubftantiation is
founded upon an abufe of this trope. For when our
Saviour, fpeaking of the bread and wine at that time
before him, fays, “ This is my body, and this is my
blood,” his plain meaning is, they were thefigns of his
body and blood, the thing fignified being put for the
fign by this fort of metonymy. But the Papifls take
the expreffion literally, which mull doubtlefs be very
abfurd ; fince the words relate to the time then prefent:,
while Chrift was yet living, and fpoke them ; when it
was impoffible for the bread and wine to be converted
into his body and blood, it being evident to all who
were prefent, that thofe elements, and his body, exift-
ed feparately at the fame time. But if the words are
explained by this trope, the fenle is plain and eafy,
and the way of fpeaking familiar to all writers. Where¬
as they who plead for the literal fenfe might with
equal reafon affert, that thofe exprefftonfc above-men*-
tioned are to be taken literally, in which feveral parts
of the human body, as the hand, the arm, the ear, N
and the eye, are aferibed to the Deity ; or that, when
our Saviour in a metaphorical fenfe calls himfelr a vine,
and a door, thefe words were defigned to be applied
to him ftriftly and properly, and not by way of iimi-
litude only, as is the cafe in all metaphors.
The fourth kind of metonymy is that wherein the
adjunft is put for the fubjeft, which is done in the
fame variety of ways as the former. It is therefore a
metonymy of the adjunft, when the thing contained is
put for that which contains it. As when Virgil fays,
“ They lie down upon purple that is, upon couches
dyed with purple. And again, “ I hey crown the
wine meaning the bowl which contained the wine, it
being the cuftom of the ancients to deck their bowls
with garlands at their enteitainments. By thefe tropes
likewife virtues and vices are put for the perfons in
whom they are found. As in that beautiful paffage
of Cicero, where, comparing the profligate army of
Catiline with the forces of the ftate, he fays, “ On
this fide modelly is engaged, en that impudence ; ora
this chaftity, on that levvdnefs ; on this integrity, on
that deceit; on this piety, on that profanenefs ; on
this conllancy, on that fury ; on. this honour, on that
bafenefs; on this moderation, on that unbridled paflionj
in
Part III. ORA
Elocution, in a word, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence,
'     and all virtues, engage with injuftice, luxury, cowar¬
dice, rafhnel's, and all vices.’' And to this trope
thofe exprefiions are to be referred, in which any
thing is put for the objedl about which it is convtr-
fant. As in that faying of the wife man, “ Hope
deferred makes the heart lick where hope is put for
the thing hoped for. And thus Suetonius calls the
emperor Titus the love and delight of mankind, whole
mild and obliging temper rendered him the objedt of
thofe agreeable affc&ions to all perfons under his go¬
vernment. A third ufe of this trope is by putting a
thing for the time in which it was done. Thus we
f- y of a perfon, he has ferved fo many campaigns, mean¬
ing fo many fummers, that being the ufual time in
v Inch armies are drawn out into the field. Lallly,
by this metonymy, the fign is put for the thing it
dignifies ; as, the feeptre for the regal dignity, and the
Jivord for the authority of the magijlrale.
III. Synecdoche. This is a trope by wliieh either
cr1 Lined'' ^ie wl10le a thing is put for a part of it, or a part
1 ' for the whole ; fo that the two things, whofe ideas
are prefented to the mind in this trope, are internally
related to each other : by which, as has been fhown
already, it is diitinguilhed from ail the other tropes.
In a Jynecdoche the word retains its proper fenfe, «nd
the expreflion is elliptical, as will appear by the feve-
ral fpecies of it, wherein the ellipiis in moft of the
examples is very obvious, and may with no great dif¬
ficulty be (applied. Nhjw a thing may be conlidered
as a whole in three different refpedls, which logicians
call an umverfal, ejfential, and integral whole. An
univerfal whole is any genus with regard to its feveral
fpecies ; ns, an animal with refpeft to mankind and
brutes, or philofophy with refpedt to the feveral arts
and fciences comprifed under it. An effential whole
conlifts of matter and form ; as, a man of lady and
foul. And an integral whole is any body or quantity,
with refpedl to the fcveral parts of which the matter
ef it is compofed, and into which it may be divided :
as, an human body with refpebf to its feveral members ;
or a year, as divifible into months, weeks, and days.
And thus rhetoric is an integral whole in refpeCl to
the four parts that compofe it ; namely, invention, dif-
pofition, elocution, and pronunciation. So likewife
any aggregate body, as a civil community, which is
divifible into thofe who govern and are governed ; or
any army, confifting of the general and his foldiers.
As a whole therefore, in each of thefe acceptations of
the word, is frequently put for a part, and a part for
the whole ; hence arife fix fpecies or forts oi fynec-
tioche.
The firft of thefe puts the genus for the fpeeies.—
Thus, virtue in general is fometimes ufed to denote
fome particular fort of virtue. As when Cicero men¬
tions virtue as one of the four qualifications neceffary
in a general, he means greatnefs of mind. And fo per-
ions are often commended for inftances of virtue fhown
in their condudl, which refpeft only fome fingle vir¬
tue, as jullice, temperance, or the like : And in this
ienfe Cicero calls Clodius a deadly animal. So when
our Saviour commifiions his apoltles to 'preach the
jgofpel to every creature, the meaning is, every rational
creature. And thus likewife, to talk to a perfon fome-
T O R Y. 427
times denotes the fame thing as to blame him, which is Elocution,
one way of talking. -y—w
The fecond kind of fynecdoche puts the fpecies for
the genus. Thus bread denotes any kind of food :
as when a perfon is faid to get his bread by his labour.
In the fame way of fpcaking, money is put for any
kind of wealth in general. And it is aa ufual expre-f-
fion to fay, that wine defrays more than the fword;
that is, than any hojlile arms. And the legal form of
banilhment among the Romans was, to prohibit ptr-
fons the vfe of f re and water ; that is, the mojl common
and ordinary nectjfaries of life, in which all others were
included.
The third fpecies of this trope is, when the effential
whole is put for one of its parts; that is, either for
the matter or form. Thus, in the evaagelift, Mary
Magdalen fays, They have taken away my Lord, and I
know not where they have laid him, meaning his body.—•
So it is ufual to fay of a deceafed perfon, He was bu¬
ried at fuch a time. And in the inferiptions of fe-
pulchral monuments we frequently meet with this ex-
preffion, Here lies fuch an one; that is, his corpfe. Nor
are infiances uncommon in which the whole being is put
for the form. Thus when Cicero fays, Thofe perfons live,
who have fled from the confinement of the body, as Jrom a
prifon ; by perfons mull neceffarily be underftood their
fouls, which are here diftinguilhed from and let in op-
pofition to their bodies. And fo Virgil reprefents
aEneas as meeting with Dido and fome of his Trojan
friends in the infernal regions; by which are meant
their ghojls.
The fourth kind of fynecdoche is, when either the
matter or form is put for the Whole being. Thus fiver
and gold are ufed to fignify money made of thofe me¬
tals ; as when we fay, I have fo much fiver, or fo much
gold. And the word font, both in our own and other
languages, is put lor the whole perfon. So with us, a
merry foul, and a dull foul; in Cicero, dear fouls ; and
in Horace, candid fouls, are all ufed ia this tropical
fenfe. But this way of fpeaking occurs nowhere
more frequently thaa in the facred writings. Thus>
for inftance, it is faid. All the fouls which came with
jfacob into Egypt, meaning the perfons. And again,
The foul that Jmneth it Jhall die ; from which expref-
fion, and others of the like import, fome perfons, by
not attending to the nature of this trope, have been
erroneoufly led to infer that the foul is naturally mor¬
tal. But fometimes only part of the matter Hands to
exprefs the whole efi'ence or being. So we imitate the
JLatins in ufing the word caput or head to denote either
a perfon or thing. For, as with them lepidum caput, fo
with us a witty head, fignifies the fame as a man of wit.
And in the fame fenfe, fo many head of cattle means fo
many entire cattle.
By the fifth fort of fynecdoche, the whole of any
material thing or quantity, whether continued or dif-
crete, is put for a part of it. So when Cicero fays,
A war is kindled through the whole world, in compliment
to his country, he calls the Roman empire the world.
And this expreffion is alfo ufed by hiftorians. Thus
Cornelius Nepos, fpeaking of the quarrel between
Mark Antony and Augultus, tells us, that each of
them defred to be lord of the world. And in like man¬
ner St Luke fays, There went out a decree from Cafar
3 H 2 Augujhts,
428
O R A T
Elocution, duguftus, that all the world Jhould be taxed. So In St
v Paul’s ihipwreck, it is faiil, They rein the Jhlb a-
ground, that is, the head of her, for it is plain by what
follows, that the {fern was loofe. And as to diferete
quantity, our Saviour, ufing this trope, faid he Ihould
be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth.
Though he did not continue three whole days and
nights in the grave, but only part of the firft and third
day, and the whole fecond day, with the two whole
nights between the fiitt and third day, according to
our way of reckoning. For he was buried on Friday
in the afternoon, and relied in the grave that night,
with the following day, which was the Jewilh Sab¬
bath, and was rifen on the morning of the next day.
So that we muff neceffarily have recourfe to this fy-
mcdoche, which puts the whole for the part, to clear
up that event.
By this kind of fynecdoche, alfo, the plural number
is fometimes put for the lingular. Thus St Matthew
fays, The thieves who were crucified with our Saviour
reviled him: though it is plain from St Luke, that
only one of them did fo. It may alfo be referred to
this trope, when a certain number is put for an un¬
certain one. So it is an ufual way of expreflion to
fay, I have f en or done fuch a thing an hundred or a
thoufand tinirs ; when perhaps fo many are not really
intended, but only in general fome confiderable num¬
ber.
The fixth and lall kind of fynecdoche puts a part
of any material thing or quantity for the whole of it.
So we fay of a man, He Jhelters himfelf under fuch an
one's roof; that is, in his houfe. And of a fleet, that
it confijls of fo many fail; meaning,/o many Jhips. And
by this trope, that is aferibed to a fingle perfon which
was done by the afiiftance of others, and in conjunc¬
tion with them : As when it is faid, that Hannibal
killed forty thoufand Romans at the battle of Cannte ;
For an army is an aggregate body, of which the ge¬
neral is the head, and confequently the chief part of
it. And to this kind of fynecdoche may alfo be re¬
ferred fuch expreffions in which the Angular number
is put for the plural: as if one fliould fay, H man is
liable to be mifled by the influence of irregular pafjions ;
meaning all men, or mankind in general. Or when lefs
than the real number is put for any round number:
Thus iome ancient writers, when they fpeak of the
Grecian armada that came againll Troy, call it a fleet
of a thoufand Jhips; though, according to Homer’s
lift, it contained 1186. And fo likewife the Greek
interpreters of the Old Teftament are ufually called
the Seventy; whereas, in reality, they were feventy-
two.
57 IV. Irony. This is a trope in which one contrary is
neJ1 and6il- h another: As if any one fhould fay, Well
luftraced. donei when at the fame time his defign is to intimate
that the thing was ill done. So that, by this manner
of expreffion, the fpeaker appears to mean fomething
contrary to the fenfe of the word he makes ufe of.
Not that the word is changed from its ufual fignifi-
cation ; but by the circumftances attending the ex¬
preflion, we perceive the contrary to what is fpoken
is intended. Quintilian obferves, that an irony may
be known one of thefe three ways: “ By the manner
of pronunciation, or from the nature of the perfon or
the thing, tor (as he adds) where any of thefe do
0 R Y. Part nr.
not fuit with the words, it is plain the fpeaker intends Elocution.
the contrary." The irony is very plain from the' 
manner of pronunciation in that paflhge of Terence,
where Sima, fpeaking to his fervant by way of re¬
proof, fays, “ You have taken great care indeed."
From the circumftances of the perfon, when Cicero,
addrefling to Catiline, fays, “ He went to your com¬
panion, that excellent man, Marcus Marcellus.” When
he calls him an excellent man, it is evident he means
the contrary ; becaufe no good man would baa com¬
panion of Catiline. And when he begins his oration
for Ligarius with faying, “ Casfar, this is a new
crime, and never heard of till now," the thing he
is fpeaking of fttows it to be an irony ; for it was
not new, as all who were prefent very well under-
ftood.
The fubje&s of irony are vices and follies of all
kinds. And this way of expofing them is often more
efte&ual than ferious reafoning : For many perfons,
who, either from temper or want of refledtion, cannot
be moved by the force of an argument, are not proof
againft the poignancy of wit and raillery. And there¬
fore we find the mott grave and ferious perfons have
not declined the ufe of this trope upon proper occa-
fions. Socrates, whom the oracle pronounced the
wifeft* man of his age, gave fo much into it, that he
got the name of that is, the droll. In the facred
writings we have a remarkable inftance of it in the
prophet Elijah, where he challenges the priefts of
Baal to prove the truth of their deity : For it is faid
expreisly, “ He mocked them, and faid, Cry aloud,
for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is purfuing,
or he is on a journey, or peradventure he fleepeth, and
muff be awaked.” And Solomon takes the like me¬
thod to expofe the follies of youth by this ironical
apoftrophe, “ Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth,"
wfith what follows, which is all ironical. Nay, our
Saviour himfelf thought fit thus to reprove the Jewifli
dodtors, when he fays, “ Full well ye rejedf the com¬
mandment of God, that ye may keep your ow:>y tradi¬
tion Where, by the words full well, or, as it is in
the original, xaxwr, it is very evident that a fevere re¬
primand was intended.
An irony is ufed on a variety of occafions, as we
fhall ftiow from fome inflances in Cicero. Sometimes
he applies it in a way of jeft and banter: As when he
fays, “ We have much reafon to believe the modeft
man would not afle him for his debt, when he purfues
his life.” At other times by way of infult and deri-
fion : Thus when he would reprefent the forces of Ca¬
tiline as mean and contemptible, “ O terrible war,
(fays he), in which this band of rakes are to march
under Catiline! Draw out all your garrifons againft;
this formidable body." Again, at other times, to
give the greater force to his argument, he would feem
as it were by this trope to recal and corredf what he
had faid before ; as in his oration for Milo: “ But it
is foolifh in ns to compare Drufus, Africanus,Pompey,
and ourfelves, with Clodius ; all our calamities were
tolerable, but no one can patiently bear the death of
Clodius.” Now the chara&er of Clodius was fo well
known, that all who were prefent muft be fenfible he
meant the contrary. And, to name no more, an iro¬
ny is never ufed to greater advantage, than when it
is followed immediately by fomething very flinging.
Thus*
PartHI.
Elocution. Thus, fpeaking of Pifo, he fays
' this philofopher : he denies that he was ever defirous
of a triumph.” And then addrefling himfelf to him,
he immediately adds, ‘‘ O wretch! when you de-
ftroyed the fenate, fold its authority, fubje&ed your
confulate to the tribune, overturned the Hate, be-
trayed my life and fafety for the reward of a pro¬
vince; if you did not ddire a triumph, what can you
pretend you did not defire ?” This muft effectually
confound the falfe gravity at that time affumed by
Pifo.
Art. II. Secondary Tropes.
58
Secondary Secondary tropes are fo called, becaufe they are
Tropes fi- all of the fame nature with the former, and maybe re-
milann na-fcrred to fome or other of them, though they have re-
° ceived different names.
name, to They are chiefly ei^ht in number ; Antonomafia^
the former Communication, Litotes^ Euphemifm, Catachrejis, Hyper-
ones. Metalepftsy and Allegory. The three firft of
thefe are limple tropes, and may all be referred to a
Synecdoche. But the five laft are of a mixed or com¬
plex nature, and not confined to any one of the pri¬
mary tropes ; as will appear in treating upon them in
order.
59 I. A common or general word is fometimes ufed for
word^often tf16 ProPer name Qf fome particular thing or perfon
ufed by way which upon any account is eminent and remarkable,
of emi- So we fay, He is gone to the city, or he came from the ci-
nence for ^ London. And by the Scriptures we mean
remark-'1*’ the Bible. So likewife, in fpeaking of perfons, the
able. orator is ufed for Cicero, the poet for Homer or Virgil,
and the philofopher for Ariftotle : and it is not unufual
to fay the apoJlley when we mean St Paul. On the
contrary, the proper names of things or perfons are
fometinaes applied to any other of the fame charafter.
Thus we ufe the word gofpcl for any certain and un¬
doubted truth. And Carthaginian faith proverbially
flood for the greateft falfehood and deceit among the
Romans. With the Greeks, Hercules fignified aJlrong
many Nejlor a wife many and Irus a beggar; and the
names of Samfony Solomon, and jfoby now anfwer the
like characters. Both thefe ways of expreffion are
often very emphatical, and heighten the idea more
than where things are expreffed by their own name.
To call a good orator Cicero, or an excellent poet a
fccond Virgil, includes not only an encomium upon the
arts themfelves, but leads the mind to what is moft
perfect in them, and was peculiar to thofe perfons.
Thefe forms of fpeech are called antonomajia, and
come properly under a fynecdoche ; for in the former
the whole is put for a part, and in the latter a part for
the whole.
II. Nothing is more common with orators, than a
change of perfons. Sometimes, to avoid envy, and
common m prevent the imputation of pride, in afluming to them-
•ratory. ielves the praife of any laudable aCtion, they aferibe
it to their hearers, and do not fay, we, but ye did fo
and fo. At other times, when it is neceflary to remind
them of fomething which they have done amifs, or to
caution them againft fome wrong ftep for the future ;
to prevent giving offence, they take it upon them-
felves, or at leaft join themfelves with them, and do
sot fay, you have done thisy or do not you do this j but,
429.
61
60
A change
of perfnns
ORATORY.
You have heard we have done it, or let us not do it. And again, at other
times, in compliment to their hearers, they join them '
as partners in the commendable actions or virtues of
other perfons; as when the whole body of the people
is brought in to fhare the praife aiifing from the fuc-
cefs of wife counfels or victorious arms. Such ways
of fpeaking often occur both in Demofthenes and Ci¬
cero. They are called communication, and come pro¬
perly under a fynecdoche of the whole.
III. On the contrary, there is a mode of fpeech, Litotes,
in which, by denying the contrary, more is intended 'b'^cre> ^7
than the words exprefs. This way of fpeaking is call- contrary,
ed litotes ; and is often ufed for fake of mode Ay where more is
a perfon is led to fay any thing in his own praife, or meant tham
to foften an expreflion which in direct terms might‘sexPre^e^*
found harih or give offence. As if one fhould fay, I
do not commend you for that; meaning, 1 greatly dijcom¬
mend or blame you for it : where more being under-
flood than the words exprefsly denote, it is properly
a fynecdoche of the part. Not that this manner of
fpeaking is always to be fo interpreted ; but where it
is not, there is no trope ; which muft be judged of by
the circumftances of the difeourfe. But that it fre¬
quently is fo ufed, might be ealily fhown from many
inflances ; though it will be fufficient to mention two
or three. Cicero fpeaking of Cotta, calls him no mean
orator, whom he had juit called a very great orator.
And he fays of Varro, that, “ he purfued his ftudies
not without induftry ; and afterwards gives him the
character “ of„a man of the greateft application.”
Which paffages, compared together, plainly (how the
import of thofe negative exprelfions. And a friend of.
Cicero, writing to him, begins his letter thus : “ Al¬
though I am fenfible the news I fend you will not be
very pleafant.” This news was concerning the death
of another friend of Cicero’s; and there by the words
not very pleafant, muft, to be fare, be meant very an-
pleafant and melancholy ; but he chofe that expreffion
in the beginning of his letter, as the fofteft and leaft:
ftiocking, the better to prepare him for the following
account of what that news was. And in this way inter¬
preters explain that paffage in St Matthew: And thou
Bethlehem in the land of 'Judah are not the leaf among the
princes of Judah ; where, by not the leaf, they under-
ftand the greatef, or very great, upon account of the
honour it received by the birth of our Saviour, as the
words immediately following plainly intimate. ^
IV. When any difpleafing or ungrateful thing is Ungrateful;
expreffed by a more foft and agreeable word, it is call-things forc¬
ed euphemifm. And as the word made ufe of is either ene<^ hy a.
contrary to the proper word, or only different fro™ Ie
it, it may be referred to different tropes. The Latina
have a foft way of expreffing their difregard to a per¬
fon, by laying valeat ; which we have borrowed from
them, and fay, fire him well. When the contrary be¬
ing intended to what is expreffed, it comes properly
under an irony. And as the word death carries in it
an idea that is difagreeable to human nature, inftead
of laying a perfon is dead, we often fay he is deceafed,
or departed; which we have alfo taken from the La¬
tins, who ufe the words dec fit and obiit in the fame
fenfe. So that in both languages it comes under a,
fynecdoche of the whole ; to depart out of life being
one fort of departure. But when the evangelift fpeak-
ing of Stephen; who was ftoned to death; expreffes it.
%
43° ORATORY.
Elocution, by faying tint he fell rfleepi this is a beautiful mcta- in this expreffion there is a metalegns.
v ‘ phor, taken from the fimilitude between the death of * ’ ’
a good man and fleep.
Catachrefis V. Calachrefts dignifies in general any harfli trope,
or harfh though it is moll commonly found in metaphors It
tropes. is principally ufed by poets, who make choice of it for
novelty, or to enforce an exprefiion, where the proper
word does not feem ftrong enough. As when Milton,
in defcribing the angel Raphael’s defcent from heaven,
fays, he
64
Hyperbole
Sails bet-zveen auorlJs and worlds ;
where the novelty of the word enlivens the image more
than if he had fud files. But it is fometimes found in
the graved authors, and even in the facred writings.
So we read of the blood of the grape. And Solomon
fays, the horfedeech hath two daughters. In all thefe in-
llances the trope is a metaphor. But when St John
fays in the Revelations, / turned to fee the voice that
fpake to me, it is here a metonymy of the adjunft; the
word voice being put for the perfon who uttered it.
In St Matthew we read of Simon the leper; not that
he was then a leper, but had been fo, and was cured;
which is a fynecdoche of the part. And when a crimi¬
nal is faid to have had his reward, that is, his punifli-
ment, it is an irony.
VI. Hyperbole is the boldeft of all tropes ; for it ex-
ihc boldeft ceeds the drift bounds of truth, and reprefents things
'j... ^ either greater or lefs, better or wnrfe, than they really
are. But the reprefentation is made in fuch a man¬
ner as noc to impofe on the hearers. For an hyperbole
is not ufed to define or deferibe any thing accurately,
but only to magnify or deprefs it in a confiderable de¬
gree, when we either cannot or do not choofe to re-
prefent it exaftly. The excefs in this trope is called
tmxefis; as when we fay of any thing that is very
high, it reaches to the Jkies. The defeft, or contrary
extreme, is termed meiofis : So we fay of a very lean
perfon, he is nothing butfhin and bones, or a merefheleton.
It is principally metaphorical, but fometimes taken
from other tropes. When Saul and Jonathan are faid
to have been fwifter than eagles, and Jlronger than lions,
the expreffion is founded in fimilitude, and is therefore
a rm t phor. When, indead of faying Cato was a ve¬
ry virtuous man, the hidorian calls him the image of
virtue; it is an hyberbolical metonomy of the adjunft
for the fubjeft. And when we read in the Mofaic
hidory of cities fenced up to heaven, there is a fynecdoche.
But if a man of weak fight be faid to be eagle-eyed, it
is an irony. Thofe hyperboles which are exprefied
comparatively, are commonly mod emphatical, becaufe
they fiiow a peculiarity in the excefs. To fay a thing
is as light as a feather, carries the idea very far ; but to
fay it is lighter, not only carries it dill farther, but alfo
heightens it, by leaving the mind at an uncertainty
where to fix the limits.
65 VII. Sometimes two or more tropes, and thofe of
MeViepfis^ g;fferent- JcJnc]j are contained under one word ; fo
that leveral gradations, or intervening fenfes, come
between the word that is exprefied, and the thing de-
figned by it. And this is called a metalepfis. The
contefts between Sylla and Marius proved very fatal
to the Roman date. Julius Csefar was then a young
man. Bui Sylla obferving his afpiring genius, faid of
him, “ In one Ctsfar there are many Manufes.” Now
where tw
or more
tropes are
meant un¬
der one
word.
Part III.
For the word Elocution.
Marius, by a fynecdoche, or antonoinafa, is put for any —v-—
ambitious and turbulent perfon ; and this again, by a
metonymy of the caufe, for the ill effefts of fuch a tem¬
per to the public. So that Sylla’s meaning, diveded
of thefe tropes, was, that Casfar would prove the moil
dangerous perfon to the Roman date that ever was
bred in it: which afterwards proved true in the event.
So when Virgil, defcribing that part of the African
-coatl where Aineas anlved with his ihips, fays, si dark
wood hung over k ; the word daih, by a metonymy of
the efleft, is put iovfhady, and that again by the fame
trope for thick ; for his meaning is, a thick wood. But
the words of Dido, in the fame poet, contain a larger
gradation, when ihe lays,
Happy, ah truly happy, had I been,
if TrojanJhips our coafls had never fetn.
In which expreffion, fird by a metonymy of the ad¬
junft, the fiups are put for the Trojans in the Ihips:
and thefe, by a fynecdoche of the whole, for iEneas,
who was one of them ; and again his arriving on the
coad, by a metonymy of the caufe, for her feeing him;
and laflly, her feeing him, by the fame trope, for the
pafiion fhe had for him. So that her meaning is, {he
had been happy, if {liehad never entertained a paffion
for iEneas. This trope is more frequently to be met
with in poets than in orators, as they take greater li¬
berty in ufing diftant allufions than is fuited to that
perfpicuity of exprefiion which is required in oratory.
But as Quintilian has well obfewed, all the interme¬
diate links of the chain in this trope are of no further
ufe than to lead the mind gradually from the fird Jo
the lad, the better to perceive their conneftion. As
in the example lad mentioned, relating to lAido, if we
drop all the intervening fieps, and conneft the words
exprefied with what is direftly intended, they will be
found to contain a very remote caufe put for the ef-
feft, which comes under a metonymy. On the contra¬
ry, in the fecond example, where dark (lands for thick,
the effeft is put for a remote caufe. And the fird,
which is founded in a fimiiitudeof temper between Cas¬
far and Marius, belongs to a metaphor. ^
VIII. Allegory. As a metalepfis comprifes feveral Allegory
tropes in one word, fo this is a continuation of feveral continua-
tropes in one or more ftntences. Thus Cicero fays, tion of
“ Fortune provided you no field, in which your vir- tropes thro
tue could run and difplay itfelfwhere the words en"
felcl and run are mataphors taken from corporeal
things, and applied to the mind. And in another
paflage, fpeaking ©f himfelf, he fays, “ Nor was I fo
timorous, that after I had (leered the (hip of the ftate
through the greated dorms and waves, and brought
herfafe into port, 1 fiiould fear the cloud of your fore¬
head, or your colleague’s pedilent breath. I faw other
winds, I perceived other dorms, I did not withdraw
from other impending tempeds ^ but expofed myfelf
fingly to them for the common fafety.” Here the (late
is compared to a (hip, and all the things faid of it un¬
der that image are exprefied in metaphors made ufe of
to fignify the dangers with which it had been threat¬
ened. And indeed allegories generally confift of me¬
taphors ; which being the moil beautiful trope, a num¬
ber of them well chofen and put together is one.of
the fined and brighted ornaments in language, and
3 . ' /■ exceeds
*
Part Til. ORA
Elocution, exceeds a Tingle metaphor in lullre, as a conftellation
v ' does a feparate ftar. It is true, that allegories are
fometimes found in other tropes ; but this is very rare.
In that known expreffion of Terence, the tropes are
all metonymies : Without Ceres and Bacchus, Venus
grows cold ; that is, diveiled of the tropes. Without meat
and drink, love dies. And Samfon’s riddle is made up
of fynecdo'hes: “ Out of the eater came forth meat,
and out of the llrong came forth fweetnefs.” But
there is no fmall IkiU required in the right manage¬
ment of allegories For care fhould be taken, that
the fame kind of trope be carried thi'ough the whole,
fo as to compofe one uniform and confident fet of
ideas : otherwife they drefs up a chimera, a thing that
has no exiilence, and of which the mind can form no
perception. And, as Qjuintilian fays very juftly, *• to
begin with a tempelt and end with a fire, would be
very ridiculous and unnatural.” It is likevvife very
necefiary that the allufions be all plain and evident,
cfpecially where the name of the thing alluded to is
uot exprefled. Thefe are called pure allegories. As
that of Cicero : “ So it happens, that I, whofe bufi-
nefs it is to repel the darts, and heal the wounds, am
obliged to appear before the adverfaries have thrown
any dart ; and they are allowed a time to attack us,
wfien it will not be in our powerto avoid the affault; and
if they throw a poifonous dart, which they feem pre¬
pared to do, we lhall have no opportunity to apply a
remedy.” The tropes here are all taken from mili¬
tary affairs, without any intimation what they are ap¬
plied to. But that is plain from the context of the
difcourfe. For he is fpeaking of the difadvantages he
laboured under in defending his client againft thofe of
the oppofite fide, and fo applies- to the bar thefe
terms which were proper to the field. But where the
reference is not evident, it becomes a riddle : which
is nothing tlfe hut an obfeure allegory. To avoid this,
therefore, the beft writers generally ufe what they call
mixed allegories ; that is, fuch wherein the proper name
of the thing is exprelfed, which the whole fimili-
tude refpefts. Of this kind is that in the fpeech of
king Philip of Macedon, given us by Juftin, where he
fays, “ 1 perceive that cloud of a dreadful and bloody
war arifing in Italy, and a thunder-Rorm from the
wefi, which will fill all places with a large fhower of
blood, wherever the tempeft of vitRory {hall carry it.”
The proper words war, blood, and viBory, being join¬
ed to the tropes cloud, Jhower, and tempejl, in this fen-
tence, render the feveral parts of the fimilitude plain
and evident. Quintilian thinks thofe allegories mofi
beautiful, where the whole fimilitude is exprefled, and
tbofe words, which in their proper fenfe relate to one
of the two things between which the comparifon is
made, are allegorically applied to the other As when
Cornelius NeposTays of Atticus, “ If that pilot
gains the greatefi reputation who preferves his fit ip
in a boulerous and rocky fea ; ought not he to be
thought a man of fingular prudence, who arrived in
fafety through fo many and fo great civil tempefis ?”
Thefe are the allegories with which orators are chiefly
concerned.
§ 2. Of Figures.
This term feems to have been borrowed from the
ftage, where the different habits and geftures of the
TOR Y. 432
adlors, fuitable to the feveral characters they fuflalned, Elocution,
were by the Greeks called c-^w-xar*, and by the Latins ^
jlgura ; And ft is not unnfua! with us to fay of a per-^jg tgrm
fon, both with refpect to his drefs and aCtion, that \\tfigure appa-
makes a very bad, or a very graceful, figure. And as revtly bor-
language is the drefs, as it were, of our thoughts, ‘n
which they appear and are reprefented to oth.rs ; fo 0 *
any particular manner of fpeaking, may, in a large
fenfe of the -word, be called its figure, in which lati¬
tude writers fometimes ufe it. But rhetoricians have
reftrained the fenfe of the word to fuch forms of fpeech
as differ from the more common and ordinary ways of
exprefiion ; as the theatrical habits of actors, and
their deportment on the Rage, are different from their
ufual garb and behaviour at other times. A figure
therefore, in the fenfe it is ufed by rhetoricians, is, A
mode of fpeaking different from, and more leaut'ful and
emphatical than, the ordinary and ufual way of exprejfing
the fame fenfe ; or, in other words, That language which
is fuggjled either by the imagination or the pa fans. Now
as the habits and geftures of our bodies are in a man¬
ner infinitely variable, fo it is plain that the different
forms of fpeech are almofi innumerable. But every
alteration from the common manner ought not to be
eReemed a figure, nor defer ves that character. It
rnuR contain fome beauty, or exprefs fome pallion, to
merit a place among rhetorical figures, and be marked
out for imitation.
The fubjedt 0$figures feems to have been one of the
lafi things which was brought into the art of oratory*
in order to complete it. AriRotle, who treats fo ac¬
curately upon other parts, fays very little of this.
But the Greek writers who came after him have
abundantly fupplied that deficiency. It is to them we
owe the chief obfervations that have been made on
this fubjedf. They took notice of the feveral modes
and turns of exprefiion, obferved their force and
beauty, and gave them particular names by which they
might be known and diftinguifiied from each other.
And indeed they have treated the matter with fuch.
miuutenefs and fubtilty, that Quintilian feems, not
without reafon, to think they have multiplied figures
to an excefs. But though it was fo late before they
were taken notice of, and introduced into the art of
fpeakingi yet the ufe of them in difcourfe was doubt-
lefs very ancient. The author of Homer’s life, which
fome have afenbed to Plutarch, has fhown, by ex¬
amples taken out of him, that there is fcarce a figure
mentioned by.rhetoricians, but is to be met with in s
that moR ancient poet. And, if we confidr.r the na¬
ture of fpeech, we fhall eafily perceive that mankind
muft have been under a neceflity very early to intro¬
duce the ufe of tropes for fupplying the want of pro¬
per words to exprefs their fimple ideas: fo the like
neceffity muR have put them upon the ufe of figures
to reprefent their different paffions. Though both of
them were afterwards increafed, and improved in fuch
a manner as to become the chief ornaments of lan¬
guage. The paflions of men have been always the
fame ; they are implanted in us by nature, and w£ are
alPtaught to difeover them by the fame ways. When
the mind is diRurbed, we fhow it by our countenance,
by our aftions, and by our words. Fear, joy, anger,
alter the countenance, and occafion different emotions
and geftures of the whole body. And we know with
what-
43*
O R A T
Elocution, what paffion a man is afft&ed, by hearing his words,
' though we do not fee him. He does not exprefs him-
felf as he usually does at other times when cool and
ftdate. Objefts appear to him in a different view,
and therefore he cannot but fpeak of them in a diffe¬
rent way. He interrogates, he exclaims, he admires,
he appeals, he invokes, he threatens, he recals his
words, repeats them, and by many other different turns
of expreffion varies his fpeech no lefs than his counte¬
nance, from his common and ordinary manner. Now
as nature feems to teach us by thefe figurative ex-
preflions how to reprefent the different commotions of
our minds, hence fome have thought fit to call figures
the language of the pojjions. And as thefe are given us,
among other wife ends, to excise us the better to pro¬
vide for our prefervation and fafety, this is done fome-
times by force bf arms, and at other times by difcourfe.
And therefore Cicero very handfomely compares the
conduct of an orator to the exercifes of the pakeftra :
in which, as each combatant endeavours not only to
defend himftlf, and attack his adverfary, but likewife
to do both with decency; fo the principal weapons of
an orator, as he reprefents them, are figures, which
being no lefs the ornaments of language than images
of our paffions, anfwer all thefe purpoffs. Befides,
figures chiefly diftinguifh the different kinds of ftyle,
ffurnifh it with an agreeable variety, and often ferve to
reprefent things in a clear and forcible manner.
From this fhort account of the nature of figures, the
advantage of them to an orator is very evident. They
are a fort of natural eloquence, which every one falls
into without attending to it, fuitably to that temper
of mind with which he is affefted himfelf, and is
defirous to affedt others. In a cool and fedate dif¬
courfe, fuch figures as convey our fentiments with the
greateft ftrength and evidence are moft proper. And
there are others, which are fuited to brighten and en¬
liven more gay and fprightly fubjedts. Others again
are more peculiarly adapted to exprefs the diforders
and perturbations of the mind. To repeat the fame
thing again would many times be deemed a tautology
pjid impertinent; but to do this when the mind is
ruffled, is not only allowable, but the repetition ren¬
ders it more ftrong and affedting. So likewife to in¬
terrogate, exclaim, or admire, under the influence of
a pafilon, impreffes the hearers, and difpofes them to
attention; whereas at another time perhaps fuch ways
of fpeaking would fcarce be confiftent with prudence.
There is a natural fympathy in mens minds, which
difpofes them to receive impreflions from thofe with
whom they converfe. Thus one gay and pleafant
companion gives a cheerfulnefs and vivacity to a
avhole company ; whereas, on the contrary, one who
is dull and phlegmatic damps the fpirits of all about
him, and affedts them with the fame gloomy temper.
Figures are peculiarly ferviceable to an orator for an-
fwcring thefe different intentipns. And as he finds
thena in life, from thence he muff copy them ; as a
painter does the features of the countenance, and the
feveral parts of the body; figures being to the one what
lines and colours are to the other. The defign of
Catiline to deftroy the Roman ftate and burn the city,
is a ftory well known. There was an army* drawn to¬
gether at a proper diftance to favour the undertaking;
and others were left in Rome, who had their parts
NQ 251.
O R Y Part III,
affigned them for burning the city, and deftroying elocution,
thofe who Ihould efcape the flames. And in a word,
every thing was ready for putting in execution this
horrid and barbarous fcheme. So that nothing re¬
tarded it but the taking off Cicero, who was then
conful, which was thought neceffary to be done fivft.
Cicero, upon information of the defign againft his
life, finds means to prevent it, and the fame day calls
together the fenate. And Catiline, who was a man
of confummate boldnefs, had the confidence to ap¬
pear in that affembly. Upon their meeting, Cicero
opens to them the whole affair of the confpiracy, and
the defign againft himfelf, in a moft warm and pa¬
thetic harangue. In which he had two things in
view ; to raife the indignation of the fenate againft
the confpirators, and particularly againft Catiline ;
and, either by terrifying or exafperating him, to
oblige him to leave the city. Now he does not begin
this fpeech in his ufual manner at other times, by
addreiling to his audience, befpeaking their favour
and attention, or letting them gradually into the de¬
fign of what he was about to fay; but as Catiline
was prefent, he immediately falls upon him with
vehemence, in the following manner : “ How far,
Catiline, will you abufe our patience i How long will
your fury infult us ? What bounds will you fet to
your unbridled rage ? Does neither the night-guard
of the palace, nor the city-watch, nor the peoples
fear, nor the agreement of all good men, nor the
meeting of the fenate in this fortified place, nor the
countenances and looks of this affembly, at all move
you ? Do not you perceive your defigns are difco-
vered, and that all who are prefent know of your con¬
fpiracy ? Who of us, do you think, is ignorant of what
you did the laft night, and the night before, where
you was, who were with you, and what you refolved
on ? O times, O manners! The fenate knows this,
the conful fees it; and yet this man lives!—lives? nay,
comes into the fenate, joins in the public counfels,
ofeferves and marks out each of us for deftrmftion !’*
And in the fame impetuous'ftrain he proceeds through
his wdiole fpeech, interfperfing a great variety of the
like ftrong and moving figures. And the difcourfe
had its defired effedl: for when Catiline ftood up
afterwards to make his defence, the whole fenate was
fo inflamed, and their refentments againft him rofe fo
high, from what Cicero had faid, that they had not
patience to hear him fpeak; upon which he left both
them and the city. Had Cicero, inllead of venting his
juft indignation againft the author of fo barbarous and
inhuman a defign, in the manner he did, by figures
fuited to ftrike the paffions of his hearers ; had he,
inftead of this, attempted to reafon with him, and told
the ftory in a cold and lifelefs manner, he would have
expofed himfelf to the contempt of Catiline; and by
leaving the fenate little or nothing moved at what
he faid, prevented perhaps their coming to thofe
fpeedy and vigorous nfolutions which were neceffary
at fo critical a jun&ure. Let us fuppofe him to have
expoftulated with Catiline in much the fame words as
before, but thrown into a different form, and diveiled
of thofe pathetic figures. As thus: “ Catiline, you
have really abufed our patience to a great degree.
You have infulted us with your furious proceedings a
lonz while. You feem to have fixed no bounds to
4 your
Part Itr. • ORA
Elocution, yonr unbridled rapfe, Neitlier the night guard of the
palace, nor the city-watch, nor the peoples fear, nor the
acrreement among good men, nor the calling together
of the fenate in this fortified place, nor the counte¬
nances and looks of this afiembly, appear to move you
in the leaft I affure yon we are all of us apprifed of
ufrat you did the laft night, and the night before,
where you was, and who were with you, and what re-
folntions you came to. Thefe are fad times, the age
is very degenerate ; that the fenate fhould know all
this, the conlul fee it ; and yet that this man fhould
live, come into the fenate, hear all our debates, and
mark us out to deftroy us.” You fee the fenfe is en¬
tirely the fame, and the words too in a great meafure;
fo that there is little mare than an alteration in the
form of them. And yet who does not perceive how
flat and languid fuch a way of talking muft have ap¬
peared at that time ? and how much it lofes of that
[pint and energy, which {hows itfelf in Cicero’s man¬
ner of exprefiion ? Had he delivered himfelf thus, it
might indeed have made the fenate look upon Cati¬
line as an abandoned wretch, loft to all virtue and
goodnefs, and perhaps have moved fome to pity him
on that account ; as we are eafily induced to com-
paflionate perfons in fuch circumftances, efpecially
when defcended from noble and virtuous anceftors,
which was his cafe. But fure it would have been ill
fuited to fire their minds with that generous regard
for their country, and the neceffary precautions for
its fecurity, which the circumftances of the ftate then
required. Nor would Catiline have been at all de¬
terred by it, but rather encouraged in the profecu-
tion of his defigns, from the little effecft a fpeech fo
managed muft probably have had upon the minds of
the fenators. But Cicero knew very well that the
paflions of mankind are the fprings of aftion : that
it is many times not fufficient for an orator to convince
their minds, by fetting the truth in a clear light; but
be muft alfo raife their hopes, alarm their fears, in¬
flame their anger, or excite fome other fuitable paf-
fion, before they will be brought to a<ft with that zeal
and fervour which the cafe may require. And as he
was admirably well {killed in this art of touching the
paflions, he feldom fails to fix upon the proper me¬
thods of doing it, and makes choice of fuch figures
and modes of fpeaking as in the ftrongeft manner re-
prefent the emotions of his own mind. For every
paftion is not to be expreffed by the fame figures, any
more than it is drawn by the fame lines, or painted
with the fame colours. When Dido finds that iEneas
is about to leave her, fhe ufes all her arts to detain him.
And as perfons in great diftrefs are feldom at a lofs
to exprefs their condition in the moft affecting way ;
(he difcovers her fear, anger, revenge, with the whole
crowd of diforders which then poftefied her mind, in
a variety of moving figures, fuited to raife the coun¬
ter paffions in his breaft, as is finely reprefented by
Virgil in that artful fpeech he has made for her, which
we forbear to recite for no other reafon but the length
of it. But what particular figures are moft accom-
mo 'ated to anfwer the feveral ends propofed by them,
will beft appear when we come to treat of them fe-
parately.
Wefthall therefore now proceed to lay down a few
Vo*. XIH. FartII.
TORY. 433
direftions for the proper ufe of figures. And firfl Elocution,
they fhould always be accommodated to the fenti-
ments, and rife in proportion to the images defign-
ed to be conveyed by them. So far as they are
founded in reafon, they are fuited to imprefs the
mind ; but where the language outftrips the thought,
though it may pleafe the ear, and fome weak perfons
may be carried away with a pomp of words, yet an
intelligent hearer will foon fee through the thin and
airy drefs. It is the fenfe which gives weight to the
figure, as that by ftriking the imagination awakens
the mind, and excites it to a<ft in qonformity to rea¬
fon. Again, in the ufe of pathetic figures, it is ge¬
nerally better to be nervous than copious, that the
images, by their clofer union, may imprefs the mind
with greater force and energy; though in fuch figures
as are defigned for ornament or illuftration, a more
diffufive way of painting is fometimes agreeable. But
farther, the too frequent ufe of figures ought to be
avoided. For what was obferved in relation to tropes,
is alfo true with refpedl to thefe ; that a great num¬
ber of them is apt to darken and obfeure the ftyle.
And befides, Cicero’s refledtion in this cafe is very
juft, That “ it is hard to fay, what fhould be the
reafon, that thofe things, which /moft afTetft us with
a fenfible pleafure, and at firft fight fooneft move us,
do likewife fooneft cloy and fatiate us.” But that
it is fo, we find by common experience. Laftly, figures
fhould be fo interwoven in a difeourfe, as not to render
the ftyle rough and uneven, fometimes high and at
other times low ; now dry and jejune, then pompous
and florid. In a word, they fhould rather feem to
arife from nature than art; to offer thamfelves, than
to be the effedl of ftudy ; and to appear not like
patches upon a face, but the agreeable beauty of a
found and healthful complexion. But of this we
fhall have occafion to fpeak more at large hereafter, in
treating upon the different kinds or characters of ftyle.
As to the divifion of figures, which is what remains
to be confidered, they are ufually divided into two
forts, figures of words, and figures of fentences.
The difference between them confifts in this ; that in
the former, if you alter the words, or fometimes only
the fituation of them, you deftroy the figure ; but in
the latter the figure remains, whatever words are
made ufe of, or in what manner foever the order of
them is changed. Thus when the name of a perfon
or thing is repeated, to intimate fome known property
or quality belonging thereto, it is a verbal figure
called />/W. Cicero was a true patriot and hearty
lover of his country. And therefore we fhall ufe this
figurejn faying, that at the time of Catiline's confpi¬
racy Cicero appeared like Cicero. The fenfe would' re¬
main the fame, but the figure would he loft, if we
fhould alter the words, and fay, at that time Cicero
appeared Me himfelf. So when two or more fentences,
or members of a fentence, end with the fame word,
it is called epijlropheas when we fay, To lofe alPre*-
hjh of life, is in ejfeti to lofe life. But if only the order
of the words be changed in the latter claufe thus,
To lofe all rgijh of life, is to lofe life in effect; the
figure vamfhes. And this is the nature of the verbal
figures. But it is not fo in figures of fentences; they
continue the f.tme, whatever alterations are made in
3 I the
I
4U
Elocution*
ORATORY.
An orator fomctirr.es thinks it proper to certain the truth of what is fai3
[67]
Verbal
the wor^a. — — . ..
change the form of his Jifcourfc) and addrefs himfelf
to his audience, or an abfent perfon, or elfe perhaps
to introduce fome other perfon as fpeaking to them
whofe words may be fuppofed to carry greater weight
and authority with them than his own. The former
©f thefe is called apojlrophe, and the latter profopopaia
er imagery ; which require no certain words or order
of expreflion.
Art. I. Ver»al Figures.
three forts, as
redundancy, or
These may be diftinguifhed into
ftfn milbed *^7 confift in a deficiency of words, a
into three »repetition. , , .
forts; with I. Of the firft fort are elltpfis and afyndeton. > _
their vari- Ellipfis, is when one or more words are wanting in
ousfubdivi-a fentence to complete the conflruaion, and fully ex-
t0nS’ prefs the fenfe. This figure is often ufed in proverbial
fpeechea : as when we fay, Many men, many minds ;
that is, have many minds’, and, The more danger, the
more honour ; that is, gains more honour. But where
more is intended by fuch exprefiions than mere brevity,
and efpecially when they are the effe&of fome pafiion,
the figure receives another name, and is called apofio-
pefis, which is placed among the figures of fentences,
where we fhall confider it.
jifyndeton, is when the particles that connect the
members of a fentence one with another are left
out, to reprefent either the celerity of an aftion,
cr the hade and eagernefs of the fpeaker. Thus Cas-
far exprefles his fpeedy conqueft of Pharnaces : / came,
}fiatv, I conquered. If he had inferted the copula"
tives, and faid, 1 came, and Ifianv, and I conquered, it
would have retarded the expreffion, and not given lo
full and iuft an idea of the fwiftnefs of the a&ion. In
the laft article we took notice of the vehement and
impetuous manner in which Cicero attacked Catiline
in his firft oration, where his defign was to fire the
minds of the fenate againft him, and oblige him to
leave the city , both which points he gained by that
fpeech. The next day, therefore, when Catiline was
gone, he calls together the body of the citizens, and
makes a fpeech to them, which in a fort of rapture or
tranfport of mind he thus begins, by acquainting them
with'the departure of Catiline, He is gone, departed, efica-
■T-d peci, broke out; intimating at the fame time both the
exceffive rage in which Catiline left Rome, and the
great pleafure with which he was himfelf affe&ed os
that account. This concife way of fpeaking adds like-
wife ft confiderable emphafis to an exprefiion, and by
brineine the feveral parts of a thing nearer together
- 5 - r  r   IWa
Part HR
        So the fervant in Elocution.
Terence, when the truth of what he had related was " ‘
called in queftion, replies, It is certainly fio ; I faw it
•with thefe very eyes-
When the feveral parts of a fentence are united by
proper particles, it is called polyfyndeton. This adds a
weight and gravity to an expreffion, and makes what
is faid to appear with an air of folemnity ; and by re¬
tarding the courfe of the fentence, gives the mind an
opportunity to confider and reflect upon every partdi-
ftimftly. We often meet with this figure in Demoft-
henes, which very well fuits with the gravity' of his
ftyle. So he encourages the Athenians to profecute
the war againft King Philip of Macedon, from this
confideration, that now “ they had ffiips, and men,
and money, and ftores, and all other things which
might contribute to the ftrength of the city, in greater
number and plenty than in former times.” Every ar¬
ticle here has its weight, and carries in it a proper mo¬
tive to animate them to the war. But if you remove
the copulatives, the fentence will lofe much of its
force.
III. Thethird kind of verbal figures confifts in a re~
petition. And either the fame word in found or fenfe,.
is repeated ; or one of a like found, or fignification,
or both.
Of the former fort there are ten, called antanacla-
fits, place, ep'rzeuxis, climax,, anaphora, epifirophe, fyin-
place, epanalepfis, anadiplofis, and epanodos. The two
firft of thefe agree in found, but differ in fenfe ; the
eight following agree in both.
When the fame word in found but notin fenfe is re¬
peated, it is called antanaclqfis. This figure fome-
times carries a poignancy in it; and when it appears na¬
tural and eafy, difeovers a ready tarn of thought. As
when a fon, to clear himfelf of fufpicion, affur^d his fa¬
ther he did not wait for his death; his father replied.
But I defire you would wait for it. Here the word
wait is taken in two different fenfes. It is likewife
ufed on ferious occafions, as in grave and moral pre¬
cepts, which are apt te affeft the mind with greater
pleafure when delivered in an agreeable drefs. As
this ; Care for thofe things in your youth, which in old
age may free you from care : Where the word care in
the former place fignifies to provide, and in the latter-
anxiety of mind. And even our Saviour himfelf once
ufes this figure, when he fays to one of his difciples,.
who defired to be difmiffed from attending him that-
he might go and bury his father; Follow me, and let
the dead bury their dead'. Where dead in one place
denotes a natural death, and in the other a moral op
affefts the mind with greater force. Thus Cicero fits fpintual death. .. .
Cato’s charafter in a very ftrong and beautiful light Sometimes the name of fome perfon or thing is re-
bv the ufe of this figure. “ Nature itfelf (fays he) peated again, to denote fome particular charafter or
has made you a great and excellent man for integrity, property defigned to be expreffed by it; and then
gravity, temperance, magnanimity, juftice, in a word, it is called^. Thus Cicero fays, Toung Cato wants
for all virtues.”
II. The fecond fort of verbal figures is contrary
to thefe, and confifts in a redundancy or multiplicity
©f words ; which are likewife two, pleonafnus and/o-
hfyndeton.
When we ufe more words than are neceffary to ex-
prefs a thing, it is called pleonafmus. This is done
fometimesfor greater emphafis, as when we fay, Where
in the world i: he ? At other times it is defigned to af-
experience, but yet he is Cato.; meaning he had the
fteady temper of the family. And fo in the pro¬
verbial expreffion, Hn ape is an ape, drefs him ever fa
fine.
When a word is repeated again with vehemence in
the fame fenfe, it is called epixeuxis. This figure ffiows
the earneftnefs of the fpeaker, and his great concern
of mind about what, he fays ; and therefore has a na¬
tural tendency to excite the attention of the audience.
6 It
68
PartllL O R A T O
Elocution. It Is Anted to exprefa anger, furprife, forrow, and fe- he fays,
l—"'v veral other pafliona. As when Cicero would exprefs
his indignation againft Antony for having been the
chief inftrument in bringing on the civil war, he fays
to him : Tow, you, Antony, pujhed Ctefar upon the civil
war. And thus he tells Catiline in his firft invec¬
tive againft him : You live; and live, not to lay afide,
but to purfue, your wicked dejign. And when our Sa¬
viour would exprefs his great concern and forrow for
the wickednefs of the Jews, he does it in this pathe¬
tic manner : 0 ‘Jerufalem, Jerufalem, who killejl the pro¬
phets !
*9 Climax is a beautiful kind of repetition, when the
word, which ends the firft member of a period, be¬
gins the fecond, and fo through each member, till the
whole is finilhed. There is a great deal of ftrength
as well as beauty in this figure, where the feveral fteps
rife naturally, and are elofely connected with each
other. As in this example : There is no enjoyment of
property without government, no government without a
magijlrate, no magijlrate without obedience, and no obe¬
dience where every one ads as he pleafes. But, as Quin¬
tilian obferves, this figure lies fo open, that it is apt
to look too much like art; for which reafon he ad-
vifes not to ufe it often. To prevent this, therefore,
orators fometimes difguife it, by not repeating the fame
word which flood in the former member, but fame
other equivalent to it. As in the following inltance
of Cicero for Milo : “ Nor did he commit himfelf only
to the people, but alfo to the fenate; nor to the
fenate only, but likewife to the public forces ; nor to
thefe only, but alfo to his power with whom the fe-
nate had entrufted the whole commonwealth.”
jo When feveral fentences, or members of a fentence,
begin with the fame word, it is called anaphora. This
is a lively and elegant figure, and ferves very much to
engage the attention. For by the frequent return of
the fame word the mind of the hearer is held in an
agreeable fufpenfe, till the whole is finifhed. “ You
do nothing (fays Cicero to Catiline), you attempt
nothing, you think nothing, but what I not only
hear, but alfo fee, and plainly perceive.” It is fre¬
quently ufed by way of queftion; which renders it not
only beautiful, but like wife ftrong and nervous. As
at the beginning of the fame fpeech : “ Does neither
the night-guard of the palace, nor the city watch,
nor the peoples fear, nor the agreement of all good
men, nor the meeting of the fenate in this fortified
place, nor the countenances and looks of this aflembly,
at all move you?” And in another of his orations ;
“ What is fo popular as peace, which feems to afford
a pleafure, not only to beings endowed with fenfe, but
even to inanimate nature ? What is fo popular as li¬
berty, which even beads as well as men feem to covet
and prefer above all things? What is fo popular as
cafe and leifurc, for the enjoyment of which you
and your anceftors have undergone the greateft la¬
bours ?”
71 Epijlrophe is contrary to the former, and makes
the repetition at the end of each member or fentence.
As thus r Since concord was lojl; friendjhip was loji,
fidelity was lojl, liberty was lojl ; all was Itjl. And Ci¬
cero, in the charge which he brings againft Mark An
tony before the fenate, makes ufe of this figure, when
R Y.
7%
73
43 S
Do you lament the deftru&ion of three Elocution.
Roman armies ? the author of that deftru&ion was -y—
Antony. Do you bewail the lofs of moft eminent ci¬
tizens ? They have been taken from you by Antony.
Is the authority of this order weakened ? It is weak¬
ened by Antony.”
Symploce takes in both thefe laft figures. As in that
of Cicero : “ You would pardon and acquit him,
whom the fenate hath condemned, whom the people of
Rome have condemned, whom all mankind have con¬
demned.” Here the feveral members both begin and
end with the fame word. We have a beautiful in-
ftance of it in St Paul, when he fays, “ Are they
Hebrews ? fo am I. Are they Ifraelites ? fo am I.
Are they the feed of Abraham? fo am I.”
When a fentence concludes with the word with which
it began, it is called epanalepjis. As in that expref-
fion of Plautus, “ Virtue contains all things, he wants
no good thing who has virtue.” The figure is the
fame, but the principle not fo honeft, in the advice
which we find given by the mifer in Horace, when he
fays, “ Get money, if you can, honeftly ; but however,
get money.” This figure adds a force to an expref-
fion, when the principal thing defigned to be convey¬
ed is thus repeated, by leaving it laft upon the mind.
And it heightens the beauty of it, when the fentence
has an agreeable turn arifing from two oppofite parts.
As in Cicero’s compliment to Csefar : “ We have feen
your vi&ory terminated by the war; your drawn
fword in the city we have not feen.” Hermogenes
calls this a circle, becaufe the fentence returns again
to the lame word, as that geometrical figure is form¬
ed by the orbicular motion of a line to the fame
point.
When the following fentence begins with the fame
word with which the former concluded, it is termed
anadiplofts. As in the following inftance: Let us
think no price too great for truth; truth cannot be
bought too dear. So in that paffage of St John : He
came to his own, and his own received him not. This
figure generally fuits beft with grave and folemn dif-
courfes.
Epanodos is the inverfion of a fentence, or repeat¬
ing it backwards, fo that it takes in the two laft fi¬
gures; for it both begins and ends with he fame word,
and the fame word is likewife repeated in the middle.
This turn of expreffion has a beauty in it, and fhows a
readinefs of thought We have the following example
of it in Minutius Felix, where he is expofing the folly
of the Egyptian fuperftition “ Ifis (fays he), with
Cynocephalus and her priefts, laments, bemoans, and
feeks her loft Ion ; her attendants beat their breafts,
and imitate the grief of the unhappy mother; in a
little time the fon is found, upon which they all re¬
joice. Nor do they ceafe every year to lofe what
they find, or to find what they lote. And is it not ri¬
diculous to lament what you worlhip, or to worftnp
what you lament ?” It ferves likewife to iliuftrate and
enforce the fenfe, by fetting it in two oppofite views.
As in that expreffion of the prophet: “ Wo unto
them who call good evil, and evil good ; who put
darknefs for light, and light for darknefs!”
Thofe figure^! which coniift in a repetition of words
of a like found or fignification, or both, are four;
jla parorto*
74
75
436
76
77
O R A T
Elocution, paronomafia, homoioptoton, fynonymia, and derlvatio ; the
1 ' J two firll of which rcfpeft words that are iimilar in
found only, the third in ftnfe, and the laft in both.
When two words very near in found, but different
in fenfe, refpett each other in the fame fentence, it is
called paronomafta. As when we fay, fter a feajl
comes a faft; and, ^ friend in need is a friend indeed.
We ufually call it a pun, which when new, and appo-
fitely ufed, paffes for wit, and ferves to enliven con-
verfation. Nor is it wholly to be excluded from grave
and ferious difcourfes: for a witty jell has many times
had a better elfeft than a folid argument, and prevailed
with thofe who could not be moved by clofe reafoning.
And therefore Cicero and the belt fpeakers have
fometimes recourfe to it upon weighty and folemn oc-
cafions, as will be fhown hereafter in its proper place.
When the feveral parts of a fentence end with the
fame cafe, or tenfe of a like found, this alfo is confi-
dered as a figme, and named homoioptoton. As thus :
2Vo marvel though vuifdom complain that flee is either 'wil¬
fully drfpifed, or carekfsly neglected; either openly fcorn-
ed, or fecretly abhorred. This figure is efteemed moil
beautiful when the parts are all of the fame length,
or pretty near it ; as it adds to the harmony of the
period, and renders the cadency of the feveral mem¬
bers more muiical from the juft proportion between
them. The Greek rhetoricians were much addi&ed to
this figure, and Ifocrates is particularly celebrated for
it. But fome of the beft orators feem to have induftri-
oufly avoided it, as carrying in it too much the ap¬
pearance of art. And it is remarkable, that this figure
appears nowhere fo much in all the works of Demoft-
henes, as in an oration which he did not fpeak him-
felf, but wrote for his friend Diodorus, a man of that
tafte, who was to pronounce it as his own.
The next figure above-mentioned \% fytibnymia. Now
ftridtly fpeaking, fynofrymous words are thofe which
have exadily the fame fenfe. But there being few
fuch, the ufe of the term is fo far extended as to com¬
prehend words of a near affinity in their fignification,
which in difeourfe are frequently put for one another.
So, to dtfre, and intreat, are fometimes ufed as equi¬
valent terms; whereas to defire is no more than to
wifh for a thing, and to intreat is to exprefs that incli¬
nation in words In like manner, ejleem and honour
are often taken for fynonymous words, though they
have not precifely the fame fenfe, but one is the ufual
confequence of the other ; for efteem is the good opi¬
nion we entertain of a perfon in our mind, and ho¬
nour the outward expreffion of that opinion. When
two or more fuch words come together, they coniii-
tute this figure. As when Cicero, fpeaking of Pifo,
fays, “ His whole countenance, which is the tacit
language of the mind, has drawn men into a nuftake,
and deceived, cheated, impofed on thofe who did not
know him.” This figure fometimes adds force to an
exprefiion, by enlivening the idea ; and it often pro¬
motes the harmony and juft cadency of a fentence,
which otherwife would drop too foon, and dilappoint
the ear.
When fuch wrords as fpring from the fame root, as
jvfice, jujl, wjufiice, unjujl, and the like, come toge¬
ther in the fame fentence, they make the figure called
derivatio. Cicero, obferving the vanity of the phito-
fophers who afft&ed praife at the fame time that they
75
79
O R Y. Part Ilf.
decried it, ufes this figure, when he fays of them, Elocution,
“ The philofophers fet their names to'thofe very —v ■,*“w
books which they write for the contempt of glory ;
and are delirous to be honoured and applauded even
for what they fay in contempt of honour and ap-
plaufc.” This figure receives an additional beauty
when repeated, especially in two oppofite members ;
as, He nvlfhed rather to die a prefent death, than to live a
miferable life.
Art. II. Figures ^Sentences.
Of thefe, fome are principally adapted for reafon*
rng, and others to move the paffions.
I. Thofe failed for proof. Which are fix : ProJepJts,
hypo bole, anacoinofis, epitrope, parabole, and antithefis. ^
Prolepfis, or anticipation, is fo called, when the ora-Qf g^ures
tor firft ftarts an objetlion, which he forefees may of fe-..fences;
be made either againft his conduct or caufe, and then fome are for
anfwers it. Its ufe is to foreftal an adverfary, and
prevent his exceptions, which cannot afterwaids be in-for mov;ng
troduced with fo good a grace Though it has like-the paffi'ns.
wife a farther advantage, as it ferves to conciliate the
audience, while the fpeaker appears defirous to repre-
fent matters fairly, and not to conceal any objection
which may be made againft him. The occafions of
this figute are various ; and the manner of introdu¬
cing it very different. Sometimes the orator thinks it
neceflary to begin with it, in order to juftify his con¬
duit, and remove any exceptions which may be made
againft his defign. Cicero, for feveral years together,
after he firft began to plead, had always been for the
defendant in criminal cates. And therefore, when he
was prevailed with to undertake the accufation of
Verres, he begins his oration with this apology for
himfelf: “ If any one prefent (hould wonder, that
when for fcveral years paft I have fo conduited my-
felf as to defend many and accufe none, I now on a
fudden alter my cuftom, and undertake an accufition:
when he fhail have heard the occafion and reafon of
my defign, he will both approve of it, and think na
perton fo proper to manage this affair as tnyfelf.”
And then he proceeds to give an account of the rea-
fons which moved him to engage in it. At other
times the objection is admitted as an exception to
what has been faid, but not fo as to affeft it in gene¬
ral. Thus, when Cicero has repiefented the advan¬
tages of literature and the polite arts, he ftarts this
obje&ion to what himfelf had laid, ‘-But fome one
will a Ik, whether thofe great men, the memory of
whofe glorious actions is delivered down to pofterity,
were acquainted with that fort ot learning I fo ap¬
plaud ?” To which he replies, “ Indeed this can fcarce
be faid of them all. However, the anfwer is eafy. I
have known feveral perfons of excellent abilities, who,
without learning, by the force of an extraordinary ge¬
nius have been men of great virtue and folidity ^ Nay
I will add, that nature without learning, has oftener
produced thefe qualifications, than learning without a
genius. But yet it muft ftill be owned, that where
both thefe meet, they form fomething very excellent
and fingular.” Again, at other times, the orator art¬
fully reprefents the objection as fomething confider-
able and important, to give the greatei weight to his
anfwer when he has confuted it, Cicero, in his cele¬
brated oration for the Manilian law, could not omit
to
Part HI.
ORATORY.
Elocution, to take notice, that Lucullus had already gained fe-
veral very confiderable advantages over Mithridates.
And therefore,” having before defcribed the war as
very great and dangerous, apprehending thefe two ac¬
counts might appear fomewhat inconliftent, and be
liable to an objedion, he puts it thus artfully himfelf:
“ But now, after what I have faidof Lucullus, it may
probably be aiked, How then can the war be fo great?
Be pleafed to hear, for there feems to be very juft rea-
fon for this queftion.” And then he proceeds to
fhow, from the power of king Mithridates at that time,
his great abilities, long experience in military affairs,
and frefh alliances, that the war was yet very great
and dangerous. But fometimes, when the orator is
fenfible that what he has advanced lies open to an ob¬
jedion, he omits to make it in exprefs terms; and yet
proceeds to vindicate what he had faid, as if it had
been made. Thus, when Cicero had charged Verres
with having plundered the inhabitants of Sicily of all
their plate, jewels, and other valuable moveables,
which he thought worth while to carry away ; as the
audience might imagine this to be fcarce credible, he
takes it for granted they thought fo, and therefore im¬
mediately adds, “As Itrange as this is, I affirm it po-
fitivdy, without any intention to aggravate the crime.”
And fo he goes on to the proof ot his affertion. But
this figure is likewife made ufe of to guard againft
fome objedion, which the fpeaker apprehend* may he
made againft what he defigns to fay. And thus Ci¬
cero ufes it in his oration for Sextius. “ My province
(fays he), as I fpeak laft, feems to call for affedion to
my friend, rather than his defence ; complaint, rather
than eloquence ; expreffions of grief, rather than art.
And therefore, if I {hall exprefs myftlf with more
warmth, or greater freedom, than thofe who have
fpoke before me, I hope you will grant me all that li-
beity of fpeech which you judge reafonable to be al¬
lowed to an affedicnate forrow and juft refentment.”
This figure requires great prudence and difcrction in
the management of it. The fpeaker mult conflder
well the temper, lias, and other circumftances of his
hearers, in order to form a right judgment what parts
of his difeourfe may be moll liable to exception. For
to oi jed fuch things, which the hearers would never
have thought of themfelves, is to give himfelf a need-
lets trouble ; and to ftart fueh difficulties, which he
cannot afterwards fairly remove, will expofe both him-
feit and his caufe. But as nothing gives an audience
greater pleafure and fatisfadion, than to have their
fcruples fully anfwered as they rife in their thoughts;
fo on the contrary, be a difeourfe otherwife ever fo
Sr
muft I fay ? That I fled from a confcioufnefs of guilt ?
But what is charged upon me as a crime, was fo far
from being a fault, that it is the molt glorious adion
fince the memory of man, (he means his punifhing the
affociates of Catiline.) That I feared being called to
an account by the people ? That was never talked of;
and if it had been done, I fhould have come off with
double honour. That I wanted the fupport of good
and honeft men ? That is falfe. That I was afraid of
death ? That is a calumny. I muft therefore fay, what
I would not, unlefs compelled to it, that I withdrew
to preferve the city.” When the objedions are put
by way of queftion, as in the example here given,
theyr add a brifknefs and poignancy to the figure. All
the parts of it are not conilantly exprtffed. For thus
Cicero in his defence of Plancius introduces his ad-
verfary objeding, and himfelf anfwering, “ The peo¬
ple judged ill, but they did judge ; they flrould not
have done it, but they had a power ; i cannot fubmit
to it, but many very great and wife men have.”—
Both the propofition and conclufion are here omitted.
The next figure in order is anaemnojis, or communi¬
cation ; by which the fpeaker deliberates either with
the judges, the hearers, or the adverfary himfelf.
Thus Cicero addreffes the judges in his accufacion of
Verres : “ Now I delire your opinion what you think
I ought to do. And 1 know your advice will be,
though you do not declare it, what appeal's to me ne-
ceffary to be done.” In another place we find him
reafoning in this manner with the adverfe party:
“ What could you have done in fuch a cafe, and at fuch
a time; when to have fat ftill, or withdrawn, would
have been cowardice ? When the wickednefs and fury
of Saturninus the tribune had called you into the Capi¬
tol ; and the confuls, to defend the f ifety and liberty
of your country ; whofe authority, whofe voice, which
party would you have followed, and whofe coiRRia.nd
would you have chofen to obey ?” I bis figure carries
in it an air of modefty and condefcenfion, wdien the
fpeaker feems unwilling to determine in his own caufe,
but refers it to the opinion of others. It likewife
(hows a perfuaiion of the equity of his canfe, that lie
can leave it to their arbitration ; and ferves very much
to conciliate their minds, while he joins them, as it
vvera, with himfelf, and makes them of his party.
And when the appeal is made to the adverfe party, it
is of confiderable advantage, either to extort a con-
feffion, or at leaf! to fiience him. And therefore the
facred waiters fometimes very beautifully introduce
God himfelf thus expoftulating with mankind; as the
prophet Malachi, Si fan honoureth his father, and a
£l(
437
entertaining and agreeable, if there be any doubt left fervant his wafer. If then I he a father^ where is mi
upon the minds of the hearers, it gives them a pain
that continues with them till it be removed.
The figure hypobote or Jubjeflion, is not much un
like the former ; and is, when feveral things are men¬
tioned that feem to make tor the contrary fide, and
each of them icFuted in order. It confitls of three
parts, w'hen complete ; a propofition, an enumeration
of particulars with their anfwers, and a conclufion.—
Thus Cicero, upon his return from banifhment, vin¬
dicates his conduct in withdrawing fo quietly and not
oppe ling the ta&ion th*t tjedied him. My depar¬
ture (fays he) is objedted to me, w’hich charge I can¬
not aulvver without commending myfell. For what
8r.
honour ? and if I he a mcjler, where is my fear P
Another figure that comes under this head, is
epilrope or concejjion, which grants one thing, to ob¬
tain another more advantageous. It is either real or
feigned ; and either the whole of a thing, or a part
only, is granted. We fiiail conlider each of theie fe>
paratel), and illuftrate them with proper examples.
Nothing more confounds an adverfary, than to grant
him his whole argument ; and at the fame time either
to fhow that it is nothing to the purpofe, or to offer
foraething elle which may invalidate it. . allow, lays
the claimant by vviii a. ainit the heir at law ihat no
body was more nearly related, to the deceafed than you ;
S that
43’S
i Jocut.'ortf t&af ht
ORATORY.
Part HI,
was tinder feme obligations to you ; that you fic to the fcl, water to the thirfly, and ref to the weary ; Elocution,
/l 1/ t r\ rr l, si ^ rr t • n4- * •» ^.11 ^ 7. * . ^ _ a J. ~ ~     / _ •/_ . a  *. J ..   /s « _,
S4
in the army together: but what is all this to the
willP And thus Cicero in his defence of Ligarius,
who was accufed by Tubero for having joined with
Porr.pey in the civil war between him and Ctefar :
“ ^ou have, Tubero, what an accufer would molt
defire, the accufed perfon confefling the charge ; but
fo as to affirm, that he was of the fame party with
■you and your excellent father. Therefore own firft
that it was a crime in yourfelf, before you charge it
as fuch upon Ligarius.” Sometimes the orator gives
up fome particular point that would well admit of a
difpute, to gain fomething more confiderable, which
he thinks cannot fairly be denied him. In the affair of
-Rofeius, where the proof depended upon circumftances,
Cicero, who defended him, inquires what reafon could
be alleged for his committing fo black a crime, as to
Till his father. And after he has fhown there was no
probable reafon to be affigned for it, he adds, “ Well,
lince you can offer no reafon, although this might be
fufficient for me, yet I will recede from my right ;
and upon the affurance I have of his innocence, I will
grant you in this caufe what I would not in another.
I do not therefore infift upon your telling me why he
killed his father, but afk how' he did it ?” This ap¬
pearance of candour and ingenuity in fuch conceffions
removes the fufpicion of art, and gives greater credit
to what is denied. We have an example of a feigned
or ironical cenceffion, in Cicero’s defence of Flaccus ;
where, interceding for him on the account of his for¬
mer good fervices in the time of Catiline’s confpiracy,
he fays in a way of irony, If fuch things are to be
overlooked, “ let us appeafe the ghofts of Lentulus
and Cethegus; let us recal thofe who are in exile ;
-and let us be punifhed for our too great affedlion and
love for our country.” By this artful infinuation,
the orator, after he has ufed all his arguments to
perfuade his hearers, does as it were fet them at li¬
berty, and leave them to their own eledion ; it
being the nature of man to adhere more ftedfaft-
ly to what is not violently impofed, but referred to
his own free and deliberative choice. And to
thefe feigned conceffions may be referred fuch ways
of reafoning, by which the orator both juftifies
a charge brought againft him upon the fuppofition
of its being true, and alfo proves that the charge it-
felf is falfe. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Milo, re-
prefents the taking off Clodius, with which Milo was
accufed, as a glorious ad ion ; after he has fhown that
Milo’s fervants did it without the knowledge of their
mailer.
Paralole or fimilitude, illuftrates a thing by com¬
paring it with fome other, to which it bears a refem-
blance. Similitudes are indeed generally but weak
arguments, though often beautiful and fine ornaments.
And where the olefign of them is not fo much to prove
what is doubtful, as to fet things in a clear and agree¬
able light, they come properly under the notion of fi¬
gures. They are of two forts; limple and compound.
Thofe are called fimplet in which one thing only is
likened or compared to another, in this manner: As
/wallows appear in fummer, but in winter retreat; fo
falfe friends Jhow themfelves in pro/perity, but oilfy away
when adi'erjity approaches. Compound fimilitudes are
fuch, wherein one thing is likened or compared to fe¬
deral ethers j as thus : What light is to the world, phy-
that is Imwlcdge to the mind. The more exadt the a-
greement is between the things thus compared, they
give the greater beauty and grace to the figure.
Antithejis or oppofiiion, by which things contrary
or different are compared, to render them more evi¬
dent. Thus Cicero lays, “ The Roman people hate
private luxury, but love public grandeur.” This is
a very florid figure ; and fuited no lefs for amplifi¬
cation than proof. As in the following inflance of
Cicero, where, fpeaking of Pompey, he fays, “ He
waged more wars than others had read; conquered
more provinces than others had governed ; and had
been trained up from his youth to the art of war, not
by the precepts of others, but by his own commands ;
not by mifearriages in the field, but by viclories ; not
by campaigns, but triumphs.” It is elteemed a beauty
in this figure when any of the members are inverted,
which fome call antimetathejis. As where Cicero, oppo-
fing the condudl of Verres when governor of Sicily, to
that of Marcellas who took Syracufe the capital city
of that ifland, fays, “ Compare this peace with that
war, the arrival of this governor with the vidtory of
that general, his profligate troops with the invincible
army of the other, the luxury of the former with the
temperance of the latter; you will fay, that Syracufe
was founded by him who took it, and taken by him
who held it when founded.” To this figure may alfo
be referred oxymoron, or feeming contradiction ; that is,
when the parts ef a fentence difagree in found, but
are conliftent in fenfe. As when Gvid fay^ of Althea,
that Jhe was impioufy pious. And fo Cato ufed to
fay of Scipio Africanus, that “ he was never lefs at
leifure, than when he was at leifure ; nor lefs alone
than when aloneBy which he meant, as Cicero
tells us, that “ Scipio was wont to think of bulinefs
in his retirement, and in his folitude to converfe with
himfelf.” This is a ftrong and bold figure, which
awakens the mind, and affords it an agreeable pleafure
to find upon refledtion, that what at firft. feemed con-
tradidlory, is not only confiftent with good fenfe, but
very beautiful.—The celebrated Dr Blair, whom we
have more than once quoted in this article, has thefe
obfervations on antithefis, or the contrail of two objedls.
“ Contrail has always this effedt, to make each of the
contralled objedls appear in the ftronger light. White,
for inftance, never appears fo bright as when it is op-
pofed to black, and when both are viewed together.
Antithefis, therefore, may, on many occafions, be em¬
ployed to advantage, in order to ftrengthen the im-
preffion which we intend that any objedl Ihould make.
In order to render an antithefis more complete, it it
always of advantage, that the words and members of the
fentence, expreflmg the contralled objedls, be fimilarly
conftrudted, and made to correfpond to each other. This
leads us to remark the contrail more, by fetting the
things which we oppofe more clearly over againft each
other ; in the fame manner as when we contrail a
black and a white objedt, in order to perceive the full
difference of their colour, we would choofe to have
both objedls of the fame bulk, and placed in the fame
light. Their refemblante to each other, in certain
circumftances, makes their difagreement in others
more palpable. At the fame time, I mull obferve, that
the frequent ufe ol antithefi*, efpecially where the oppo-
fition in the words is nice and quaint, is apt to render
the
6j
86
The fecor.d
kind of
figures of
fentences-
Part nr. ORA
Elocution, the {lyte cJifagreeable. A or moral ftying,
t..»—v ■■"■’ properly enough receives this form ; both becaufe it
is fuppofed to be the fruit of meditation, and becaufe
it is defigned to be engraven on the memory, which
recals it more eafily hy the help of fuch contrafted
expreffions. But where a firing of fuch fentences
fucceed each other, where this becomes an author’s
favourite and prevailing manner of expreffing himfelf,
his ftyle is faulty ; and it is upon this account Seneca
has been often and juftly cenfured. Such a ftyle
appears too ftudied and laboured ; it gives us the im-
preffion of an author attending more to his manner of
faying things, than to the things themfelves which he
fays.” There is ftill another kind of antithefis, which
confifts in furprifing us by the unexpefted contrails
of things which it brings together ; but it is fuch as
is wholly beneath the dignity of an orator, or of grave
compofitions of any fort, and is fit only for pieces of
profeffed wit and humour, calculated only to excite
laughter or create ridicule.
II. Thofe fmted to move the pajfiom. Which are. 13 ;
namely, epanorthofis, paralepfis, parrhejia, aparithmejls,
exergnjta, hypotypojis, aporia, pojtopejis, erote/isy ecphoncjis,
epiphonema, npojlrophe, andprofopeia.
Epanorthojis, or correSlon, is a figure, by which
the fpeaker either recals or amends what he had laft
faid. It is ufed different ways. For fometimes one
or more words are recalled by him, and others fub-
joined in their room ; at other times, without recall¬
ing what has been faid, fomething elfe is fubftituted
as more fuitable. This is a very extenfive figure, and
made ufe of in addrefling to different paffions. We
have an inftance of it in Terence’s Se/f-tormentory
where the old man, whofe extraordinary concern for
the abfence of his fon gave occafion to the name of
the play, thus bewails his condition to his neighbour,
** I have an only fon, Chremes. Alas! did I fay that
I have ; I had indeed ; but it is now uncertain whe¬
ther I have or not.” Here, to aggravate his misfor¬
tune, he recals a pleafing word, and fubftitutes ano¬
ther more affefting in its place. And Cicero, in his
defence of Milo, fpeaking to the judges concerning
Clodius, fays, “ Are you only ignorant what laws,
if they may be called laws, aud not rather torches and
plagues of the date, he was about to impofe and force
upon us ?” Again, in his defence of Plancius, he fays,
What greater blow could thofe judges, if they are
to be called judges, and not parricides of their coun¬
try, have given to the date, thair when they banifhed
him, who when praetor freed the republic from a
neighbouring war, and when conful from a civil one ?”
He is fpeaking there of Opimius. But in commend¬
ing the moderation of Lucius Mummius, who did not
enrich himfelf, but his country, by demoliftving the
wealthy city of Corinth; he thus recals his whole ex-
prefiion, and by giving it a new turn heightens the
compliment he defigned him : “ He chofe rather
(fays he) to adorn Italy than his own houfe ; though
hy adorning Italy his houfe feems to have received
the greateft ornament.” And fometimes the correc¬
tion is made by fubftituting fomething contrary to
what had been faid before ; as in the following paf-
fage of Cicero : “ Casfar (meaning Auguftus), though
but a youth, by an incredible and furprifing refolu-
tion and courage, when Antony was moil enraged,
TORT.
and we dreaded his cruel and pernicious return from Elocution.
Brundufium, at a time when we neither afked, nor ex- v
petled, nor defired it (becaufe it was thought impof-
fible), raifed a very powerful army of invincible ve¬
terans; to effeft which he threw away his whole eftate: ^
Though I have ufed an improper word ; for he did not
throw it away, but employed it for the fafety of the
government.” At other times, as has been faid, the
correction is made by adding a more fuitable word,
without any repetition ©f the former. Thus Cicero,
after he has inveighed againft the crimes of Verres,
breaks out into this pathetic exclamation : 0 the cle¬
mency, or rather 'wonderful and f n ular patience, of the
Roman people! He did not think the word clemency
ftrong enough, and therefore adds patience, as better
anfwering his defign. The fudden and unexpected
turn of this figure gives a furprife to the mind, and
by that means renders it the more pathetic.
Paralepjis, or omiffion, is another of thefe figures, s?
when the fpeaker pretends to omit, or pafs by, what
at the fame time he declares. It is ufed either in
praife or difpraife. Thus Cicero, in his defence of
Sextius, introduces his character in this manner, with
a defign to recommend him to the favour of the court:
“ I might fay many things of his liberality, kindnefs
to his domeftics, his command in the army, and mo¬
deration during his office in the province : but the ho¬
nour of the Hate prefents itfelf to my view ; and calling
me to it, advifes me to omit thefe leffer matters.”
But in his oration to the fenate againft Rullus thfe
tribune, who had propofed a law to fell the public
lands, he makes ufe of this figure to reprefent the
pernicious effeCts of fuch a law, particularly w ith re-
fpeCt to the lands in Italy. “ I do not complain
(fays he) of the diminution of our revenues, and the
woful effeCts of this lofs and damage. I omit what
may give every one occafion for a very grievous and
juft complaint, that we could not preferve the prin¬
cipal eftate of the public, the fineft poffeffion of the
Roman people, the fund of our provifions, the granary
of our wants, a revenue entrufted with the ftate ; but *
that we muft give up thofe lands to Rullus, which,
after the power of Sylla, and the largeffes of the
Gracchi, are yet left us< I do not fay* this is now
the only revenue of the ftate, which continues when
others ceafe, is an ornament in peace, fails us not in
war, fupports the army, and does not fear an enemy.
I pafs over all thefe things, and referve them for my
difcourfe to the people, and only fpeak at prefent of
the danger of our peace and liberties.” His view
here was to raife the indignation of the fenate againft
Rullus, and excite them to oppofe the law. There is
a beautiful inftance of this figure in St Paul’s epiftle
to Philemon, where, after he has earneftly intreated
him to receive again Onefimus his fervant, who had *
run from him, and promifed that if he had wronged *
him, or owred him any thing, he would repay it, he '
adds* That I may not fay, you owe even yourfelf to me.
Nothing could be a ftronger motive to foften his dif-
pleafure againft his fervant, from a fenfe of gratitude
to the apoftle. Hermogenes has obferved, "that the
defign of this figure is to poffefs the minds of the au¬
dience with more than the words exprefs, and that it
is principally made ufe of on three occafions: either
when things are fmall, but yet neceffary to be men¬
tioned i
44° ORA"
Elocution.^ tionecl ; «r well known, and need r>ot be enlarged
v on ; or ungrateful, and therefore fhould be introduced
with caution, and not fet in too ftrong a light.
.‘■88 Yhe next figure above-mentioned was Parrhsjla, or
reprehenfion : Not that whenever a perfon admonifhes
Air reproves another it is to he efteemed a figure ; but
when it is done with art and addrefs, and in fuch cir-
cumflances as render it difficult not to difukafe.—
The orator therefore fometimes prepares his hearers
for this by commending them firft, urging the ne-
ceffity of it, representing his great concern for them
as his motive, or joining himfelf with them. Thus
Cicero charges the fenate with the death of Servius
Sulpicius, for fending him to Mark Antony under a
very ill ftate of health. And his defign in it was to
bring them more readily into a motion he was about
to make, that both a ftatue and a fepulchral monu¬
ment might he ere&ed to his memory at the public
expence. “ You (fays he), it is a very fevere expref-
fion, but I cannot help fayiny it ; you, I fay, have de¬
prived Seryius Sulpicius of his life. It was not from
cruelty indeed, (for what is there with which this af-
fembly is lei's chargeable ?) but when his diftemper
pleaded his excufe more than his words, from the
hopes you conceived that there was nothing which
his authority and wifdom might not be able to effieft,
you vehemently oppofed his excufe, and obliged him,
who always had the greateft regard fer.your com¬
mands, to recede from his refolution.” Sometimes,
indeed, the orator affumes an air of reproof, with a
view only to pafs a compliment with a better grace.
As Cicero in his addrefs to Casfar, when he fays, “ I
hear that excellent and wife faying from you with
concern, That you have lived long enough, either for
the purpofes of nature, or glory : for nature perhaps,
if you think ♦o ,* and, if you pleafe, for glory ; but,
what is principally to be regarded, not for your coun-
try.” It adds both a beauty and force to this figure,
when it is expreffied in a way of comparifon. As in
the following inftance of Cicero : “ But fince my dif-
courfe leads me to this, confider how you ought to be
affedted for the dignity and glory of your empire.
Your anceftors often engaged in war to redrefs the
injuries of their merchants or failors : how ought you
then to refent it, that fo .many thoufand Roman ci¬
tizens were murdered by one meffage, and at one time?
Your forefathers deftroyed Corinth, the principal city
in Creece, for the haughty treatment of their am-
baffiadors ; and will you fuffer that king to go unpu-
niffied who has put to death a Roman legate, of con-
fular dignity, in the mod ignominious as well as mod
cruel manner? See, led, as it was their honour to
leave you the glory of fo gi-eat an empire, it ffiould
prove your difgrace not to be able to maintain and
defend what you have received from them.” By this
figure an addrefs is made to the more tender paffiens,
modedy, fliame^ and emulation, the attendants of an
ingenuous temper, which is fooned touched, and mod
affefted, by a juft reproof.
£.9 Another of thefe pathetic figures is Jparithmefisy
or enumeration, when that which might be expreffed in
general by a few words, is branched out into fevetal
particulars, to enlarge the idea, and render it the
more affecting. Cicero, in pleading for the Maniiian
1 w, where his defign is to conciliate the love and
edeem of the people to Pompey, thus enlarges upon
^251.
O R Y. Part nr.
his character: “ Now, what language can equal the Elocution.
virtue of Cneius Pompey? What can be faid either' v—^
worthy of him, or new to you, or which every one
has not heard ? For thofe are not the only virtues of
a treneral which are commonly thought fo ; labour iu
affairs, courage in dangers, indudry in aiding, dif-
patch in performing, defign in contriving; which are
greater in him than in all other generals we have ever
feen or heard of.” And fo likewife, when he endea¬
vours to difpoffefs Pompey of the apprelienfion that
Milo defigned to affaftinate him : “ If (fays he) you
fear Milo 5 if you imagine that either formerly, or at
prefent, any ill defign has been formed by him againft
your life; if the foldiers raifed through Italy (as
feme of your officers give out), if thefe arms, if thefe
cohorts in the Capitol, if the Gentries, if the watch, if
the guards which defend your perfon and houfe, are
armed to prevent any attempt of Milo, and all of them
appointed, prepared, and dationed on his account; he
mud be thought a perfon of great power, and incre¬
dible refolution, above the reach and capacity of a
fingle man, that the mod confummate general, and
the whole republic are in arms againd him only. But
who does not perceive, that all the difordered and
finking parts of the ftate are committed to you, to
re&ify and Ripport them -by thefe forces ?” This
might have been faid in a few words, that fuch vad
preparations could never he intended for fo low a
purpofe. But the orator’s view was to expofe that
groundlefs report, ahd fhame it out of countenance.
And foon after he endeavours to raife compaffion for
Milo under thofe prejudices by the fame figure : “ See
how various and changeable is the ftate of human life,
how unfteady and voluble is fortune, what infidelity
in friends, what difguifes fuited to the times, what
flights, what fears, even of the neared acquaintance,
at the approach of dangers.” Had no addrefs to the
paffions been defigned here, fewer of thefe reflexions
might have been fufficient. The ufe of this figure iu
amplification is very evident from the nature of it,
which confifts in unfolding of things, ahd by that
means enlarging the conception of them.
Exerga/ia, or expofition, has an affinity with the for- ^
mer figure : but it differs from it in this, that it con¬
fifts of feveral equivalent exprdlions, or nearly fuch,
in order to reprefent the fame thing in a ftronger
manner ; whereas the other enlarges the idea by an
enumeration of different particulars. So that this
figure has a near relation to fynonymia, of which we
have treated before under Verbal figures. We have
an indance of it in Cicero’s defence of Sextius, where
he fays, “ Thofe who at any time have incited the
populace to fedition, or blinded the minds of the ig¬
norant by corruption, or traduced brave and excellent
men, and fuch as deferved well of the public, have
with us always been efteemed vain, bold, bad, and per¬
nicious citizens. But thofe who repreffed the at¬
tempts and endeavours of fuch as, by their autho¬
rity, integrity, condancy, refolution, and prudence,
withftood their infolcnce, have been always accounted
men of folidity, the chiefs, the leaders, and fupporters
of our dignity and government.” Nothing more is
intended by this paffage, but to fet the oppofite cha¬
racters of faXious petfons and true patriots in the
ftrongeft light, with a view to recommend the one,
and create a juft hatred and detedation of the other.
So
Part III*
Elocution. So clfewhcre he reprefents the juft ice of felf-defcnce
<—^— in no lefs different terms: “ If reafon (fays he) pre-
fcribes this to the learned, and necefiity to barbarians,
cuftom to nations, and nature itfelf to brutes, always
to ward off all manner of violence, by all poffibk ways,
from their body, frcm their head, from their life ;
vou cannot judge this to be a criminal and wicked
a&ion, without judging at the fame time that all
perfons who fall among robbers and aflaflins muft
either perifh by their weapons, or your feutence.”—
He is addrefling here to the judges in favour of Milo.
The warmth and vehemence of the fpeaker often runs
him into this figure, when he is afTefted with his fub-
jeft, and thinks no words, no exprefllons, forcible
enough to convey his fentiments ; and therefore re¬
peats one after another, as his fancy fuggefts them.
This flow of expreflion, under the conduct of a good
judgment,is often attended with advantage: as it warms
the hearers, and imprefTcs their minds, excites their
paflions,and helps them to fee things in a ftronger light.
Hypotypofis, or imagery, is a defcription of things
jX painted in fuch ftrong and bright colours, as may help
the imagination of the hearers to conceive of them
rather as prefent to their view, than defcribed in
words. It is peculiarly fuited for drawing chara&ers ;
and often affords the fineft ornaments in poetry and
hiftory, as well as orafory. Nor is it lefs moving,
but fuited to {trike different pafiions, according to the
nature of the fubjeft, and artful management of the
fpeaker. Cicero has thus drawn the pifture of Cati¬
line, confiding of an unaccountable mixture of con¬
trary qualities. ‘ He had (fays he) the appearance
of the greateft virtues : he made ufe of many ill men
to carry on bis defigns, and pretended to be in the
intereft of the belt men ; he had a very engaging be¬
haviour, and did not want induflry nor application ;
he gave into the greateft loofenefs, but was a good
foldier. Nor do I believe there was ever the like
monfter in the world, made of fuch jarring and re¬
pugnant qualities and inclinations. Who at one time
was more acceptable to the beft men, and who more
intimate with the worft ? Who was once a better pa¬
triot, and who a greater enemy to this ftate? Who
more devoted to pleafures, who more patient in la¬
bours ? Who more rapacious, and yet more profufe ?
He fuited himfelf to the humours of all-he converfed
with ; was ferious with the referved, and pleafant with
the jocofe ; grave with the aged, and facetious with
the young ; held with the daring, and extravagant
with the profligate.” Such a charaaer of a man,
when accompanied with power and intereft, muft
render him no lefs the objea of fear than deteflation,
which was the defign of Cicero in this defcription
And el ewhere, in order to prevail with the fenate to
direft the execution of thofe confpirators with Catiline
who w'ere then in prifen, he paints the moft difrr.al
feene of that horrid defign in the ftrongeft colours.
“ Methinks (fays he) I fee this city, the light of the
world, and citadel of all nations, fuddenly falling in-
to one fire ; I perceive heaps of miferable citizens
buried in their ruined country ; the countenance and
fury of Cethegus raging in your {laughter, prefents
itfelf to my view.” This figure is very ferviceable in
amplification, as we have formerly ftiowH in treating
upon that fubjeft. But no fmall judgment is required
in the management of deferiptions- Leffer circuiu-
Vol. XIII. Part II.
441
ftances (hould either be wholly omitted, or but {lightly Elocution.
touched ; and thofe which are mere material drawn in —
their due proportion. Nature is as much the rule of
the orator as of the painter, and what they both pro-
pofe to imitate. And therefore, let a thought be ever
fo pleafing and beautiful in itfelf, it muft not be in'*
troduced when foreign to the purpofe, or out of its
place, any more than a painter {hould attempt to alter
nature, when he propofes to copy it. This figure re¬
quires liktwife a vigorous and lively genius. For the
images in defcription can rife no higher than the con¬
ception of the fpeaker, finee the idea muft fit ft be
formed in his own mind before he can convey it to
others; and agreeably to the cleatnefs with which he con¬
ceives it himfelf, he will be able to exprefs it in words.
Aporia, or doubt, expreffes the debate of the mind 9J
with itfelf upon a prefling difficulty. A perfon in
fuch a ftate is apt to hefitate, or ftart feveral things
fucceffively, without coming to any fixed refolution.
The uneafinefs arifing from fuch a diforder of thought
is naturally very moving. Of this kind is that of
Cicero for Cluentius, when he fays, “ I know not
which way to turn myfelf. Shall I deny the fcandal
thrown upon him of bribing the judges ? Can I fay
the people were not told of it ? that it was not talked
of in the court ? mentioned in the fenate ? Can I re¬
move an opinion fo deeply and long rooted in the
minds of men ? It is not in my power. You, judges,
muft fupport his innocence, and refeue him from this
calamity.” Orators fometimes choofe to begin their
difeourfe with this figure. A diffidence of mind at
firft is not unbecoming, but graceful. It carries in it
ah air of modeity, and tends very much to conciliate
the affeftions of the hearers. Livy gives us a very
elegant example of this in a fpeech of Scipio Afri-
canus to his foldiers, when, calling them together after
a fedition, he thus befpeaks them : “ I never thought
I ftiould have been at a lofs in what manner to ad-
drefs my army. Not that I have applied myfelf more
to words than things; but becaufe 1 have been accuf-
tomed to the genius of foldiers, having been trained
up in the camp almoft from my childhood. But I
am in doubt what or how to fpeak to you, not knowing
what name to give you. Shall I call you citizens, who
have revoked from your country ? Soldiers, who have
difowned the authority of your general, and broke
your military oath ? Enemies ? 1 perceive the mien, the
afpeft, and habit of citizens; but difeern the add ions,
words, defigns, and difpofitions ©f enemies.”
Sometimes a paffion has that effedf, not fo much to 93
render a perfon doubtful what to fay, as to flop him
in the midft of a fentence, and prevent his expreffing
the whole of what he defigned ; and then it is called
Apojlopejis, or concealment. It denotes different pal-
fions ; as anger, which, by reafon of its heat and vehe¬
mence, caufes perfons to break off abruptly in their
difeourfe. So the old man in Terence, when he was
jealous that his fervant obftrufted his defigns, ufes
this imperfeft, but threatening expreffion, Whom, if /
fmd. And Neptune, when defcribed by Virgil as
very angry that the winds ftiould prefume to difturb
the fea without his permiffion, after he has called them
to him to know the reafon of it, threatens them in this
abrupt manner:
“ Whom I—but firft I’ll lay the ftorm.”
But Cicero, in writing to Atticus, applies it to ex-
3 K prefs
ORATORY.
9*
95
O R A T
prefs grief, where he fays, “ I know nothing of Pom-
pey, and believe he mull be taken, if he is not got on
fhipboard. O incredible fwiftnefs! But of onr friend 
Though I cannot accufe him without grief, for whom
I am in fo much concern and trouble.’' And in a
letter to Callius he ufes it to exprefs fear, when he
fays to him, “ Brutus could fcarce fupport himfelf at
Mutma ; if he is fafe, we have carried the day. But
II heaven avert the omen i all muft have recourfe to
you.” His meaning is, “ If Brutus fhould be de-
feited.”
1 he next figure is erotefis, or interrogation. But everv
interrogation or qweftion is not figurative. When we
inquire about a thing that is doubtful, in order to be
informed, this is no figure, but the natural form of
fuch expreflions. As if I afk a perfon, Where he is
going ? or What he is doing? But then it becomes figu¬
rative when the fame thing may be exprefied in a
direct manner ; but the putting it by way of queftion
gives it a much greater life and fpirit. As when Ci¬
cero fays, u Catiline, how long will you abufe our
patience ? do not you perceive your defigns are difeo-
vered ?” He might indeed have faid, You abufe our
patience a long ’while. You mujl be ferfible your dejigns
are difeovered. But it is eafy to perceive how much
this latter way of expreffion falls. Ihort of the force and
vehemence of the former. And fo wdien Medea fays,
I could fave ; and do you afk if I can defroy ? Had
file faid, / could fave, and I can defroy, the fentence
had been flat, and very unfit to exprefs the rage and
fury in which the poet there reprefents her. This
figure is fuited to exprefs moil paflions and emotions
of the mind, as anger, difdain, fear, defire, and
others. It ferves alfo to prefs and bear down an ad-
yerfary. Cicero frequently makes this ufe of it. As
in his defence of Plancius : “ I will make you this of¬
fer (fays he), choofe any tribe you pleafe, and Ihow,
as you ought, by whom it was bribed ; and if you
cannot, as I believe you will not undertake it, I will
prove how he gained it. Is this a fair conteft ? Will
you engage on this foot ? I cannot give you fairer
play. Why are you filent ? Why do you diffemble ?
Why do you hefitate ? I infill upon it, urge you to it,
prefs it, require, and even demand it of you.” Such
a way of pufhing an antagoniil ihows the fpeaker has
great confidence in his caufe ; otherwife he would ne¬
ver lay himfelf fo open, if he was not afiured the other
party had nothing to reply. This figure likewife di-
verfifies a difeourfe, and gives it a beautiful variety,
by altering the form of expreffion, provided it be nei¬
ther too frequent, nor continued too long at once.
And befides, the warmth and eager manner in which
it is exprefied, enlivens the hearers, and quickens their
attention.
Ecphonefs, or exclamation, is a vehement exten-
fion of the voice, occafioned by a commotion of
mind, naturally venting itfelf by this figure, which
is ufed by Cicero to exprefs a variety of paffions. It
often denotes refentment or indignation. Thus, after
his return from bamfhment, refledting on thofe who
had occafioned it, he breaks out into this moving ex¬
clamation : “ O mournful day to the fenate, and all
good men, calamitous to the flate, afflidlive to me and
my family, but glorious in the view of pofterity !”
His defign was to excite an odium againft the authors
of his exile, when recalled in fo honourable a manner.
O R Y. Partlll,
And again, in his defence of Callus • “ 0 the great Elocution*
force of truth; which eafily fupporte itfelf again! the 1
wit, craft, fubtilty, and artful defigns of men He
had been juft ihowing the abfurdity of the charge
againft Calius, and now endeavours to expofe his ac-
cufeis to the indignation of the court. At other
times it is ufed to ^exprefs difdain or contempt.
As when fpeaking of Pompey’s houfe, which was
bought by Mark Antony, he fays : “ Q confum-
mate impudence! dare you go within that houfe! dare
you enter that venerable threftiold, and fhow your au¬
dacious countenance tq the tutelar deities which re-
fide there ?” Nor is it Icfs fuited to indicate grief, as
when he fays of Milo : “ O that happy country, which
mall receive this man ! ungrateful this, if it banifti
him! miferable, if it lofe him!” And fometimes it
lerves to exprefs admiration ; as when, in compliment
to Caefar, he fays, “ O admirable clemency ! worthy
°i the greateft praife, the higheil encomiums, and
molt lading monuments !” It has its ufe aifo in ridi¬
cule and irony. As in his oration for Balbus, where
he derides his accufer, by faying, “ O excellent in¬
terpreter of the law ! mafter of antiquity ! corredlor
and amender of our conftitution!” The facred writers
iometimes ufe it by way of intreaty or wifh As the
royal Pfalmift ; “ O that I had the wings of a dove,
that I might flee away, and be at reft]” And at other
tunes in triumph and exaltation, as in that of St Paul-
‘ O death, where is thy fling! O grave, where is thv
vidory ! It is frequently joined with the preceding
figure interrogation ; as appears in fome of the inflan-
ces here brought from Cicero. And it generally fol¬
lows the reprefentation of the thing which occalions it.
1 hough fometimes it is made ufe of to introduce it,
and then it ferves to prepare the mind by exciting its
attention. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Cadius, to
render the charader of Clodia more odious, at whofe
mitigation he was accufed, infinnates that Ihe had be¬
fore poifoned her hulband ; and to heighten the bar¬
barity of the fad, and make it appear the more ffiock-
mg, he introduces the account of it, with this mo¬
ving exclamation : “ O heavens, why do you fome¬
times wmk at the greateft crimes of mankind, or de¬
lay the puniihment of them to futurity !”
Epiphonema, or acclamation, has a great affinity with
the former figure. And it is fo called, when the
ipeaker, at the conclufion of his argument, makes fome
lively and juft remark upon what he has been faying,
to gwe it the greater force, and render it the more
afteding to his hearers. It is not fo vehement and
impetuous as exclamation, being ufually expreffive of
the milder and more gentle paffions. And the reflec¬
tion ought not only to contain fome plain and obvious
truth, but like wife to arife naturally from the difeourfe
vyhich occafioned it, otherwife it lofes its end. When
Cicero has fnown, that recourfe is never to be had to
force and violence, but in cafes of the utmoft neceffi-
ty, he concludes with the following remark : “ Thus
to think, is prudence; to ad, fortitude; both to think
and a61, perfed and confummate virtue.” And elfe-
where, after he has deferibed a Angular inltance of
cruelty and breach of friendfhip: “ Hence (fays he)
we may learn, that no duties are fo facred and folemn,
which covetoufnefs will not violate.” This figure is
frequently exprefied in a way of admiration. As when
Cicero has obferved, that ail men are defirous to live
to
9*
Part III. ORA
Elocution, to an advanced age, but une&fy under it when at-
u—'v  tained, he makes this juft reflexion upon fueh a con-
ducl: : “ So great is their ineonftancy, folly, and per-
vetfenefs!”
M’he next figure in order is apojlrophe, or addrefs,
when the fpeaker breaks off from the feries of his dif-
courfe, and addreffes himfelf to fome particular perfon
prefent or abfent, living or dead ; or to inanimate na¬
ture, as endowed with fenfe and reafon. By this means
he has an opportunity of faying many things with
greater freedom than perhaps would be confident
with decency if immediately directed to the perfons
themfelves. He can admonifh, chide, or cenfure, with¬
out giving offence. Nor is there any pafiion, but may
be very advantageoufly expreffed by this figure. When
an orator has been fpeaking of any particular perfon,
on a fudden to turn upon him, and apply the difcourfe
to that perfon himfflf, is very moving ; it is like at¬
tacking an adverfary by furprife, when he is off
his guard, and where he leaft expe&s it. Thus Ci¬
cero : “ I defire, fenators, to be merciful, but not to
appear negligent in fo great dangers of the flate; tho’
at prefent I cannot but condemn myfeif of remifihefs.
There is a camp formed in Italy, at the entrance of
Etruria, againlt the ftate ; our enemies increafe daily;
but we fee the commander of the camp, and general
of the enemies, within our walls, in the very fenate,
ontriving fome inteftine ruin to the ftate. If now,
Catiline, I fhould order you to be feized and put to
death, I have reafon to fear, that all good men would
rather think I had deferred it too long, than charge me
with cruelty. But I am prevailed with for a certain
reafon not to do that yet, which ought to have been
**- done long fince.” This fudden turn of the difcourfe to
Catiline himfelf, and the addrefs to him in that un-
expecfted manner, mufthave touched him very fenfibly.
So, in his defence of Milo, exprefling his concern if he
ftrould not fucceed in it, he fays, “ And how fhall I
anfwer it to you, my brother Quintus, the partner of
my misfortunes, who art now abfent.” And elfe-
where addrefling to the foldiers of the Martian legion,
who had teen killed in an engagement with Mark An¬
tony, he thus befpeaks them: “ O happy death,
which due to nature, was paid to your country ! I may
efteem you truly born for your country, who likewife
received your name from Mars; fo that the fame deity
feems to have produced this city for the world, and
you for this city.” And in his oration for Balbus he
thus calls upon dumb nature to witnefs to Pompey’s
virtues - “ I invoke you, mute regions; you, moft di-
ftant countries ; you feas, havens, iflands, and flrores.
For what coafl, what land, what place is there, in
which the marks of his courage, humanity, wifdom,
and prudence, are net extant r” An appeal to heaven,
- or any part of inanimate nature, has fomething very
fnblime and folemn in it, which we often meet with
in facred writ. So the divine prophet: “ Hear, O
heavens ! and give ear, O earth ! for the Lord hath
fpokcn.” And in like manner, the prophet Jeremy :
“ Be aftonilhed, O ye heavens, at this.” See Apo¬
strophe.
^3 Profnpopela, or the jitiion of a perfon : by which, ei¬
ther an abfent perfon is introduced fpeaking ; or one
who is dead, as if he was alive and prefent ; or fpeeth
attributed to fome inanimate being. There is no
F O R Y. 445
figure, perhaps, which ferves more or better purpofes Elocution,
to an orator than this. For by this means he is en- _v 11 l>
abled to call in all nature to his afliftance, and can
affign to every thing fuch parts as he thinks conve¬
nient. There is fcarce any thing fit to be faid, but
may be introduced this way. When he thinks his
own chara£l:er is not of fufficient weight to affeft his
audience in the manner he defires, he fubftitutes a per¬
fon of greater authority than himfelf -to engage their
attention. When he has fevere things to fay, and
which may give offence as coming from himfelf ? he
avoids this, by putting them into the mouth of fome
other perfon from whom they will be better taken ;
or makes inanimate nature bring a charge, or exprefs
a refentment, to render it the more affefting. And by
the fame method he fometimes choofes to fecure him¬
felf from a fufpicion of flattery, in carrying a com¬
pliment too high. We meet with feveral very beauti¬
ful inftances of this figure in Cicero ; but an example
of each fort may here fuffice, beginning with that of
an abfent perfon, from his defence of Milo, whom he
thus introduces as fpeaking to the citizens of Rome :
“ Should he, holding the bloody fword, cry out, At¬
tend, I pray, hearken, O citizens, I have killed Pu¬
blius Clodius ; by this fword, and by this righc hand,
I have kept off his rage from your necks, which no
laws, no courts of judicature, could reftrain ; it is by
my means, that juitice, equity, laws, liberty, fhame,
and modefty, remain in the city. Is it to be feared
how the city would bear this action? Is there any
one now, who would not approve and commend it.”
And in his oration for Balbus, he introduces Marius,
who was then dead, to plead in his defence: “ Can
Balbus (fays he) be condemned, without condemning
Marius for a like fa£t? Let him be prefent a little to
your thoughts, fince he cannot be fo in perfon ; that
you may view him in your minds, though you cannot
with your eyes. Let him tell you, he was not unac¬
quainted with leagues, void of examples, or ignorant
of war.” And again, in his firft inve&ive againft Ca¬
tiline, he reprefents his country as thus expoftulating
with himfelf, and upbraiding him for fuffenng fuch
a criminal as Catiline to live. “ Should my country
(fays he), which is much dearer to me than my life,
ihould all Italy, all the ftate, thus addrefs me, Mark
Tully what do you do? Do you furier him, whom
you have found to be an enemy, who you fee is to be
at the head of the war, whom you perceive your ene¬
mies wait for in their camp as their general, who has
been the contriver of this wickednefs, the chief of the
confpiracy, the exciter of flaves and profligate citizens,
to leave the city, which is rather to bring him in, than
let him out ? Will not you order him to be imprifon-
ed, condemned, and executed ? What prevents you ?
The cuttom of our anceltors ? But private perfons have
often puniflied pernicious citizens in this Hate. The
laws relating to the punifliment of Roman citizens ?
But traitois never had the rights of citizens. Do you
feat the cenfure of polterity ? Truly you make a very
handfoine return to the people of Rome, who have ad-
vanced you from an obfeure condition fo early to the
higheft dignity ; if you negled their- fatety to avoid
envy, or from the apprehenfion of any danger. And
if you fear cenfure ; which is moft to be dreaded, that
which may arile from juftice and fortitude, or from
3K 2 cowardice
*$’44'
Elocution,^ cowardice and treachery ? When Italy fhall be wailed
'r^~J by a war, cities plundered) and houfes burnt, do you
think then to efcape the ievereft cenfure.” In the
management of this figure, care fhould be taken that
what is laid be always confident with the charader in¬
troduced, in which both the force and beauty of it
confift.
In treating upon figures, wc have hitherto confider-
ed them feparately ; but it may not be amifs to ob-
ferve, that fome expreffions coniift of a complication
ol them, and may come under the denomination of fe¬
deral figures, as well verbal ^ thofe of fentences,
differently confidered. Thus when Cicero fays,
“ What, Tubero, did your drawn fword do in the
Pharfalian battle ? at whofe fide was its point dired-
cd ? what was the intention of your arms ?” As he
fpeaks to Tubero, it is an apoftrophe ; as the expref¬
fions have much the fame import, and are defigned to
heighten and aggravate the fad, it is exergafta ; and
as they are put by queftion, it is interrogation. So
likewife, in his fecond Philippic, where he fays,
** What can 1 think ? that 1 am contemned ? I fee no¬
thing in my life, intereft, adions, or abilities, as mo¬
derate as they are, which Antony can defpife. Did
he think he could eafily leffen me in the fenate ? But
they, who have commended many famous citizens for
their good government of the ftate, never thanked any
but me for preferving it. Would he contend with me
for eloquence ? This would be a favour indeed. For
what could be a larger and more copious fubjed, that
for me to fpeak for myfelf againft Antony ? His de-
fign was really this : he thought he could not convince
his affociates, that he was truly an enemy to his coun¬
try, unlefs he was fo firft to me.” There are three
figures in this paffage ; doubt, interrogation, and fub-
jeSion, * nd again, when he introduces Sicily thus
addreffing Verres in a way of complaint : “ What¬
ever gold, whatever filvtr, whatever ornaments in my
cities, dwellings, temples, whatever right of any kind
I pofleffed by the favour of the fenate and people of
Rome ; you, Verres, have plundered and taken from
me.” Here is z profopopeia, joined with the verbal
figure anaphora, as feveral members of the fentence be¬
gin with the fame word. The like inftances of complex
figures frequently occur, and therefore we need not
multiply examples of them here.
PARTICULAR ELOCUTION,
Or that part of Elocution which confiders the
feveral Properties and Ornaments of Language,
as they are made ufe of to form different forts
of Style.
Chap. IV. Of Style, and its different CharaSlers.
Particular T“e word/jvA properly fignifies the inllrument
elocution which the ancients ufed in writing. For as they conr-
treats of monly wrote upon thin boards covered over with wax,
llyle and and fomttimes upon the barks of trees, they made ufe
eharSers °f 3 Io.ng in^rument ,ik8 a bodkin, pointed at one
end, with which they cut their letters; and broad at
the other, to craze .any thing they chofe to alter.
And this the Latins called Jlylus. But though this
be the fkfi feafe of the word, yet afterwards it came
Part III*
to denote the manner of expreffion. In which fenfe Elocution,
we likewife ufe it, by the fame kind of trope that we —v—
call any one’s writing his hand- Style, then, in the com¬
mon acceptation of the word at prefent, is the pecu¬
liar manner in which a man expreffes his conceptions
by means of language. It is a pi&ure of the ideas
which rife in his mind, and of the order in which
they are there produced. As to the reafons which
occalion a variety of ftyle, they are principally thde.
Since both fpeech and writing are only fenlible ex¬
preffions of our thoughts, by which we communicate
them t© others; as all men think more or lefs diffe¬
rently, fo confequently they in fome meafure differ in
their ftyle. No two perfons, who were to write upon
one fubjed, would make ufe of all the fame words.
And were this poffible, yet they would as certainly
differ in their order and conne&ion, as two painters,
who ufed the fame colours in painting the fame pic¬
ture, would neceffarily vary their mixtures and dif-
polition of them, in the feveral gradations of lights
and ftiades. As every painter therefore has fomething
peculiar in his manner, fo has every writer in his ftyle.
it is from thefe internal characters, in a good rneafure,
that critics undertake to difeover the true authors of
anonymous writings; and to ftiovv that others are fpu-
rious, and not the genuine productions of thofe whofe
names they bear ; as they judge of the age of fuch
writings from the words and manner of expreffion
which have been in ufe at different times. And we
may often obferve in perfons a fondnefs for fome par¬
ticular words or phrafes; and a peculiarity in the turn
or connection of their femences, or in their tranfitions
from one thing to another ; by which their ftyle may
be known, even when they delign to conceal it. For
thefe things, through cuftom and habit, will fometimesr
drop from them, notwithftanding the greateft caution
to prevent it.
There is likewife very often a confiderable difference
in the ftyle of the fame perfon, in feveral parts of his-
life. Young perfons, whofe invention is quick and
lively, commonly run into a pompous and luxuriant
ftyle. Their fancy reprefents the images of things to
their mind in a gay and fprightly manner, clothed
with a variety of circumftanees ; and while they en¬
deavour to fet off each of thefe in the brightelt and
moft glittering colours, this renders their ftyle ver-
bofe and florid, but weakens the force and llrength of
it. And therefore, as their imagination gradually
cools, and comes under the conduct of a more mature
judgment, they find it proper to cut off many fuper-
ftuities; fo that by omitting unneceffary words and
circumftances, and by a clofer connection of things
placed in a ftronger light, if their ftyle becomes lefs
fwelling and pompous, it is,, however, more correCt
and nervous. But as old age finks the powers of the
mind, chills the imagination, and weakens the judge;
ment; the ftyle, too, in proportion ufually grows dry
and languid. Critics have obfeived fomething of this,
difference in the writings even of Cicero himfelf. To
be mailer of a good ftyle, therefore, it feems neceffary
that a perfon fhould be endowed with a vigorous mind
and lively fancy, a llrong memory, and a good judge;
ment. It is by the imagination that the mind con¬
ceives the images of things. If the impreffions of
thofe images be clear and diHin^l,. the ftyle will be fo
8 too
ORATORY.
partHT. , ■ , ° R A r
F.Iocufon too; face language is nothing but a copy of thofe
V-"""1 images iiril conceived by the mind. But it the images
are faint and imperfea, the ftyle will accordingly be
flat and languid. This is evident from the difference
between fuch obje&s as are reprefented to our fight*
and things of which we have only read or heard. For
as the former generally make a deeper impreffion upon
our minds, fo we can deferibe them in a more ftrong
and lively manner. And we commonly find, that, ac¬
cording as perfons are affe&ed themfelves when they
fpeak, they are able to affed others with what they
fay. Now' perfons are more orkfs affetted with things
in proportion to the imprelftons which the images of
thofe things make upon the mind. For the fame rea-
ibn alfo, if the imagination be dull, and indifpofed to
receive the ideas of things, the ftyle will be ftiff and
heavy ; or if the images are irregular and difordered,
the ftyle will likewife be perplexed and confufed.
When things lie ftraight (as we fay) in the mind, we
exprTs them with eafe, and in their juft connexion
and dependence; but when they are warpt and crook¬
ed, we deliver them with pain and difficulty, as well as
diforder. A good fancy ihould likCwife be accompa¬
nied with a happy memory. This helps us to retain
the names of thofe things the ideas whereof are pre-
fented to the mind by the imagination, together with
proper and fuitable phrafes to exprefs them in their
fevcral connections and relations to each other.. When
the images of things offer themfelves to the mind, un-
lefs the names of them prefent themfelves at the fame
time, we are at a lofs to exprefs them, or at lead are
in danger of doing it by wrong and improper terms.
Befides, variety is neceffary in difeourfe to render it
agreeable ; and therefore, without a large furniture or
words and phrafes, the ftyle will neceffarily become
infipid and jejune, by the frequent return of the fame
terms and manner of expreffion. But to both thefe a
folid judgment is highly requisite to form a juft and
accurate ftyle. A fruitful imagination will furnifh the
mind with plenty of ideas, and a good memory wdl
help to clothe them in proper language ; but unlefs
they are both under the condudt of reaion, they are
apt to hurry perfons into many inconveniences. Such
are generally great talkers, but far from goov. orators.
Frefh images continually crowd in upon them,, fader
than the tongue can well exprefs them. I hk: runs
them into long and tedious difeourfes, abounding with
words, but void of fenfe. Many impertinencies, if
not improprieties, neceffarily mix themfelyes with what
they fay ; and they are frequently carried off from
their point, by not having their fancies under a pro¬
per regulation. So that fuch difeourfes, though com-
pofed perhaps of pretty expreffions, rhetorical flowers,
and fprightly fallies of wit, yet fall very much fhort
of a ftrong and manly eloquence. But where reafon
prefides and holds the reins, every thing is weighed
before it is fpoken. The propereft words are made
choice of, which beft fuit the ideas they are defigned
to convey ; rather than the moft gay and pompous*
All things are not faid which offer themfclves to the
mind, and fancy di&ates ; but fuch only as are fit and
proper, and the reft are dropped. Some things are
but flightly mentioned, and others difeourfed on more
largely'and fully, according to their different impor¬
tance. And every thing is placed in that order,, and
TORY. 44*
clothed in fuch a drefs, as may reprefent it to the Elocution,
greateft advantage. So that, in a word, the founda- ^
tion of a good ftyle is chiefly good fenfe. Where
thefe qualities all meet in a confiderable degree, fuch
perfons have the happinefs to excel, either in fpeaking
or writing. But this is not generally the cafe. Many
perfons of a vigorous and fprightly imagination, have
but a weak judgment ; and others, much more judi¬
cious can think but flojjdy. And it is this, in a great
meafure, which makes the difference between fpeaking
and writing well, as one or the other of thefe qualities
is predominant. A perfon of a lively fancy, ready
wit. and voluble tongue, will deliver himftlf oft hand
much better and more acceptably, than one who is
capable upon due premeditation, to chfcern farther in¬
to the fubjeft, but cannot command his thoughts with
the fame eafe and freedom. And this latter would
have the fame advantage of the other, were they both
coolly to offer their fentiments in writing. Many
things appear well in fpenking, which a ill not bear
a ft rift ferutiny. ’While the hearer’s attention is
obliged to keep pace with the fpeaker, he is not at
lei fur e to obferve every impropriety or incoherence,,
but many flips eaflly efcape him, which in reading are
prefently difeovered. lienee it is often found, that
difeourfes, which were thought very fine when heard,
appear to have much lefs beauty, as well as ffre.ngth,
when they come to be read. And therefore it is not
without reafon, that Cicero recommends to all thof'e
who are candidates for eloquence, and defirous to be¬
come mafters of a good ftyle, to write much. This
affords them an opportunity to digeft their thoughts,
weigh their words and expreffions, and give every
thing its proper force and evidence ; as likewife, by
reviewing a difeourfe when compofed, to correft its
errors, or fupply its defeats; till by practice they gnm
a readinefs both to think juitly, and to fpea c with
propriety and eloquence. But it is time to proceed
to fame other caufes of the diverfity of ftyle.
Different countries have not only a different lan¬
guage, but likewife a peculiarity of ftyle fuited to theit
temper and genius. I he eaftern nations had a lotty
and majeftic way of fpeaking. Their words are full
and fonorous, their expreffions ftrong and forcible,
and wiarrived with the moft lively and moving figures.
This is very evident from the jewifh writings in the
Old Teftament, in which we. find a moft agreeable
mixture of fimplicity and dignity. On the contrary,
the ftyle of the more northern languages generally
partakes ©f the chilnefs of their climate. “ 1 here- is
[fays Mr Addifon*) a certain coidnefs and ffidiffe-*Sfefr
rence in the phrafes of our European languages, whenn04&*.
they are compared with the oriental forms of fpeech.
And it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms
run into the Englifh tongue with a peculiar grace and
beauty. Our Language has received innumerable ele¬
gancies and improvements from that infufion of He-
braifms, which arc derived to it out of the poetical
paflages in holy writ. They give a force and energy
to our expreffions, waim and animate our language,
and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intenfe
phrafts than any that are to be met with in our own-
tongue. There is fomething fo pathetic in this kind
ofdi&ion, that it often fets the mind in a flame, and
makes our hearts burn within us.”
Again,,
446
fc locution,
orator y.
Again, people o? iiiTerent nations vary in their cu- of running into the mode,
ttoms and manners, which oecafions a diverfity in their '
idvle. This was very remarkable in the Attics, Afia-
ftyl
tics, ano]^ Rhodians, and is often taken notice of by an
cient .writers. The Athenians, while they continued
a fire ftate, were an active, induftrious, and frugal
people ; very polite indeed, and cultivated arts and
iciences^beyond any other nation: but as they had
powerfm enemies, and were exceedingly jealous of their
liberties, this preferved them from wantonnefs and
luxury. And their way of fpeaking was agreeable
to their conduct ; accurate and clofe, but very full
and expnffive. The Afiatics, on the other hand,
vrae more gay, and loofe in their manners, devoted
to luxury and pleafure; and accordingly they affedted
a florid and fwelling ftyle, filled with redundancies
and fuperfluities of exprefiion. Indeed, fome of the
ancients have attributed this loofenefs of llyle to their
way of purfuing eloquence at firft. For as they were
put upon it by converling with the Greek colonies
who fettled among them, they fuppofe, that, in imi¬
tating them, before they were matters of the language,
they were often obliged to make ufe of circumlocu¬
tions, which afterwards became habitual, and very
much weakened the force of their expreffions, as it
naturally would do. But one would think, if they
were put to this necefiity at firft, when they found its
id efTedt, they might eafily have amended it after¬
wards, as they grew better acquainted with the Greek
language, had they been inclined fo to do. The
Rhodian ftyle was a medium between the other two ;
not fo concife and exprefiive as the Attic, nor yet fo
loofe and redundant as the Afiatic. Quintilian fays,
it had a mixture of its author, and the humour of the
people ; and, like plants fet in a foreign foil, degene¬
rated from the Attic purity, but not fo wholly as to
lofe it. They firft received it from ^Efchines, who be¬
ing worfted in his famous conteft with Demofthenes,
retired thither, and taught rhetoric, which put them
upon the ftudy of eloquence.
T. he fty le of the fame country likewife very much
alters in different ages. Cicero tells us, that the firft
Ijatm hiftonans aimed at nothing more than barely to
make themfeives intelligible, and that with as much
brevity as they could. Fhofe who fucceeded them
advanced a ftep further ; and gave fomewhat a better
turn and cadency to their fentences, though ftill with¬
out any drefs or ornament. But afterwards, when the
Greek language became fafifionable at Rome, by co¬
pying after their writers, fuch as Herodotus, Thucy¬
dides, Xenophon, and others, they endeavoured to in-
tioduce ail their beauties into their own tongue, which
in Cicero s time was brought to its higheft perfection.
But it did not long continue in that ftate. A dege¬
neracy of manners foon altered their tafte, and cor¬
rupted their language, which Quintilian very much
comphins or in his time. The cafe was the fame with
refped to the Greek tongue ; though that had the
S? t fortune to continue its purity much longer than
the Latin. Nor can any language be exempt from
tne common fate, of all human productions ; which
have their beginning,.perfeCtion, and decay. Befides,
there is a fort of fafhion in language, as well as ocher '
things ; and the generality of people are always fond
Part III.
r ^ erhaps fome one, or a Elocution*
few perfons, fall into a manner which happens to' v—^
pleafe. This gives them a reputation ; and others im-
mediately copy after them, till it generally prevail.
Cicero tells us, that the moft ancient Greek orators
whofe writings were extant in his time, fuch as PerU
ties, Alcibiades, and others, were fubtle, acute, con¬
cife, and abounded in fenfe rather than words. But
another fet that followed them, of which were'Critias
I heramenes, and Lyfias, retained the good fenfe of
the former, and at the lame time too.k more care of
their ftyle ; not leaving it fo bare as the former had
done, but furni filing it with a better drefs. After
thefe came Ifocrates, who added all the flowers and
beauties of eloquence. And as he had abundance of
followers, they applied thefe ornaments and decora¬
tions according to their different genius; fome for
pomp and fplendor ; and others to invigorate their
ftyle, and give it the greater force and energy. And
in this latter way Demofthenes principally excelled.
Now as each of thefe manners had its peculiar beau¬
ties, and generally prevailed in different ages, Cicero
thinks, this could «iot have happened otherwife than
from imitation. And he attributes it to the fame
caufe, that afterwards they funk into a fofter and
fmoother manner, not lefs exadt and florid, but more
cold and IL'elefs. If we take a view of our own
tongue, Chaucer feems to have been the firft who
made any confiderable attempts to cultivate it. And
whoever looks into his writings, will perceive the diffe¬
rence to be fo great from what it is at prefent, that it
fcarce appears to be the fame language. The gradual
improvements it has fince received, are very evident in
the writers almoft of every fucceeding age fince that
time ; and how much farther it may ftill be carried,
time onlv can difeover. See Language.• For
the Englifli language in particular, fee nQ 38. for the
other European languages, as well as the Greek and
Latin, fee nv 27, Sco.
Another caufe of the variety of ftyle arifes from the
different nature and properties of language. A dif¬
ference in the letters, the make of the words, and the
order of them, do all affed the ftyk. So Quintilian
obferves, that the Latin tongue cannot equal the
Greek in pronunciation, becaufe it is harftier. The
Latins want two of the fofteft Greek letters, v and £ ;
and ufe others of a very hard found, which the Greeks
have not, as/'and q. Again, many Latin words end
in w ; a letter of a broad and hollow found, which
never terminates any Greek word ; but » does fre¬
quently, whofe found is much fofter and fweeter. Be¬
fides, in the combination of fylhbles, the letters b and
d are often fo fituated, as to require too itrong and
unequal a force to be laid upon them, as it the words
obverjus and adjungo. Another advantage of the Greek
tongue arifes from the variety and different feat of the
accents : for the Greeks often accent the Lift fyllable,
which both enlivens the pronunciation and renders it
more mufical; whereas the Latins never do this. But
the greateft advantage of the Greeks lies in their
plenty and variety of words ; for which reafon they
have lefs occafion for tropes or circumlocutions, which,
when uted from neceffity, have generally lefs force,
and weaken the ftyle. But under thefe difadvantages,
7 Quin-
PartHI. ORA
glrcution. Quintilian Teems to give his countrymen the bell ad-
vice the cafe will admit of: That what they cannot
do in words, they fhould make up in fenfe. If their
exprefftons are not To Toft and tender, they fhould ex¬
ceed in ftrength ; if they are lefs fubtile, they fhould
be more fublime ; and if they have fewer proper
words, they fhould excel in the beauty as well as num¬
ber of their figures. If this account of Quintilian be
juft, that the Greek tongue does furpafs the Latin in
all thefe inftances, it is certain that both of them
have much greater advantages over fome modern lan¬
guages. The varying all the;r declinable words, both
Houns and verbs, by terminations, and not by figns,
contributes very much to the fmoothnefs and harmony
of their periods. Whereas in the modern languages,
thofe fmall particles and pronouns which diftinguifh
the cafes of nouns and the tenfes and perfonsof verbs,
hinder the run of a period, and render the found much
more rough and uneven. Befides, the ancient lan¬
guages feem to have a better and more equal mixture
of vowels and confonants, which makes their pronun¬
ciation more eafy and mufical.
But the chief diftindlion of ffyle arifes from the dif¬
ferent fubjefts or matter of difeourfe. The fame way
of fpeaking no more fuits all fubje&s, than the fame
garment would all perfons. A prince and a peafant
ought not to have the fame drefs ; and another diffe¬
rent from both becomes thofe of a middle ftation in
life. The ftyle therefore fhould always he adapted to
the nature of the fubjeft, which rhetoricians have re¬
duced to three ranks or degrees; the /ou/ or ft/flin
ftyle, the middle or temperate, and 'the lofty or fublime ~
Which are hkewife called charabiers, becaufe they de¬
note the quality of the fubjedft upon which they treat.
This divifion of ftyle into three characters, was taken
notice of very eurly by ancient writers. Some have,
obferved it even in Homer, who feems to aflign the
Jublime or magnificent to UlyfTes, when he reprefents
him fo copious and vehement an orator, that his
words came from him like winter /now. On the
contrary, he deferibes Menelaus as. a polite fpeaker,
but concife and moderate- And when he mentions
Nefter, he reprefents his manner as between thefe
two, not fo high and lofty as the one, nor yet
fo low and depreffed as the other ; but fmooth, even,
and pleafant, or, as he expreffes it, more fweet than
honey. Quintilian obferves, that although accuracy
and politenefs were general charafters of the Attic
writers ; yet among their orators, Lyfias excelled in
the low and familiar way ; Ifocrates for his elegancy,
fmoothnef, and the fine turn of his periods ; and l)e-
mofthenes for his flame and rapidity, by which he car¬
ried all before him. And Gellius tells us, that the
like difference was found in the three philofophers
who were fent from the Athenians to Rome (before
the Romans had any relifh for the polite arts) to foli-
cit the remittance of a fine laid upon them for an in¬
jury done to a neighbouring ftate. Carneades, one of
thofe ambaifadors, was •vehement and rapid in his ha¬
rangues ; Critolaus, neat and fimooth ; and Diogenes,
modejl andfiober. The eloquence of thefe orators, and
the agreeable variety of their dift’erent manner, fo cap¬
tivated the Roman youth, and inflamed them with a
love of the Grecian arts, that old Cato, who did all
he could to check it by hurrying away the. ambafla-
T O R Y. 447
dors, could not prevent their vigorous purfuit of them, Elocution,
till the ftudy became in a manner univerfal. And the i—J
old gentleman afterwards learned the Greek language
himfelf, when it became more fafhionable. Which a
noble writer of ours * reprefents as a punifisment upon ^ jor {
him for his former crime. It feldom happens that the C(jny
fame perfon excels in each of thefe characters. They
feem to require a different genius, and mail people
are naturally led to one of them more than another ;
though all of them are requifite for an orator upon
different occafions, as we fliall fhow hereafter.
Chap. V. Of the Low Style.
This we fhall confider under two heads, thoughts The low
and language ; in each of which the feveral charatters ^7^ cor!~
are diftinguiftied from one another. fidered
1. And with refpect to the former, as the fubje61 st^uJht
proper for this ftyle are either common things, or fuchand Tan¬
as fliould be treated in a plain and familiar way ; foguage-
plain thoughts are moft fuitable to it, and diftinguifli
it from the other charadlers.
Now, by plain thoughts, are meant fuch as are ioi
Ample and obvious, and feem to rife naturally from
the fubje6f, when duly confidered ; fo that any one,
upon firft hearing them, would be apt to imagine they-
mutt have occuired to himfelf. Not that this is really
the cafe, but becaufe the more natural a thing is, the
more eafy it feems to be ; though in reality it is often
otherwife ; and the perfedfion of art lies in its neareil
refemblance to nature. And therefore, in order to
fpeak plainly and clearly upon any fubjedl, it muft firfl
be duly confidered,. well underftood, and thoroughly
digefted in the mind ; which, though it require labour
and ftudy, yet the more a perfon is matter of what he
fays, the lefs that labour will appear in his dif-
courfc. This natural plainnefs and fimplicity, with¬
out any difguife or affe&ation, very much contributes
to give credit to what is faid. Nor is any thing more
apt to impofe on us, than the appearance of this, when
artfully affumed. Cicero’s account of the fight be¬
tween Milo and Clodius, in which Clodius was killed,
is a remarkable inftance of this. “ When Clodius
knew {fays he) that Milo was obliged to go to La-~~
nuvium upon afolemn and neceffary occafion, he im¬
mediately haftened from Rome, the day before, to af-
faffinate him before Clodius’s own houfe, as appeared
afterwards by the event. And this he did at a time,
when his turbulent mob in the city wanted his affift-
ance j whom he would not have left, but for the ad¬
vantage of that place and feafon to execute his wicked
defign. But the next day Milo was in the fenate,
where he continued till they broke up; then went home;
changed his drefs; ftaid there fome time till his wife
was ready ; and afterwards fet forward fo late, that if
Clodius had defigned to return to Rome that day, he
might have been hereby that time. Clodius, prepared
for his defign, met him on horfeback, having no cha¬
riot, no equipage, no Greek attendants as ufual; and
without his wife, which was fcarce ever known : where¬
as Milo was in a chariot with his wife, wrapt up in a
cloak, and attended by a large retinue of maid fer-
vants, pages, and other perfons unfit for an engage¬
ment. He met with Clodius before his houfe, about
five o’clock in the evening ; and was prefently affault-
ed
44S O R A T
Elocution. etJ frorn an higher ground by many armed men, who
killed the coachman. Upon which, Milo, throwing
off his cloak, leaped out of the chariot, and bravely
defended himfelf: and thofe who were with Clodius,
having their fwords drawn, fome made up to the cha¬
riot to attack Milo ; and others, who now thought he
had been killed, began to fall upon his fervants, who
were behind. And of thefe, fuch as had courage,
and were faithful to their mailer, fome were killed ;
and others when they faw the fkirmifh at the chariot,
and could do their mailer no fervice (for they heard
Clodius himfelf fay that Milo was killed, and really
thought it was fo), did that, not by their mailer’s or¬
der, nor with his knowledge, nor when he was prefent,
which every one would have his own fervants to do in
the like circumllances. I do not fay this to fix any
crime upon them, but only to relate what happened.”
His meaning is, they killed Clodius; which he avoids
mentioning, to render what he fays lefs offenfive. Can
any thing be told in a more plain and fimple manner
than this ? Here is nothing faid, but what in itfelf
feems highly probable, and what one would imagine
the fa£t might eafily fuggell to any ordinary fpecla-
tor. But in this, both the art and Ikill of it confift.
For in the whole account, as, on the one hand, Milo
43 fo deferibed as to ■ render it highly improbable he
could have any defign at that time againll Clodius ;
fo on the other, no one cireumflance is omitted which
might feem proper to perfuade the hearers that Clo¬
dius was the aggrefibr in that engagement. And yet,
if we may believe Afconius, the quarrel was begun by
fome of Milo’s retinue, and Clodius was afterwards
killed by his exprefs order. But as things are fome-
times beft illuftrated by their oppofites, we fhall here
produce a contrary inftance of a very affedled and un¬
natural way of relating a fact. Val. Maximus tells us
of a learned man at Athens, who, by a blow which he
received by a (lone upon his head, entirely forgot all
his learning, though he continued to remember every
thing elfe. And therefore, as he fays, fincethis mif-
fortune deprived him of the greateft enjoyment of his
life, it had been happier for him never to have been
learned, than afterwards to lofe that pleafure. This
is the plain fenfe of the ftory. But now let us hear
him relate it “ A man (fays he) of great learning
at Athens, having received a blow upon his head by
a {lone, retained the memory of all other things very
perfe6lly, and only forgot his learning, to which he
had chiefly devoted himfelf. The direful and malig¬
nant wound invading his mind, and as it were defign-
edly furveying the knowledge repofited there, cruelly
feized on that part of it in particular from which he
received the greateft pleafure, and buried the Angular
learning of the man with an invidious funeral. Who
fince he was not permitted to enjoy his ftudies, had
better never have obtained accefs to them, than after¬
wards to have been deprived of the delight they af¬
forded him.” What an unnatural way is this of re¬
lating fuch an accident, to talk of a wound invading the
mindi and furveying the knowledge repojhed there, and
cruelly ferzing a particular part of it, and buryi:g it
with an invidious funeral ? There is nothing in the
ilory could lead him to this, but an over fondnefs to
refine upon it in a very affedled manner. But there
are two properties of plain thoughts, one of which
■N° 2J2.
O R Y. Part III,
ought.conffautly to attend them In common with all Elocution,
thoughts, and the other is often neceffary to animate
and enliven this character.
The former of thefe is juftnefs and propriety, which
is what reafon didlates in all cafes. What Cicero fays
of the death of Crafi'us the orator, feems very juft, as
well as natural. “ It was (fays he) an afflillion to
his friends, a lofs to his country, and a concern to all
good men ; but fuch public calamities follo'wed upon
it, that heaven feemed rather to have favoured him
with death, than to have deprived him of life.” This
thought feems very juft, and agreeable to the fenti-
ments of a good man, as Craffus was ; to choofe death
rather than to outlive the happiuefs of his country, to
which he himfelf had fo much contributed. Quintilian
has a refle&ion upon a like occafion, which is not fo
juft and becoming. It is upon the death of his only
fon, a youth of very uncommon parts, as he reprefents
him ; and for whofe ufe he had defigned his Injlitu-
tions of Oratory ; but he died before they were fintfti-
ed. The paffage is this : “ I have loft him of whom
I had formed the greateft hopes, and in whom I had
repofed the greateft comfort of my old age. What
can I do now ? or of what farther ufe cau I think my-
felf to be, thus difappointed by heaven ? What good
parent will pardon me, if I can any longer ftudy ? and
not condemn fuch refolution, if, thus furviving all my
family, I can make any other ufe of my voice, than
to accufe the gods, and declare that providence does
not govern the world ?” Allowance may be made for
the {allies of paffion, even in wife men, upon fome
{hocking occafions ; but when it proceeds to fuch a
degree as to become impious, it is very indecent, as
well as unjuft. And all indecency is unnatural, as it
is difagreeable to reafon, which always dire&s to a de¬
corum. That feems to be a very natural as well as
juft thought of Pliny the Younger, when he fays,
“ The death of thofe perfons always appear to me too
hafty and unfeafonable, who are preparing fome lalt-
ing work. For perfons wholly devoted to pleafures,
live, as it were, from day to day, and daily finilh the
end for which they live : but thofe who have a view to
pofterity, and preferve their memory by their labours,
always die untimely, becaufe they leave fornething un-
finifhed.” We ihall mention but one more inftance ;
and that in a comparative view, to make it \he more
evident. The two fons of Junius Brutus, the firft Ro¬
man conful, having been convicted of treafon in aflb-
ciating with Tarquin’s party, were ordered, among
others, to be put to death ; and their father not only
pronounced the fentence, but prefided at the execu¬
tion. This faft is mentioned by feveral of the Ro¬
man hiftorians ; and, as it carries in it not only the
appearance of rigorous juftice, but likewife of cruelty
in Brutus, to have been prefent at the execution of his
fons, they endeavour to vindicate him different ways.
What Florus fays, feems rather an affe£lation of wit,
th;.n a juft defence of the faft. “ He beheaded them
(fays he), that being a public parent, he might ap¬
pear to have adopted the whole body of the people.”
Nor does Val Maximus come up to the cafe, who
fays, “ He put off the father to aft the conful; and
chofe rather to lofe the fons, than be wanting to pub¬
lic juftice.” This might be a reafon for condemning
them ; and would have been equally true, had he not
been
Part III.
Elocution been preFent at their execution.
thoughts are generally very juft and natural, afiigns
the heft reafon which perhaps can be given for his
vindication, when he fays, “ Fortune made him the
executioner of the fentence, who ought not to have
been a fpeftator.” By (zy 'mg fortune made him fa, he
. repreftnts it not as a matter of choice, like the other
hiilorians, hut of neceflity, from the nature of his
office, which then obliged him to fee the execution of
that fentence he had himfelf before pronounced ; as is
the cuftom at prefent, in fome popular governments.
The other property, which fhould often accompany
plain and iimple thoughts, is, that they be gay and
fprightly. This, as has been faid, is neceffary to ani¬
mate and enliven fuch difcourfes as require the low
flyle. The fewer ornaments it admits of, the greater
fpirit and vivacity is requifite to prevent its being dry
and jejune. A thought may be very brifk and lively,
and at the fame time appear very natural, as the effcdl
of a ready and flowing wit. Such thoughts, attend¬
ed with agreeable turns, are very fuitable tothisftyle;
but care ihould be taken, left, while fancy is too much
indulged, the juftnefs of them be overlooked. We
fhall give one inftance, in which this feeir.s to have
been the cafe, from a celebrated Engliffi work, where
the ingenious writer endeavours to ffiow the difadvan-
tages of perfons not attending to their natural genius,
hut affedting to imitate others in thofe things for
which they were not formed. “ The great misfor¬
tune (fays he) of this affectation is, that men not only
loft a good quality, but alfo contraft a bad one ; they
not only are unfit for what they are deligned, but
they affign themfelves to what they are unfit for; and
inftead of making a very good figure one way, make
a very ridiculous one another. Could the world be
reformed to the obedience of that famed dictate, id?/-
/ow nature, which the oracle of Delphos pronounced
to Cicero when he confulted what courfe of ftudies
he fhould purfue, we fhould fee almoft every man as
eminent in his proper fphere as Tully was in his.
For my part, I could never confider this prepofterous
repugnancy to nature any otherwife, than not only as
the greateft folly, but alfo one of the moil heinous
crimes ; fince it is a diredt oppofition to the difpofi-
tion of providence, and (as Tully exprefils it) like the
fin of the giants, an actual rebellion againft heaven.”
The advantages that arife from peifons attending to
their own genius-, and purfuing its dictates, are here
reprefented in a very lively and agreeable manner.
But there is one thing afferted, which we fear will not
hold ; which is, that, Could the world he reformed to
that di8ate, “ Follow nature,” we floould fee almofl
every manias eminent in his proper fphere as 'Tully was
in his. For though doubtlefs perfons would generally
fucceed beft if they kept to this rule ; yet different
degrees of ability are often found, where the bias and
inclination is the fame, and that accompanied with
equal labour and diligence. If this was not fo, how
happened it that no one came up to Tully in the art
of oratory; efpecially in his own age, when there were
the greateft opportunities for that ffudy, and the
higheft encouragements were given to it, as it paved
the way to riches, honours, and all the grand offices
of the ftate ? It cannot well be queftioned, but that
there were other gentlemen, who had all the fame ad-
Vol.XIII. Pauli. 2
ORATORY, 449
But Livy, whofe vantages, accompanied with as ftrong a paifion for this Elocution
art, as Tutly had, who yet fell much fhort of him in
point of fuccefs. And experience fhowa, that the cafe
has been the fame in all other purfuits. IOj
III. But it is time to proceed to the other head, The lan-
the language proper for this ftyle. And here it may Ku.^e.prs*
be obfetved in general, that the drefs ought to this ftylfc.
agreeable to the thoughts, plain, ample, and unaffec¬
ted.
But the rirft thing that comes under confideratioh
is elegance, or a proper choice of words and expref-
fions; which ought always to fait the idea they are
defigned to convey. And,therefore when an ancient
writer, fpeaking of cruelly, calls it navus crudelitalisf
the blemifh of cruelty ; and another, applying the fame
word to ingratitude, * lys navus ingratitudmis, the
blemifh of ingratitude ; that term does not fufficiencly
convey to us the odious nature of either of thofe vices,
as indeed it was not their defign it fhould. But other-
wife, where the fpeaker has not fome particular view
in doing it, to fink too low is as much a fault as to
rife too high. So to call ancient Rome the rnflrefs of
Italy, would as much leffen the jiaft notion of the ex¬
tent of her power, as the Roman writeis aggrandife
it when they ftyle her mflrefs of the world. But pu¬
rity, both in the choice of woYds and exprtffions, is
never more neceffary than it is here. 'This may be
called neatnefs in language. And to be plain and neat
at the fame time, is not only very coafiftcnt, but the
former can no other way recommend itfelf, than as
joined with the latter. Befides, the fewer advantages
any thing has to fet it off, the more carefully they
ought to he obferved. Perfpicuity is always to be re¬
garded ; and ferves very much to keep up the atten¬
tion, where other ornaments are wanting. Epithets
fhould be fparingly ufed, fince they enlarge the images
of things, and contribute very much to heighten the
ftylc. Indeed they are fometimes neceffary to fet a
thing in its juft light; and then they fhould not be
dropped. Thus, in fpeaking of Xerxes, it would be
too low and fiat to lay, He defended with his army
into Greece. Here is no intimation given of their vaft
and unparelleled numbers, which ought to Le done.
Herodotus fays, his whole army, of fea and land for¬
ces, amounted to 2,3 17,000 and upwards. Therefore,
unlefs the number be mentioned, the lead, that can be
faid is, that he defeended with a raft army.
The next thing to be regarded is eompofition,
which here does not require the greateft accuracy and
exa£tnefs. A feeming negligence is fometinr.es a beau¬
ty in this ftyle, as it appears more natural. Short
fentences, or thofe of a moderate length, are likewife
upon the whole'beft fuited to this character. Long and
accurate periods, finely wrought up with a gradual
rife, harmonious numbers, a due proportion of the
ffiveral parts, and a juft cadency, are therefore Impro¬
per, as they are plainly the effect of art. But yet
fome proportion fhouid be obfirved in the members,
that neither the ears be too much defrauded, nor the
fenfe obfeured. Of this kind is that expreffion of a
Greek orator, blamed by Demetrius : Ceres came rea¬
dily to our affiance, but At;jinks not. The latter
member ol this fentence is too fhort; and by dreppin r
fo fuddenly, both difappoints the ears, and is foine-
what obfeure. It would have beta plainer and more
3 L agreeable
45°
Elocution.
O R A T
agreeable thus, lut j4rjlides did not come. As to or¬
der, the plain eft and deareft difpofition, loth of the
words and members of ftntencts, and what is moil
agreeable to the natural conftru&ion, bed fuits with
this char after. For one of its principal beauties is
perfpicuity. And a proper conneftion likewife of
fentences, with a regular order in the dependence of
things one upon another, very much contribute to this
end. With regard to the collifion of fyllables in dif-
feient words, for preventing either an hollownefs or
afperity of found, greater liberty may be taken in this
ftyle than in the other charafters. Here it may be al¬
lowed to fay, Virtue is amiable to all, though all do
not purfue it. But in an higher charafter, perhaps,
in order to prevent the hollow found of the words
though all, a perfon would citoofe to vary the expref-
fion a little, and fay, though few purfue it. So,
Xerxes’ expedition, rmy be tolerable here ; but in the
florid ftyle, the expedition of Xerxes would found much
better.
The laft thing to be confidered, with refpeft to
the language, is dignity, or the ufe of tropes and
figures. And as to tropes, they ought to be ufed cau-
tioufly ; unlefs fuch as are very common, and by time
have either come into the place of proper words, or at
leaft are equally plain and clear. So in the inftance
mentioned above, Diodorus Siculus, fpeaking of the
forces of Xerxes, calls them an innumerable company.
Where, by nfynecdocbe, he has chofe to make ufe of
an uncertain number for a certain, as lefs liable per¬
haps to exception. Other examples might be given if
neceflary; And with regard to figures, as moft of
thofe vi hich confiit in words, and are therefore called
verbal figures, ferve chiefly to enliven an exprefiion,
and give an agreeable turn, they are often not impro¬
per for this charafter. Nor are figures of fentences
wholly to be excluded, efpecially fuch as are chiefly
ufed in reafoning or demonftration. But thofe which
are more peculiarly adapted to touch the pafiions, or
paint things in the ftrongeft colours, are the more
proper ornaments of the higher ftyles, as will be fhown
hereafter.
Upon the whole, therefore, pure nature, without
any colouring, or appearance of art, is the diftinguifli-
ing mark of the low ftyle. The defign of it is to
make things plain and intelligible, and to fet them in an
eafy light. A nd therefore the proper fubjefts of it are
epiftles, dialogues, philofoplucal diflertations, or any
other difeourfes, that ought to be treated in a plain
and familiar manner, without much ornament, or ad-
drefs to the paffions. A freedom and eafe both of
thought and expreffion, attended with an agreeable
humour and pleafantry, are its peculiar beauties that
engage us. As we fee perfons of fafliion and good
breeding, though in the plaineft habit, have yet forne-
thing in their air and manner of behaviour that is
very taking and amiable. Somewhat of the like na¬
ture attends this ftyle. It has its difficulties, which
are not fo eafily difeerned but from experience. For
it requires no final) ikill to treat a common fubjeft in
fuch a maimer as to make it entertaining. The fewer
ornaments it admits of, the greater art is necefi'ary to
attain this end. Lofty fubjefts often engage and cap-
by the fublimity of the ideas. And
tne florid ftyle calls in all the affiftance of language
O R Y. Part III.
and eloquence. But the plain ftyle is in a great mea-^10Cllt*<'n'
fure dripped of thofe advantages; and has little more '
to recommend it, than its own native beauty and fim-
plicity.
Chap. VI. Of the Middle Style.
This we /hall treat in the fame manner as we 103
did the former, by confidering firft the matter, and
then the language proper for ft. 104
1. And as the fubjefts proper for this ftyle areThe middIe
things of weight and importance, which require both dSdTt
a gravity and accuracy of expreffion ; fo fine thoughts matter and
are its diftingui/hing mark, as plain thoughts are oflaa£ua£e’
the low charafter, and lofty thoughts of the fub-
lime. Now a fine thought may deferve that cha¬
rafter from fome or other of the following proper¬
ties.
And the firft property we /hall mention is gravity
and dignity. Thus Cicero, in a fpeech to Cjefar, fays,
“ It has been often told me, that you have frequent¬
ly faid, you have lived long enough for yourfelf. I be¬
lieve it,.if you either lived, or was born for yourfelf
only.” . Nothing could either be more fit and proper,
than this was, when it was fpoken ; or at the fame
time a finer compliment upon Casfar. For the civil
war was now over, and the whole power of the Ro¬
man government in the hands of CaTar ; fo that he
might venture to fay, he had lived long enough for
himfelf, there being no higher pitch of glory to which
his ambition could afpiie. But then there were many
things in the ftate that wanted redreffing, after thofe
times of diforder and confivfion, which he had not
yet been able to effeft, and of which Cicero here takes
an opportunity to remind him. We /hall produce an¬
other example from Curtins. Philotas, one of Alex¬
ander’s captains, having formed a confpiracy againft
him, was convifted of it, and put to death. Amin-
tas, who was fufpefted of the fame crime, by reafon
of his great intimacy with Philotas, when he comes to
make his defence, among other things fpeaks thus:
“ I am fo far from denying my intimacy with Philo¬
tas, that I own I courted his friendfhip. Do you
wonder that we /bowed a regard to the fon of Parme-
nio, whom you would have to be next to yourfelf, gi¬
ving him the preference to all your other friends? You,
Sir, if I may be allowed to fpeak the truth, have
brought me into this danger. For to whom elfe is it
owing, that thofe who endeavoured to pleafe you, ad-
dreffed themfelves to Philotas ?. By his recommenda¬
tion we have been raifed to this /hare of your friend-
/hip. Such was his intereft with you, that we court¬
ed his favour, and feared his difpleafure. Did we not
all in a manner engage ourfelves by oath, to have the
fame friends, and the fame enemies, which you had ?
Should we have refufed to take this, which you as it
were propofed to us ? Therefore, if this be a crime,
you have few innocent perfons about you ; nay, indeed
none. For all defired to be the friends of Philotas $
though all could not be fo who defired it. There¬
fore, if you make no difference between his friend*
and accomplices, neither ought you to make any be¬
tween thofe who defired to be his friends, and thofe
who really were fo.” Could any thing be finer fpoken,
more proper, and becoming the charafter of a foi-
1 dier.
Part IIT,^ O R. A I*
Elocution. dier, than this defence ; efpecially to a prince of fo
    1 great and generous a fpirit as Alexander ? There is
fomething which appears like this in Tacitus with re¬
lation to the emperor Tiberius, but falls vaftly fhort
of it in the juftnefs and dignity of the fentiment. Se-
ianus, his great favourite, and partner in his crimes,
falling under his difpleafure, was, like Philotas, put
to death for a confpiracy. Now a Roman knight,
who apprehended himfelf in danger on account of
his friendfhip with Sejanus, thus apologizes for him¬
felf to the emperor, in the manner of Amintas : “ It
is not for us to examine the merit of a perfon whom
you raife above others, nor your reafons for doing it.
The gods have given you the fovereign power of all
things, to us the glory of obeying. Let confpiracies
formed againft the ftate, or the life of the emperor,
be punifhed ; but as to friendfhips and private re¬
gards, the fame reafon that juitifies you, Caefar, ren¬
ders us innocent.” The turn of the exprefiions is
not much different from that in the cafe of Amintas,
but the beauty of the thought is fpoilcd by the flat*
tery of complimenting Tiberius upon an excefs of
power, which he employed to the deftrudion of
many excellent men. There is not that impropriety
in the defence of Amintas, which is equally brave and
juft.
Another property of a fine thought is beauty and
i elegance. It is a fine compliment which Pliny pays to
the emperor Trajan, when he fays, “ It has happen¬
ed to you alone, that you was father of your country,
before you was made fo.” borne of the Roman em¬
perors had been complimented with the title oifather
of their country, who little deferved it. But I rajan
Irtd a long time refuted it, though he was really fo,
both by his good government, and in the efteem of
his fubjeds, before he thought fit to accept xT it.
And Pliny, among other inftances of the generofity
of that prince, which he mentions in the fame dif-
courfe, fpeaking of the liberty that he gave the Ro¬
mans to purchafe eftates which had belonged to the
empeiors, and the peaceable poffeffion they had of
them, does it by a turn of thought no lefs beautiful
than the former. “ Such'(fays he) is the prince’s
bounty, fuch the fecurity of the times, that he thinks
us worthy to enjoy what has been polfelled by em¬
perors ; and we are not afraid to be thought fo.”
There is a fprightlinefs in this image, which gives it a
beauty ; as there is likewife hi the following paffage
of the fame difeourfe, where he fays to i rajan,
“ Your life is difpleafing to you, if it be not joined
with the public fafety ; and you fuffer us to wifh you
nothing but what is for the good of thofe who wilh
it.” And of the fame kind is that of Cicero to Cae¬
far, when he fays, “ You, Caefar, are wont to for¬
get nothing but injuries.” It is a very handfome, as
well as juft reiledion, made by Tacitus upon Galba’s
government, that, “ He feemed too great for a pri¬
vate man, while he was but a private man ; and
all would have thought him worthy of the em¬
pire, had he never been emperor.” The beauty of
a thought may give us delight, though the fubjed
be for rowful; and the images of things in them-
felves unplcafant may be fo reprefented as to become
agreeable. Sifigambis, the mother of Darius, after
the death of her fon, had been treated by Alexander
Q R Y, 451
with the greateft regard and tendernefs, in whole Elocution.^
power ftie then was. So foon as fire heard therefore
that he was dead, fire grew weary of life, and could
not bear to outlive him. Upon which Q^Curtius
makes this fine refledion : “ Though fhe had cou¬
rage to furvive Darius, yet Ihe was afhamed to outlive
Alexander.”
The next property of a fine thought, which we flrall
mention, is delicacy. As, in the objeds of our fenfes,
thofe things are faid to be delicate which affed us
gradually in a foft and agreeable manner; fo a delicate
thought is that which is not wholly difeovered at
once, but by degrees opening and unfolding itfelf to
the mind, difclofes more than was at firft perceived.
(Quintilian feems to refer to this, when he fays,
“ Thofe things are grateful to the hearers, which
when they apprehend, they are delighted with their
own fagacity ; and pleafe themfelves, as though they
had not heard, but difeovered them.” Such thoughts
are not unlike the Iketches of fome pidures, which
let us into the defign of the artift, and help us to dif-
cern more than the lines themfelves exprefs. Of this
kind is that of Saliuft : “ In the greateft fortunes,
there is the leaft liberty.” This is not often fo in
fad, but ought to be; both to guard againft an abufe
of power, and to prevent the effeds of a bad example
to inferiors. Pliny, fpeaking of theemperor Trajan’s
entry into Rome, fays, Some declared, upon fee-
ing you, they had lived long enough ; others, that
now they were more defirous to live.” The complL
ment is fine either way, fince both mull efieem the
light of him the greateft happinefs in life ; and in
that confiftency lies the delicacy of the thought. It
was a fine chirader given of Grotius, when very
young, on the account of his furprding genius and
uncommon proficiency in learning, that he was born
a man : As if nature, at his coming into the world,
had at once furnilhed him with thofe endowments
which others gradually acquire by ftudy and appli¬
cation.
The la ft property of a fine thought, which we lhall
take notice of, is novelty. Mankind is naturally plea-
fed with new things; and when at the fame time they
are fet in an agreeable light, this very much heightens
the pleafure. Indeed there are few fubjeds, but what
have been fo often cenfidered, that it is not to be ex-
peded they fhould afford many thoughts entirely new;
but the fame thought fet in a different light, or ap¬
plied to a different occafion, has in fome degree a
claim of novelty. And even where a thing hath been
fo well faid already, that it cannot eallly be mended,
the revival of a fine thought often affords a pleafure
and entertainment to the mind, though it can hrve no
longer the claim of novelty. Cicero, in his treatife
of an orator, among feveral other encomiums which,
he there gives to Craffus, lays of him, “ Craffus al¬
ways excelled every other perfon, but that day he ex¬
celled himfelf.” He means as an orator. But elfe-
where he applies the- fame thought to Ctefar, upon
another account; and with fome addition to it. “You
had (fayshe) before conquered all other conquerors by
your equity and clemency, but to-day you have con¬
quered yourfclt; you feem to have vnnquiftied even
vidory herfelf, therefore you alone are truly invin¬
cible.” This thought, with a little variation of the
3 L z • phrafe,
ftyle.
452 - ORA
^Elocution.phrafe, has fincc appeared in feveral later writers; and
it is now grown common to fay of a perfon, who ex¬
cels in any way, upon his doing better than he did
before, that he has outdone himfelf. The like has
happened to another thought, which, with a little al¬
teration, has been varioufly applied. It was faid by
Varro, 'That if the Mufes were t9 talk Latin, they,
would talk like-P/autus. The younger Pliny, apply¬
ing this compliment to a friend of his, fays, His let¬
ters are fo finely written, that you would think the Mu¬
fes themfelves talked Latin. And Cicero tells us, It
was faid of Xenophon, that the Mufes themfelves feem-
ed to /peak Greek with his voice. And elfewhere,
that Philofophers fay, if Jupiter fpeaks Greek, he muf
/peak like Plato. The thought is much the fame in
all thefe initances, and has been fince revived by fume
105 modern writers.
The lan- H. We (hall now confider the language proper for
fhe^middle ^yle. And in general it may be obferved,
that as the proper fubjetts of it are things of weight
and importance, though not of that exalted nature
as wholly to captivate the mind and divert it from
attending to the diction ; fo all the ornaments of
fpeech, and beauties of eloquence, have place here.
And firft with regard to elegance, ic is plain that a
different choice of words makes a very great difference
in the ityle, where the fenfe is the fame. Sometimes
one fingle word adds a grace and weight to an ex-
preffion, which, if removed, the fenfe becomes flat
and lifelefs. Now fuch words as are moft full and
exprefiive fuit belt with his eharafter. Epithets alfo,
which are proper and well chofen, ferve very much to
beautify and enliven it, as they enlarge the ideas of
things, and fet them in a fuller light.
The moft accurate eompofition, in all the parts of
it, has place here. Periods, the moft beautiful and
harmonious, of a due length, and wrought up with
the moft exadf order, juft cadency, eafy and fnflooth
connexion of the words, and flowing numbers, are the
genuine ornaments, which greatly contribute to form
this character.
But the principal diftinftion ef ftyle arifes from
tropes and figures. By thefe it is chiefly animated
and raifed to its different degrees or characters, as it
receives a leffer or greater number of them ; and thofe
either more mild, or ftrong and powerful.
As to tropes, thofe which afford the moft lively and
pleafing ideas, especially metaphors, fuit the middle
character. It is a pretty remark, which has been
made by fome critics upon two verfes of Virgil; one
mi his Eclogues, and the other in his Georgies. The
former of thefe works is for the moft part written in
the low ftyle,, as the language of fhepherds ought
to be ; but the latter in the middle ftyle, fuitable to
the nature of the fubjedt, and the perfons for whom
it was defigned, the greateft men in Home not think-
isg it below them to entertain themfelves with rural
affairs. Now in the Eclogue, as fome copies read the
verfe, the fhepherd, complaining of the barrennefs of
his land, fays,
Infelix lolium etferiles nafeuntur avena.
In Englifh thus:
’ 1 Wild oats and darnel grow inftead of corn.
TORY, Partlll,
But in the Georgic, where the fame fenfe is intend-Elocution.
ed, inftead of the proper word nafeuntur, grow, the  y—--*
author fubftitutes a metaphor, dominantur, command,
and fays,
Injeliy. lolium et feriles dominantur aven<e.
That is in Englifti:
Where corn is fown, darnel and oats command.
It was fit and natural for the fhepherd to exprefs his
fenfe in the plaineft terms ; and it would have been
wrong to reprefent him going fo lar out of his way, as
to fetch a metaphor from government, in talking up¬
on his own affairs. But in the Georgic, where the
poet fpeaks in his own perfon, the metaphor is much
more beautiful, and agreeable to the dignity of the
work. This inftance may fliow in fome meafure how
the ftyle is heightened by tropes, and the fame thought
may he accommodated to the ftveral characters of
ftyle by the different manner of expreffion.
The like may alfo be faid of figures either of words
or fentences, in reference to this character ; which ad¬
mits of the fineft deferiptions, moft lively images, and
brfghteft figures, that ferve either for delight, or to
influence the pafflons without tranfport or eeftafy,
which is the property of the fublime. This is indeed
the proper feat of fach embellifhments, which fupport
and make up a principal part of the middle or florid
ftyle. Having treated largely upon thefe in ftveral
preceding chapters, we ftiall here only briefly mention
fome of the moft conftderable. 106
Deferiptions are not only a great ornament to a dif- Dt'fcnP'
courfe, but reprefent things in a very lively and agree-
able manner. In what a beautiful light has Ciceropleafair..
placed the polite arts and faiences, when, deferibing
them from their effedbs, he thus reprefents to us the
great advantages, as well as pleafure, which they af¬
ford to the mind ? “ Other ftudies neither fuit with
all times, nor all ages, nor all places: but thefe im¬
prove youth, delight old age, adorn profperity, afford
a refuge and folace in adverfrty ; pleafe at home, are
no hinderance abroad; fleep, travel, and retire with
us.” And they often affedt us very powerfully, when
they are addreffed to the fenfes Quintilian has paint¬
ed the calamities of a city taken by ftonn in the
brighteft and ftrongeft colours, which he reprefents by
“ Blames fpreading themfelves over the houfes and
temples, the cracking of falling buildings, and a con-
fufed noife from a variety of cries and fliouts ; fome
running they know not where, others in the laft em¬
braces of their friends, the fhrieks of children, wo¬
men, and old men unhappily referved to fuch diftrefs ;
the plundering of all places civil and facred, the hurry
and confufion in carrying off' the booty, captives driven
before their viftors, mothers endeavouring to guard
their infants, and quarrels among the conquerors wljere
the plunder is largeft.” This feems to be a very
natural, as well as moving, image of fo dreadful a ca-
lamity- . . 107
Profopopeia is another very ftrong and beautiful fi- Proftpo-
gure, very proper for this charadber. Seneca has a Pe‘a weft
line inftance of it in his Confolatory letter to Marcia,
upon the death of her fon. After many arguments
he had made ufe of to alleviate her grief, he at laft
introduces her father, Cremutius Cordus, as thus ad-
drtfiing
1
Pa rt HI* ^ R A
Elocuf-ioa dveffin? to her } “ Imagine youf* father (fays he) from
the ceieflial regions, fpeaking to you in this manner:
Daughter, why do you fo long indulge your grief? why
are you fo ignorant, as to think it unhappy for your
fon, that, weary of life, he has withdrawn himfelf to
his anceftors? Are you not fenfible what diforders for¬
tune occafions everywhere? and that fhe is kindeft to
thofe who have leaft concern with her ? Need I men¬
tion to you princes who had been extremely happy,
had a more timely death fecured them from impend¬
ing evils ? or Roman generals, who wanted nothing
to confummate their glory, but that they lived too
long ? Why then is he bewailed longeft in our family
who died molb happily ? There is nothing, as you
imagine, defirable among you, nothing great, nothing
noble ; but, on the contrary, all things are mean, full
of trouble and anxiety, and partake very little of the
light which we enjoy.” This advice was very fnit-
able for a philofopher ; and he feems to have chofen
this way of introducing it, to enforce the argument
drawn from the happinefs of good men in a future
ftate, from the teftimony of a perfon who was adtually
I0g in the pofftflion of it.
■Similitudes Similitudes and comparifons are another great orna-
■Doth orna- ment of this ftyle, and ofteneft found here. Nothing
cental and can ^ fjner tjian t^e comparifon between thofe two
*'ere. great orators, Demofthenes and Cicero, made by
Quintilian, when he fays, “ Demolthenes and Ciceto
differ in their elocution ; one is more clofe, and the
other more copious; the former concludes more con-
Qifely, and the latter takes a larger compafs; the one
always with pungency, and the other generally with
weight ; one can have nothing taken from him, and
the other nothing added to him ; the latter has more
of art, and the former more of nature. But this mull
be allowed to Demoithenes, that he made Cicero in a
great meafure what he was. For as Tully gave himfelf
wholly to an imitation of the Greeks, he feems to me
to have exprefled the force of Demoilhenes, the fluen¬
cy of Plato, and the pleafantry of Ifocratcs.” Simili¬
tudes, taken from natural things, ferve very much to
enliven the ftyle, and give it a chcerfulnefs ; which is
a thing fo common and well known, that we need not
ftay to give any initances of it.
Antilhtjis, or oppohtion, both in the words and
fenfe, has often the like beautiful dftedh. There is an
Ipnc effe«Sl. agreeable contrail in that paffage of Seneca : “ Caftar
does not allow himfelf many things, becaufe he can
do all things : his watching defends all others fleep,
his labour their quiet, his induftry their plea lure, his
bufinefs their cafe ; lince he has governed the world,
he has deprived himfelf of it ” Had he faid no more
than only in general, that Cafar does not allow himfelf
many things, becauje he can do all things, it might have
palled for a fine thought; but, by adding lo many par¬
ticulars, all in the fame form of expiefiion, and be¬
ginning each member with the fame word, he has both
enlarged the idea, and beautified the antithefis, by a
bright verbal figure.
Thefe, and fuch like florid figures, are fometimes
found in hiftorians, but oftener in orators; and in¬
deed this middle charafter, in the whole of it, is
beft accommodated to the fubjedts of hiflory aud ora-
toiy.
109
I Antithefis
I has alfo a
TORY.
Ch AP. VII. Of ths Sublime Style.
The fublime is the moft noble, as well as the moft Thenobleil
difficult, part of an orator’s province. It is this prin-
cipally which Cicero requires in his perfedi orator, cujt }iart “jr
whom he could not deferibe in words, but only con- an orator’s
ceive of in his mind. And indeed, the nobleft genius province is
and greateft art are both requifite to form this cha- Nblime»
radter. For where nature has been moft liberal in fur-
nifhing the mind with lofty thoughts, bright images,
and ftrong exprefiions ; yet without the affiftance of
art there will fometimes be found a mixture of what
is low, improper, or mifplaced. And a great genius,
like a too rich foil, muit produce flowers and weeds
promifeuoufly, without cultivation. But the jufteft
propriety, joined with the greateft ftrength and higheit
elevation of thought, are required to complete the
true fublime. Art therefore is neceffary to regulate
and perfedt the tafte of thofe who are ddirous to excel
in this charadler.
In explaining the nature and properties of this cha-
radler, we fhall, as in the two former, conbdcr firft the
thoughts, and then the language, in each of which it is
diftinguifhed from them.
$ 1. Sublime, as it relates to Thoughts.
in
Lofty and grand fentiments are the bafts and foun- Sublimity
dation of the true fublime. Longinus therefore ad- as hj
vifes thofe who afpire at this excellence, to accuftom t'-Ujl0Uo - 3
themfelves to think upon the nobleft fubjedts. A mind
that always dwells upon low and common fu! jedts,
can never raife itfelf fuffteiently to reprefent things
great and magnificent in their full extent and proper
light. But he who inures himielf to conceive the
higheft and moft exalted ideas, and renders them fa¬
miliar to his thoughts, will not often be at a lofs how
to exprefs them ; tor where proper words are wanting,
by metaphors and images taken from other things he
will be able to convey them in a juft and adequate
manner. What is more common than for two perfon3
to conceive very differently of the fame thing from the
different manner of thinking to which they have been
accuitomed? After the great battle in Cilicia, between
Alexander and Darius, in which the latter was routed,
he fent ambaffadors to Alexander with propofals of
peace, offering him half his kingdom with his daugh-'
ter in marriage. Parmenio, one of Alexander’s chief
captains, fays to him upon this oecafion, “ For mv
part, was I Alexander, I would accept of thefe con¬
ditions.” And fo would 1 (replies that afpiring mo¬
narch), was I Parmenio.” The half of fo vaft a king-
dom at prefent, an I a right of fucceffion to the whole1
by marriage, was the higheit ambition to which the
thoughts of Parmenio could rife. But Alexander had
vaftly higher views; he aimed at nothing lefs than uni-
verfal monarchy; and therefore fuch a propofal feemed'
much beneath his regard. Noble and lofty thoughts
are principally thofe which either relate to divine ob¬
jects, or fuch things as among men are generally
efteemed the greatelt and molt illuitrious.
Of the former fort is that of Horner, when deferi-
bing the goddefs Difcord, he fays, that the
Walks on the ground, and hides her head in clouds.
This
453
Elocution
454
O R A T
Elocution, This ftretch of thought, fays Longinus, as great as
'"r v""1" t^e dlftance between heaven and earth, does not more
reprefent the ftature of the goddefs, than the meafure
of the poet’s genius and capacity. But fuch images,
however beautiful in poetry, are not fo proper for an
orator, whofe bufinefs it is to make choice of thofe
which are fuited to the nature of things and the com¬
mon reafon of mankind. When Numa the fecond
king of Rome was fettled in his government, and at
peace with his neighbours, in order to foften the fierce
and martial temper of his fubje&s, who had been al¬
ways accuftomed to wars during the reign of his pre-
decefibr Romulus, he endeavoured to imprefs their
minds with an awe of the Deity ; and for that end in¬
troduced a number of religious ceremonies, which he
* See E- pretended to have received from the goddefs Egeria*.
ctKJA. This mull be efteemed an artful piece of policy at
that time. But that fentiment is far more juil and
noble, with which Cicero endeavours to infpire the
members of a community, in his treatife Of Laws,
when he fays, that “ Citizens ought firll to be per-
fuaded, that all things are under the rule and govern¬
ment of the gods ; that every affair is directed by
their wifdom and power; that the highell regard is
due to them from men, fince they obferve every one's
conduct, how he a&s and behaves himfelf, and with
what temper and devotion he worlhips them ; and
that they make a difference between the pious and
impious." Perfons under the influence of fuch a per-
fualion, could not fail of behaving well in fociety.
And what he fays to Cnefar is no lefs in this flyle,
when, interceding for Ligarius, he tells him, that
4‘ men in nothing approach nearer to deity, than in
giving life to men." And Velleius Paterculus, fpeak-
ing of Cato, gives him this fublime chara&er,(“ That
he was more like the gods than men; who never did a
^ood thing, that he might feem to do it."
The other kind of lofty thoughts mentioned above,
are thofe which relate to power, wifdom, courage, be¬
neficence, and fuch other things as are of the highell
efteem among mankind. “ Your fortune (fays Tully
to Casfar) has nothing greater than a power, nor your
nature than a will, to fave many." He fui joins this
compliment to what we juft now cited from him ; and
applies that to Casfar, which was before only exprefled
in general, leaving him to draw the inference of his
Similitude to deity from the clemency of his nature.
And elfewhere, as in a fort of tranfport for his fuccefs
in defeating the confpiracy of Catiline, he thus be-
fpeaks the Roman fenate; “ You have always decreed
public thanks to others for their good government of
the ftate, but to me alone for its prefervation. Let
that Scipio flrine, by whofe condudl and valour Hanni¬
bal was forced to leave Italy, and retire to Africa ;
let the other Scipio be greatly honoured, who deftroy-
ed Carthage and Numantia, two cities the mofl dan¬
gerous to this empire ; let Lucius Paulus be in high
efteem, whofe triumphal chariot was adorned with
Perfes, once a mofl powerful and noble prince; let
Marius be in eternal honour, who twice delivered Italy
from an invaiion and the dread of fervitude; let Pom-
pey’s name excel all thefe, whofe actions and virtues
are terminated by no other bounds but the coutfe of
the fun yet, among all their praifes, there will Hill
O R Y. Pan lit.
fame place be left for my glory ; unlefs indeed it be Elocution,
a greater thing to open for us new provinces to which
we may refort, than to fecure a place for our victo¬
rious generals to return in triumph." And Velleius
Paterculus, as if he thought no encomium too high
for this great orator, laments his unhappy fate in thefe
lofty drains, addreffed to M. Antony, by whofe order
he was put to death: “ You have taken from Cicero
old age, and a life more miferable than death under
your government; but his fame, and the glory of his
aftions and words, you have been fo far from deftroy-
ing, that you have increafed them. He lives, and
will live in the memory of all ages; and while this
fyHem of nature, however conftituted, ftiall remain
(which fcarce any Roman but himfelf conceived in
his mind, comprehended by his genius, and illuftrated
with his eloquence), the praife of Cicero {hall accom¬
pany it; and all pofterity, while it admires his wri-
tings again ft you, will curie your treatment of him ;
and fooner {hall mankind be loft to the world than
his name.” It was a noble reply of Porus the Indian
king, when, after his defeat by Alexander, being
brought before him, and aiked, Hoiv he expeSed to be
treated ? he anfwered, Like a king. And Valerius Ma¬
ximus, fpeaking of Pompey’s treatment of Tigranes
king of Armenia after he had vanquiftied him, exprefles
it in a manner fuited to the dignity and beneficence of
the adtion, when he fays, “ He reltored him to his
former fortune, efteemingit as glorious to make kings
as to conquer them."
But the true fublime is confiftent with the greateft
plainnefs and fimplicity of expreffion. And, gene¬
rally fpeaking, the more plain and natural the images
appear, the more they furprife us. How fuccinCt,
and yet how majeftic, is that expreffion of Casfar upon
his victory over Pharnaces ? I came, I faw, I conquered.
But there cannot be a greater or more beautiful ex¬
ample of this, than what Longinus has taken notice of
from Mofes. “ The legiflator of the Jews (fays he),
no ordinary perfon, having a juft notion of the power
and majefty of the Deity, has exprefled it in the be¬
ginning of his laws in the following words : And God
/aid—what ? Let there be light; and there was light.
Let the earth be made ; and it was made.*’ This in-
ilance from the divine writer, and the character here
given of him by that excellent critic, is the more re¬
markable, as he was himfelf a Pagan. And certainly
no laboured defeription could raife in the mind an
higher conception of the infinite power of the Deity,
than this plain and ffiort narration. To command na¬
ture itfelf into being by a word, reprefents it at once
altogether boundlefs and unlimited.
It fometimes very much contributes to heighten the
image ot a thing, when it is expreffed in fo undeter¬
mined a manner, as to leave the mind in fufpenfe
what bounds to fix to the thought. Of this kind is
-that of Cicero, when he firll raifes an objeClion againft
the neceffity of an acquaintance with polite literature
in order to form a great man, and then anfwers ic.
The objeClion is founded upon the examples of feveral
great and excellent perfons among the Romans, who
had raifed themfelves to the higheft pitch of honour
and dignity, and been very fervictable to their coun-
try, by the help of a good genius, without the advan¬
tage
f
Part III* O R A T
Elocution, tage of much learning. In reply to which, he allows,
y—r that, where thefe are not united, nature or genius is of
itfelf much preferable, and will carry a perfon further
in the purfuit of great and noble defigns, than learn¬
ing without a genius 5 but that both are neceffary to
complete and perfefta truly great man. But we fliali
give*what he fays himfelf on this head, by which that
property of a fublime thought we are now endeavour¬
ing to explain, will appear from his manner of expref-
fion : “ 1 acknowledge (fays he) that many perfons
of an exalted mind and virtue have, from a divine
temper, without inftruclion, become moderate and
grave j snd I add likewife, that nature, without the
affiflance of learning, has frequently more contributed
to honour and virtue, than learning where a genius
has been wanting : But yet I mud fay, that where
the direftion and improvement of learning is added
to a great and excellent genius, it is wont to produce
fomething admirable and lingular, which I know not
how to deferibe.” He knew very well, that, by
leaving the minds of his hearers thus in fufpenfe, they
would form to themfelves higher conceptions of what
he intended, than from any idea he could convey to
them in words. We may add to this another example
from the fame great orator, where he fays, “ Truly,
if the mind had no views to pofterity, and all its
thoughts were terminated by thofe bounds in which
the fpace of life is confined, it would neither fatigue
itfelf with fo great labours, nor be difquieted with fo
many cares and watchings, nor fo often expofe itfelf
to death. But there is a certain active principle in
every good man, which conftantly excites his mind by
motives of glory ; and reminds him, that the remem¬
brance of his name is not to end with his life, but ex¬
tend itfelf to all pofterity.” Of the like nature is that
of Milton, when he deferibes Satan as flying from hell
in quell of our earth, then newly formed. For, ha¬
ving reprefented that his wings failed him in the vaft
vacuity, he thus deferibes his fall :
Down he drops
Ten thoufand fathom deep; and to this hour
Down had been falling, had not by ill chance
The ftrong rebuff of fome tumultuous cloud,
Inftin& with fire and nitre, hurried him
As many miles aloft.
Thofe words, by which his fall is exprefied.
And to this hour
Down had been falling,
leave the mind in fufpenfe, and unable to fix any
bounds to the vacuity; and by that means raife a
greater and more furprifing idea of its fpace than any
direft exprefiion could have done. This image is very
beautiful where it Hands; but fo much out of the com¬
mon way of thinking, as to fuit better with an epic
poem than the difeourfe of an orator.
(J 2. The Sublime, ivith regard to Language.
11a
Sublimity What we have to offer upon this fubjeft v/ill come
as to lan- under the three heads of Elegance, Compqfition, and
guage. Dignity; which comprehend all the properties of
ftyle.
J13 I. Elegance. Thofe words and expreflions chiefly
contribute to form the fublime, which are moft fono-
o R Y. 4J-5
rous, and have the greateft fplendor, force, and dignity. Elocution.^
And they are principally fuch as thefe. Dong words,
when equally expreffive, are rather to be chofen than
flrort ones, and efpecially monofyllables. So to con¬
quer or vanquifh an enemy, carries in it a fuller and
more grand found, than to beat an enemy. For which
reafon, likewife, compound words are often preferable
to Ample ones. So if we fay, Cafar’s army, when he
•was prefent, was always invincible; this manner of ex-
preffron has more of fublimity in it, than fhould we
fay, Ccefar’s army, when he was prefent, could never be
conquered. But the ancient languages have much the
advantage of ours in both thefe refpedls ; for their
words are generally longer, and they are abundantly
more happy in their compofxtions. The ufe of proper
epithets does alfo in a particular manner contribute to
this character. For as they denote the qualities and
modes of things, they are as it were fhort deferiptions;
fo that being joined to their fubjefts, they often greatly
enlarge and heighten their image. Thus when the
character of divine poet is given to Homer or Virgil,
ox prince of orators to Demofthenes or Cicero ; it con¬
veys to the mind a more fublime idea of them, than
the bare mention of their name.
II. Compofition : The force of which, as Longinus
obferves, is fo great, that fometimes it creates a kind
of fublime where the thoughts themfelves are but
mean, and gives a certain appearance of grandeur to
that which otherwife would feem but common. But
compofition confifts of feveral parts ; the firft of which,
in the order we have hitherto confidered them, is period.
And here the cafe is much the fame as with animal
bodies, which owe their chief excellency to the union
and juft proportion of their paits. The feveral mem¬
bers, when feparate from each other, lofc both that
beauty and force, which they have when joined toge.
ther in a complete body. In like manner, fublimity
arifes from the feveral parts of a period fo connedted,
as to give force, as well as beauty, to the whole.
The periods therefore in this charadter fhould be of a
proper length. If they are too fhorig they lofe their
juft weight and grandeur, and are gone almoft before
they reach the ear ; as on the contrary, when they
are too prolix, they become heavy and unwieldy, and
by that means lofe their force. But more efpecially,
nothing fuperfluous ought to be admitted, which very
much enervates the force of a fentence. We fhall ex¬
emplify this in a pafiage from Herodotus, where he
is giving an account of the famous battle at Ther¬
mopylae between the Perfians and Lacedemonians.
“ Dienfces (fays he) the Spartan, being told by
a Trachinian, before the engagement with the Medes,
that when the barbarians came to fhoot their arrows*
they would fly fo thick as to obfeure the light of the
fun ; he was fo far from being terrified at this, that
defpifing their number, he replied, he ‘‘ was pleafed
with what his friend told him, fince if the fun was ob-
feured, they fhould fight in the fhade, and not in the
fun.” The fenfe here is great and noble, but the
fublimity of expreffion is fpoiled in a great meafure by
thofe latl words, and not in the fun, which are wholly
fuperfluous. Cicero was fenfible of this, and therefore
he omits that member in relating the fame ftory, and
fays only : “ A Spartan, hearing that one of the
Perfians fhould fay in an infulting manner, that when
they
456 ■ O R A 1
Elocution, they came to engage, they fliould not be able to fee
£or t}ie multitude of their darts and arrows,
replies, Then we (hall fight in the firade.” By Hop¬
ping here, he gives the fentence much more life and
emphafis. The next thing to be confidered in com-
pofition, is the order and difpolition of the feveral
words and members of a fentence. The different
placing but of one or two words will fometimes
wholly deftroy the grandeur of a fentence, and make
it extremely flat. “ This public act (fays Demoft-
hencs) difpelled the danger which at that time, like
a cloud, hung over the city.” Let us vary the order a
little, and read it thus: “ This public adt difpelled
the danger, which like a cloud hung over the city at
that time.” What a different turn does the expreflion
receivte for the worfe ! The fpirit and majefty of it are
entirely loft. And, in placing the feveral parts or
members, they ought to be fo difpofed, that what is
rnoft weighty and important fhould ftand laft. So
Tully fays of Catiline, ‘‘We ought to return thanks
to heaven, that we have fo often efcaped fo odious,
fo frightful, fo dangerous a plague of the ftate.” A
thing may be odious and frightful, and yet not dan¬
gerous ; therefore he puts this in the laft place, to
l give it the greater force, and make the deeper im-
preffion. Another thing to be attended to in com-
pofitjon, is the connection of the words with regard
to the found ; that the pronunciation, in palling from
one to another, may be moft agreeable to the ear,
and belt fuited to the nature of the fubjedt. And as
this is generally fomething grand and magnificent, fuch
a contexture of them as will give the greateft force
and energy to the expreffion is moft proper for the
fublime. Soft and languid founds are very unfuitable
to this character. They foothe and pleafe the ear ; but
rather fink and deprefs the mind, than excite it to
things great and noble. In this refpedt, therefore,
our tongue, by its multitude of confonants, is more
fuitable for fublime difeourfes than fome other modern
languages, which abound with vowels.
ri5 III. The laft head to be confidered, is the proper
ufe of tropes and figures ; which is here fo necefl'ary,
that the title of dignity feems to have been given to
this part of elocution, from the alliftance it more
efpecially affords to this chara&er. For if, as has
been obferved from Longinus, compofitions will fome¬
times create a fort of fublimity ; this much oftener
happens from the force and efficacy of fome lively
tropes and dlrong figures.
And as to tropes, bright metaphors are peculiarly
fuited to raife and animate the ftyle. This is mam-
left from the nature of them, as they con fill: of con¬
tracted fir.iilies, reduced to a fingle word ; which, if
taken from things lofty and grand, mull of conic-
quence give a fublimity to the llyle. What can fug-
gelt to us a greater idea of the valour of Ajax, than
Homer’s calling him the bulwark of the Greeks ; or
of the Scipios, than when they are ftyled by Virgil,
the two thunderbolts of war. A number of thofe, well
chofen, contribute no lefs to the grandeur than to the
beauty of difeourfe. Hyperbole fometimes gives the
fame force to an exprtffion, if cautioufly ufed, and fo
as not to exceed all appearance of truth. But the
chief tife of it is, where proper words will not exprefs
the jufti dea of the thing defigned to be conveyed ;
N° 252.
O R Y. Part Ilf.
and it may feem rather the offspring of rteceffity than Elocution,
choice. Of this nature is that of Herodotus, when —v*—^
fpeaking of the Lacedemonians ac Thermopylce, he
fays, “ They defended themfelves with the fwords
they had left, and even with their hands and teeth,
till the barbarians buried them under their arrows.”
It cannot be fuppofed ftridlly true, that fo many
arrows were thrown at them as to bury them 5 but
having in the former part of the fentence reprefented
their rtfolute defence in the ftrongell terms, by faying,
that, naked and without arms, they engaged armed
men with their hands .and teeth, the following hyper¬
bole feems not unnatural, and to intimate nothing
more than what was neceffary to quell fuch obftinate
refolution and courage.
As to figures, whether verbal or thofe which con-
fift in the fenfe, the nature of this chara&er will ealily
diredt to fuch as are moft proper. But with refpedt
to the latter, poets take greater liberties in the ufe of
them than would be allowed in an orator. As their
images are often formed for pleafure and delight, fo
they carry in them more of rapture and tranfport.
But the orator’s ufe of them being to fet things in a
ftronger and clearer light, they are more fedate and
moderate. Belides, an orator learce ever has occafion
for fuch fidlitious images as we often meet with in
poetry ; though his ought to appear as natural, and
its painting as ftrong and lively. We lhall juft men¬
tion fome of the chief of thofe figures which feem heft
fuited for this purpofe ; though they are no lefs fuited
to the middle ftyle, as has been fhovvn already, when
taken from fubjedls of an inferior nature.
1. Defcription. Of this Juftin gives us a fine in- It$
ftance, in a fpeech of king Philip the fifth of Mace-
don, wherein he reprefents the neceffity of falling up*
on the Romans, who at chat time were engaged in a
war with Hannibal. “ I behold (fays he) a cloud of
a moft dreadful and bloody war rifing in Italy. I
fee a ftorm of thunder and lightning from the weft,
which will overfpread all places with a vail Ihower of
blood, into whatever country the tempeft of vitftory
lhall drive it. Greece has undergone many violent
Ihocks m the Perfian, Gallic, and Macedonian wars;
but thefe would all be found unworthy of regard, if
the armies now engaged in Italy Ihould march out of
that country. I view the terrible and cruel wars
which involve thofe nations through the courage of their
forces, and Ikill of their generals. This rage and fury
cannot ceafe by the deftrudtion of one party, without
the ruin of their neighbours. Indeed, Macedon has
lefs reafon to dread the favage conquerors than
Greece ; becaufe more prepared, and better able to
defend itfelf; but 1 am fenfible, thofe who attack
each other fo impetuoufly will not confine their vic¬
tories within thofe bounds, and that it will be our lot
to engage the conquerors.” So lively a pidlure of
imminent and threatening danger mull needs ahrm the
moft timorous, and excite them to a refolution to de¬
fend their country, and all that was dear to them.
Such images give life and vigour to a difeourfe, and
being artfully interwoven with proper arguments, in¬
fluence the mind, and carry it away by an irreliftible
force, fo that the hearer is not barely left to conclude
the certainty of the thing, but moved by it, as it
were, from ocular demonllration. The images there¬
fore
Part III. ORA
Elocution fere of the orator ought to be drawn from real things,
w-"'v ‘ or at lead fuch as are probable ; for if they are
wholly fidlitious and incredible, as many poetical
images are, they may give pleafure, but will not con¬
vince the mind, nor fway the paflions.
117 2.% Enumeration has fome affinity with the former
figure ; by which, if the feveral parts have each fome-
thing grand in them, the whole, when brought toge¬
ther, and difpofed in a juft order, very much contri¬
butes to the fublimity. We fliall produce an example
of this from an Englifh writer, containing a deferip-
• ' tion of our globe, upon a furvey of it after the gene¬
ral conflagration, which he reprefents in this ftrong
light : “ Such is the vanity and tranfient glory of this
habitable world i By the force of one element break¬
ing loofe upon the reft, all the varieties of nature, all
the works of art, all the labours of man, are reduced
to nothing ; all that we admired and loved before, as
great and magnificent, is obliterated, and vanifhed,
and another form and face of things, plain, fimple,
and everywhere the fame, overfpreads the whole
earth. Where are now the great empires of -thd
world, and their great imperial cities ? their pillars,
trophies, and monuments of glory ? Show me where
they flood, read the infcription, tell me the vieftor’s
name. What remains, what impreffions, what diffe¬
rence or diflindlion, do you fee in this mafs of fire ?
Rome itfelf, eternal Rome, the great city, the em-
prefs of the world, whofe domination or fuperftition,
ancient or modem, make a great part of the hiftory
of the earth, what is become of her now ? She laid
her foundations deep, and her palaces were ftrong and
fumptuous ; jhe glorified herfelf, and lived dMiciouJly, and
jaid in her heart 1 Jit a queen, and Jhall fee no forronv :
but her hour is come, fire is wiped away from the face
of the earth, and buried in everlafting oblivion. But
it is not cities only, and the works of mens hands; the
♦verlafting hills, the mountains and rocks of the earth,
are melted as wax before the fun, and their place is no¬
where found. Here ftood the Alps, the load of the
earth, that covered many countries, and reached
their arms from the ocean to the Black fea. This
huge mafs of ftone is foftened and diffolved, as a ten¬
der cloud into rain Here flood the African moun¬
tains, and Atlas with his top above the clouds. There
was frozen Caucafus, and Taurus, and Imaus, and
the mountains of Afia ; and yonder, towards the
north, ftood the Riphean hills, clothed in ice and
fnow ; all thefe are vanifhed, dropped away, as the
* Bumet's fnow upon their heads *.” Thefe particulars confider-
Thcry. ed feparately are all truly great and noble, and every
way fuited to the nature of the fubjeft • but as they
T ° R Y. 457
his Iliad when his mind was in its full ftrength and Elocution.^
vigour; the whole body of the poem is dramatic, and "ll" ^
full of a&ion : whereas the beft part of the Odyffey is
taken up in narrations, which feem to be the genius
of old age. So that one may compare him in this
latter work to the fetting fun, which ftill appears with
the fame magnificence, but has no longer the fame
heat and force.” And foon after, fpeaking of the
Odyffey, he fays, “ That piece may be called the re¬
flux of his genius, which like the ocean ebbs, and
deferts its fnores.” What nobler idea could poffibly
have been given of that great poet, than by thofe two
fimilitudes of the fun and the ocean ? And elfewhere,
comparing thofe two great orators Demofthenes and
Cicero, he fhows the like fublimity of thought. “De¬
mofthenes (fays he) is fublime, in that he is clofe and
concife ; Cicero, in that he is diffufed and exten'five.
The former, by reafon of the violence, rapidity,
ftrength, and fury, with which he rages and bears all
before him, may be compared to a tempeft and thun¬
der; but the latter, like a great conflagration, de¬
vours and confumes all he meets, with a fire that is
never extinguiftied, but wherever it advances continu¬
ally gathers new ftrength.”
4. Antithefs, or a fentence confifting of oppofite ir9
parts, has often the fame effedt; as in the following
inftance of Cicero, where his view is to reprefent
Pompey as a moft confummate general. “ Who,”
fays he, “ ever was, or need be more knowing, than
this man T who from his childhood, and inftrudlion
at fchool, went into the army of his father, and
learned the military art, in a very great war againfl;
the fierceft enemies : who, while yet a boy, became a
foldier under the greateft general ; and when but a
youth was himfelf commander of a very great army :
who has oftener engaged with the enemy in battle,
than any other perfon with his adverfary in private
contefts; has waged more wars than others have
read, and conquered more provinces than others have
wilhed to govern : whofe youth has been fpent in ac¬
quiring the art of war, not by the precepts of others,
but his own commands ; not by defeats, but victories ;
not by campaigns, but triumphs.”
5. Apofrophe. Among the articles changed againft 12*.
Demofthenes by his great adverfary and rival Alfcbincs,
one was,that he had advifed the Athenians to engage in
a war againft king Philip, wherein they had receive*d a
very great defeat. When Demofthenes comes to anfwer
that part of the charge, he does not fay as he might,
“ You have not been milled, my fellow-citizens, in
expofing your lives for the liberties and fafety of
Greece ; you are not without the moft illuftrious ex-
are here difpofed, and rife in order, they both enlarge ' amples of fuch conduft : for who can fay thefe great
the idea, and heighten the image, of that grand cata
^Irophe.
jjg 3. Similitude: Which ferves very much for beauty
and ornament; and, when taken from great and fub¬
lime objefts, adds a grandeur and magnificence to the
things illuftrated by it. We need go no farther for
an example of this, than to the great critic fo often
mentioned already, who has treated upon the fublime'
men were milled, who fought for the fame canfein the
plains of Marathon ?” But inftead of expreffing him¬
felf thus, he gives the matter quite a different turn ;
and in a fort of rapture, appealing to thofe brave de¬
fenders of their country, fays, “ No, my fellow-
citizens, you have not done wrong, you have not; I
proteft by the ghofts of thofe great men who fought
for the fame caufe in the plains of Marathon.” By
fn a ftyle every way equal to the fubjeft. He, then, this appeal to thofe ancient worthies whofe memories
comparing thofe two great works of Homer, his Iliad were in the higheft efteem at Athens, that it was the
and Odyffey, thus deferibes them : “ Homer compofed caufe, and not the fuccefs, which rendered their actions
VoL.XlII. Part II.
3M
fo
i
458 O R A T
'Elocution f0 glorious, he artfuily corroborates his aflertion in a
* way which he knew rauit have the greatelt weight
vyith his audience.
As the proper ftibje&s of this chara&er are either
divine things, or fuch as are in the higheft eileem and
regard among mankind', which often require laudatory
difeourfes, or panegyric ; thefe naturally admit of all
the ornaments and afliftanee of eloquence. Which,
however, mnft be ufed with diferetion : for when the
mind is wrapt up in thought, and ftretebed to the
iitmolt of its powers in the purfuit of forrse noble and
fufclime idea, it cannot attend to all the leffer fineries
and niceties of language ; but from its own vigour,
and lively conception of things, will be hrd to exprefs
. ^ them in terms the mod emphatical, and bed fuited to
\tfheir nature. In fuch cafes, therefore, the fublimity
mud appear rather from the elevation of the thought,
attended with a fimplicity of expreflion, than from
the ornaments and drefs of the language. Thefe
things feem more natural when the mind is relaxed,
and employed upon lower objects. Though, upon
the whole, grandeur and majedy of expreffion is the
proper mark of this character with relation to the
language, as beauty and fplendor is of the middle
ftyle.
Chap. VIII. Of the Style of an Orator*
rat
The/ow, The ftyle of an orator comprehends all the cha*
takers already explained, of low, middle, and fublime,
requ7flte><ea!! .are him in the different parts of
for an ora- province. For that the language mud be fuited
tor. to the nature of the fubjeft, we have had occafion
often to obferve already ; and the different view of the
fpeaker or writer neceffarily occafions a variety in
the manner of expreffion. Now an orator has three
things in his view ; to prove what he afferts, to re-
prefent it in an agreeable light, and to move the pafi-
fions. Thefe are all neceffary, we do not mean in the
order wherein we have now mentioned them, hut that
the difeourfe may upon the whole have its defired
effeft upon ri;e audience. For unlefs the mind he
convinced of the truth of what is offered by folid and
Cogent arguments, neither will the mod eloquent dif¬
eourfe afford a lading pleafure, nor the mod pathetic
long influence the affeftions. Though, on the other
hand, the hearers txpeft to be entertained at the
fame time they are informed ; and therefore, unlefs
the language be agreeable to their tafte, they will foon
call off their attention, and think but meanly of the
fipeaker. And unlefs both thefe are warmed and ani¬
mated by a becoming pathos, the fpeaker may very
probably mifs of his end in bringing his audience
over to his fentiments. For bare convi&ion is not.
fufficient with many perfons to excite them tex aftioa.
They will acquiefce in the truth of a thing which
they cannot contradift, or will not give themfijlves
the trouble to examine ; and at the fame time remain
unconcerned to profecute it. And the pleafure of a
florid difeourfe will of itfelf foon vanifh, like the har¬
mony of mufic, or the charms of a fine poem. And
therefore to captivate his audience, fecure them in his
intereft, and pufh them upon aftion, it is neceffary
ffy' orator to engage their affeftions ; thefe are,
were, the fprings of the foul, which, managed
° R Y- Part ur.
by a toilful hand, move and direft it at pleafure. Elocutium
Now each of thefe parts of an orator’s province re- v—■*
quires a different ftyle. The low JlyJe is mod propec
for proof and information ; bepaufe he has no other
view here but to reprefent things to the mind in the
plained light, as they really are in themfelves, without
colouring or ornament. The muldejkfe is mod fuited
for pleafure and entertainment, becaufe it confids of
fmooth and well-turned periods, harmonious numbers,
with florid and bright figures. But the fublime is.ne-
ceflary in order to fway and influence the paffions.
Here the orator calls in all the afiiftance both; of na¬
ture and art; the mod railed and lofty thoughts,
clothed with the brighteft and ftrongeit colouring,
enter into this character.
But as an. orator has frequently each of theft: views,
in the fame difeourfe, we (hall firft give a fummary,
deferiptien of the feveral characters of ftyle, which we
have formerly difeourfed on more at large ; that, by
placing them together in one view, the dcffcrence be¬
tween them may be more plain and obvious : and then
we dial! proceed to fhow to what particular parts of a
difeourfe each of them is more efpecially to be ap¬
plied.
1. Firft, then, as fhorter periods are proper in the-
low Jlyle, fp lefs care is necelfary in their turn and ca¬
dency. If a fentence now and then drop unexpectedly*
and difappoint the ear, or has fomething rough and
harfh in its competition, it is no blemifh in this cha¬
racter. For as it is fuited to the manner of common
difeourfe, an appearance of regard to the fubjet, ra¬
ther than the form of expreffion, is more becoming
than any beauties of art. But the words fhould be
well chofen and proper, fuited to the ideas they are
defigned to convey ; the expreffions plain and clear,,
and the artificial ornaments few and moded. By ar¬
tificial ornaments are here meant tropes and figures ;
and they are called artificial, becaufe they vary from,
the natural drefs of language, either in the words or
manner of expreffion : though they are often ufed by
thofe who are wholly unacquainted with the rules of
art ; and particularly metaphors, which perfons who
have the lead command of language frequently rum
into through mere neceffity, for want of a fufikienfe
dock of proper words to convey their ideas. The low
dyle therefore admits of thefe : but care fhould be
taken to choofe fuch as have, been rendered fami¬
liar by ufe, or at lead where the fimilitude is very
plain and evident. Bold or lofty metaphors, or where
the allufion is dark and remote, ought to be avoided.
Nor is the moderate ufe of the other tropes wholly
difagrceable to this ftyle. And . the fame thing is. to
be faid with .refpeft to verbal figures, or jhch as con-
fid in the particular difpofition of the fentence, fo thatf
if the form of it be changed, the figure is loft. OP
thefe, fuch as come neared'to the natural way of ex-
prdfion are mod proper for thk ftyle ; and therefore^
thofe which confift in a jingle of words, arifing from
the fame or a like found, are to be avoided, as carry¬
ing in them too much the appearance of art. Thofe
like wife which confift in a repetition of the fame word
have often too great a force and vehemence for this?
mild and gentle charafter. And as to figures of fern
tences, which do not depend on the condruftion of
words, but lie in the fenfe, many of.them are. too gay
3 and
PawIII. .° R A
Elocution, ahd fpriejnly, and ot?iers too rapid and impetuous,
'ri for the fimplicity of the low ftyle ; fo that only the
more moderate and fedate ones are to be allowed a
place here. It is therefore no wonder If perfons are
often miftaken in their notions of this chara&er ; the
beauty of which conMing in a certain plainnefs and
fimplicity, without any thing in it but what feems
natural and common, every one is apt to imagine he
can readily be mailer of it, till by experience he finds
the con* ary. For the cafe is much the fame here, as
in perfons of fafhion and good breeding, whofe beha¬
viour and addrefs is attended with that agreeable free¬
dom and feeming negligence, which in appearance is
veiy eafy to exprefs, but in reality is fcarce imitable
by others.
As the middle Jlyle is more adapted for pleafure and
delight, it admits of all thofe beauties and ornaments
which foothe and entertain the mind. It has more
force and energy than the low ftyle, but lefs than the
fhblime. Smooth and harmonious numbers, well-turn¬
ed periods, of a juft length, delightful cadency, and ac¬
curate difpofition of the words, are fuited to this ftyle.
The moft beautiful and Alining tropes, which ftrike
the fancy, and all thofe verbal figures which, by a re¬
petition, fimilitude, or proportion of founds, pleafe
and gratify the ear, help to form this chara&er. The
like is to be faid as to figures of fentences: The moft
florid and beautiful, fuch as enumeration, defeription,
fimilitude, and the like, are here the moft proper.
But it is the fublime ftyle which perfects the orator.
This requires the moft forcible and emphatical words,
the boldeft metaphors, and ftrongeft figures. In verbal
figures, repetitions, fynonyms, gradations, contraries,
with others of a like force and energy, are chiefly
employed here. But figures of fentences are the moft
confiderable, and principally contribute to make up
this character. Among thefe are fimilies taken from
lofty fubje&s, profopopceia, apoftrophe, exclamation,
epiphonema, apofiopefis, and others of a like nature.
But due care muft likewife be taken of the form, con-
ftruction, and harmony of the periods; which feem
beft difpofed, when long and fliort ones are inter¬
mixed. For though round and fwdling periods carry
in them fomething grand and majeftic, yet many
times they move too flow to ftrike the paflions; where¬
as ihort ones are more acute and pungent, and by re¬
turning quick, awaken the mind, and raife the paffions.
But to render it complete, it muft be fupported with
ftrong rcafon, grandeur of thought, and fentiments
every way equal to the expreffion ; without which it
will be very liable to fwell into bombaft, and end bare¬
ly in amufement.
II. Having given a fliort fketch of this part of the
orator’s- furniture, we fhall now go on to fliow where,
and in what manner, he is to make ufe of it. This
will beft appear by confiderihg his principal view in
each part of his dilcourfe. Now the parts of a juft
oration (as we have formerly fliown) are fix; Introduc¬
tion, Narration, Proposition, Confirmation, Confutation,
and Conc/ufion. Not that all thefe are neceflary in
every difeourfe, but it is proper they fliould all be men¬
tioned, that we may confider what ftyle is fitteft for
them when they are neceflary.
In the IntroduSion, the orator has three things be¬
fore him j to gain the efteem of his hearers, to fectife
TORY.
sa:
their attention, and to givfe therh fome gefteral no- EJodmcfc.
tion of his fubje6t. To fet out modeftly is undoubt-
edly the moft likely way to recommend himfelf. For
to attempt to inflame an audience, before they are
prepared for it, or fee the reafon of much warmth, is
highly improper. A prudent fpeaker wit], like De-
mofthenes, begin with temper, and rife gradually, tiH
he has infenftbly warmed his hearers, and in fome
degree engaged their affe&ions in his favour. So
that this part fcarce rifes above the middle ftyle»
And if it carry in it an air of pleafantry and good-
humour, it is generally the more apt to engage the
attention.
The introduction is ufuaHy followed by the narra- l43
tion, or a recital of fuch things as either preceded, ac¬
companied, or followed upon the fubjetd under confi-
deration. Now, as the qualities that recommend a
narration are clearnefs, brevity, and probability ; thefe
fufficiently point out the ftyle. Perfpicuity arife#
from the choice of proper words, and fuch tropes afc
have been rendered moll familiar by ufe ; brevity re¬
quires moderate periods, whofe parts are but little
tranfpofed ; and a plain and Ample drefs, without or¬
nament or colouring, is beft fuited to reprefent thing*
probable : all which are the properties of the low
ftyle. And therefore Cicero fays, narrations come pretty
near to our ordinary difeourfe. Indeed, fometimes it is
neceflary not only to relate the fails themfelves, but
likewife to deferibe the manner in which they were
performed. And then a further degree of art may
be requifite to reprefent them with all their circum-
ftances, and paint them to the mind in their proper
colours.
The next part in order is the propofition, or fubjeil 12^
of the difeourfe, in which there can be no room for
ornament. But as it is the bafis and foundation of the
orator’s <»vhole defign, it ought to be laid down in the
plaineft and ckareft terms, fo as to leave no room for
doubt or uncertainty what it is which he intends to
difeourfe upon.
The next thing is confirmation, wherein the orator
endeavours to maintain and defend his own caufe, and
to convince his hearers of the truth of it by reafon
and argument. Now the low ftyle is certainly fittefl
for cool reafoning and debate. But the orator’s me¬
thod of reafoning often very much differs from that of
the philofopher. The latter contents himfelf with the
moil plain and familiar manner of reprefenting th£
truth, and thinks it fufficient if what he fays be clear¬
ly underftood. But the former, at the fame time that
he convinces the judgment, endeavours likewife to af-
feft the paflions, and that in a great variety of ways.
So that in this part of the difeourfe the ftyle is very
different, according to the nature and circumflanceS
of the cafe. Sometimes, while he is dwelling upon
the ptoof of a thing, he talks coolly, and reafoni
with the fedatenefs of a philofopher ; and where any
part of his argument appears doubtful or obfeure, hd
endeavours with the fame even temper to explain and
clear it up. But frequently he intermixes with hiS
proofs all the arts of perfuafion, and embelliihes hi*
reafons with the greateft ornaments and beauties of elo¬
quence.
Confirmation is ufually followed by confutation, in I;<j
which the orator endeavours to enervate and overthrow
3 M a all
'460 ' • O R A 1
Elocution, all tftat "has heen advanced in favour of the oppofite
' v—~ fide of the queftion. But as the ftyle is much the fame
here as in the former part, what has been faid upon
that may be fufficient for this likewife.
Jt27 The lall part above-mentioned is the canclujion.
This con fills of two branches, recapitulation and ad-
drefs. Recapitulation is a ihort recital of the feveral
arguments, or at leaft the chief .of them, which were
before advanced in fupport of the caufe ; that, being
brought together into a narrow compafs, they may
appear in a llronger light. Wherefore the language
here ought rather to be forcible and ftrong than flo¬
rid, becaufe brevity and concifenefs is a neceffary qua¬
lity. The other branch of the conclufion coniifts in
an add refs to the paflions, and is wholly perfuaflve;
for which the fpeaker is now entirely at leifure. In¬
deed, this is often done occafionally in other parts of
the difcourfe, particularly in the introduction and con¬
firmation : But as in the former of thefe, his view is
{♦. incipally to fecure the good opinion of the hearers,
and excite their attention ; and in the latter to defend
his own fide of the queftien by reafon and argument ;
when thefe two points are gained, he has nothing left
but to prevail with them to fall in with iiis defign, and
declare for him. And the heft way to attain this is,
by engaging their paffions in his intereft. Hence,
then, to ufe Quintilian’s words, “ Ail the fprings of
eloquence are to be opened. Now we are paft the
rocks and {hallows, all the fails may be hoifted. And
as the greateft part of the conclufion coniifts in iilu-
iiration, the moft pompous language and ftiongeft fi¬
gures have place here.”
All the variety above mentioned, however, is not
always neceffary. Regard muff be had to the nature
o R Y. Part nr.
of the fubjeA, the time, place, perfons, and other cir- Elocution,
cumftances ; by all which the ftyle is to be regulated.
To difcourfe in a lofty and grand way upon a common
topic, or in a low and flat manner upon a fublime ar¬
gument, are both equally injudicious. Cicero refers
us to fome difcourfes of bis own, as inftances of each
kind. His oration for Cxcinji, he fays, is written in
the low ftyle, that for the Manilian law in the middle
flyle, and that for Rabirius in the fublime ; and his
A&ions againft Verres, with fome others, are j atierns
of the variety here mentioned. And he gives us a very
comprehenfive defcription of a perfect orator in very
few words, when he fays : He is one who can
fpeak upon a low fubjeft acutely, upon a lofty fubjedt
with fublimky, and upon a moderate fubjedl tempe¬
rately.” By which he means no more, than one who
is mafter of the three chara&ers here defcribed, and
knows when and how to ufe them. But although he
mentions feveral among the Greeks, and fome few
among the Romans, who excelled in one or other of
thefe different kinds; yet one who excelled in them
all, he fuppofes never to have exifted, except in the
imagination. The reafon perhaps may be, becaufe
each of them feems to require a very different genius,
fo that it is fcarce pofiible for the fame perfen to fuc-
ceed in them all. Since therefore it is fo rare and dif¬
ficult a matter to gain the command of each in any
good degree, it is better perhaps for every one to pur-
fue that which nature feems moft inclined to, and to
excel in it, than to ftrive againft their genius. For
every kind has its perfections; and it is more commen¬
dable to be mafter of one thing, than to do feveral but
indifferently.
Part IV. Of PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. I. Of Pronunciation in general.
P
Ronunciation is alfo called AtTum by fome of the
ancients. Though, if we attend to the proper fig-
nification of each of thefe words, the former refpedts
the voice, and the latter the geftures and motions of
raS
Pronun¬
ciation a
conformity
of the
voice and
thefnbjed:. body. But if we confider them as fynonymous
terms, in this large fenfe pronunciation or aftion may
be faid to be a fuitable conformity of the Toice> and the
feveral motions of the bodyt in fpeakingy to the fubjeB mat¬
ter of the difcourfe.
The bell judges among the ancients have reprefent-
ed this as the principal part of an orator’s province,
from whence he is chiefly to expeft fuccefs in the art
of perfuafion. When Cicero, in the perfon of Craffus,
has largely and elegantly difcourfed upon all the other
parts of oratory, coming at laft to fpeak of this, he
fays : “ All the former have their effedl as they are
pronounced. It is the a£lion alone that governs in
fpeaking ; without which the belt orator is of no va-
. t lue, and is often defeated by one in other refpedts
much his inferior.” And he lets us know, that De-
;Tnofthenes was of the fame opinion, wh®, when he was
afked what was the principal thing in oratory, re¬
plied, Adlion j and being afked again a fecond and a
third time, what was next confiderable, he ftill made
the fame anfwer. By which he feemed to intimate,
that he thought the whole art did in a manner confift
in it. And indeed, if he had not judged this highly
neceffary for an orator, he would fcarce have taken fo
much pains in corredfing thofe natural defedts, under
which he laboured at firft, in order to acquire it. For
he had both a weak voice, and likewife an impedi¬
ment in his fpeech, fo that he could not pronounce di-
ftindtly fome particular letters. The former of which
defedls he conquered, partly by fpeaking as loud as he
could upon the fliore, when the fea roared and was
boifterous; and partly, by pronouncing long periods
as he walked up hill; both of which methods contri¬
buted to the ftrengthening of his voice. And he faund
means to render his pronunciation mare clear and ar¬
ticulate, by the help of fome little flones put under
his tongue. Nor was he lefs careful in endeavouring
to gain the habit of a becoming and decent gefture;
for which purpofe he ufed to pronounce his difeourfes
alone before a large glafs. And becaufe he had got
an ill cuftom of drawing up his fhoulders when he
fpoke ; to amend that, he ufed to place them under a
fvvord, which hung over him with the point down¬
ward. Such pains did this prince of the Grecian ora¬
tors take to remove thofe difficulties, which would
have
tion.
Part IV. O R A
Pn nuncia- have been r«iffi;lent to dlfcoura^e an inferior and kls
afpiring genius. And to how great it perfection he
^ arrived in his aftion, under all thefe difadvantages, by
.his indefatigable diligence and application, is evident
from the confefiion of his great adversary and rival in
oratory, ALfchiues. Who, when he could not bear
the diferace of being worlled by Demofthenes in the
caufeof Ctefiphon, retired to Rhodes. And being
defired by the inhabitants to recite to them his own
oration upon that occafion, which accordingly he did;
the next day they requefted of him to let them hear
that of Demolthenes ; which having pronounced in a
moft graceful manner, to the admiration of all woo
were prefent, “ How much more (fays he) would you
have wondered if you had heard him fpeak it himfelt!
Bt which he plainly gave Demolthenes the preference
in that refpeft. We might add to thefe authorities
the judgment of Quintilian, who fays, that “ it is not
ef fo much moment what our compofitions are, as
how they are pronounced; fince it is the manner of
the delivery, by which the audience is moved.” And
therefore he ventures to alfert, that “ an indifferent
difeourfe, affifted by a lively and graceful aftion, will
have greater efficacy than the finelt harangue wmch
wants that advantage.”
The truth of this fentiment of the ancients con¬
cerning the power and efficacy of pronunciation,
might be proved from many inftances; but one or two
may here fuffice. Hortenfius, a cotemporary with
Cicero, and while living next to him in reputation as
orator, was highly applauded for his aftion. But
his orations after his death, as Quintilian tells us (lor
we have none of them now remaining), did not appear
anfwerable to his charadter ; from whence he jultly
concludes, there muft have been Something pleafing
when he fpoke by which he gained his charatfer,
which was loll in reading them. But perhaps there
is fcarce a more confiderable inftance of this than in
Cicero himfelf. After the death of Pompey, when
Ciefar had got the government into his own hands,
many of his acquaintance interceded with him in be¬
half of their relations and friends, who had been of
the contrary party in the late wars. Among ^others,
Cicero folicited fcr his friend Ligarius; which Tubero
underltanding, who owed Ligarius a grudge, ..e op*
pofed it, and undertook to reprefent him to Cselar as
unworthy ol his mercy. Caelar himfelf was prejudiced
againll Ligarius ; and therefore, when the caufe v/as
to come before him, he faid, “ We may venture to
hear Cicero difplay his eloquence; for I know the per-
fon he pleads for to be an ill man, and my enemy.
But, however, in the courfe of his oration, Cicero fo
worked upon his paffions, that by the frequent altera¬
tion of his countenance, the emotions of his mind were
very confpicuous. And when he came to touch upon
the battle of Pharfalia, which had given Caelar the
empire of the world, he reprefented it in that moving
and lively manner, that Csefar could no longer con¬
tain himfelf, but was thrown into fuch a fit of ihiver-
ing, that he dropped the- papers which he held in his
hand. This was the more remarkable, becaufe Caefar
was himfelf one of the greatell orators of that age,
knew all the arts of addrefs, and avenues to the paf¬
fions, and confequently was better prepared to guard
againlt them. But neither his (kill, nor refolution of
TORY. 461
mind, was of fufficient force againll the power of ora-
tory ; but the conqueror of the world became a con-
quell to the charms of Cicero’s eloquence ; io that,
contrary to his intention, he gave into his plea, and
pardoned Ligarius. Now that oration is Hill extant,
and appears exceedingly well calculated to touch tuc
fa ft and tender paffions and fprtngs of the foul; but we
believe it can fcarce be difeernibie to any in reading it,
how it fhould have had fo furprifing an efteil; which
mull therefore have been chiefly owing to the wonder¬
ful addrefs and condudd of the fpeaker. _ _
The more natural the pronunciation is, it will or »
confequence be the more moving, iinee the perfection
of art confifts in its nearell refembiance to nature.
And therefore it is not without good reafon, that the
ancients make it one qualification of an orator, that he
be a good man ; becaufe a perfon of this charafter will
make the caufe he efpoules his own, and the more ten-
fihly he is touched with it himfelf, his a£uon wili be
the more natural, and by that means the more eafily
affeft others in the fame manner. Cicero, fpeaking
upon this i'ubjeA, fays, “ It is certain that truth (by
which he means nature) in every thing excels imita¬
tion ; but if that was Fufficient of itfell in a£tion, we
fhould have no occafion lor art.” In his opinion
therefore (and who was ever a better judge), ait, m
this cafe as well as in many others, it well managed,
will affift and improve nature. But that is not all; for
fometimes we find the force of it fo great and powers
ful, that, where it is wholly counterfeit, it will loi the
time work the fame effedl as if it was founded in truth.
This is well known to thofe who have been converlant
with the reorefentations ot the theatre. In tragedies^
though we'are fenfible that every thing we fee and
hear is feigned and counterfeit, yet fuch is the power
of a&ion, that we are oftentimes affeAed by it in the
fame manner as if they were all realities. Anger and
refentment at the appearance of cruelty, concern and
folicitude for dillreffed virtue, rife in our brealls; and
tears are extorted from us for opprelfed innocence :
though at the fame time, perhaps, we are ready to
lauAr at ourfelves for being thus decoyed. If art then
has3fo great an influence upon us, when fupported on¬
ly by fancy and imagination, hoiv poweriui mult be
the elfeA of a juil and lively reprefentation ol what we
know to be true and real ? . ,
How agreeable it is both to nature and reaton, that
a warmth of expreffion and vehemency ©! motion
fhpuld rife in proportion to the importance of the
fubjeA and concern of the fpeaker,, will further ap¬
pear, by looking back a little into the more early and
Ample ages of the world. For the higher we go, the
more we ffiall find of both. We {hall give the obferva-
tion of a very great man upon this head, in his own Dial, of
words. “ The Romans (fays he) had a very great Eloquence
talent this way, and the Greeks a greater. 1 he ea.P1?*'
Hern nations excelled in it, and particularly the He¬
brews. Nothing can equal the {Length and vivacity
of the figures they employed in their difeourfe ; and
the very aAions they ufed to exprefs their fentiments;
fuch as putting allies on their heads, and tearing their
garments, and covering themfelves with fackcloth un¬
der any deep diltrefs and forrow of mind. I do not
fpeak of what the prophets did to give a more lively
reprefentation of the things they foretold, becaule
1 . fuch
4
4^2
*r°nuncia- fuch figurative aaians were the effed of divine infpi.
i _ ' . ration. But even in other cafes we find thofe people
underftood much better than we do how to exprefs
their grief, and fear, and other paffions. And hence,
no doubt, arofe thofe furprifing effeds of eloquence,
which we never experience now.” Thus far this ex¬
cellent writer. And what he fays here with refped
ORATORY.
Part IV.
tin? one lenience from anotker : likewife when to Pronunci,.'
raife or fink their voice, or give it a proper inflec-
tion ; to be flower or fafter, more vehement or fedate
tionf
to the adions of the eaftern nations,
w’as m a
good
meafure cuftomary amopg the Greeks and Romans; if
not entirely of the fame kind, yet perhaps as vehe¬
ment and expreflive. i hey did not think language of
itfelf fufficient to exprefs the height of their paffions,
unlefs enforced by uncommon motions and geftures.
1 bus, when Achilles had driven the Trojans into
their city with the greateft precipitation and terror,
and only Hedor ventured to tarry without the gates
to engage him ; Homer reprefents both king Priam
and his queen under the higheft confternation for the
danger of their fon. And therefore, in order to pre¬
vail with him to come into the city, and nat fight «ith
Achilles, they not only intreat him from the walls in
the moft tender and moving language imaginable;
but he teais off his grey locks with his hands; and ffie
in a flood of tears expofes her breafts, and adjures him
by thofe paps which fuckled him, to comply with their
requeft. The poet knew very well, that no words of
themfelves could reprefent thofe agonies of mind he
endeavoured to convey, unlefs heightened by the idea
of fuch adions as were expreffive of the deepeft for-
row. And indeed this was anciently efleemed fo re-
quiiite in an orator, that in matters of importance he
was fcarce thought to be in earneff who wanted it. In
one of Cicero s orations, he does not flick to argue in
that manner with his adverfary. Would you talk
thus (fays he) if you was ferious ? Would you, who
are wont to difplay your eloquence fo warmly in the
danger of others, ad fo coldly in your own ? Where
is that concern, that ardour, which uled to extort pity
even from children? Here is no emotion either of mind
or body ; neither the forehead ftruck, nor the thigh,
nor fo much as a ftamp of the foot. Therefore, you
have been fo far from inflaming our minds, that you
have fcarce kept us awake.”
As adion therefore was judged fo neceffary a qua¬
lification in an orator among the ancients, fo they
made ufe of feveral methods and expedients for the
better attaining it. The principal of which we fhall
briefly mention.
Decency of pronunciation is an habit. And as all
habits are gained by time, fo the focner they are
learned, they are generally acquired with greater eafe.
For while perfons are young, they are not only more
flexible, and capable of any particular bent, but they
are likewife free from the trouble of encountering and
iubdmng contrary habits, which doubles the labour,
and increafes the difficulty of attaining any laudable
quality. ‘Quintilian was very fenfible of this in the
cafe here before us ; and therefore, in order to have
perfons trained up to it, he begins with them in their
childhood, and defeends fo low as even to give direc¬
tions how they fhould be taught to pronounce w hen
they firfi learn to read. And he advifes, that they
fliould then be inftruaed where to fufpend their voice,
and make the proper paufes, both in diftinguifhing
the feveral parts of the fame fentence, and in fepara-
as the nature ol the things may require; and that the
tone of their voice be always manly and grave, but at
the fame time mixed with an agreeable fweetnefs.
Thefe things may perhaps appear in themfelves fmallj
but if duly attended to, they will be found of confi-
derable fervice to bring us to a juft and proper pro¬
nunciation. For in every thing that is to be attained
by practice, it is a great advantage to fet out right at
^ The ancients likewife had perfons whom they called
pkonafei, whofe proper buiinefs it was to teach them
how to regulate and manage their voice ; and others,
who inftruded them in the whole art of pronunciation,
both as to their voice and geftures. Thefe latter were
generaliy taken fiom the theatre, being fome eminent
experienced adtors. bo Quintilian, treating of the
province of thefe perfons, fays, “ The comedian ought
to teach them how to relate faffs, with what autho¬
rity to advife, with what vehemence to exprefs anoer,
and with what foftnefs eompaffion.” And fpeakm^
of geftures, he fays, “He fhould admoniffi them to
raife their countenance, not diftort their lips, or ilretch
their mouths.” With feveral other direffions of the
like kind. And we are told concerning the emperor
M. Antoninus, ufually called the philofopher, that
firft mafias were Euphoria the grammarian, and Ge-
minus the comedian.
But though they made ufe of affors to inftruift
their youth in forming their fpeech and geftures, yet
the aff ion of an orator was much different from that
of the theatre. Cicero very plainly repiefents this di-
flinffion, in the words of Craffus, when, fpeaking of
orators, he fays, “.The motions of the body ought
to be fuked to the exprtffions, not in a theatrical way,
mimicking the words by particular gefticulations, but
in a manner expreffive of the general fenfe, with a fe¬
date and manly infleffion of the fides; not taken from
the ftage and affors, but from the exercife of arms and
the paleftra.” And Quintilian fays to the fame pur-
pofe, “ Every geflure and motion of the comedians is
not to be imitated, nor to the fame^degree.” They
thought the affion of the theatre too light and extra¬
vagant for the imitation of an orator ; and therefore,
though they employed affors to inform young perfons
in the firft rudiments, yet they were afterwards feot to
the paleftra, or fchools defigned on purpofe fb teach
them a decent and graceful management of their bodies*
And fuch fchools, as Quintilian informs us, were in
ufe both among the Greeks and Romans : Juft as of
later ages children learn to dance, in fome meafure
with the fame intention.
Leing thus far prepared, they were afterwards fent
to the Ichoois of the rhetoricians. And here, as their
bufmefs was to cultivate their ftyle, and g’ain the
whole art of eloquence ; fo particularly to acquire a
juft and accurate pronunciation by thofe exercifes, in
which for that end they were eonftantly employed.
And as the Greeks were moft celebrated for their/kill
in all the polite arts, and efpecially oratory ; the Ro¬
man gentry and nobility generally fent their fons
abroad, and placed them under the tuition of fome
Grecian mafter, to inftruff them in the art of fpeak-
Part IV. ORA
Frommru- Irrg, atrd by that mwn^to fir them for the fervice of
tion. the;r country", either in the courts of judicature or the
fcnate. Thus Cicero was fent to Rhodes, to ftudy un¬
der the famous Molo* and Brutus under Pammenes ;
Csefar was going to the fame pkce when taken by
prates; and Auguftus afterwards ftudied thereunder
Apollodoms.
Nor, after all this pains and incluftry, did they yet
think therofelves fefficiently qualified to take upon
them the charafter of orators. But it was their con-
ftjnt cuftom to get together fome of their friends and
acquaintance who were proper judges of fuck perform¬
ances, and declaim before them in private. The bufi-
nefs of thefe perfons was to make obfervations both
on their language and pronunciation. And they were
allowed the greeted freedom to take notice of any
thing they thought amifs, either as to inaccuracy of
method, impropriety of Ityle, or indecency of their
voice or actions. This gave them an opportunity to
cor reel any fuch defeds at firft, before they became
habitual. What effedls might not juftly be expefted
from fuch an inflitution ? Perfons trained up in this
manner, with all thofe advantages, joined to a good
natural genius, could not fail of making very com¬
plete orators. Though even after they came to appear
in public, they did not lay afide the cuftom of de¬
claiming. For Quintilian tells us. that C. Carlo ufed
to praclife it daily in his tent. And Auguftus is report¬
ed to have continued it during the war of Mutina
againft M. Antony. Nor is it to be fuppofed, that
fo conftant an attendance to this praftice was only fer-
viceable to them in their public performances ; but it
mu ft neceflarily affeft their whole conduft, give them
a freedom of fpeeeh, eafineis of addrefs and behaviour,
and render them in all refpedls fine gentlemen, as well
as excellent orators. And from hence perhaps we
may fee lefs reafon to wonder at the furpriling effedls
of fome of their difeourfes, when we conlider what
pains they took to arrive at thofe abilities.
Having thus far treated on pronunciation in gene¬
ral, we fiiall now proceed to confider the parts ol it
feparately ; which are volte w\&gejlurc.
Chap. II. Of the Voice,
Voice is one kind of founds. Now the influence
of founds, either to raife or allay our paflions, is evi¬
dent from mufic. And certainly the harmony of a fine
difeourfe, well and gracefully pronounced, is as ca-
fluenccs the to move us, if not in a way fo violent and eefta-
eithCTby t‘c» yet 1)01 ,e^s powerfub ar>(I more agreeable to our
railing or rational faculties. As the hufinefs of this chapter is
a'laying to offer forae confuleratious for the juft and decent
management of the voice, it may not be improper in
the firft place toohferve in general what nature docs
when free and uneonftrained. As perfons are different¬
ly affe&ed when they fpeak; fo they naturally alter
the tone of their voice,-^though they do not attend to
it. It rifts, finks, and has various inffeOioir* given
it, according to the prefent ftate and difpofition of the
mind. When the mind is calm and fedate, the voice
moderate and even; when the former is eejedled
with forrow, the latter is languid ; anti when that is
isflamed by palficn, this is raifed and elevated. It is
tli* oratot’s bufinefs, therefore, to follow nature, and
119
Voice, a
kind of
found
■which al¬
ways in-
T 0 R Y. 4%
to endeavour that the tone of his voice appear nata-Pronuncia-
ral and unaffected. And for this end, he muft take
care to fuit it to the nature of the fubjedt; but ftill fo
as to be always grave and decent, Some perfons con¬
tinue a difeourfe in fuclv a low and drawling manner,*
that they can fcarce be heard by their audience. O-
thers again hurry on in fo loud and boifterous a man¬
ner as if they, imagined their hearers were deaf. But
all the mufic and harmony of fpeech lies in the proper
temperament of the voice between thefe extremes. In
order to fet this matter in a juft light, it will be ne-
ceffary to confider the principal affeclions or proper¬
ties of the voice, and how they are to be regulated by
an' orator. Now thefe may all be referred either to
quantity or quality.
The quantity of the voice confifts in its highnefs or
lozunefs, fiviftnefs or Jlo-wnefs, and the intermediate de¬
grees between them.
Every perfon who fpeaks in public, ftiould endea¬
vour, if he can, to fill the place where he fpeaks. But
ftill he ought to be careful not to exceed the natural
key of his voice. If he does, it will neither be foft
nor agreeable ; but either harfh and rough, or too
fhrill and fqueaking. Befides, he will not be able to
give every fyllable its full and diftinft found ; which
will render what he fays obfeure, and difficult to b*
underftood. He fhould therefore take care to keep
his voice within reach, fo as to have it under manage¬
ment, that he may raife or fink it, or give it any in¬
flexion he thinks proper : Which it will not be iif his
power to do, if he put a force upon it, and ftrain it
beyond its natural tone.
The like caution is to be ufed againft the contrary
extreme, that the voice be not dropped, and fuffered.
to fink too low. This will give the fpeaker pain in-
raifmg it again to its proper pitch, and be no lefs of-
feniiveto the hearers. For though the mufic of fpeech>
confifts in the variations of the voice, yet they muft-
be gradual to render them pleafant. Such fuddeaand
great changes at once are rather to be elteemed
chafms in fpeaking, than variations. Befides, as they
often prevent the hearers from taking in the fenfe of
what is faid, it gives them no fm?,H uneafinefs that
they are obliged to ftretch their attention. Many per-
fons are too apt to be guilty of this, efpecially at the
end of a fentence, by dropping the laft word ; which.'
ought in a particular manner to beexpreffed diftinXly,
becaufe the meaning of the whole fentence often de¬
pends upon it.
The medium between thefe two is a .moderate and
even voice. But this is not the fame in aft; that which
is moderate in one would be high in another. Every,
perfon therefore muft regulate it by the natural key
of his own voice. A calm and fedate voice is gene¬
rally heft ; as a moderate found is moll pleaiing to the
ear, if it be clear and diftinX. But this equality of
the voice muft alfo be accompanied wich a variety,,
otherwife there can be no harmony; lince all harmony
confifts in variety. Nothing is lefs pieafing than a dif¬
eourfe pronounced throughout in one continued tone
of the voice, without any change or alteration. Be¬
fides, a variation of the voice is an eafe to the fpeaker;
as the body is relieved by fhifting its pofture. The
equality therefore we are here fpeaking of admits a
variety of-inflexions and changes within the fame
464
ORATORY.
Part.1V.
Pronuncla- pitch. And when that is alter'ed, the gradations,
t*cl1' , whether higher or lower, fhould be fo gentle and re-
gular as to preferve a due proportion of the parts and
harmony of the whole ; vrhich cannot be done, when
the voice is fuddenly varied with too great a diftinc-
tion. And therefore it fhould move from one key to
another, fo as rather to glide like a gentle ftream,
than pour down like a rapid tomtit, as an ingenious
writer has well expreffed it. An even voice is beft fit¬
ted to keep the mind to clofe attention. And there¬
fore, in fubjecfs defigned only for inftruftion, without
any addrefs to the pafiions, there is little room for a
variety of voice. For the voice ought to agree with
the ftyle ; and as upon firch fubjcds this fhould be
equal, moderate, and fmooth, fo fhould the other. E*
very thing, as we fay, is beautiful in its feafon ; and
there is a certain propriety in things which ought al¬
ways to be rtgarded. And therefore, an affefted va¬
riety, ill placed, is as difagreeable to a judicious au¬
dience, as the want of it, where the fubjeft requires it.
We may find feme perfons, in pronouncing a grave and
plain difeotirfe, affecl as many different tones, changes,
and variations of their voice, as if they were adling a
comedy ; which is doubtlefs a very great impropriety.
But the orator’s province is not barely to apply to the
mind, but likewife to the paffions ; which require a
great variety of the voice, high or low, vehement or
languid, according to the nature of the pafiions he de-
figns to affedf. So that for an orator always to ufe
the fame tone or degree of his voice, and expert to
anfwer all his views by it, would be much the fame
thing as if a phyfician fhould propofe to cure all di-.
ftempers by one medicine. From hence it is evi¬
dent, that although various inflertions and tones of
the voice are requifite to make it harmonious and plea-
fing to the ear ; yet the degree of it fhould differ ac¬
cording to the nature of the fubjert and defign of
the fpeaker. And, as a perfert monotony is al-
, ways unpleafant, fo it can never be neceffary in any
difeourfe. J
The next property of the voice above-mentionei
was fiu'iftnejs. 'I hat fome exprefiions ought to b
pronounced fafter and fwifter than others, is very ma
nifeft. Gay and fprightly ideas fhould not only b
expreffed louder, but alfo fafter, than’fuch as are fa
and melancholy. And when we prefs an adverfary th
voice fhould be brifk and quick. Bfit to hurry on i
a precipitant manner without paufing, till ftopt fo
want of breath, is certainly a very great fault. Thi
tieftroys not only the neceffary diftinrtion between fen
tence and fentence, but likewife between the fevera
words of the fame fentence ; nay, and often occafion
usto exprefs our words by halves, while one is throw!
o iait upon another, that we are not able to giv
each us full and juft found. By this means all th
grace of fpeaking is loft, and in a great meafure th.
advantage of hearing. For when the ears of th
earers cannot keep pace with the volubility of th
Kw "il1 te K"1' H-e better fo
. 0 a!?*. Eehdca, by not commanding his voice
^difttlf' ,he P-fesand pci
rf a'fentenep* d f"” •« kp in the midd!
mted ind ; rf° d"ides what b' Conti
mttft’necefliiiy’de'flrey ^he1! r' fePta,alcdf; "1,id
jqo oj2 ^ ^ ^en^e> an^ confound hi
difeourfe. Young perfons are very liable to this, efpe- Pronuncia-
cially at firft fating out. And it often arifes from tion‘ * ,
diffidence. They are jealous of their performances,
and the fuccefs they may have in fpeaking, which
gives them a pain till it is over; and this puts them
into a hurry of mind, which incapacitates them from
governing their voice, and keeping it under that due
regulation which perhaps they propofed to them-
fclves before they began to fpeak. And the greater
degree luch perfons have of a native and ingenuous
modefty, accompanied with a laudable ambition to
excel, they are commonly more expofed to this. For
while on the one hand they are fired with an ardent
defire to recommend themfeives, and on the other are
fear.ul of the event, this dubious ftate of mind is very*
apt to throw them off their guard, and run them into
this excefs. From which we may fee the great advan¬
tage of having the voice well formed betimes; for when
once it is become habitual to fpeak with juftnefs and
propriety, perfons readily prartife it without much at¬
tention or concern.
And as a precipitant and hafty pronunciation is
culpable, fo likewife on the other hand, it is a fault to
fpeak too flow. This feems to argue a heavinefs in'
the fpeaker. And as he appears cool himfelf, he d*an
neveti expert to warm his hearers, and excite their’af-
fertions. When not only every word, but every fyl-
lable is drawn out to too great a length, the ideas do
not come fall enough to keep up the attention without
much uneafinefs. For till the fenfe is completed, the
mind is in fufpenfe; and, if it be held long in that
fituation, it will of courfe flag and grow tired. -In¬
deed, in fome cafes, it is requifite the pronunciation
fhould be flower than in others ; as in reprefenting
things great and difficult ; or in expreffing fome par¬
ticular paffions, as admiration or grief. But the ex¬
treme we are now fpeaking of, is a flownefs equally
continued through a whole difeourfe, which mull ne-
ceflarily render it flat and lifelefs.
Now, to avoid either of the two extremes laft men¬
tioned, the voice ought to he fedate and diftinrt.
And in order to render it diftinrt, it is neceflary, not
only that each word and fyllable fhould have its juft
and full found, both as to time and accent; but like¬
wife that every fentence, and part of a fentence,
ffiould be feparated by its proper paufc and interval.
This is more eafy to be done in reading, from the af-
fiftance of the points; but it is no lefs to be attended
to in fpeaking, if we would pronounce in a diftinrt
and graceful manner. For every one fhould fpeak in
the fame manner as he ought to read, if he could ar¬
rive at that exaftnefs. Now the common rule given in
paufing is, that we flop our voice at a comma till we
can tell one, at a femicolon two, at a colon three,
and at a full period four. And as thefe points are
either accommodated to the feveral parts of the fame
fentence, as the firft three ; or different fentences, as
the laft ; this occafions the different length of the
paufe, by which either the dependence of what pre¬
cedes upon that which follows, or its diftinrtion from
it, is reprefented. And therefore, in the firft three
flops, the voice is rather to be fufpendtd in different
degrees or meafures of time, than entirely dropt, to
fhow that the fenfe is not yet completed. But between
fentence and fentence we refpire, and begin anew. So
that
Part IV. 0 R A
Pronuncia- that in lot?g periods, the voice fhould be favoured by
r °n- beginning low and fedately, that it raay hold to the
without refpiration ; or if it will not, the breath
ought to be recovered without finking the voice. For
if once the voice drop for want of breath before the
period be finiihed, not only the beauty, but likewife
the fenfe of it will be loft. Quintilian lays a great
ftrefs upon a due attention to thefe paufes ; and fays,
‘‘Though it may appear not fo eonfiderable in itfelf.
Vet all the other virtues of a good pronunciation are
deficient without it.”
Hitherto we have confidered fuch properties of the
voice as rel'pecft quantity, we come now to fpeak of its
qualities. And the chief of thefe are Jlrength or
nveahiefs, clcurnefs or obfcvrenefs, fulnefs or ftnallnefs,
fmoothnefs or roughnefs. Now, one half of thefe is
what every one would willingly choofe, as he would
wifti to be free from the others. But it is not in our
power to give ourfelves what qualities of the voice we
pleafe ; but only to make the beft ufe we can of what
nature has frcftowed upon us. However, feveral de*
fcfts of the voice are capable of being helped by care
and proper means ; as, on the other hand, the beft
voice may be greatly hurt by ill management and in-
difcretion. Temperance is a great prefervative of the
voice, and all excefs is highly prejudicial to it. The
voice mull neceflarily fuffer, if the organs of fpeech
have not their proper tone. And in order to their
having this, they muft be kept in a due temperature ;
that is, they muft neither be too moift nor too dry.
If they abound with fluids, thefe will obftruift the
clearnefs of the voice, and render it obfcure and con-
. fufed ; and if they are parched with drought, the
voice will be harih and rough. Now all excefies, as well
as fome bodily indifpofitions, are apt to affeA the or¬
gans one or other of thefe ways.
A ftrong voice is very ferviceable to an orator, be-
caufe, if it want fome other advantages, he is, how¬
ever, capable to make himfelf heard. And if at any
time he is forced to ftrain it, he is in lefs danger of its
failing him before he has finifhed his difcourfe. But
he who has a weak voice, fhould be very careful not
to ftrain it, efpeeially at firft. He ought to begin
low, and rife gradually to fuch a pitch as the key of
his voice will \’ l] carry him, without being obliged to
link again afterwards. Frequent inflections of the
voice will likewife be f@me affiftance to him. But efpe*
cially he fhould take care to fpeak. deliberately, and
eafe Iris voice, by allowing due time for refpiration at
all the proper paufes. It is an extreme much kfs in¬
convenient for fuch a perfon rather to fpeak too flow,
than too faff. But this defeCt of a weak voice is
forrvetimes capable of being helped by the ufe of pro¬
per methods ; as is evident from the inftance of He-
mofthenes, before-mentioned.
A voice is faid to be dear, when the organs of
foeech are fuited to give every fingle letter, and all
the combinations of them in fyllables and words, their
proper and diftinbf found. Such a voice is very
oleafing and agreeable to the hearers ; and no lefs an
happinefs to the fpeaker, as it faves him a great ex¬
pence of fpirits. For a moderate voice, if dear, will
he as diftm&ly heard, as one much louder, if thick
and obfcure. Which is a great advantage to the
fpeaker, becaufe he can better keep .his voice under
Vol.XUI. Part II.
O R Y. 465
command, and modulate it at pleafure, as the feveral Prommaa-
parts and circumflances of his difcourfe raay require. ‘10n'' .
On the contrary, an obfcure and confufed voice is
not always occafioned from a deficiency in the organ ;
but many times is the effect of cuftom and a bad
habit. Some perfons, either from want of due care
in their education at firft, or from inadvertency and ne¬
gligence afterwards, ran into a very irregular and
confafed manner of expreffing their words ; either by
mifplacing the accent, confounding the found of the
letters, or huddling the fyllables one upon another, fa
as to render what they fay often unintelligible. In¬
deed, fometimes this arifes from a natural defeft, as
in the cafe of Demofthenes ; who found a method to
re&ifiy that, as well as the weakenefs of his voice.
But in faults of this kind, which proceed from habit,
doubtlefs the moft likely way to mend them is to fpe.ik
deliberately.
A full voice is not the fame as a ftrong or a
loud voice. It fills the ear, but it is often not plea-
fant. And therefore to render it fo, as well as audible,
it ftiould be frequently varied. However, this feems
better fuited to the chara&er of an orator, than a
fmall and fhrill voice j becaufe it has fomething in it
more grave and manly. And thofe who have the
misfortune of a very fmall voice, fliould be cautious of
raifing it to too high a pitch, efpecially at once; be¬
caufe the fudden compreffure of the organ is apt t©
occafion a fqueaking and very difagreeable found.
A foft and fmooth voice is of all the moft mufieal,
efpecially if it be flexible. And on the contrary.,
nothing is lefs harmonious than a voice that ia
harfh and rough. For the one grates as difagree-
ably upon the ear, as the other gives it pleafure and
delight.
From the coiifideration of thefe feveral properties of
the voice, we may conclude that to be the beft, and
ficteft for an orator, which is moderate, diftinet,
firm, clear, and finooth, and withal eafily flexible to
the feveral degrees and variations of found which
every part of the difcourfe may require.
Chap. III. OfGcflure.
By this is meant, a fuitable conformity of the mo- Gefture is
tions of the countenance, and feveral parts of the body :he confor-
in fpeaking, to the fubjedt-matter of the difcourfe. miry of the
The word gejlure is here ufed in a larger fenfe than is^01'0'13
ordinarily done in common language. For we rarely
make ufe of that word to denote the motions of thetothe na-
countenance, or any parts of it; but as thefe makemre of tha
a confiderable part of our prefent fubjedt, they muftb^courk*
here be comprehended under this term.
It is not agreed among the learned, whether voice
or gefture has the greater influence upon us. But as
the latter affedfts us by the eye, as the farmer does by
the ear, geflure in the nature of it teems to have this
advantage, that it conveys the impreffion more fptedi-
ly to the mind 5 for the fight is the quiekeft of all our
fenfes. Nor is its influence lefs upon our palfions ;
nay, in fome inftances it appears to ad more power¬
fully. A call of the eye fhall exprefs defire in as rea¬
ving a manner as the fofteft language ; and a diffe¬
rent motion of it, refentment. To wring the hands,
tear the hair, or itrike the breaft, are all itrong indica-
3 N tions
466
Pror.unc’a- tlons of for.row. And lie who claps his hand to His
tion. fword, throws us into a greater panic than one who
on]y threatens to kill us. Nor is it in fome refpefts
lefs various and extenfive than language. Cicero tells
us, he often diverted himfelf hy trying this with
Rofcius the comedian ; who could exprefs a fentence
as many ways by his geftures, as he himfelf by words.
And fome dramas, called pantomimes, have been carried
on wholly by mutes, who have performed every part by
geftures only, without words, in a way very intelligent, as
well as entertaining to the fpeftators. Well therefore
might Cicero call a8ion (or gefture) the language of
the body, fince it is capable in fo lively a manner to
convey both our ideas and paffions. But with refpeft
to oratory, gefture may very properly be called the
fecond part of pronunciation; in which, as the voice
fhould be fuited to the impreffions it receives from the
mind, fo the feveral motions of the body ought to be
accommodated to the various tones and inflexions of
the voice. When the voice is even and moderate,
little gefture is required ; and nothing is more unna¬
tural than violent motion, in difcourfing upon ordi¬
nary and familiar fubjeXs. The motions of the body
fhould rife therefore in proportion to the vehemence
and energy of the expreffion, as the natural and genuine
efteX of it.
But as gefture is very different and various as to the
manner of it, which depends upon the decent con-
duX of feveral parts of the body ; it will not be amifs
to coniider more particularly the proper manage¬
ment of each of thofe parts. Now all gefture is
either natural, or from imitation. By natural gefture
we mean fuch aXions and motions of the body, as na¬
turally accompany our words,' as thefe do the im-
preffions of our minds. And thefe either refpeX the
whole body, or fome particular part of it. But be¬
fore we enter upon this, give us leave juft to obferve,
that it has been cuftomary in all ages and countries, in
making a fet difeourfe before an affembly, to do it
Handing. Thus we read, that Abraham flood up,
andfpake unto the children of Heth And it feems as
if he fat down, when he had ended his fpeech ; be-
caufe, immediately after the account of their anfwer,
it is faid again, that Abraham flood up and bo<wed him-
fe/f to the people of the land, the children of Heth. In
like manner Homer reprefents the Grecian princes, as
Handing up, when they made a fpeech, either to the
army, or in their councils. So when Achilles has
affembled the army, to inquire into the reafon of the
great plague which at that time raged among them,
he rifes up before he begins to fpeak, and fits down
again when he has done. After him the prophet
Calchas rifes, and charges it upon Agamemnon ; who
rifing up in a paflion, does not refufe to comply with
what Calchas propofed, but expr^fles his refentment
at him for faying it. And upon another occafion,
both Agamemnon and NcHor do the fame in council.
And Cicero acquaints us, that when Lentulus had
been charged in the fenate as an aflbeiate with Ca¬
tiline, he Hood up to make his defence. Nor does
the advantage of being better heard, feem to have
been the only reafon for fo general an agreement in
this pofture; but it appears likewife to have been
chofen, as the moH decent and refpeXful. Sitting
carriCj 111 it an air of authority, and is therefore a
Part IW
pofture fearce ufedJupon fuch occafions, unlefs perhaps Pronunci:®.
where that is defigned to be exprefled by it. Where- tlon'
fore it was a thing very much refented, that when v ~ ^
Casfar, after he had got the power into his hands,
once addrefled the fenate, either refufed to rife, as
fome fay, or as others, one of his friends held him
down by his gown.
But though {landing appears to be the moft proper
pofture for fpeaking in public, yet it is very unbe- • •
coming for the body to be entirely without any mo¬
tion like a ftatue. It fhould not long continue in
the fame pofition, but be conftantly changing, though
the motion be very moderate. There ought to he no
appearance of ftiffnefs, but a certain eafe and pliable-
nefs, naturally fuiting itfelf to every expreffion ; by
which means, when a greater degree of motion is
neceflary, it will appear lefs fudden and vehement-:
For as the railing, finking, and various inflexions of
the voice muft be gradual; fo likewife fhould the mo¬
tions of the body. It is only on fome particular oc-
cafions that an hafty vehemence and impetuofity is pro¬
per in either cafe.
As to the feveral parts of the body, the head is the
moft: considerable. To lift it up too high has the air
of arrogance and pride ; to ftretch it out too far, cr
throw it back, looks clownilli and unmannerly ; to
hang it downwards on the breaft, {hows an unmanly
balhfulnefs and want of fpirit; and to fuffer it to lean
on either {boulder, argues both floth and indolence.
W herefore in calm and fedatedifeourfe it oughtto keep its
natural Hate, an upright pofture. However, it Hiould
not be long without motion, nor yet always moving ;
but gently turn fometimes on one fide, and fometimes
on the other, as occafion requires, that the voice
may be heard by all who are prefent ; and then re¬
turn again to its natural pofition. It fhould always
accompany the other aXions of the body, and turn on
the fame fide with them; except when averfion to any
thing is exprefled, which is done by ftretching out the
right hand, and turning the head to the left. The
ancients ereXed a flatue of Venus in this pofture,..who
was called by the Greeks ‘x-roepojia, and by the Latins
Verticordia, and in Engliflr may be termed the forbid¬
ding Venus. But nothing is more indecent than
violent motions and agitations of the head. And
therefore, when a wicty writer, who is well known
among us, would convey the moft ridiculous idea of a
pretender to knowledge, he exprefles it thus r
For having three times {hook his head
To ftir his wit up, thus he faid. Hudib.
But it is the countenance, that chiefly reprefents both
the paffions and difpolition of the mind. By this we
exprefa love, hatred, joy, forrow, modefty, and con¬
fidence : by this we fupplicate, threaten, footh, in¬
vite, forbid, confent, or refufe ; and all this without
fpeaking. Nay, from hence we form a judgment not
only of a perfon’s prefent temper, but of his capac\y
and natural difpofition. And therefore it is common
to fay, fuih an one has a promijing countenance, or that
hepromifes little by his countenance. It is true, this is
no certain rule of judging ; nor is it in the power of
any one to alter the natural m; ke of his countenance i
however, it may put us upon endeavouring to' gain
the moft pleafing afpeX we can ; flnee it is fo natural
6 for
ORATORY.
Part IV. ORA
Pronuncia- for mankind to draw fuch conclufions from it; and
tlr)n' fame peifons are fo unhappy, as to render their coun¬
tenance more difagreeable, than otherwife it would be,
by ill habits.
But the feveral parts of the face bear their part,
and contribute to the proper and decent motion of the
whole. In a calm and fedate difcourfe, all the features
retain their natural ftate and fituation. In forrow, the
forehead and eyebrows lour, and the cheeks hang
down. But in expreflions of joy and cheerfulnefs, the
forehead and eyebrows are expanded, the cheeks con¬
tracted, and the corners of the mouth drawn upwards.
Anger and refentment contract the forehead, draw the
brows together, and thruft out the lips.' And terror
elevates both the brows and forehead. As thefe are
the natural figns of fuch pafiions, the orator Ihould
endeavour to conform to them.
But as the eyes are molt adtive and fignificant, it
is the advice of Cicero that the greateft care Ihould
be taken in their management And he gives this
reafon lor it, “ Becaufe other parts of the countenance
have but few motions; whereas all the paffions of the
foul are exprefled in the eyes, by fo many different
actions, which cannot poflibly be reprefeni^ed by any
gellures of the body, if the eyes are kept in a fixed
poflure.” Common experience does in a great mea-
fure confirm the truth of this oblervation. We rea¬
dily guefs at a perfon’s intention, or how he is affedded
to us, by his eyes. And any fudden change or emo¬
tion of the mind is prefently followed by an alteration
in the look. In fpeaking therefore upon pleafant
and delightful fubjefts, the eyes are brifk and cheer¬
ful ; as, on the contrary, they fink and are languid in
delivering any thing melancholy and forrowful. This
is fo agreeable to nature, that before a peifon fpeaks,
we are prepared with the expectation of one or the
other from his different afpeCt. So likewife in anger,
a certain vehemence and intenfenefs appears in the
eyes, which, for want of proper words to exprefs it
by, we endeavour to reprefent by metaphors taken
from fire, the moft violent and rapid element, and fay-
in fuch cafes, the eyes fpar hie, burn, or are injlamed.
In expreflions of hatred or deteflation, it is natural to
alter the look, either by turning the eyes afide, or
downwards. Virgil has very juftly obferved this:
lor when he deferibes -/Eneas meeting with Dido in
the Elyfian (hades, and addreffing her, he reprefents
her difregard of him, by faying,
Difdainfully fhe look’d ; then turning round.
Still fix’d her eyes unmov’d upon the ground.
She firowed her refentment for his former treatment of
her, by not vouchfafing to look on him. Indeed, the eyes
are fometimes turned downwards upon other occafions,
as to exprefs modtfty. And if at any time a parti¬
cular objeCf be addrefled to, whatever it be, the eyes
Ihould be turned that way. And therefore Philo-
flratus very defervedly ridicules a certain rhetorician
as guilty of a folecifm in gefture, who, upon faying,
O Jupiter l turned his eyes downward ; and when he
faid, 0 earth! looked upward. A flaring look has
the appearance of giddinefs and want of thought; and
to contraft the tyes, gives fufpicion of craft and de-
fign. A fixed look may be occafioned from intenfe¬
nefs of thought, but at the fame time (hows a difre-
TORY. 467
gard to the audience; and a too quick and wandering Pronuncia-
motion of the eyes denotes levity and wantonnefr. A , tlon- ,
gentle and moderate motion of the eyes is therefore in ""v
common moft fuifable, always dire&ed to fome of the
audience, and gradually turning from fide to fide with
an air of refpeft and modefty, and looking them de¬
cently in the face, as in common difcourfe : Such a
behaviour will of courle draw an attention. As in
converfation, when a perfon addreffes us in an hand-
fome and becoming manner, we prefently put ourfelves
in a pofture to give what he fays a proper reception.
But as all the paffions are in the moft lively manner
exprefled in the eyes, their motions ought to vary ac¬
cording to the different nature of thofe paffions they
are fuited both to difeover in the fpeaker, and convey
to his hearers ; fince, as the quickeft accefs to the
mind is by the fight, a proper well-timed look will
fometimes fooner effeCt this than it can be done by
words; as in difeharging a camion, we are ftruck with
the light before we hear the found.,
As to the other parts of the body diftimft from the
head, the fhoulders ought not to be elevated ; for this
is not only in itfelf indecent, but it likewife contra&s
the neck, and hinders the proper motion of the head.
Nor, on the other hand, fhouid they be drawn down,
and deprefled ; becaufe this occafions a ftiffnefs both
to the neck and the whole body. Their natural
pofture therefore is heft, as being moft eafy and grace¬
ful. To fhrug the fhoulders has an abje<ft and fervile
air; and frequently to heave them upwards and down¬
wards is a very difagreeable fight.
A continued motion of the arms any wayf is by all
means to be avoided. Their adtion fhouid generally
be very moderate, and follow that of the hands, unlefs
in very pathetic exprelfions, where it may be proper to
give them a more lively fpring.
The hands aeed never be idle. Quintilian feems to
think them as neceflary and powerful in a&ion, as
Cicero does the eyes. “ The hands (fays he), without
which all gefture is lame and weak, have a greater
variety of motions than can well be exprefled; for
they are almoft equal to our words. Do not we defire
with them, promife, call, difmifs, threaten, befeech,
deleft, fear, inquire, deny ? Do not they exprefs joy,
forrow, doubt, confeffion, penitence, meafure, plenty,
number, and time ? Do not they excite, reftrain,
prove, admire, and fhame ? That in fo great a variety
of fpeech among all nations and countries, this feems
to me the common language of all mankind.” Thus
far Quintilian. Now, all bodily motion is either up¬
ward or downward, to the right or left, forward or
backward, ©r elfe circular. The hands are employed
by the orator in all thefe, except the laft. And as
they ought to correfpond with our expreffions, fo they
ought to begin and end with them. In admiration,
and addrefles to heaven, they muft be elevated, but
never raifed above the eyes; and in fpeaking of things
below us, they are diredled downwards. Side motion
Ihould generally begin from the left, and terminate
gently on the right. In demonftrating, addrefiing, and
on feveral other occafions, they are moved forward; and
in threatening, fometimes thrown back. But when
the orator fpeaks of hinifelf, his right-hand fhouid be
gently laid on his breaft. When no other motion is
neceflary, the hands fhouid be kept about as high as
3 N 2 the
468
ORATORY.
Part IV.
Pronuncia* the bread, fo as to itiahe near a right angle with the
fiHn- arm. This is not only graceful, but likewife the moft
' eafy pofture, and gives the leaft ftrain to the mufcles.
They fliould never be fuffeied to hang down, nor to
loll upon the cufhion or bar. The left hand fhoukl
never move alone, but accommodate itfelf to the mo¬
tion? of the right. In motions to the left fide, the
right hand flloald not be carried beyond the left
fhoulder. In promifes, and expreflions of compliment,
the motion of the hands fhould be gentle and flow ;
but in exhortations and applaufe more fwift. The
hands fhould generally be open ; but in cxpreffions of
compunftion and anger they may be clofed. All
finical and trifling aftions of the fingers ought to be
avoided; nor fhould they be ftretched out and ex¬
panded in a ftitf and rigid pofture, but kept eafy and
pliable.
Neither the breafl: nor the belly fhould be thrufl:
out: which in itfelf looks ungainly, and hinders the free
motion of the trunk ; which ought not to be kept too
lliff and upright, but eafy and flexible, always fuiting
itfelf to the motions ©f the head and hands. The feet
fliould continue fleady, and not give the body a wa¬
vering and giddy motion by frequently fhifting ; tho’
fome perfons fall into that habit without moving their
feet. Curio, a Roman orator, as Cicero tells us, was
additted to this; which occafioned a friend of his once
to pafs a joke upon him, by afking, Who that <was
talking cut of a boat? The jeft is too plain to need
explication ; for every one knows the waving of a boat
will give the body fuch a motion.
The geflures we have hitherto difcourfed of, are
fuch as naturally accompany our expreflions. And we
believe thofe we have mentioned, if duly attended to,
will he found fufficient to anfwer all the purpofts of
our modern pronunciation. The ancients, indeed, ufed
feveral more vehement aftions and geftures than we
are accuftomed to; as we have formerly fhown. Philip
the Roman orator, as Cicero informs us, did not life
to prepare his difcourfcs ; but fpoke, as we fay, offi-
hand. And he was wont to tell his friends, “ he was
never fit to talk till he had warmed his arm.” He
doubtlefs, therefore, ufed a more violent motion with
Ins arms and hands than is common with us. And
Cicero calls the arm projefted the orator^ ’weapon.
Indeed, to extend or brandiih the arm, carries in it an
air of command and authority, which was not unbeco¬
ming the charaAer of Philip, who was a perfon of the
highelt rank and quality. A nd therefore young orators,
both among the Greeks and Romans, for a time ufed
no motion of the arm, iut kept it confined in their
garment, as an argument of modefty, till age and ex¬
perience allowed them to ufe greater freedom. Nor
was it uncommon for the ancient orators to exprefs
the excefs of their paffions by tears. They thought
not ring unbecoming that was natural ? and judged it
agreeable to the charaAers even of the braveft men,
to he touched with a fenfe of humanity in great cala¬
mities : And therefore we find both Homer ami Vir-
gt make their greateft heroes fhed tears on fome oc-
cations.
n»e other fort of gedurcs above-mentioned ai
as a rife from imitation ; as where the orator de
feme sAion, or perfonates another fpeakini?
hire great care is to be taken not to over t
pnrt, by running into any ludicrous or theatrical mi- Pronuncia-
micry. It is fufficient for him fo to reprefent things , t‘on
of this nature, as may heft convey the image of them v
in a lively manner to the minds of the hearers ; with¬
out any fuch change either of his aAions ©r voice as
are not fuitable to his own charaAer.
Chap. IV. Some particular rules for the Voice
and Gejiure.
The fubjeA of pronunciation is of fo great impor-Ruks for
tance to an orator, that it can neither be too clearly the voice
laid down, nor tco ftrongly inculcated. If we inquire ai!d
into the caufes of that furprifing power it has over us,tUre*
and hy what means it fo ftrongly affeAs us, this may
in forne meafure appear by refteAing on the frame
and conftitution of human nature. For our infinitely
great and wife Maker has fo formed us, that not only
the aAions of the body are fubjeA to the direAion of
the mind, but we are likewife endowed with various
pafiions and affeAions, that excite us to purfue thole
things which make for our happinefs, and avoid others
which are hurtlul to us. And as we are made for
fociety, we are alfo furnifhed with fpeech, which en¬
ables us to convcrfe one with another. And fuch is
the contrivance of our make, and influence of our
minds upon the mechanifm of our bodies, that we can
not only communicate our thoughts to each other,
but likewufe our paffions. For, as Cicero well ob-
lerves, “ Every motion of the mind has naturally its
peculiar countenance, voice, and gefture ; and the
whole body, every pofition of the face, and found of
the voice, like the firings of an inftrument, aA agree¬
ably to the impreffion they receive from the mind.’*
Nor is this all: but as every one is differently affeAed
himfelf, he is capable to make the like imprellions
upon others, and excite them to the fame motions
which he feels in himfelf. As when two inftruments>
are fet to the fame pitch, the firings of the one being
touched, produce in the other the like found. Thii
common fympathy in the human frame fhows how ne-
ceflary it is that an orator fhould not only in general
be well acquainted with the rules of pronunciation, but
likewife know how t<J ufe them as occafion requires.
For a general knowledge of the rules of art is not of
itfelf fufficient to perfcA an artift, without a further
acquaintance with the particular application of them to
their feveral cafes and cir*umftances. Thus, for in-
fiance, it is not enough for an orator to underftand all
the beauties and ornaments of language, and which of
them are fuited to form the feveral kinds of ftyle, un-
lefs he can likewife accommodate each of thofe cha-
raAers to their proper fubjeA. And fo likewife in
pronunciation, he ought not only to know the feveral
qualities of the voice, and proper geftures of the body,
hut alfo when and where to make ufe of them. For
not only different fubjeAs, but alfo different parts of
the fame difeourfe, and even particular expreflions,
often require a difference in the manner of pronuncia¬
tion, both as to the voice and gellure. Flaving there¬
fore treated on both thefe parts of pronunciation in
genera], it may not be amils now to confider how
they are to be applied in each of the two refpeAs laft
mentioned.
We fhall begin with the parts of a difeourfe, and
J
treat
Parc IV. ’ O R A T O
Pronuncia-treat of them m their natural order. And here the ftmctty.
tion. view and defign of the fpeaker in each ©f them w.U
v eafily help us to fee the proper manner ol pronuncia-
1 °Let us fuppofe then a perfon prefcnting himfelf be¬
fore an affembly, in order to make a difcourfeto them.
It cannot be decent immediately to begin to fpeak fo
foon as ever he makes his appearance. He will firft
fettle himfelf, compofe his countenance, and take a
refpe&ful view of his audience. This'prepares them
for filence and attention. To begin prefently, and
hurry on, without firft allowing either himfelf or hrs
hearers time to compofe themfelves, looks as if he was
rather performing a talk than had any defign to pleale
them ; which will be very apt to make them as uneafy
till he has done, as lie feem's to be himfelf. Perfons
commonly form fome opinion of a fpeaker from their
firft view of him, which prejudices them either in his
favour, or otherwife, as to what he fays afterwards.
A grave and fedate afpeft inclines them to think hint
ftrious ; that he has confidered his fubjeeft, and may
have fomething to offer worth their attention. A.
haughty and forbidding air occafions diftafte, as it
looks like difrefped. A wandering giddy countenance
argues levity. A dejefted drooping appearance is apt
to raife contempt, unlefs where the fubjeft is melan¬
choly. And a cheerful afpeft is a proper prelude to
a pleafant and agreeable argument.
To fpeak low at firft has the appearance of mo-
defty, and is belt for the voice ; which, by riling gra¬
dually, will with more eafe be carried to any pitch
that may be afterwards neceffary, without ftraining it.
However, fome variation of the voice is always proper
to give it an harmony. Nay, and fometimes it is not
improper for an orator to fet out with a confideraole
degree of warmth, expreffed by fuch an elevation of
the . voice, and geftures of the body, as are fnited to
reprefent the etootions of his mind. But this is not
ordinarily the cafe. We have fome few inftances of
this in Cicero ; as in his oration for Rofcius Amerinus,
where the heinoufnefs of the charge could nat but ex¬
cite his indignation againft the accufers. And. fo
likewtfe in that againft Pifo, and the two (lift againft
Catiline, which begin in the fitme manner, from the
refentmeut he had conceived againft their perfons and
condudt.
In the narration, the voice ought to be raifed to
fornfcwhat an higher pitch. Matters of fa<ft fhould be
related in a very plain and diftindt manner, with a
proper ftrefs and emphaiis laid upon each ciicumftance,
accompanied with a fuitable addrefs and motions of
the body, to engage the attention of the ^ hearers.
For there is a certain grace ifi telling a ftory, by
which thofe who are matters of it feldom fail to re¬
commend thernfdves in converfation. ihe beauty of
it confifts in an eafy and familiar manner of ex^'ieflion,
attended with fuch aaionsand geftures as are fuited to
the nature of the things related, and help t© enliven
each particular circumfiance and part of the difeourfe.
The propofition, or fubjedt of the difeourfe, fhould
he delivered with a very clear and audible voice. For
if this be not plainly heard, all that follows in proof
cannot well be underftood, .And tor the fame
reafon, if it be divided into feveral parts or branches,
they fhould each be expreffed very deliberately and di-
r y. ... 469
But as the defign here Is only Information, Pronuncia-
there can be little room for gefture. ^
The confirmation admits of great variety both of
the voice and geftures. In reafoning, the voice is
quick and pungent, and fhould be eniorced with fuit¬
able adtions. And as deferiptions likewife have often
a place here, in painting out the images of things, the
orator fhould fo endeavour to adapt both his voice?,
and the motions of his body, particularly the turn of
his eyes, and adtion of his hands, as may beft he±p
the imagination of his hearers. Where he introduces-
another perfon {peaking, or addreffes to an abfent
perfon, it fhonld be with fome degree of imitation.
And in dialogue the voice fhould alter with the parts.
When he diverts from his fubjeft by any digreffion,
his voice fhould be lively and cheerful.; fince .that is
rather defigned for entertainment than inftru&ion.
In confutation, the arguments of the adverfe party
ought firft to be repeated in a plain and diftinft man¬
ner, that the fpeaker may not feem to conceal, or
avoid the force of them. Unlefs they appear trifling
and unworthy of a ferious anfwer ; and tnen a face¬
tious manner, both of expreffion and gefture, may be
the propereft way to confute them. For to attempt
to anfwer in a grave and lerious manner, what is in it-
felf empty and ludicrous, is apt to create a fufpicion
of its having more in it than it really has. So when
Tubero, in his accufation of Ligarius before Casfar,
had made it part of his charge, that Ligarius was in
Africa during fome part of the civil war between Cce-
far and Pompey ; Cicero in his anfwer, not thinking
it deferved a ferious reply, contents himfilf with bare-
lv mentioning it ironically. l*or thus he begins his
defence of Ligarius : “ Csefar; my kinfman Tubero
has laid before you a new crime, and till this day un¬
heard of, that Q^Ltgarius was in Africa.” Every
or.e muft.eafily perceive, by the manner in which thefe
words were pronounced, that the defign of them was
to make the charge appear ridiculous. But caution
fhould be ufed not to reprefent any argument ot
weight in a ludicrous way, left by fo doing the
fpeaker fhould more expofe himfelf than his adver-
fnry.
In the conclufion, both the voice and geflure fhould
be brifk and fprightly, which may feem to anfe from
a fenfe of the fpeaker’s opinion of the goodnefs of his
eaufe, and that he has offered nothing but what is
agreeable to reafon and truth ; as likewife from his af-
furance that the audience agree with him in the fame
fentiments. In every undertaking that requires care
and thought, perfons are apt at firft to be fedate and
moderate ; but when it is drawn to an end, and is
near finifhed, it is very natural to appear more gay.
If an enumeration of the principal arguments of the
dilcourfe be convenient, as it fometimes is, where they
are pretty numetous, or the dtfcourfe is long, they
ought to be expreffed in the moff clear and forcible
manner. And if there be an addrefs to the paffions,
both the voice and gefture muft be fuited to the nature
of them, of which more will be faid prefently.
We proceed now to the confideration of particular
exorefiions. And what we lhail offer here, will be firft
in relation to fingle words, then fentences, and laftly
the paffions.
I. Even in thofe fentences which are expreffed in
the.
Part IV.
ORATORY.
the moft even and ft date manner, there is often one man, and it may appear very indecent udipn M.'U rr p
or more words which require an emphaiis. and diftinc- vers more concern for the public fafety than for' his
r T/ju'L Te* AUnaS 7 0f thIs kind ; OWn’ A- « ^ne/s of Kind eJuauTbUoauS'
tu’f J? I it Wan' nAn J fuC,h ar^. man7 words yet this nenv form of the court terrifies my eyes, which can
of^hmgs. not difeern the ancient manner of the forum, and for¬
mer cuftom of trials, whatever way they look: your
tim
~V*
^ diiu qualities or trungs.
Such as heighten or magnify the idea of the thing to
which they are joined, elevate the voice ; as noh/e,
admirable, may file, greatly, and the like. On the con-
tirry, thofe which leffen the idea, or debafe it, deprefs
the voice, or at lead p rot raft the tone ; of which fort
are the words little, mean, poorly, contemptible, with
many others. Some tropes likewife, as metaphors and
verbal figures, which confift in the repetition of a
nngle word, fhould have a particular emphafis. As
when Virgil fays of the river Araxes, It dfdained a
Iridge. And Nifus of himfelf, in the fame poet, /, /
am the man ; where the repeated word is loudeft. This
chltindtion of words, and giving them their orouer em tX' mV7/™“U ,UCriI1UCr nC r°le, mSber’ in
phafis, does not only render the exoreffion morfrlT t'i Ml° d^C0W/\ ^ concern Jor th^ public fafety than
-J intUllirible, T”*“d «** ^ “ i‘ »«e. checked h,m
, . ' “-'ty iuuk ; your
bench is not furrounded with its ufual attendants.”
I his fentence confifts of four members. And Quin¬
tilian fuppofes, that though thefe words are the be¬
ginning of a fpeech, and were accordingly expreffed
in a calm and fubmiffive manner, yet that the orator
u, . ar &rea1t deaI oF variety in the pronunciation of
their feveral parts. In the firll member (as he ima¬
gines) his voice was more elevated in expreffing the
words, a mofl courageous man, than in thofe* other parts
of it, I am apprehenfve it may feem bafe, and, to difeover
fear. In the fecond member he rofe higher, in fayim?
*34
.A ■ n } vxpremou more clear
and intelligible, but very much contributes to the va-
r'at'0n,ofJ^.e vo,’ce> and the preventing a monotony.
And the different pronunciation of thefe words will
alio leqmre a peculiar geffure.
n- fentences, regard fhould be had to their
length, and the number of their parts, in order to di-
Itinguiih them by proper paufes. The frame and ftruc
tllre or the nenrid ill . i ^ , . .
fir- r  ^ vvcic, cueexea nim-
, in w'iat tallows, not tofhow a greatnefs of mind equal
to his caufe. The beginning of the third member, car¬
rying a refleftion in it, was fpoke with a different
tone of the voice, this new form of the court terrifies
my eyes ; and the other part of it more loud and di-
ftindily, which cannot difeern the ancient manner of thefo¬
rum, and former cujlom of trials. And the laff: mem-
...re of the periS ough likewffc to be co„fi/c“red ,W he”” “"Vr" ^ And fhe left
the voice may be fo managed as to givet the moft / *^5“ T' '**??** ^ W' « *'
u:ufical accent. Unlefs there be fnmpfr.^ '-,1 r r ^ furrounded with its ufual attendants. And it muff be
the contrary, it Ihould en^loude^than^t^e^ins^Aml f“PPofed> ,hi,t faying this, he tail his
this difference of tone between the end of The fn ^ d P ^he1afrcrnbly» and viewed the foldiers whom
fentence and the beginning'of^he next^ not^nlv'hfdtr f omPe,T ^ plaCed there’ which the expref-
to diffmguifh the fenfe, but adds to the harmnnv Pf 10n ^lli, more grave and folemn. If this was the man-
the voice. And that the laft fvllahlcs r 15 °P ner °P the. ancient orators, and they were fo exaft and
of a fentence accurate in expreffing their periods, and the fcveral
narts of thpm oo u    y i• .1
. , . ^ or a lenience
might become more audible and diftind, was doubtlefs
r r W7 f6 anC1Cnt rhetoriomns diflike ffiort
feet at the end of a period. In an antitbefis, or a fen-
tence confiftmg of oppofite parts, one contrary mull
b louder than the other. As, “ He is gone, but by a
gainful remove, from painful labour to quiet reff ; from
nqmet defires to happy contentment : from forrow to
joy j and from tranfitory time to immortality.” In a
e‘max or gradation, the voice fhould rife with it. So,
sere is no enjoyment of property without government •
™ governme”. „ magiL.e ; i magiftra.c
nteafes ' T/ 7 ° ^ wlm ^ "
rem f ^ d fo ln other gradations of a diffe-
/ °amfA ,AS’ ‘ St,nCe CRncord was friendlhip
And f’a,„ y”" W-CA -wo, if
flJfZt tmJl Ttof Rre w
fc,-ra °ther liS"ra'i'e -Pt^ton,
ment of X a. Partlcular conformation and manage-
Xs L'l .TV but ^ we prefume, with toL
r aiiu ine icveral
parts of them, as we have reafon to believe they were,
it muff have given a very great force, as weH as beau¬
ty, to their pronunciation.
J11* ^hat the paffions have each of them both a
different voice and adion, is evident from hence; that
we know in what manner a perfon is affeded, by the
tone of his voice, though we do not underffand the
jenfe of what he fays, or many times fo much as fee
him ; and we can often make the fame judgment from
his countenance and geftures. Love and efteem are
expreffed in a fmooth and cheerful tone: but anger
and lefentment, with a rough, harffr, and interrupted
voice ; for when the fpirits are difturbed and ruffled,
the organs are moved unequally. Joy raifes and di¬
lates the voice, as forrow finks and contrads it. Ci¬
cero takes notice of a paffage in an oration of Grac¬
chus, wherein he bewails the death of his brother,
who was killed by Scipio, which in his time waS
thought very moving : “ Unhappy man (fays he), whi¬
ther Jhall I betake myfelf ? where Jhall 1 go ? Into the
capitol. that flows with my brother's blood. Shall I go
home? and hrhnl/J -v,.. ...if, ; „ ,/ • 1 1 6°
icent ot the voice ; but thefe we nref,mV , ‘V r * 1 betake myfelf? where Jhall 1 go ? Into the
others we (hail have occafion to name prefentlv whX fEpit°J *? thatf°™* ^ith my brother's blood. Shall I go
XhTreft "p p"lr‘on8>.m»y be fufficiint to guitku" XV’-^ThVl? M ■” °na L
" tne relt- But that t may annear 7 a i '/\ V 1 hough Gracchus had a very ill defip-n in
Bow neceffary a different inflVS and vw Him Y 3nd bh view was to excite the populace
svx SL-ri f'SlH
T- woitrKf iFFr—
geous ihould be exp relied with pomp and magnificence : 0
furprijing
*35
Part IV.
Pronuncia- furpri/ing clemency, luirlhy of the hlyhefi pralfe and vreatefl
tio”- encomiums, and fit to be perpetuated in lading monuments !
' This is Cicero’s compliment to Crefar, when he
thought it for his purpofe. An.i oftentimes this paf-
fion is accompanied with an elevation both of the eyes
and hands. On the contrary, contempt finks and pro-
trafts the voice. In the difpute between Cicero and
Cecilius, which of them fhould aceufe Verres, Cicero
puts this contemptuous queftion to him : “ How are
you qualified, Cecilius, for fuch an undertaking ? I
will not alk, when you ever gave a proof of it ; but
when you fo much as attempted it ? Do you confider
the difficulty of managing a public caufe ?” with
much more to the fame purpofe. Though fuch kind
of expreffions require little gefture, yet fometimes a
motion of the hand may not be improper, to fignify
difdain or averfion. We may fuppofe Cicero to have
a&ed thus in his defence of Rabirius. For to (how
his affurance of his client’s caufe, having ufed this ex-
preffion in a very audible manner, “ I wifh I had it
to fay, that Rabirins had with his own hand killed
Saturninus, who was an enemy to the Roman ftate,”
fome perfons in the crowd began to raife a clamour,
juft as of later times biffing has been pra&ifed on the
like occafions. Upon which Cicero immediately re¬
plies, “ This noife does not diiturb me, but pleafe me,
fince it ftiows, though there are fome weak perfons,
yet they are but few.” Then prefently after follows
the cxpreffion we refer to: “ Why do not you ceafe
your clamour, fince it only difcovers your folly, and
the fmallnefs of your number ?” All exclamations
ORATORY.
471
should be violent. When we aldrefs to inanimate 'Pronund-a..
things, the voice fhould be higher than when to ani- ^ .
mated beings ; and appeals to heaven muft be made
in a loftier tone than thofe to men.
Thefe few hints for expreffing the principal paffions
may, if duly attended to, fuffice to direft our pra&ice
in others. Though, after all, it is impoffible to gain
a juft and decent pronunciation of voice and gefture
merely from rules, without praftice and an imitation
of the beft examples. Which ffiows the wifdom of
the ancients, in training up their youth to k, by the
affiftance of mafters, to form both their fpeech and
a&ions.
But there is one thing which ought always to be
attended to; namely, that perfons fhould well confider
their own make and genius, efpecially with refpecl to
the paffions. We feldom find, that any a£tor can ex¬
cel in all charadlers ; but if he performs one well, he
is deficient in another: And therefore they are com¬
monly fo prudent as to confine themfelves to fuch as
beft fuit them. The cafe is the fame in an orator ;
who fliould therefore keep within thofe bounds which
nature feems to have preferibed for him. Some are
better fitted for aftion than others, and moft for fome
particular actions rather than others ; and what fits
well upon one would appear very aukward in another.
Every one, therefore, ffiouid firft endeavour to know
himfelf, and manage accordingly. Though in moft
cafes, nature may be much affifted and improved by
art and exercife. See Profeffor Ward’s Syjlem of Ora*'
tory.
ORA
Oratory Oratory, among the Romanifts, a clofet or like
o jl! ^ apartment near a bed-chamber, furnifhed with an al-
rc"a ', tar, crucifix, &c. for private devotions.
ORB, in aftronomy, denotes an hollow globe or
fphere.
Orb, in ta&ics, is the difpofing of a number of
foldiers in circular form of defence. The orb has
been thought of confequence enough to employ the
attention of the famous marfhal de Puyfegur in his
art of war, who prefers this pofitfon to throw a body
of infantry in an open country, to refift cavalry, or
even a fuperior force of infantry ; becaufe it is regular,
and equally ftrong, and gives an enemy no reafon to
expeft better fuccefs by attacking one place than an¬
other. Ctefar drew his whole army in this form, when
he fought againft Labienus. The whole army of the
Gauls were formed into an orb, under the command
of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting againft; the Ro¬
mans. The orb was generally formed fix deep.
ORBIT, in aftronomy, the path of a planet or co¬
met, or the curve that it deferibes in its revolution
round its central body ; thus, the earth’s orbit is the
curve which it deferibes in its annual courfe round the
fun, and ufually called the ecliptic. See Artronomy,
paffim.
ORCADES, the Orkney Tflands. See Orkney.
ORCHARD, a garden-department, coufigned en¬
tirely to the growth of ftandard fruit-trees, for furnifh-
ing a large fupply of the moft ufeful kinds of fruit.
In the orchard you may have, as flandards, all forts
O R C
of apple-trees, moft forts of pears and pluma, and all O: chard,
forts of cherries: which four fpecies are the capital or- 'r“"‘
chard fruits; each of them comprifing numerous valu¬
able varieties. But to have a complete orchard, you
may alfo have quinces, medlars, mulberries, fervice-
trees, filberts, Spanifh nuts, berberries ; likewife wal¬
nuts and chefnuts; which two latter are particularly
applicable for the boundaries of orchards, to fereen the
other trees from the infults of impetuous winds and
cold blafts. All the trees ought to be arranged in rows
from 20 to 30 feet diftance, as hereafter diredled.
But fometimes orchards confift entirely of apple-
trees, particularly in the cyder-making counties, where
they are cultivated in very great quantities in large
fields, and in hedge-rows, for the fruit to make cyder
for public fupply.
And fometimes whole orchards of very confiderable
extent are entirely of cherry-trees. But in this cafe, it
is when the fruit is defigned for fale in fome great
city, as London, &c. for the fupply of which city,
great numbers of large cherry-orchards are in, fome
of the adjacent counties, but more particularly in
Kent, which is famous for very extenfive cherry-
orchirds; many of which are entirely of that fort call¬
ed Kentifh-cherry, as being generally a great bearer ;
others are ftored with all the principal forts of culti¬
vated cherries, from the earlieft to the lateft kinds. See
Prunus Cerafus.
*A general orchard, however, compofed of all the
before-mentioned fruit-trees, ffiuuld conlift of a doufele-
p action
1
O R C [47
portion of apple-trees or more, becaufe tlicy are con-
fiderably the moft ufeful fruit, and may be continued
for ufe the year round.
The utility of a general orchard, both for private
-ufe and profit, ftored with the various forts of fruit-
trees, muft be very great, as well as afford infinite plea-
fare from the delightful appearance it makes from early
fpring till late in autumn : In fpring the various trees
in bloffom are highly ornamental; in fummer, the
pleafure is heightened by obferving the various fruits
advancing to perfeftion ; and as the feafon advances,
the mature growth of the different fpecies arriving to
perfection, in regular fucceffion, from May or June,
until the end of Oftober, muft afford exceeding de¬
light, as well as great profit.
Of the proper Evtent, Situation, and Soil for this De¬
partment.^ As to the proper extent of ground for an
orchard, this muft be proportioned, in fome meafurc,
to the extent of land you have to work on, and the
quantity of fruit required either for private ufe or for
public fupply : fo that an orchard may be from half
an acre to 20 or more in extent
With refpeCf to the fituation and afpeCt for an orch¬
ard, we may obferve very thriving orchards both in
low and high fituations, and on declivities and plains,
in various afpeefs or expofures, provided the natural
foil is good : we fhould, however, avoid very low
damp fituations as much as the nature of the place will
admit ; for in very wet foils no fruit trees will profper,
nor the fruit be fine : but a moderately low fituation,
free from copious wet, may be more eligible than an
.-elevated ground, as being lefs expofed to tempeftuous
winds ; though a fituation having a fmall declivity is
veiy defirable, efpecially if its afpeft incline towards
the eaft, fouth-eaft, or foutheily, which are rather
more eligible than a wefterly afpect; hut a north
afpeCt is the world of all for an orchard, unlefs particu¬
larly compenfated by the peculiar temperament or
good quality of the foil.
And as for foil, any common field or pafture that
produces good crops of corn, grafs, or kitchen-gar¬
den vegetables, is fuitable for an orchard; if it fhould
prove of a loamy nature, it will be a particular advan¬
tage : any foil, however, of a good quality, not too
light and dry, or too heavy, ftubborn, or wet, but of
a medium nature, of a foft, pliant temperature, not lefs
than one fpade deep of good ftaple, will be proper for
this purpofe.
Preparation of the Ground.~\ The preparation ef the
ground for the reception of trees, is by trenching; or,
if for very confiderable orchards, by deep ploughing ;
but trench-digging, one or two fpades, as the foil will
admit, is the moft eligible, either wholly, or only for
Jute prefent in the places where the lines of trees are
to ft and, a fpace of fix or eight feet wide, all the way
in each row, efpecially if it be grafs-ground, and in¬
tended to be kept in the fward ; or if any under-crops
are defigned to be raifed, the ground may be wholly
trenched at firft : in either cafe trench the ground in
the ufual way to the depth of the natural foil; and if
m grafs, turn the fward clean to the- bottom of each
trench, which, when rotted, will prove an excellent
manure.
In planting orchards, however, on grafa-grounds,
fome only dig pits for each tree, capacious enough for
N9252. a
O R C
the reception of tire roots, loofening the bottom well,
without the labour of digging any other part of the
ground.
The ground muft be fenced fecurely againft cattle,
&c.either with a good ditch and hedge, orwith a paling-
fence, as may be moft convenient. See Hedges.
Method of planting the Trees.~\ The beft feafon for
planting all the forts of fruit-trees is autumn, foon af-
ter the fall of the leaf, from about the latter end of
O&ober until December; or indeed it might be per¬
formed any time in open weather from October until
March.
Choofe principally full ftandards, with ftraight clean
ftems, fix feet high; each with a branchy well-formed
head, or from two or three to four or five years growth;
and let feveral varieties of each particular fpecies be
chofen, that ripen their fruit at different times, from
the earlieft to the laceft, according to the nature of the
different forts, that there may be a proper fupply of
every fort regularly during their proper feafon. Of
apples and pears in particular, choofe a much greater
quantity of the autumnal and late-ripening kinds than
of the early forts ; but moft of all of apples: for the
fummer-ripening fruit is but of fhort duration, only
proper for temporary fervice ; but the later ripening
kinds keep found fome confiderable time for autumnal
ufe ; and the lateft forts that ripen in October, con¬
tinue in perfedion for various ufes all winter, and fe¬
veral forts until the feafon of apples come again.
Having made choice of the proper forts, and mark¬
ed them, let them be taken up with the utmoft care,
fo as to preferve all their roots as entire as poffible ;
and when taken up, prune off any broken or bruifed
parts of the roots, and juft tip the ends of the princi¬
pal roots, in general, with the knife on the under fide,
with a kind of flope outward.
If the trees have been already headed, or fo trained
as to have brauched cut into regular fhoots to form
each a proper head, they muft be planted with the
faid heads entire, only retrenching or fhortening any
irregular or ill-placed finoot that takes an aukward di-
redion, or grows acrofs its neighbours, or fuch as may
run confiderably longer than all the reft, &c.
The arrangement of the trees in the orchard muft
be in rows, each kind feparate, at diftanees according to
the nature of the growth of the different forts; but for
the larger growing kinds, fuch as apples, pears, plums,
cherries, &c. they fhould Hand from 25 to 30 or 40
feet every way afunder, though 25 or 30 feet at moft
is a reafonable diftance for all thefe kinds.
Each fpecies and its varieties fhouid generally be in
rows by themfelves, the better to fuit their refpediive
modes of growth : though for variety there may be
fome rows of apples and pears arranged alternately, as
alio of plums and cherries ; and towards the bounda¬
ries there^ may be ranges of leffer growth, as quinces,
medlars, filberts, &c. and the outer row of all may be
walnut-trees, and fome chefnuts, fet pretty clofe to de¬
fend the other trees from violent winds.
According to the above diftances, proceed to flake
out^the ground for making the holes for the reception
of the trees ; which if made to range every way, will
have a very agreeable effedt, and admit the currency
of air, and the fun’s influence more effedlually.
But in planting very extenlive orchards, fome di¬
vide
Orchard.
O R C
[ 473 3
O R C
■'Orchard, vide t’ne eround into large fquares or quarters, of dif>
Crrhcfton. ferent dimenfions, with intervals of fifty feet wide be-
11 y ' tween ; ferving both as walks, and for admitting a
greater currency of air ; in different quarters planting
different forts of fruit, as apples in one, pears in an¬
other, and plums and cherries in others, &c. and thus
it may be repeated to as many quarters for each fpe-
cier and its varieties as may be convenient.
As to the mode of planting the trees: A wide hole
muft be dug for each tree, capacious enough to re¬
ceive all the roots freely every way without touching
the tides. When the holes are all ready, proceed to
planting, one tree in each hole, a perfon holding the
flem eredt, whilft another trims in the earth, pre-
vioufly breaking it fmall, and calling it in equally all
about the roots, frequently fhaking the tree to caufe
the mould to fettle in clofe about all the fmaller roots
and fibres, and fo as to raife the tree gradually up,
that the crown of the roots may be but two or three
inches below the general furface ; and when the hole
is filled up, tread it gently, firft round the outlide,
then near the flem of the tree, forming the fu'rface a
little hollow ; and then if on the top of all is laid fome
inverted turf to the width of the holes, forming it
with a fort of circular bank, three or four inches high,
it will fupport the tree, and guard the roots from dry¬
ing winds and the fummer’s drought : obferving that
each tree ftand perfectly upright, and that they range
exadily in their proper rows.
OTICHESTON St Mary’s, on Salifbury plain in
Willfhire, about nine miles fiom Salifbury. There is
a curious fpecies of grais found at this place in a
meadow belonging to Lord Rivers, at prefent in the
pofTeflion of a farmer.
The meadow is fituated on a fmall brook, is fre¬
quently overflowed, and fometimes continues fo a great
part of the winter. It bears the greateft burden in a
wet feafon.
We have the following account of this peculiar fpe-
cies of grafs in Letters and Papers in Agriculture, &c.
The farmer in whofe poffeflion the meadow is, informs
us, “ That it generally grows to the height of about
18 inches, and then falls and runs along the ground in
knots to the length of 16 or 18 feet, but that he has
known inftances of its running to the length of 25
feet.
“ The meadow contains about two acres and a half.
It is mowed twice in a feafon, and the average quan¬
tity is generally about twelve loads (tons) of hay the
frrft mowing, and fix the fecond ; though fometimes
confiderably more. The tithe of the meadow has been
compounded for at 9I. a year. The grafs is of a very
fweet nature ; all cattle, and even pigs, eat it very ea¬
gerly. When made into hay, it is excellent, and im¬
proves beafls greatly. The farmer Lys, his horfes
will eat it in preference to corn mixed with chaff, when
both are fet before them together.”
“ T his account appeared to us fo Angular, and the
crop of grafs fo very extraordinary, that our fecretary
went to Orchtflon to examine more particularly into
it. The farmer, and divers other perfons in the vil¬
lage, conflrmed the account contained in this letter, of
its amazing produce in fummers when the meadows
bad been overflowed in the preceding winter and
fpring; but when the winter had been dry, and the
Vot. XIII. Part IL
meadow not overflowed, the crop of grafs was not Orchefton.
near fo large. There did net appear to be any thing' “V”
peculiar in the foil; nor were the other plants or weeds
growing on it more luxuriant than in many other fi-
milar fituations. Some of this grafs was fent to the
fociety at Norwich; fome ingenious members of which
inform us, that they think it is a fpecies of the agroftls
polymorphia, mentioned by Hudfon in his Flora Anglica,
of which there are feveral varieties.
“ Camden mentions, in his Britavnia, a grafs grow¬
ing near the place where this is found, which he calls
trailing Dog's grafs, and fays, that * hogs were fed
with it.’
“ From all the inquiry made, we have not found
this fpecies of grafs growing in any other part of the
kingdom; hence it is poffible that there may be fome*
thing in the foil of this meadow peculiarly favourable
to its growth. We fhall not, however, determine on
this point, but recommend trials to be made of propa¬
gating it, by flowing the feed in other places fubjehb
to be overflowed in the fame manner. If it can be
propagated generally, it mull turn out the moft pro¬
fitable to the farmer of any grafs yet difeovered, and
be of great beneflt to the community.”
We have this further account of it in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine for March 1782 : “ The firfl: notices
of the Orchefton or Maddington grafs, as far as I can
And, are to be met with in Dr How’s Philologia Bri¬
tannic a, printed in 1650, where it is called ‘ Gramen ca-
ninum fupinum longijjimumi non deferiptum, and is faid to
grow nine miles from Salifbury, by Mr Tucker’s at
Maddington, wLerewith they fatten hogs, and which
is 24 feet long ; and which’, the author adds, ‘ may
happily be a kind of gramen canmum fupinum, though
Gerard it upright dog's grafs.' Mr Stonehoufe,
p. 26. I have not been able to afeertain the refidence
of Mr Stonehoufe, who feems to have been the Arft;
that made the know ledge of this grafs public. He is
mentioned feveral times in Ray’s Synopfs Stirpium ;
but I can And no anecdotes relative to him. Dr How’s
account is taken into Merret’s Pinax, printed in 1667,
the author having added, that ‘ this grafs is alfo found
in fome parts of Wales.’ Mr Ray mentions it from
both thefe authors, in his Catalogus Plantarum Anglia,
1670 ; and refers to Fuller’s Worthies for a farther ac¬
count of it, wdiich work wras printed in 1662. It does
not appear that Ray had any opportunity of examin¬
ing this remarkable produftion, Ance he has not intro¬
duced it into bis Synopfs, in either of the editions
which were publifhed in his lifetime ; and in the lift
of Wiltfhire plants printed in Camden’s Britannia, he
recommends it to the inquiAtion of the induftrious
herbalifts of that country. Dr Dillenius afterwards
introduced it into the Indiculus plantarum dubiarum,
ful joined to the third edition of Ray’s Synopfis.
“ Since the fpirit of improvement in agriculture
has been excited of late years, the curiofity of the
public has been raifed relating to it, but the fpecies
w'as not fufficiently determined. It has been thought
by fome to be the alopecurus geniculatus, or fiote fox-tad
grafs, of Hudfon’s 2d edit. p. 27. by others
to be the agrofis folonifera, or creeping lent-grafs, ib.
p. 31. See The Farmer's Magazine for 1778, p. 232,
259, 289, 790.
“ Being very defirous of having this matter cleared
3 0 «P»
O R C r 474 1 O R C
©rchefton tjp, I procured in July laft, from the farmer himfelf at receptacle, between the divifion of the petals ; the Orchk
Orchis Addington, a bundle of this grafs when it was in upper lip is fhort and ereft, the under large, broad
fpike ; and by this means I found it to be no other  >-->—
than the triticunt repem> Hudfon, p. yy. or common clogs
grafs, quick-grafs, or couch-grafs, in a moil luxuriant
flate of growth. The length of the culm is greatly
influenced by the nature of the feafons. Its place of
growth is in a meadow that is covered with water du¬
ring the grenteft part of the winter and fpring. In
this inundated foil it acquires a length of ftalk,aa fuc-
culency, and vigour, which are indeed very furprifing.
Of the bundle that was fent to me, moil of the plants
were feven feet long, and many of the fpikes or ears
contained 38 and 40 glumes, or flower-bearing hulks;
whereas the plant in common does not contain more
than half that number: and it was faid by the people
of that neighbourhood to have been a very unfavour¬
able feafon for this grafs.
£‘ That the above-mentioned fpecies is the grafs
which at this time conftitutes the bulk of that afto-
nilhing crop which we read of, is to me fufflciently af-
certained ; but whether, ever fince the firft notice of
this grafs, this fpecies alone has been the cultured
one in this fituation, I do not decide, but think it a
matter worthy of further inveftigation; fince it flrould
feem that the foil and fituation are in a peculiar man¬
ner adapted to certain plants of the graminous tribe.
I obferved that a plant or two of the phalarh arundina-
cea, or reed Canary grafs, Hudfon, p. 2 3. which by ac¬
cident were fent with the above-mentioned grafs, ex¬
ceeded in the thicknefs and fucculency of the ftalk the
ordinary fize, and were alfo equal to the dogs grafs in
length.’,
Thefe cxtradts we thought it our duty to lay before
our readers ; and we have done it without any obfer-
vation or comment of our own ; becaufe we with to
give them every information which is either curious or
may be ufeful: and with this we reft fatisfied, not
wifhing to obtrude our remarks, where, from the fcan-
tunefs of information or the doubtfulnefs of the cafe,
they cannot be made with confidence.
ORCHES FRA, in the Grecian theatres, was that
part of the profeenium or ftage where the chorus ufed
to dance. In the middle of it was placed the hoy io*
or pulpit. The orcheftra was femicircular, and fur-
rounded with feats. In the Roman theatres it made
no part of feena, but anfwered pretty nearly to the
pit in our playhoufes, being taken up with feats for
fenators, magiftrates, veftals, and other perfons of di-
ftinftion. The aftors never went down into it. See
Theatre.
ORCHIA lex, inftituted by Orchius the tribune
in the year of Rome 566. Its intention was to limit
the number of guefts that were to be admitted at an
entertainment; and it alfo enforced,Ithat during fupper,
which was the chief meal among the Romans, the
doors of every houfe fhould be left open.
ORCHIS, fool-stones : A genus of the diandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method giving name to the feventh or¬
der, Orchida Its chara&ersare thefe: It has a Angle
ftalk, with a vague fheath, and no empalement; the
flower hath five petals, three without and two within;
the aeftarium is of one leaf, fixed to the fide of the
and fpreading ; the tube is pendulous, corniform, or
like a horn, and prominent behind ; it hath two (hort
flender ftamina, fitting upon the pointil, with oval
ere<ft fummits, fixed to the upper lip of the nedarium;
it hath an oblong contorted germen, under the flower,
with a fhort ftyle, faftened to the upper lip of :he nec-
tarium ; the germen afterwards turns to an oblong
capfule, with one cell, having three keel-fhaped valves,
opening on the three fides, but jointed at top and bot¬
tom, filled with fmall feeds like duft. Miller enume¬
rates 10, and Linnaeus 33 fpecies.
All thofe forts of orchis deferibed by Miller grow
wold in feveral parts of England, but on account of
the extreme oddnefs and beauty of their flowers, de-
ferve a place in every good garden ; and the reafon of
their not being cultivated in gardens, proceeds from
the difficulty of tranfplantirig them : though this may
be eafily overcome, where a perfon has an opportuni¬
ty of marking their roots, in their time of flowering,
and letting them remain until their leaves are decayed,
when they may be tranfplauted with fafety ; for it is the
fame with moft forts of bulbous or flefhy-rootcd plants,
which, if tranfplanted before their leaves decay, feldom
live, notwithftanding you preferve a large ball of earth
about them ; for the extreme parts of their fibres ex¬
tend to a great depth in the ground, from whence
they receive their nourifhment, which if broken or da¬
maged by taking up their roots, feldom thrive after ;
for though they may fometimes remain alive a year or
two, yet they grow weaker until they quite decay ;
which is alfo the cafe with tulips, fritillarias, and other
bulbous roots. But if their foil and fituation be adapt¬
ed to their various forts, they will thrive and continue
feveral years, and during their feafon of flowering will
afford as great varieties as any flowers which are at
prefent cultivated.
The moft remarkable fpecies are the following :
I. The mafcula, or male fool-ftones, hath a root com-
pofed of two bulbs, crowned with oblong, broad,
{potted leaves ; upright-ftalks, a foot high; garnifhed cccxux„
with one or two narrow amplexicaule leaves; and ter¬
minated by a long fpike of reddifh purple flowers, ha¬
ving the petals reflexed backward ; a quadrilobed cre-
nated lip to the nectarium, and an obtufe horn. The
flowers of this fpecies poflefs a very agreeable odour.
The orchis mafcula, Lin. fp. pi. is the moft valuable;
although the roots of fome of the palmated forts, par¬
ticularly of the orchis latifolia, arc found to anfwer al-
moft equally well.
2. The morio, or female orchis, hath a double bul¬
bous root, crowned with oblong, ribbed, fpreading
leaves ; ere& flower-ftalks, eight or ten inches high;
garnifhed with a few amplexicaule leaves; and termi¬
nated by a fhort loofe fpike of flowers, having conni-
vent petals, a quadrifid crenated lip to the ncftarium9
and an obtufe horn.
3. The militaris, or man-orchis, hath a double bul¬
bous root, crowned with oblong amplexicaule leaves 5.
ereft flower-flalks, eight or ten inches high ; termi¬
nated by a loofe fpike of afh-coloured and reddifh
flowers, having confluent petals; a quinquefid, rough,
fpotted lip to the nedtarium, and an obtufe horn. The
ftrudure
Plate
ORB [ 47c ] ORB
Orchis ftru&ure of the flowers exhibit the figure of a naked
II man ; and are often of different colours in the fame
0rcjea1, ; flower, as afh colour, red, brown, and dark-ftriped.
Culture and Properties. All the orchifes are very
hardy perennials, with bulbous flefliy roots. The
flowers appear in May, June, and July, but princi¬
pally in June: their mode of flowering is univerfally
in fpikes, many flowers in each fpike; and each flower
is compofed of five petals in two feries, and a nefta-
rium. The feafon for removing them is in fummer,
after they have done flowering, when their leaves and
ftalks decay : plant them three inches deep, and let
them remain undillurbed feveral years ; for the lefs
they are removed, the ftronger they will flower.
The roots of all the fpecies have a remarkable re-
femblance to the fcrotum of animals, whence the
name. This plant flourifhes in various parts of Eu¬
rope and Afia, and grows in our country fpontane-
oufly, and in great abundance. It is afliduoufly cul¬
tivated in the Eaft; and the root of it forms a confi-
derable part of the diet of the inhabitants of Turkey,
Perfia, and Syria. From it is made the alimentary
powder called salep; whmh, prepared from foreign
roots, is fold at five or fix {hillings per pound, though
it might be furnifhed by ourlelves at the fixth part of
that price, if we chofe to pay any attention to the
culture of this plant. The orchis mafcula is the moil
valued for this purpofe. A dry and not very fertile
foil is belt: adapted to its growth.
The propereit time forgathering the roots, is when
the feed is formed, and the ftalk is ready to fall ; he-
caufe the new bulb, of which the falep is made, is
then arrived to its full maturity, and may be diftin-
guifhed from the old one, by a white bud riling from
the top of it, which is the germ of the orchis of the
fucceeding year.
The culture of the orchis is an obje6t highly de-
ferving of encouragement from all the lovers of agri¬
culture. And as the root, if introduced into com¬
mon ufe, would furniih a cheap, wholefome, and moll
nutritious article of diet, the growth of it would be
fufficiently profitable to the farmer. See Salep.
ORCUS, god of the infernal regions, the fame
with Pluto, fo called from the Greek word 0FX.0<> fig-
nifying a “ tomb or fepulchre,” or from “ an
oath by the river Styx.” The ancients gave this
name to all the divinities of the infernal regions,
even to Cerberus. There was a river of the fame
name in Theflaly, which took its rife from the
marfhes of the Styx, and the waters of which were fo
thick that they floated like oil upon the furface of the
river Peneus, into which they difeharged themfelves.
This river probably fuggefted to the poets the idea of
the infernal abodes, which they denominated Onus.
This deity has been confounded with Charon: he had
a temple at Rome.
ORDEAL, an ancient form of trial. See Trial.
— It was an appeal to the immediate interpofitioa of
divine power, and was peculiarly diftinguilhed by the Ordeal,
appellation of judicium Dei; and fometimes vulgaris '-—-v*""'
purgatio, to diftinguilh it from the canonical purga¬
tion, which was by the oath of the party. There
were two forts of it more common than the reft, at
lea ft in Europe, fire-ordeal, and water-ordeal. The for¬
mer was confined to perfons of higher rank, the latter
to the common people. Both thefe might be performed
by deputy : but the principal was to anfwer for the
fuccefs of the trial ; the deputy only venturing fome
corporal pain, for hire or perhaps for friendfhip.
That the purgation by ordeal, of fome one kind or
other, is very ancient, admits not of a doubt; and that
it was very univerfal in the times of fuperftitious bar¬
barity, is equally certain. It feems even to have been
known to the ancient Greeks: for in the Antigone
of Sophocles, a perfon fufpe&ed by Creon of a mif-
demeanour, declares himfelf ready “ to handle hot
iron and to walk over fire” in order to manifeft his
innocence ; which the fcholiaft tells us was then
a very ufual purgation. And Grotius gives us many
inftances of water-ordeal in Bithynia, Sardinia, and
other places. It feems, however, to be carried to a
greater height among the Hindoos, than ever it has
been in any nation or among any people however rude
or barbarous ; for in a paper of the Afiatic Refearches
communicated by the celebrated Warren Haftings,
Efq ; we find that the trial by ordeal among them is con-
duefted in nine different ways : firft, by the balance ; fe-
condly, by fire ; thirdly, by water ; fourthly, by poifon ?
fifthly, by the Coflia, or water in which an idol has
been wafhed ; fixthly, by rice ; feventhly, by boiling oih{
eighthly, by red-hot iron ; ninthly, by images.
I. Ordeal by the balance is thus performed. The
beam having been previoufly adjlifted, the cord fixed,
and both feales made perfecfly even, the perfon ac-
cufed and a Pandit faff a whole day ; then, after the
acculed has been bathed in facred water, the homaf
or oblation, prefen ted to fire, and the deities worftup-
ped, he is carefully weighed ; and, when he is taken
out of the fcale, the Pandits proftrate themfelves be¬
fore it, pronounce a certain mentra or incantation,
agreeably to the Saftras, and, having written the fub-
ftance of the accufation on a piece of paper, bind it
on his head. Six minutes after, they place him again
in the fcale ; and, if he weigh more than before, he
is held guilty ; if lefs, innocent ; if exaftiy the fame,
he muft be weighed a third time ; when, as it is writ¬
ten in the Mitacfhera, there wall certainly be a diffe¬
rence in his weight. Should the balance, though
well fixed, break down, this wotnd be confi iered as a
proof of his guilt.
II. For the fire-erdeal, an excavation, nine hands
long, two fpans broad, and one fpan deep, is made in
the ground, and filled with a fire of pippal wood : in¬
to this the perfon accufed muft walk bare footed; and,
if his foot be unhurt, they hold him blamelefs ; if
burned, guilty (a).
3 O 2 III.
(a) In Europe fire-ordeal was performed either by taking up in the hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot iron,
of one, two, or three pounds weight; or elfe by walking, barefoot, and blindfold, over nine red-hot plough-
Ihares, laid lengthwife at unequal diftances : and if the party efcaped being hurt, he was adjudged innocent |
but if it happened otherwife, as without collufion it ufually did, he wa§ then condemned as guilty. How-
'»-.ver, by this latter method Queen Emma, the mother of Edward the Confeffor, is mentioned to have clear
•el
O R D [ 476 ] O R D
Orden1. Uf. Wster ordeal is performed by caufing the per-
-"■V " fon accufed to fland in a-fufficient depth of water, ei¬
ther flowing or ftagnant, to reach his navel; but care
fhould be taken, that no ravenous animal be in it,
and that it be not moved by much air: a brahman is
then directed to go into the water, holding a ftaff in
his hand ; and a fol lier (hoots three arrows on dry
ground from a bow of cane: a man is next difpatched
to bring the arrow which has been (hot fartheft; and,
after he has taken it up, another is ordered to run
from the edge of the water; at which inftant the
perfon accufed is told to grafp the foot or the (taff of
the brahman,' who (lands near him in the water, and
immediately to dive into it. He mud remain under
water, till the two men, who went to fetch the ar¬
rows, are returned; for, if he raife his head or body
above the furface, before the arrows are brought back,
his guilt is confidered as fully proved. In the villages
near Benares, it is the practice for the perfon who is
to be tried by this kind of ordeal, to (land in water
up to his navel, and then, holding the foot of a brah¬
man, to dive under it as long as a man can walk 50
paces very gently ; if, before the man has walked
thus far, the accufed rife above the water, he is con¬
demned ; if not, acquitted (b).
XV. There are two forts of trial by poifon ; firft,
the Pandits having performed their homa, and the
perfon accufed his ablution, two rettis and a half, or
feven barley-corns, of vijhanaga^ a poifonous root, or
offunc'hya, that is, white arfenic, are mixed in eight
tnajhas, ,or 64 rettis, of clarified butter, which the
accufed mud eat from the hand of a brahman : if
the poifon produce no vihble eflfefl, he is abfolved ;
otherwife, condemned. Secondly, the hooded fnake,
called nag a, is thrown into a deep earthen pot, into
which is dropped a ring, a feal, or a coin : this the
perfon accufed is ordered to take out with his hand ;
and, if the ferpent bite him, he is pronounced guilty}
if not, innocent.
V. Trial by the co(ha is as follows: the accufed is
made to drink three draughts of the water, in which
the images of the fun, of devi, and other deities, have
been walhed for that purpofe ; and if, within 14 days,
he has any (icknefs or indifpofftion, his crime is con*
fidered as proved.
VI. When feveral perfons are fufpefted of theft*
fome dry rice is weighed with the (acred Hone called
falgram, or certain Jlocas are read over it; after which
the fufpe&ed perfons are feverally ordered to chew a
quantity of it: as foon as they have chewed it, they
are to throw it on fome leaves vipippal, or, if none
be at hand, on fome b’hufja pair a, or bark of a tree
from Nepal or Cafhmir. i he man, from whofe mouth
the rice comes dry or ftained with blood, is hoidea
guilty, the retl are acquitted.
VII. The ordeal by hut oil is very Ample : when it
is heated fufficiently, the accufed thrufls his hand into
it } and, if he be not burned, is held innocent (c).
Vlli
Orelcab
*d her chara&er, when fufpefted of familiarity with Alwyn bifliop of Wincbefter. The firfl: account we have
of Chriftians appealing to the fire-ordeal, as a proof of their innocence, is that of Simplicius, bifhop of Au-
tun, who lived in the fourth century. This prelate, as the ilory is related, before his promotion to the epif-
copal order, had married a wife, who loved him tenderly, and who, unwilling to quit him after his advance¬
ment, continued to deep in the fame chamber with him. The fan£lity of Simplicius fuffered, at lead in the
voice of fame, by the conllancy of his wife’s affedtion ; and it was rumoured about, that the holy man,
though a bifhop, perfifted, in oppofition to the eccleliafiical canons, to tade the fweets of matrimony: upon
which his wife, in the prefence of a great concourfe of people, took up a coniiderable quantity of burning
coals, which (ne held in her cl oaths, and applied to her breads, without the lead hurt to her perfon or her
garments, as the legend fays ; and her example being followed by her hufband with the like fuccefs, the (illy
multitude admired the miracle, and proclaimed the innocence of the loving pair. A Amilar trick was play¬
ed by St Brice, in the Afth century. Mofh. Eccl. Hijl. v. 2.
(b) A very peculiar fpecies of water-ordeal is faid to prevail among the Indians on the coad of Malabar,
A perfon accufed of an enormous crime is obliged to fwim over a large river abounding with crocodiles; and
if he efcapes unhurt, he is edeemed innocent.
At Siam, bdides the ufual methods of Are and water ordeal, both parties are fometimes expofed to the
fury of a tiger let loofe for that purpofe ; and if the bead fpares either, that perfon is accounted innocent;
if neither, both are held to be guilty; but if he fpares both, the trial is incomplete, and they proceed to a
more certain criterion.
In Europe water-ordeal was performed, either by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in boiling-water,
and efcaping unhurt thereby, or by cading the perfon fufpecled into a river or pond of cold water ; and if
he floated therein without any a&ion of fwimming, it was deemed an evidence of his guilt ; But if he funk,
he was acquitted. It is eafy to trace out the traditional relics of this water-ordeal, in the ignorant barba¬
rity dill pra&ifed in many countries to difeover witches, by cading them into a pool of water, and drowning
them to prove their innocence. And in the Eadern empire the fire-ordeal was ufed for the fame purpofe by
fhe emperor Theodore Lafcaris; who, attributing his ficknefs to magic, caufed all thole whom he fufpe&ed
to handle the hot iron: thus joining (as has been well remarked) to the mod dubious crime in the world,
the mod dubisus proof of innocence.
. (c) Bhis fpecies of trial by ordCal is thus performed : The ground appointed for the trial is cleared and rubbed
with cow-dung ; and the next day at fun-rife the Pandit worlhips Ganefa or the Hindoo Janus, prefents hia obla-r
tions, and pays adoration to other deities, conformably to the Sajlra; then having read the incantation preferibed,
he places a round pan of gold, filver, copper, iron, or clay, with a diameter of fixteen fingers, and four fingers deep ;
and throws into it oney^r, or eightyweight, of clarified butter or oil of fefatnum. After this a ring of
O R D [ 477 1 . . ° R D . ,
1 t Tr r .'l r thev an iron ial/, c. Unlefs the lofs of the accufer amount to a thou-
_grdica • , V1/ T/n f/n red hot ond place it in the fand pieces of filver, the accufed muft not be tried by
baH, nor by poifon, nor by the fcaka ;
hands ot the pcrion accmea , wi , but if the o(rellce be againft thc king, or if the crime
,s the crdeal by Mcrmird, which ia be heinous, he muft acquit himfelf by one of thofe
the name of the //oca appropriated to this mode of trial, trials in all cares.
Ordeal.
viiv- ».*• v-i r i  • r • r
either an image, named Dharma, or the genius ot jul_
tice, is made of filver, and another, called Jdharma, of
clay or iron, both of which are thrown into a large
earthen jar ; and the accufed having thruft his hand
into it, is acquitted if he bring out the filver image,
but condemned if he draw forth the iron ; or, the fi¬
gure of a deity is painted on wdiite cloth, and another
on black ; the firft of which they name dharma, and
the fecond adharma: thefeare feverally rolled up in cow-
dung, and thrown into a large jar without having ever
been fhown to the accufed ; who muft put his hand
into the jar, and is acquitted or convicted as he draws
out the figure on white or on black cloth.
Though we have pioceeded thus far, we have not
exhaufted Mr Haftings’s communication. . He goes
on to fhow (to greater extent than our limits permit
us to follow him) the manner in which each ordeal
abovementioned was executed, giving examples, and
unfolding other particulars of fome importance in de¬
veloping the nature of thefe barbarous cuftoms. For
thefe particulars, however, we muft refer to the book
itfelf. But as this fubjedl unqueftionably occupies an
important department in the hiftory of human fuper-
llition, we fhall give the Indian law of ordeal from the
fame paper; when we fhall introduce fome further
particulars concerning this extraordinary cuftom,
which are not to be found in the above account, but
which deferve to be noticed.
“ i. Thc balance, fire, water, poifoa, the idol—thefe
are the ordeals ufed here below for the proof of inno¬
cence, when the accufations are heavy, and when the
accufcr offers to hazard a mulft (if he fhouid fail) :
2. Or one party may be tried, if he pleafe, by or-
. deal, and the other muft then rifle an amercement;
but the trial may take place even without any wager,
if the crime committed be injurious to the prince.
g. The fovereign, having fummoned the accufed
while his clothes are yet moift from bathing, at fun-
rife, before he has broken his faft, fhall caufe all trials
by ordeal to he condufted in the prefence of Brahmans.
4. The balance is for women, children, old men,
the blind, the lame, Brahmans, and the frek ; for the
Stiilra, fire or water, or feven barley-corns of poifon.
trials in all cafes.
6. He who has recotirfe to the balance muft be at¬
tended by perfons experienced in weighing, and go
down into one fcale, with an equal weight placed in
the other, and a groove (with water in it) marked on
the beam.
7. « Thou, O balance, art the manfion of truth ;
thou waft anciently contrived by deities: declare the
truth, therefore, O giver of fuccefs, and clear me from
all fufpicion.
8. ‘ If 1 am guilty, O venerable as my own mo¬
ther, then fink me down ; but if innocent, raife me
aloft.’ Thus fhall he addrefs the balance.
9. If he fink he is convi&ed, or if the feales be
broken ; but if the firing be not broken, and he rife
aloft, he muff be acquitted.
10. On the trial by fire, let both hands of the ac¬
cufed be rubbed with rice in the hufk, and well exa¬
mined : then let feven leaves of the Afwatt'ha (the re¬
ligious fig-tree) be placed on them, and bound with-
feven threads.
xi. ‘ Thou, O fire, pervadeft all beings; O caufe
of purity, who giveft evidence of virtue and of lin, de¬
clare the truth in this my hand.*
12. When he has pronounced this, the prieft ftiall
place in both his hands an iron ball, red-hot, and
weighing fifty {T>)palas.
13. Having taken it, he fhall ftep gradually into
feven circles, each with a diameter of iixteen fingers,
and feparated from the next by the fame fpace.
14. If, having caft away the hot ball, he fhall again
have his hands rubbed with rice in the hufk, and fhall
fhow them unburned, he will prove his innocence.
Should the iron fall during the trial, or fhouid a doubt
arife (on the regularity of the proceedings), he muft
be tried again.
15. ‘ Preferve me, O Varuna, by declaring the
truth.’ Thus having invoked the god of waters, the
accufed fhall plunge his head into the river or pool,
and hold both thighs of a man, who fhall Hand in it
up to his navel :
16. A fwift xunner fhall then haften to fetch an
arrow fhot at the moment of his plunging ; and if,
while the runner is gone, the piiefl fhall fee the head
of
srold, or filver, or iron, is cleaned and wafhed with water, and caft into the oil; which they proceed to heat,
and when it is very hot put into it a frefh leaf of pippala, or of bilmia : when the leaf is burned, the oil xs
known to be fufficiently hot. Then, having pronounced a mentra over the oil, they order the party accufed
to take the ling out of the pan ; and if he take it out without being burned, or without a blifter on his
hand, his innocence is confidered as proved; if not, his guilt *• v ,
(d) A pala is four carjhas, and a carjha eighty ratiicds, or feeds of the Gunga creeper, each weighing above
s grain and a quarter, or, correftly, WV gr.
* Ft is rerorted, that this cuftom, with fome flight variations, ftill prevails among the Indians on the coaft of Malabar. The
nrocefs there is faid to begin after the aca.fed perfon has been thoroughly waited in the prefence of the prince of the country,
the nriefb Ac.the pot is filled with boiling lead; and the accufed muft take the ring out three times fucceffively. On the
Malabar coaft, this ordeal Teems only to be ufed when the perfoa is accufed of a capital crime ; for after the procefs the arm is
hound with cloth and fealed; and after feveral days, being brought out publicly, and the arm infpedled, if it is .ound burnt he
isinflamly put to death; if not, his accuier undergoes the fame trial, and being burnt, forfeits his hie.
Orueal
O R D I 478
of the aCcufed under water, he muft be difeharged as
innocent.
17. ‘ Thou, O poifon, art the child of Brahma,
ftedfaft in juftice and in truth : clear me then from this
heavy charge, and, if I have fpoken truly, become
nedlar to me.’
18. Saying this, he fhall fwallow the poifon Sarnga,
from the tree, which grows on the mountain Hima¬
laya ; and if he digefts it without any inflammation,
the prince {hall pronounce him guiltlefs.
ip* Or the prieft. flrall perform rites to the image
of fome tremendous deity ; and, having bathed the
idol, {hail make the accufed to drink three handfuls of
the water that has dropped from it:
20._ If in fourteen days after he fuffer no dreadful
calamity from the aft of the deity or of the king, he
muft indubitably be acquitted."
The fuperftitious weaknefs of mankind, when left
to themfelvei, is aftonifhing. There is indeed no.
thing fo abfurd but they may be made mold firmly to
believe, nor fo impious but they will do. Nor can a
more notorious inltance of the truth of this aflertion
be poffibly given than that of the trial by ordeal. The
grofs abfurdity as well as impiety of pronouncing a
man guilty unlefs he was cleared by a miracle, and of
expefting that all the powers of nature fliould be fuf-
pended by an immediate interpofition of providence
to fave the innocent, whenever it was prefumptuoufly
required, is felf-evident. Yet the origin of it* may be
traced as well to neceffity as to fuperftition. At the
time in which it originated in England, as well as in
other countries of Europe, it was no eafy matter for
an innocent perfon, when accufed of guilt, to get
himfelf cleared by the then eftablifhed mode of trial
(See I rial). It was therefore natural for fuperfti¬
tion to fly to Heaven for thofe teftimonies of inno¬
cence which the abfurdity of human laws often pre¬
vented men from obtaining in the ordinary way 5 and
in thja way doubtlefs did the trial by ordeal com
mence : and thus begun by necdfitous fuperftition, it
w:;s foftered by impious prieftcraft and unjuft power.
There was daring all the proceftes great room for
cohufion and deceit; and there can be no queftion but
it was often praftifed : it could not therefore on any
account, or in any cafe, be a fign of innocence or of guilt.
Befides thofe particular methods of trial which wt
have already mentioned, there were fome few more
common in European countries ; as the judicial
combat—the ordeal of the crofs —the ordeal of the
corfned.
The judicial combat was well fuited to the genius
and fpirit of fierce and warlike nations, and was, as we
may reafonably expeft, one of the moft ancient and uni-
verfal modes of trial. We know that it was exceedingly
common in Germany in very remote ages. It was alfo
ufed in fome countries on the continent at pretty early
periods : it is not, however, mentioned in any of the
Anglo-Saxon Ews ; and it does not appear to have
been much ufed in England till after the Conqueft.
ihere are, however, two remarkable inftances of it
upon record, which we ftiall give in the words of Dr
rry <4 Hntnr> hereditary ftandard-bearer
of England, fled from a battle in Wales, A. D. 11 c8,
threw from him the royal ftandard, and cried out,
m*h others, that the king was flain. Some time af*
1
O R D
ter, he was accufed of having done this with a trea-
fonable intention, by Robert de Montfort, another '
great baron, who offered to prove the truth of his ac
cufation by combat. Henry de Efl'ex denied the'
charge, and accepted the challenge. When all preii
minanes were adjufted, this combat was accordinHy
fought, in the prefence of Henry II. and all his court.
Eftex was defeated, and expefted to be carried out to
immediate execution. But the king, who was no
friend to this kind of trial, fpared his life, and con¬
tented himfelf with confifcating his eftate, and making
him a monk in the abbey of Reading.
“ The priory of Tinmouth, in Northumberland
was a cell of the abbey of St Alban’s. One Simon
o Iinmouth claimed a right to two corrodies, or the
maintenance of two perfons in the priory, which the
prior and monks denied. This caufe was brought be¬
fore the abbot of St Alban’s, and his court-baron, who
appointed it to be tried by combat on a certain day
before him and his barons. Ralf Gubion, prior of
1 inmouth, appeared at the time and place appointed,
attended by his champion, one William Pegun, a man
of gigantic flature. The combat was fought, Pegun
was defeated, and the prior loft his caufe ; at which
he was fo much chagrined, that he immediately re-
iigned his office. This judicial combat is the more re¬
markable, that it was fought in the court of a fpiritual
baron, and that one of the parties was a prieft."
.We need fcarcely add, that this deteftabie form of
tn.d was the foundation of the no lefs deteftabie crime
of duelling, which io much difgraces our age and na¬
tion ; which is defended only by ignorance, falfe ho¬
nour, and injuftice ; which is a relick of barbarous fu¬
perftition ; and which was abfolutely unknown to thofe
brave and generous nations, the Greeks and Romans,
which it is fo much the fafhion to admire, and who in
this particular fo well merit our imitation. See Duel.
^ fo much the cuftom in the middle ages of
Chriftianity, to refpeft the crofs even to fuperftition,
that it would have been indeed wonderful if the fame
ignorant bigotry had not converted it into an ordeal •
accordingly we find it ufed for this purpofe, in fo
many different ways as almoft to preclude defeription.
We {hall however tranferibe, for the fatisfaftion of
our readers, Dr Henry’s account of it, and of the
corfned : “ In criminal trials, the judgment of the
crofs was commonly thus condufted. When the pri-
loner had declared his innocence upon oath, and ap¬
pealed to the judgment of the crofs, two flicks were
prepared exaftly like one another; the figure of the
crofs was cut on one ol thefe flicks, and nothing on
the other: each of them was then wrapped up in a
quantity of fine white wool, and laid on the altar, or
on the relicks of the faints; after which afolertm prayer
was put up to God, that he would be pieafed to dif-
cover, by evident figns, whether the priloner was in¬
nocent or guilty. Thefe folemnities being finiftied, a
prieft approached the altar, and took up one of the
flicks, which was uncovered with much anxiety. If
it was the flick marked with the crofs, the pnfoner
was pronounced innocent; if it was the other, he waa
declared guilty.. When the judgment of the crofs was
appealed to in civil caufes, the trial was condufted in
this manner : The judges, parties, and all concerned,
being affembled in a church) each of the parties chofe
a prieil.
Ordeal.
O R D
Ordeal, a prieft> the youngeft and ftoutefl that he could find,
—v ' to be his reprefentative in the trial. Thefe reprefenta-
tives were then placed one on each fide of fonie famous
crucifix ; and at a fignal given, they both at once
ftretched their aims at full length, fo as to form a
crofs with their body. In this painful pofture they
continued to ftand while divine fervice was performing;
and the party whofe reprefentative dropped his arms
firft loll his caufe.
“ The corfned, or the confecrated bread and cheefe,
was the ordeal to which the clergy commonly appealed
when they were accufed of any crimes in which they
ailed a very prudent part, as it was attended with no
danger or inconveniency. This ordeal was performed
in this manner: A piece of barley-bread, and a piece
of cheefe, were laid upon the altar, over which a pried
pronounced certain conjurations, and prayed with great
fervency, that if the perfon accufed was guilty, God
would fend his angel Gabriel to fiop his throat, that
he might not be able to fwallowthat bread and cheefe.
Thefe prayers being ended, the culprit approached the
altar, took up the bread and cheefe, and began to eat
it. If he fwallowed freely, he was declared innocent;
but if it duck in his throat, and he could not fwallow,
(which we may prefume feldcm or never happened),
he was pronounced guilty.”
There were befides thefe a variety of other ordeals
praftifed in Chridian countries, many of which retain
the fame names as among Pagans, and differ only in
the mode of execution. In all nations of Chriftians
where thofe trials were ufed, we find the clergy enga¬
ged in them. Indeed, in England, fo late as King
John’s time, we find grants to the hifhops and clergy
to ufe the judicium ferri, aqux, el ignis. And, both in
England and Sweden, the clergy prefided at this trial,
and it was only performed in the churches or in other
confecrated ground : for which' Stiernhook gives the
reafon, Non defuit illis opera et laboris pretium ; femper
enim ab ejufmodi judicio aliquid lucri facerdotibus obvenie-
bat. But, to give it its due praife, we find the canon
law very early declaring againd trial by ordeal, or
vulgaris purgatio> as being the fabric of the devil,
■cum Jit contra praceptum Domini, Non tentabis Dominum
Deum luum. Upon this authority, though the canons
themfelves were of no validity in England, it was
thought proper (as had been done in Denmark above
a century before) to difufe and abolilh this trial entire¬
ly in our courts of judice, by an a£l of parliament in
3 Hen. III. according to Sir Edward Coke, or rather
by an order of the king in council.
It may dill perhaps be a pcjulatum with fome of our
readers how the effeds of thefe trials were evaded, and
how it was poffible to appear to do, what we know
could not be really done, without material injury to
the perfons concerned : and here we find the fubjed
fo well handled by the learned hidorian whom we
have already quoted, as far as concerns the ordeals in
ancient Britain, which mutatis mutandis will anfwer for
others, that we fhall finilh the article, which has al¬
ready extended we fear to too great a length, in his
words : “ If we fuppofe that few or none efcaped con-
vidion who expofed themfelves to thofe fiery trials,
we fhall be very much midaken. For the hidories of
thofe times contain innumerable examples of perfons
plunging their naked arms into boiling water, handling
o R D
red-hot balls of iron, and walking upon burnin Odeal,
ploughfhares, without receiving the lead injury. Many , <-)l^fc~r- ,
learned men have been much puzzled to account for
this, and difpofed to think that Providence graciouf-
ly interpofed, in a miraculous manner, for the prefer-
vation of injured innocence. But if we examine every
circumdance of thofe fiery ordeals with due attention,
we fhall fee fufficient reafon to fufped that the whole
was a grofs impofition on the credulity of mankind.
The accufed perfon was committed wholly to the
pried who was to perform the ceremony three days
before the trial, in which he had time enough to bar¬
gain with him for his deliverance, and give him in-
druflions how to aeff his part. On the day of trial,
no perfon was permitted to enter the church but the
pried and the accufed till after the iron was heated,
when twelve friends of the accufer, and twelve of the
accufed, and no more, were admitted, and ranged
along the wall on each fide of the church, atarefpedl-
ful didance. After the iron was taken out of the fire,
feveral prayers were faid ; the accufed drank a cup of
holy water, and fprinkled his hand with it, which
might take a confiderable time, if the pried was indul¬
gent. The fpace of nine feet was meafursd by the
accufed himfelf with his own feet, and he would pro¬
bably give but fcanty meafure. He was obliged only
to touch one of the marks with the toe of his right
foot, and allowed to dretch the other foot as far to¬
wards the other mark as he could, fo that the convey¬
ance was almod indantaneous. His hand was not im¬
mediately examined, but wrapped in a cloth prepared
for that purpafe three days. May we not then, from
all thefe precautions, fufpe£l that thefe prieds were in
poffeffion of fome fecret that fecurcd the hand from
the impreffions of fuch a momentary touch of hot
iron, or removed all appearances of thefe impreflions
in three days ; and that they made ufe of this fecret
when they faw reafon ? Such readers as are curious in
matters of this kind may find two different diredlions
for making ointments that will have this effedl, in the
work here quoted f. What greatly ftrengthens thefe Du Gang;,
fufpicions is, that we meet with no example of any t. 3.
champion of the church who fuffered the lead injury P’ 39?*
from the touch of hot iron in this ordeal ; but when
any one was fo fool-hardy as to appeal to it, or to that
of hot water, with a view to deprive the church of
any of her poffeffions, he never failed to burn his
fingers, and lofe his caufe.”
ORDER, in archite&ure, is a fydem of the feveral
members, ornaments, and proportions of columns and
piladers; or a regular arrangement of the projedling
parts of a building, efpecially the column, fo as to
form one beautiful whole. See Architecture, Chap.
I. Part 1. page 234, &c.
Order is alio ufed for a divifion or clafs of any
thing: thus the tribe of animals called birds, is fubdi-
vided into fix orders. See Ornithology, Zoology,
&c.
Order, in rhetoric, is the placing of each word
and member of a fentence in fuch a manner, as will
mod contribute to the force, beauty, or evidence of
the whole ; according to the genius and cudom of
different languages. With reg-ard to order, we may
obferve in general, that, in Englifh, the nearer we
keep to the natural or grammatical order, it is gene.
8 ' rally
[ 470 1
o R D [ 48° j O R D
Order, rally the heft; but in Latin, we are to follow the nfe
'J of the heft writers ; a joint regard being always had
to the judgment of the ear, and the perfpicuity of the
fenfe, in both languages.
Order is alfo ufed for a clafs or divifion of the
members of the body of a ftate ; with regard to af-
femblies, precedency, &c.
In this fenfe, order is a hind of dignity, which,
under the lame name, is common to feveial perfons ;
and which, of itfelf, does^not give them any parti¬
cular public authority, but only rank, and a capacity
of arriving at honours and employments.
To abridge this definition, order may be faid to be
a dignity attended with an aptitude for public employ.
By which it is diftinguifhed from an office, which is
the exercife of a public truft.
In this fenfe, nobility is an order, &c. The cle-
ricate is alfo an order, &c.
Order is alfo the title of certain ancient books,
containing the divine office, with the order and man¬
ner of its performance.
Roman order is that wherein are laid down the ce¬
remonies which obtain in the Romiffi church. See Ri¬
tual.
Order, in botany, is a name given to a fubdivifion
of plants in the Linnasan fyftem. See Botany,
p. 431. &c.
Orders, by way of eminency, or holy Orders, de¬
note a charadter peculiar to ecclefiaftics, whereby they
are fet apart for the miniftry. See Ordination.
This the Romanifts make their fixth facrament.
In no reformed church are there more than three or¬
ders ; viz. bifhops, priefts, and deacons. In the Ro¬
miffi church there are feven, exclufive of the epifco-
pste : all which the council of Trent enjoins to be re¬
ceived, and believed, on pain of anathema.
They are diftinguiffied into petty, or fecular orders;
and major, or facred orders.
Orders, the petty, or minor, are four ; viz. thofe
of doorkeeper, exorcill, reader, and acolyth.
1 hofe in petty orders may marry vrithout any dif-
penfationin effeft, the petty orders are looked on
as little other than formalities, and as degrees necef
fary to arrive at the higher orders. Yet the council
of Trent is very ferious about them : enjoins that
none be admitted into them without underftanding
Latin ; and recommends it to the bilhops, to obferve
the intervals of conferring them, that the perfons may
have a fufficienctime to e.xercife the fun&ion of each
order : i ut it leaves the biffiops a power of difpenfing
with thofe rules ; fo that the four orders are ufually
conferred the fame day, and only make the firft part
of the ceremony of ordination.
1 he Greeks difavow thefe petty orders, and pafs
immediately to the fubdiaconate ; and the reformed to
the diaconate.
ri heir firft rife Fleury dates in the time of the em¬
peror Juftinian. There is no call nor benefice requi¬
red for the four petty orders ; and even a baftard may
enjoy them without any difpenfation ; nor does a fe-
cond marriage difqualify.
Orders, facred, or major, we have already obferved,
are three: viz. thofe of deacon, prieft, and biffiop.
The council of Brent retrieving the ancient difei-
pline, forbids any perfon being admitted to the major
N°2f2.
orders, unlefs he be in peaceable poffeffion of a bene- Order.
free fufficient for a decent fubfiftence ; allowing no or-1 v—
dinations on patrimonies or penfions; except where
the biffiop judges it for the fervice of the church.
A perfon is faid to be promoted to orders per fat-
turn, when he has not before pafled the inferior or¬
ders. The council of Conftantinople forbids any bi-
fhop being ordained without paffing all the degrees;
yet church-hiftory furniffies us with inftances of bi¬
ffiops confecrated, without having palled the order of
prieft hood ; and Panormus ftill thinks fuch an ordina¬
tion valid.
Military Orders, are companies of knights, infti-
tuted by kings and princes, either for defence of the
faith, or to confer marks of honour, and make diftinc-
tions among their fubjedfs.
Religious Orders, are congregations or focieties of
monaftics, living under the fame fuperior, in the fame
manner, and wearing the fame habit.—Religious or¬
ders maybe reduced to five kinds; viz. monks, ca¬
nons, knights, mendicants, and regular clerks. See
Monk, Canon, &c.
Father Mabillon proves, that till the ninth cen¬
tury, almoft all the monafteries in Europe followed
the rule of St Benedidl; and that the diftinilion of
orders did not commence till upon the reunion of fe-
veral monafteries into one congregation : that St O-
do, abbot of Cluny, firft began this reunion, bring¬
ing feveral houfes under the dependence of Cluny :
that, a little afterwards, in the nth century, the Ca-
maldulians arofe; then, by degrees, the congregation
of Valiombrofa ; the Ciltercians, Carthufians, Augu-
ftines ; and at laft, in the 13th century, the Mendi¬
cants. He adds, that Lupus Servatus, abbot of Fer-
rieres, in the ninth century, is the firft that feems to
diftinguiffi the order of St Benedict from the reft, and
to fpeak of it as a particular order.
White Order denotes the order of regular canons of
St Auguftine. See Augustines.
Black Order denoted the order of Benedictins.
Thefe names were firft uiven thefe two orders from
the colour of their habit ; but are difufed fince the
inftitution of feveral other orders, v/ho wear the fame
colours.
Grey Order was the ancient name of the Cister¬
cians ; but fince the change of the habit, the name
fuits them no more.
Orders, religious military, are thofe inftituted in
defence of the faith, and privileged to lay mafs; and
who are prohibited marriage, &c.
Of this kind are the knights of Malta, or of St
John of Jerufalem. Such alfo wete the knights Tem¬
plars, the knights of Calatrava, knights of St Laza¬
rus, Teutonic knights, &c. See Malta, Templar,
&c.
Father Putignani accounts thofe military orders
where marriage is not allowed, real religious orders.
Papebroch fays, it is in vain to fearch for military
orders before the 1 2th century.
Orders, in a military fenfe, all that is lawfully
commanded by fuperior officers. Orders are given out
every day, whether in camp, garrifon, or on a march,
by the commanding officer; which orders are after¬
wards given to every officer in writing by their refpec-
tive ferjeants.
ORDINAL,
7
O R D
r 48
Ordinal
li
Ordinary.
ORDINAL, a book containing the order or man¬
ner of performing divine fervice. See Ritual.
Ordinal Numbers, thofe which exprefs order ; as
I ft, 2d, 3d, &c.
ORDINANCE, or Ordonnance, a law, ftatute,
or command of a fovereign or fuperior : thus the adts
of parliament are fometimes termed ordinances of par¬
liament, as in the parliament-rolls. Though in fome
cafes wc find a difference made between the two ; or¬
dinances being only temporary things, by way of pro¬
hibition ; and capable of being altered by the com¬
mons alone : whereas an aft is a perpetual law, and
cannot be altered but by king, lords, and com-
mons.
Coke afferts, that an ordinance of parliament dif¬
fers from an aft, as the latter can only be made by
the king, and the threefold confent of the eftates ;
whereas the former may be made by one or two of
them.
Ordinance of the Foreft, is a ftatute made in the
34th year of Henry I. relating to foreft-matters.
In the French jurifprudence, ordonnances are fuch
laws as afe eftabli'ihed by the king’s authority alone.
All ordonnances begin with, d tons prefens & a venir
fcilut.
ORDINARY, in general, fignifiescommon, ufual:
thus, an ambaffador or envoy in ordinary, is one fent
to refide ftatedly, and for a number of years, in the
court of fome foreign prince or ftate, in order to keep
up a good underftanding, and watch over the intereft
of his own nation.—This term is alio applied to feve-
ral officers in the king’s houfehold, who attend on com¬
mon occafions. Thus we fay, phyfician in ordinary,
&c.
Ordinary, in naval language, denotes the eftablifh-
ment of the perfons employed by government to take
charge of the (hips of war, which are laid up in the
feveral harbours adjacent to the royal dock-yards.
Thefe are principally compofed of the warrant-officers
of the faid ihips, as the gunner, boatfwain, carpenter,
deputy-purfer, and cook, and three fervants. There is
befides a crew of labourers inrolled in the lift of the or¬
dinary, who pafs from (hip to (hip occafionally,to pump,
moor, remove, or clean them, whenever it is ne-
ceffary.
The term ordinary is alfo applied fometimes to the
fnips themfelves : it is likewife ufed to diftinguiih the
inferior fulors from the moil expert and diligent. The
latter are rated able on the navy books, and have
l 1. 4 s. per month*; whereas thofe who are rated or¬
dinary have only 19 s. per month.
Ordinary, in common or canon law, means one
who has ordinary or immediate jurifdiftion in matters
ecclefiaftical, in any placg. In this fenfe archdescons
are ordinaries, but the appellation is moft frequently
applied to the biihop of the diocefe, who has of courfc
the ordinary ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion, and the col¬
lation to benefices within fuch diocefe. I here are
fome chapels, chapters, abbeys, &c. exempted from
the jurifdiftion of the ordinary. The archbiihop is
ordinary of the whole province, to viiit, and receive
appeals from the inferior judicatures. The Romifh
writers on canon la w call the pope by way of emi¬
nence ordinary of ordinaries, fince by the Lattran
council he has ufurped the right of collating, by pro-
Vol. XII1. Fart II.
i ] , O R D
bation, to all benefices; in exclufion of the common Ordinary
collators. , . Ordina-
Ordinary of j4JJi%es ana Seffionsj was a deputy ot tion^
the biffiop of the diocefe, anciently appointed to give y—J
malefaftors their neck-verfes, and judge whether they
read or not; alfo to perform divine fervice for them,
and affift in preparing them for death. So the
Ordinary of Newgate, is one who is attendant in
ordinary upon the condemned malefaftors m that
prifon, to prepare them for death ; and he records the
behaviour of fuch perfons.
Ordinary, or Honourable Ordinary, in heraldry,
a denomination given to certain charges properly be¬
longing to that art. See Heraldry, Chap. III. feft.
i. p 445. &c.
ORDINATES, in geometry and conics, are lines
drawn from any point of the circumference of an el-
lipfis or other conic feft ion, perpendicularly acrofs the
axis, to the other fide. See Conic-Sections.
ORDINATION, the aft of conferring holy or¬
ders, or of initiating a perfon into the pnefthood by
prayer and the laying on of hands.
Ordination has always been elleemed the principal
prerogative of biftiops, and they ftill retain the func¬
tion as a mark of fpiritual fovereignty in their dio¬
cefe. Without ordination, no perfon can receive any
benefice, parfonage, vicarage, &c. A perfon muft
be 23 years of age, or near it, before he can be or¬
dained deacon, or have any (hare in the miniftry ; and
full 24 before he can be ordained pneft, and by that
means be permitted to adminifter the holy communion.
A bifiiop, on the ordination of clergymen, is to examine
them in the prefence of the minifters, who, in the
ordination of priefts, but not of deacons, affift him at
the impofition of hands ; but this is only done as a
mark «f affent, not becaufe it is thought neceffary. In
cafe any crime, as drunkennefs, perjury, forgery,_ &c.
be alleged again ft any one. that is to be ordained, either
prieft or deacon, thebiftiop ought to defil! from ordain¬
ing him. The perfon to be ordained is to bring a
teftimonial of his life and doftrine to the biftiop, and
to give account of his faith in Latin ; and both priefts
and deacons are obliged to fubferibe the 39 articles.
The ordination of biffiops is mote.properly and more
commonly called confecration.
In the ancient difeipline there was no fuch thing as a
vague and abfolute ordination ; but every one was to
have a church, whereof he was to be ordained clerk,
or prieft. In the twelfth century they grew more
remifs, and ordained without any title or benefice.
The council of Trent reftored the ancient difeipline,
and appointed that none fhould be ordained but tbofe
who were provided of a benefice fufficient to fubfift
them. Which praftice ftill obtains in England.
The council of Rome in 744, orders, that no ordi¬
nations (hall be held except on the firft, fourth, fe-
venth, and tenth months. In England, by can. 31. or¬
dination-days are the four Sundays immediately follow¬
ing the Ember-weeks; being the ftcond Sunday in
Lent, Trinity-Sunday, and the Sundays following the
firft Wednefday after September the 14th, and Decem¬
ber the 13th. Thefe are the dated times; but ordina¬
tions may take place at any other time, according to the
diferetion of the bifirop or circumftances oi the cafe.
Pope Alexander II. condemns ordination per faltum,
3 r as
O R D
'Ordnance., as they call it; /. e. the leaping to a fuperior order
v without paifing threugh the inferior.
Ordination is one of the faerameats of the church
of Rome.
. In eftablifhment of Scotland, where there are no
bifhops, the power of ordination is lodged in the
prefhytery, and by the Independents in the fuffrage of
toe people. See Episcopacy, Presbyterians, and
Independents.
ORDNANCE, a general name for all forts of
great guns ufed in war. See Gunnery.
[ 482 ]
O R D
. Bor 'lnS Okdnancf. Till within thefe 20 years,
iron ordnance were call with a cylindrical cavity, near¬
ly of the dinoenfion of the caliber of the piece, which
was afterwards enlarged to the proper caliber by means
of ileel-cutters fixed into the dog-head of a bonng-
bar-iron. Three fide-cutters equidiftant were requifite
to preferee the caliber ftraight and cylindrical ; and a
imgle cutter wes ufed at the end of the bar to fmooth
toe breech, of the piece. In boring ordnance caft hol-
ow, the piece was fixed upon a carriage that could be
moved backwards and forwards in a direeb lice with
the centre of a water-wheel; in this centre was fixed
the boring bar, of a iufficient length to reach up to
the breech of the piece, or more properly to the fur¬
ther end of the caliber. The carriage with the piece
being crawn backwards from the centre of the water¬
wheel to introduce the boring and fimfhing bars and
cutters, it is then prefTed forwards upon this bar by
weans of levers, weights, &c. and the water-wheel
being kt agoing, the bar and fullers are turned round
and clean out and fmooth the caliber to its proper di-
menhons. r r
Experience at laft pointed out many inconveniences
anting from the method of catling guns and
widening the calibers by thefe boring bars. For the
douv of non or the hollow gun, being, at calling, in
contaa with the core that made the caliber withinTide,
*.m with the mould without-fide, began to confolidate
towards thefe fuks in the fir It place, fooner than in the
m ermediatc fpace, where of courfe the contradion of
the iron takes place ; by which means, all guns call
hollow became more or lefs fpongy where they ought
to have been moll compaft ; and numherlefs cavifies
a o were created round the cores, from llagnated air
generated in them, which were too deep to be cut out
by the coring.
Ml derr<Cts’ ,'ron ordnance is now uni-
yerf,illy call fohd, by which means the column of iron
is great.y enlarged, and the grain moie comprefied :
and the central,on of the iron becomes in the heart
the column, and confequently is cut out by the per-
toration for the caliber. °
Guns art bored out of the foM revetfely from the
.CCciitr.SsBB^ A “PU«d upon two ftan-
CCCLXVI a eo BB, by means of two journeys, turned round by
riagewns in hollow-boring. Unnn
thegdrdUXeVr,')!y hh0riZ0ntal and centrical to Ihe gan,
he drill-bar G, to the end of which is fixed a cafe's
tongue drill or cutter H ; which, being Dreflba forward
npon the piece whilll it is turning round* perforates the
bwe, which is afterwards fimlhed with bars and cut-
ters as the hollow guns were. The principal difficulty Ordnance.
of perforated folid guns truly centrical, arifesfrom the 1 "
contraction of the iron above-mentioned ; which, refill-.
ing the drill unequally, tends to throw it out of the
centrical line.
OJ*' °f Okdnancf., an office kept within the Tower
of London, which fuperintends snd diipofes of all the
arms, inflruments, and utenfils of war, both by fea
ayid land, in ail the magazines, garrifons, and forts in
Great Britain. We have the following copious ac¬
count of this dhblifhment in Beatfon’s Political Jndex
In anc.ent times, before the invention of guns, this
office was fupphed by officers under the following
names : the the crofi botvyer, the galeator or
purveyor of helmets, the armourer, and the keeper of the
tents ; and in this Hate it continued till Henry VIII.
placed it under the management of a mailer, a lieute¬
nant, furveyor, &c. &c.
Some improvements have been fince made; and this
very important branch is now under the direction of
the mailer general of the ordnance, having under him
a lieutenant general, a furveyor general, a clerk, a
Itorekeeper, a clerk of the deliveries, and a treshirer
with a very great number of inferior officers, employed’
in the Tower of London, at Woolwich, and in aimed
all the forts, garriions, and principal ports in his Ma-
jeity’s dominions. The office of ordnance is divided
mto twodiftma branches, the civil and the military; the
latter being fubordinate, and under the authority of
the former. For the better underftanding the bulinefs
of the different officers, they fhall be dillin&ly treated
or, beginning with the principal one, viz.
. MaPr General of the Ordnance is deemed the prin¬
cipal officer in the civil branch of the ordnance ; yet
he is always choftn from amongfl the firil generals in
h.s Majefty’s fervice. His trull is very.great, as in
him is veiled the foie power of ftoring all the military
magazines in the king's dominions with proper muni-
turns of war, and likewife to fopply the royal navy
with what they may need in his department, the par¬
liament granting money in the moft liberal manner for
this purpofe. He is colonel in chief of the royal re¬
giment of artillery, at prefent confuting 0f four batta-
hons ; and he is inverted with a peculiar iurifdi&ion
over ad his Majelly’s engineers employed in the feveral ,
fortifications m his Majelly’s dominions ; and to him
they are all accountal-le for their proceedings, and from
him they receive their particular orders and inftruc-
tions, according to the dire&ions and commands given
by h.s Majefty in Council. As mailer general of the
ordnance, he has a falary of t^oolper annum, and the
appointment of almoft all the inferior officers and fer-
vants. Fie has a fecretary, who has a falary of 2.20 L
a-year, and an undersecretary, who has a falary of 180L
a-yenr. There is a fecretary to the board of ordnance,,
who has a fa ary of 200 1. ; and a counfel to the board,
wno nas a ialary of 300 L a-year.
Lieutenant General of the Ordnance receives all order*
and warrants figned by the mailer general, and from
the other pnncipa! officers, and fees them duly exe-
cu ed, nines orders as the occafions of the Hate require,
aad ?lv,e8 diredlions for difeharging the attillery when
required at coronations, birth-d^/s, fignai viflories,
and other folemn occasions. It is alfo his peculiar office
to ice the train of artillery and all its equipage fitted
for motion, when ordered to be drawn into the field.
LSonuS- of Olil'N'AN < K ■
Tlate CCCLXVI
S%£r//
ORB [ 48.? ] O il B
or fent upon any particular fcrvice. As lieutenant gene¬
ral of the ordnance, he has a falary of uco \. per an¬
num. He is colonel en fecond of the royal regiment
of artillery, and has a fecretary and feveral inferior
officers and clerks under him.
Surveyor General of the Ordnance infpefts the do res
and provilions of war in the cuftody of the ftorekeeper,
and fees that they are ranged and placed in fuch order
as is moft proper for their prtfervation. He allows all
bills of debt, and keeps a check upon all labourers
and artificers work ; fees that the ftores received be
good and ferviceable, duly proved and marked, as
they ought to be fo, with the king’s mark, taking to
his affittance the reft of the officers and proof-mafters.
He has a falary of 700 1. per annum ; and, in order to
affift him in the bufinefs of his office, he has under
him the pro@f-mafter of England, and clerks, and
other inferior officers.
Clerk of the Ordnance, an officer whofe fun&ion is to
record all orders and inftrudlions given for the govern¬
ment of the office; all patents and grants; the names of all
officers,clerks, artificers,gunners, labourers,&c. whoen-
joy thofe grants, or any other fee for the fame; to draw
all eftimates lor provifions and fupplies to be made,
and all letters, inftruftions, commiffions, deputations,
and contrafts for his Majefty’s fervice; to make all bills
of impreft and debentures, for the payment and fatis-
faftion of work done and provifions received in the
faid office ; and all quarter booksjfor the falaries and al¬
lowances of all officers, clerks, &c. belonging to the
office ; and to keep journals and legers of the receipts
and returns of his Majefty’s ftores, to ferve as a check
between the two accountants of the office, the one for
money, and the other for ftores. He has 5001. a-year
falary, and tool, a-year more for being a check on
the ilorekeeper. In his office he has a number of
clerks, under-clerks, and leger-keepers, who have all
fired falaries.
Storekeeper of the Ordnance takes into his cuftody
all his Majefty’s ordnance, munitions and ftores be¬
longing thereto, and indents and puts them in legal fe-
curity, after they have been furveyed by the fuiveyor-
general, any part of which he muft not deliver with¬
out a warrant figned by the proper officers ; nor muft
he receive back any ftores formerly iflued till they have
been reviewed by the furveyor, and regiftered by the
cleik of the ordnance in the hook of remains; and he
muft take care that whatever is under his cuftody be
kept fafe, and in fuch rcadinefs as to be fit for fervice
upon the moft peremptory demand. He has a falary
of 4001. a-year; and in t*is office he has feveral clerks
at fixed falaries, for the difpatch of bufinefs.
C/erl of the Deliveries of the Ordnance draws all
orders for delivery of any ftores, and fees them duly
executed ; charges by indentuie the particular receiver
of the ftores delivered ; and, in order to difeharge the
ftorekeeper, regifters the copies of all warrants for the
deliveries, as well as the proportions delivered. He
has a falary of 4001. per annum, and has feveral clerks
in his office at fixed falaries, for the difpatch of bufi¬
nefs.
Treafurer and Paymafler of the Ordnance receives
and pays all moneys, both fahries and debentures in
and belonging to this office. He has a falary of <;oo 1.
per annum. In his office are feveral clerks, ordinary
and extraordinary, for the difpatch of bufmdk,
Office op Ordnance. Befidesthepriacipalofficers already Ordnancfe
mentioned, there belongs tothis office two proofmnfters, 1!.
who have 20I. ayeareach; aclerk of the works, who has ^ 'v're’*,
120 1. a-year; a purveyor for the land, who has ico 1.
a-year, and a purveyor for the fea, who has 40 1. a-
year; an architeft, who has 120 1. a-year; an aftro-
nomical obferver, who has 100 1. a year, and other of¬
ficers. The other part of this office, which is term¬
ed the military branch of the ordnance, is a chief en¬
gineer, who has under him two directors, four fub-
diredfors, with an unlimited number ©f engineers in
ordinary, engineers extraordinary, fub-engineers, and
practitioner engineers.
Ordnance Bills, commonly called ordnance debentures,
are bills iffued by the board of ordnance on the trea-
furer of that office, for the payment of ftores, See.
Thefe are not payable at any certain time, and do not
bear any intereft, fo that the difeount upon them is
often very high ; but they are feldom much above two
years in arrear.
ORDONNANCE, in architedure, is the compo-
fition of a building, and the difpofitioft of its parts,
both with regard to the whole and to one another;
or, as Mr Evelyn expreffes it, determining the mt-a-
fure of what is affigned to the feveral apartments.
Thus ordonnance is the judicious contrivance of the
plan or mould ; as when the court, hall, lodgings, See.
are neither too large nor too final!, but the court af¬
fords convenient light to the apartments about it; the
hall is of fit capacity to receive company ; and the
bed-chamber, See. of a proper fize. When thefe di- ,
vilions are either too great or too fruall, with refpeft
to the whole, as where there is a large court to a little
houfe, or a fmali hall to a magnificent palace, the fault
is in the ordonnance. See Architecture.
Okdonnance, in painting, is ufed for the difpofi-
tion of the parts of a picture, either v/ith regard to
the whole piece, or to the feveral parts, as the groups,
maffes, contrafts, Sec. See Painting.
ORDOV1CES, ancient Britons, of whom we have
the following account in Henry’s Hiftory of Great
Britain. They lived “ in that country which is now
called North Wales, and contains the counties of
Montgomery, Merioneth, Caernarvon, Denbigh, and
Flint. Thefe Ordovices, or (as they are called by
Tacitus) Ordeuices, are fuppofed to have been origi¬
nally of the fame tribe or nation with the Huicii of
Warwickftiire, who were under fome kind of fubjec-
tion to the Cornavii ; but the Huicii of North Wales,
being a free and independent people, were called Ordh
Huici, or the free Huiei. When they were invaded
by the Romans, they ftiowed a fpirit worthy of their
name, and fought with great bravery in defence of
their freedom and independency. Though they re¬
ceived a great defeat from the Roman general Gflo¬
rins, in conjundftion with the Silures, they maintained
the war for a confiderable time, until they were finally
fubdued, with great daughter, by the renowned Agri-
cola. It was probably owing to the nature of the
country, and to the vicinity of Diva, now Chelier,
where a whole legion was quartered, that-the Roman?
had fo few towns or flations in the territories of the
Ordovices. Mcdiolanium, which is mentioned by
Ptolemy, was the capital of the nation, and was pro¬
bably lituated at Maywood, in Montgomeryfhire. It
was a place of fom« confideration in the Roman times,
•3 P * but
ORE [ 484 1 ORE
Ore but was afterwards quite demolifhed by Edwin, king of
Ij, Northumb&rland. Befides this, the Romans had a
re ec* , few other towns in this country ; as Segontium, now
Caernarvon ; Conovium, now Conway; andVarse, now
Bodvary, which are all mentioned in the eleventh jour¬
ney of Antoninus. The country of the Ordovices
was comprehended in the Roman province which was
called Britannia Secunda.”
ORE, in natural hiftory, the compound mineral
glebe, earth, done, or other fubftance, which is fuf-
liciently rich in metallic particles to be worth the while
cf purification, and by this means ol feparating the
metal from it, whether gold, iilver, copper, &c. See
Metallurgy, Part i. fed!. 2. p. 427, &c. } and
fetft. 4. p. 431, &c. ; and Part ii. feft. 1. &c. p. 432,
&c. See alfo Mineralogy, Part i. feft. 2. p. 6i,&c.
ORELLANA (Francis), the firll European, as
is commonly thought, who difcovered the river of the
Amazons. In 1539, he embarked near Quito, upon
the river Coca, which farther down takes the name of
Napo. From this he fell into another larger river; and,
leaving himfeli entirely to the diredtion of the current,
lie arrived at Cape North, on the coaft of Guiana, af¬
ter failing nearly 1 800 leagues. Orellana periihed ten
years after, vvith three veflels which had been intrud¬
ed to him in Spain, without being able to find again
the mouth of this river. In failing down the river, he
met with fome armed women, againlt whom an Indian
cacique had told him to be on his'guard; and he
thence named it the river of the Amazons.
ORENSE, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Galicia, with a bilhop’s fee. It is famous
for its hot-baths; and is feated at the foot of a moun¬
tain, on the river Minho, over which there is a hand-
fome bridge of one arch. W. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat.
42. 16.
ORESTES, in ancient hiftory, a fon of Agamem-
jaon and Clytemneftra. When his father was cruelly
murdered by Clytemneftra and PEgifthus, young
Oreftes was faved from his mother's dagger by means
cf his filler Eledlra, called by Homer Laodicea, ha¬
ving been privately conveyed to the houfe of Strophius,
who was king of Phoeis, and who had married a filler
cf Agamemnon. He was tenderly treated by Stro¬
phius, who carefully educated him with his fon Py-
lades. The two young princes foon became acquaint¬
ed, and from their familiarity arofe the moll inviolable
attachment and friendlhip. When Oreftes came to
years of diferetion, he vifited Mycenae, end avenged
his father’s death by aflaffinating his mother Clytem-
neftra and her adulterer iEgifthus. Various accounts
are given of the way in which thefe murders were
committed. After their commiffion, however, he was
acknowledged king of Mycenae ; but being tormented
by the furies, a punilhment which the ancients always
thought followed parricide, he exiled himfelf to Ar¬
gos, where he was ftill purfued by the avengeful god-
defles. Apollo, however, purified him, and he was
acquitted by the unanimous opinion of the Areopagites,
whom Minerva herfell inftituted on this occafion, ac¬
cording to the narration of the poet PEfchylus, who
Hatters the Athenians in his tragical ftory, by repre-
fenting them as palling judgment even upon the gods
tbemfelves. According to Paufanias, Oreftes was pu-
lificd of the naurder; not at Delphi, but at Treezene,
where ftill was feen a large Hone at the entrance of Oreftes.
Diana’s temple, upon which the ceremonies of purifi- v—D
cation had been performed by nine of the principal ci.
tizens of the place. There was alfo at Megalopolis,
in Arcadia, a temple dedicated to the furies, near
which Oreftes cut off one of his fingers with his teeth
in a fit of infanity. Thefe different traditions are
confuted by Euripides, who fays that Oreftes, after
the murder of his mother, confulted the oracle of
Apollo at Delphi, where he was informed that no¬
thing could deliver him from the perfecutions of the
furies, if he did not bring into Greece Diana’s ftatue,
which was in the Taurica Cherfontfus, and which, as
it is reported by fome, had fallen down from heaven.
This was an arduous enterprize. The king of Cher-
fonefus always ff.crificed on the altars of the go ’dels
all fuch as entered the borders of bis country. Orettes
and his friend were therefore both carried before Thoaa
the king of the place, and they were doomed to be
facrificed. Iphigenia, Oreftes’s filler, was then
prieftefs of Diana’s temple, and it was her office to
immolate thefe llrangers. The intelligence that they
were Grecians delayed the preparations, and Iphigenia
was anxious to learu fomething about a country which
had given her birth. She even interefted herfelf in
their misfortunes, and offered to fpare the life of one
of them, provided he would convey letters to Greece
from her hand. This was a difficult trial : never was
friendlhip more truly difplayed, according to the
words of Ovid, ex Pont. 3. el. 2.
Ire julet Pylades carum moriturus OreJlemy
Hie negat; inque vicem pugnat uterque mori.
At laft, however, Pylades gave way to the preffing
intreaties of his friend, and confented to carry the let¬
ters of Iphigenia to Greece. Thefe were addreffed
to Oreftes himfelf; and therefore thefe circumftances
focn led to a difeovery of the connexions of the
prieftefs with the man whom file was going to immo¬
late. Iphigenia was convinced that he was her bro¬
ther Oreftes ; and when the caufe of their journey
had been explained, ffie herfelf refolved with the two
friends to fly from Cherfonefus, and to carry away the
ftatue of Diana. Their flight was difcovered, and
Thoas prepared to purfue them ; but Minerva inter¬
fered, and told him that all had been done by the will
and with the approbation ol the gods. Some imagine
that Oreftes came to Cappadocia from Cherfonefus,
and that there he left the ftatue of Diana at Comana.
Others contradiX this tradition ; and Paufanias thinks
that the ftatue of Diana O^thia was the fame as that
which had been carried away from the Cherfonefus.
Some again fuppofe that Oreftes brought it to Aricia
in Italy, where Diana’s worlhip was eftablilhed. It
was after this that Oreftes afeended the thi'one of Ar¬
gos, where he reigned in perfeX fecurity, married
Hermione the daughter of Menelaus, and gave his li¬
fter to his friend Pylades. The marriage of Oreftes
with Hermione is alfo a matter of difpute among the
ancients. All are agreed that Ihe had been promifed
to the fon of Agamemnon ; but Menelaus had mar¬
ried her to Neoptolemus the fen of Achilles, who had
fliown himfelf fe truly interefted in his caufe during
the Trojan war. The marriage of Hermione with.
Neoptokmua dlfpleafed Oreftes; he remembered that
ftie
O R F [4s?
Orfa, flie had been early promifed to him ; he was therefore
Orfonl. determined to recover her by force or artifice. T bis
"■“'v J he did by procuring the afiaffination of Neoptolemus.
According to Ovid’s epiftle of Hermione to Oreftes,
Hermione had always been faithful to her firft lover,
and even it was by her perfuafions that Oreftes remo¬
ved her from the houfe of Neoptolemus, for (he was
diffatisfied with the partiality of Neoptolemus for An¬
dromache, and her attachment for Orestes was increa-
fed. There are, indeed, various opinions likewife
about this : he, however, certainly managed to fecure
her affeftions, and retired to his kingdom of Argos.
His old age was crowned with peace and fecurity, and
he died in the 90th year of his age, leaving his throne
to his fon Tifamanes by Hermione. Three years after
the Heraclidae recovered the Peloponnefus, and banilh-
ed the defendants of Menelaus from the throne of
Argos. Oreftes died in Arcadia, as fome fay, by the
bite of a ferpent ; and the Lacedemonians, who had
become his fubjefts at the death of Menelaus, were di-
refted bv an ofacle to bring his bones to Sparta. I hey
were fome time after difcovered at Tegea, and his
ftature appeared to be feven cubits, according to the
traditions mentioned by Herodotus and others. I he
friendftrip of Oreftes and of Pylades became proverbial;
and the two friends received divine honours among
the Scythians, and were worihipped in temples.
ORFA, a confiderable town of Diarbeck in Afia,
very pleafantly fituated, pretty large, and well forti¬
fied. It formerly belonged to Perfia ; but is now
in the Turkilh dominions, and* is a place of very
good trade. It has a ftately caftle {landing on a hill,
which makes a great fhow at a diftance. They pre¬
tend to firow the well where Rachel watered her fa¬
ther’s camels when Jacob met her, and they call it
Abraham’s 'well. L. Long. 37. 45. N. Lat. 36. 20.
ORFORD, a town of Suffolk in Lngland, 88
miles from London, fituated between two channels,
where the river Ore, after having joined the Aid, falls
into the fea. It was once a large populous town,
with a caftle ; of which, and of a nunnery near the
quay, there are {till fome ruins. The towers of the
caftle and its church are a fea-mark for colliers, coaft¬
ers, and {hips that come from Holland. There is a
light-houfe at Orford-Neffe, which is alfo of great
ufe to feamen, and is a {belter for them when a noi th-
eaft wind blows hard upon the fhore. The town was
incorporated by Henry 111. has a mayor, iS poit-
men, 12 chief burgefles, a recorder, a town clerk,
and two ferjeants at mace. '1 hough it fept members
to parliament in the 26th of Edward I. yet it had no
more eledions till the reign of Edward IV. It ftdl
fends two members to parliament, and has the title
of an earldom. There are ftiil remaining the ruins of
an holy houfe where the feamens wives ufed to pray
for the fafety of their hufbands. The town is now
very mean, and no one contends for an intereft in it,
but fuch as want to make themfelves a merit in the
choice of the two members it returns to parliament.
It has indeed, by the withdrawing of the fea, been de¬
prived of its chief advantage, for it now deferves not
the name of a harbour. It had the honour to give
title of earl to the brave admiral Ruffd, which, after
being many years extind, was revived in the perfon
5 ] O R F
of Sir Robert Walpole, whofe grandfon nows enjoys it. Oryngna
E Long. 1. 33. N. Lat. 52. 15. . Orgar*
ORGAGNA (Andrea), an excellent Italian pain- t v J
ter, was born at Florence in 1329. In his youth he
learned fculpture; he was alfo a poet and an archited.
He had a fruitful genius, and his manner refembkd
that of the other painters of his time. Moft of his
works are at Pifa. The moft. admired of them is his
pidure of the Laft judgment, in which he painted his
friends among the bleifcd, and his iocs in hell. He
died in 1389. .
ORGAL, among dyers, denotes the lees of wine
dried.
ORGAN, in general, is an inftrument or machine
defigned for the produdion of fome certain adion or
operation ; in which fenfe the mechanic powers, ma¬
chines, and even the veins, arteries, nerves, mufcles,
and bones of the human body, may be called organs-
Organ, in mufic, denotes the largeft and moft har¬
monious of all wind-inttruments ; on which account
it is called the organ the inftiument by way of
excellence; chiefiy ufed for playing a thorough bafs,
with all its accompaniments. _ ,
That organs are the invention of remote antiquity
has been argued, and feems now to be generally
allowed; but the particular time and country in which
the difeovery was made appears to be loft amidft the
ruins of time. In ancient authors there are a vaiiety
of psfiages where mention is made of the organ, but
it is at lead poffible that an inftrument is meant very
different from that which now goes by the fame name.
From St Auguftin’s commentary on the 4th verfe of
the 150th plalm we learn, that the Greeks had ano¬
ther name for thofe inftruments in which bellows were
employed ; that the name organ was appropriated to
this particular inftriunent merely from the ufage ot
the Latin tongue ; and that it was indifferently given
to all inftruments ufed to accompany the voice in con¬
cert. We mention this, not becaufe we doubt of the
antiquity of the organ, but merely to {how that the
time of its invention cannot be determined by the era
of the authors where its name occurs. As the fol¬
lowing obfervations, extrafled from a periodical work Gent. Mag
which has long been in deferved efteem with the pub¬
lic, are intended to afeertain its early ufe, we fubmit
them, without commentary, to the judgment of our
readers. Caffiodorus has deicribed our organ in a few
words, lib. 1. Epif. 45. Praifmg that art, which
makes Organa extranets vocibus infonare-, et per eg rin is Jla -
tibus compiet, ut mufica pojfit arte cantare. And the em¬
peror Julian has given an exa£I defeription of it in
an epigram, which may be found in the Anthologia%
b. i. ch. 86. In his time thefe inilruments were in
fuch requeft, that Ammianus Marcellinus, b. xiv. ch. 6.
complains, that they occafioned the ftudy of the fcience^a
to be abandoned. However, thofe mufical inftrii-
ments whofe'melody is produced by wind, had been
known at Rome long before. Witnefs that agreeable
poem of Capa, which for its elegance has been aferibed
to Virgil; where we find that the mulician introduces
the wind into her pipes by means of a pair of bellows,
which fhe holds under her arms and blows. In the hy¬
draulic organ, thewater moves the air, inftead of bellows.
Cornelius Severus, in his JEtna) has given an exact
' 1 defeription
Organ
O R G [
_ ^/cnpticn of it (a). And though there were two
kinds of hydraulic and pneumatic initrumentb, the
urfl of which played by r!ie infpiration and aftion
. belI(Ws, and the others by the adiou of water, it
is certain neverthelefa, that both of them were pneu¬
matic, being, infpired by tlie wind. And Heron of
Alexandria, m his Pneumatics, has treated of hydrau¬
lics as oelonging to pneumatics, d'his Heton lived
in the time of Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt.
When Suetonius fays, that Nero Organa hydraulic a
navi et ignoti generis ciraimduxit, he did not mean that
t -ey were unknown at Rome before Nero, but that
thofe of Nero were of a new conftruaion. Thofe
were the hydraulics ot a new fabric, which he exhi¬
bited to the people at the public games, as Suetonius
relates a little after. Hehogabalus, one of the worthy
iucceffors of Nero, like him was fondof thefe hydraulics;
-and Alexander Severus, his coufin and fucceflbr, had
the fame inclination. Claudian, who lived fome time
a.ter, has left us this elegant defeription of them :
jCA qui magiu !evi dctruckns murmur a ta&u
Jnnumeras voces fegetis moderatur a'hice ;
Jntonet errtinti digitoy pemtujque trabdli
l ccle laboranles in carmina concitat undat.
This very conftruAbn, which is o’*ferved in the nipes
of aa orgaii, gradually decreafing i„ magnitude, has
been reprefented m an epigram of Optatianus Porphy-
nus, who lived in the time of Conftantine. This
epigiam, which is quoted in Pith on's colleaion of
fep,gr.imS? ’S corrP°red of verfes of an unequal
Rngth, fucceffively increafing. This correfponds with
thofe words of the old fcholiaft on Juvenal, fat. 8.
ver 270. 7 time a Gaih utuntur in/acris in modum orjra-
nt utrmque decrefcentthus virgu/is purpurcis.
f O R G
. a0n ths tlj*A the antiquity of organs, or of Or cars.
inftruments o. a very fitmlar nature, can Icarcely be ' v—*“
.pared ' buC nothing very particular refpeding the
time, place, or manner, of the invention can poffibly
be determined from thofe incidental obfervations which
occur m the writings of the ancients (b). It appears
indeed to have been borrowed by the Latins from the
Greeks, but not to have been in geneial ufe till the
eigntu century ; and it has been affirmed, that, in
rranee, it was not known till the time of Louis the
Debonair i. e A. D. 815, when an Italian pried
taught the ufe and conftruaion of it, which he him-
ieU had Earned at Conftantmople. By fome, how-
ever, it has been carried as far back aa Charlemagne,
and by others as far as Pepin. Bellarmine fays that
the organ began to be uied in the fervice of the
cuurch about the year 660, as Platiua relates out of
the Pontifical : for when Pope Vitalian reformed the
hnging of the Roman church, he added to it organs
in Order to fupport and embellilh it. Ainmoniua
thinks, however, that this happened after the year
820, in the time of Louis the Pious. Perhaps the-
learned Bingham is our fureft guide in determining
this pomt. He pofitively aflertaf that there were no . ^
fuch things as organs in ufe in the ancient church j
and that, though church-tnuftc was as old as the
apoftles, in ftrumental mufic was not fo. He alio
lays^that it was the general opinion of the learaed in
his t.ays, that organs were not introduced into church¬
es till after the time of Thomas Aquinas, A. D. 1250;
and for this opinion, as far as the authority of Aqui¬
nas will go, we have a pofitive proof; for in his fums
we find rhefe words. “ Our church does not ufe mu-
heal inftruments, as harps, and pfalteri.es, to praife
God withal, that ihe may not feem to Judaizc vcJ.”
From
O) WWch is this tranftated by Mr Jabez Hughes :
tHydraulkon, ^ ’nran orSan *» bl'ft the rufhing air
A mafs of waters does before it bear ;
And then the waters, in their turn, we find
Avn-VnrGUg!} trC holIovv P'Pes the vanquifh’d wind ;
Which flrongly from its ftrait eonfinement fent,
Comes loudly rattling through the narrow vent:
btid as the waters prefs, the fpirits found,
And fpread the bubbling fymphony around.
* . , ^ 00 air and water meet, &c.
his name by Le Clerc. "^sTnecV^^nhiitV^rm lnem> rtho'^h is publifired under
no inch conclufion. Pie
^^in^ bee” already treated by v^viu ana Virfrii."
Mamlru*, and in his /fdverfaria to fome Chriftian writer lu, l •. . . ”” . Jl- '-(j
bcahger, the father, to Quintilius Varus But th ^ ' h ^ U \US been afcnbed to Virgil» and by
and though it has been much mutilated K*, t‘ tho,18h. lt ™ Ws (clear and methodical than Virgil,
hand. ^ mUCh ‘t certainly was penned by a mafterly and truly poetkal
low# which might beheartfa tlufufand'1 ho0^* and St Jerome mentions one with 12 pair ofbel-
at the Mount ff ohves ^ ^ ^ } and ail0ther at Walem, which migPht be heard
which th^Je^'^mad^o^initrunieii^of mulk ifdK ^ ^ defended by an aPPeal to the ufe
in us, as was averted by many well meanin g men rl ^ Wlth m"ch reafon : for were the criminal
U would tmqueftionably have'been eauad " f 1 f CeTntU^’ and as ^ is m thought by fome in this,
ever, a&ed wifely in avoidint thT ufe of t{ v u" r12 JeW8‘ The ^ri^m in Aquinas's time, how-
«, the ol them, ,t by fo doing they »ouid ha,e given offonco to their
weaken
itli fiipt
o R G r 487 ] O R G
From hrnce it hfs rcafonally leen cohdadej, parti- n° 19. above referred to, feveral pafTages of the ar-
eularly by the learned Gregory %^that they were not tide Music, heginningat p. 492. We need fcarcely
Organ.
Sham ufed in churches in his time. Mr Wharton hr.s alfo refer to the life of Handel,1 which all our readers who
obferved that Marinus Sanutus (who flourifbed A. D. are fond of mufic of any kind, particularly facred,
1290) firft introduced wind-organs into churches; L “ ' ' ” ^ ’
from this circumltance he derived the name ’i&r
the name for organ in the Italian language.
About this fame time Durandus in his fpeaks
of them as generally received in the church; and he,
in Mr Gregory’s opinion, is the firft author who
takes notice of it. 1 hefe authorities are ftrong, and
the opinions founded on them by the learned render
them ftill more convincing: it appears, however, from
the teftimony of Gervas the monk of Canterbury, who
fiourifhed A. D. 1 200, that organs were introduced
upwards of 100 years even before that time ; for in
Lis defcription of Lanfranc’s church, as it was before
the fire in 11 74, he has thefe words, “ Crux aujlra-
Ihfupra fornicem organa gejlare folebal” We do not
fay that this invalidates the reafoning of the learned
Bingham; of that our readers are to judge, and in
forming their judgments they ill be determined by
the credit of the teftimonies which are here oppofed
to each other. If we fuppofe that of Gervas the
ftrong eft, and in oppcfition to the orher conclude from
it, that organs were introduced into England long
before the 13th century, it will give iome countenance
to an opinion which prevails pretty generally, viz.
that in Italy, Germany, and England, they became
frequent about the 10th century. See Music, n° 19.
But however we are diipofed to determine this Blat¬
ter (which is in itfelf but of little confequence),
it is certain that the ufe of the organ was very
common in the latter ages of the church, and the
propriety of it was nndifputed. In the lilt century,
however, during the civil wars, organs were remo¬
ved from the churches in England; and fo gene¬
rally reprobated, that, at the Reftoration, there could
fcarce be found either organifts, organ builders, or
fingers(n).
The organs in Germany (fays Dr Bnruey) in magni¬
tude, and the organifts in abilities, feem unrivalled in
any other part of Europe, particularly in the ufe of
pedals. In Marpurg's Elfiiys, vol. iii. there is a mi¬
nute account of a variety of organs in Germany ; of
all which the longeft pipe of the manuals is 16 feet
long, and of the pedals 32. One of the largeft or¬
gans, in Germany, but which Marpurg has omitted
in his lift, is at Gorliz in Upper Lufatia. it would
be to no purpofe to enlarge our article with a more
minute account of the ftate of organic muiic in dif¬
ferent parts of the world : in various parts of the ar¬
ticle Music, obfervatious connected with this fubjecd
will be found, and to that we muft refer. We may
particularly mark, for the perufal of thofe who wilh
for further information on this fubjedi, in addition to
have undoubtedly perufed.
The church-organ confifts of two parts ; the main
ho.ty, called the great organ ; and the politive or little
organ, which forms a fmall cafe or buffet, commonly
placed before the great organ. The fize of an organ
is generally exprefled by the length of it* largeft pipe:
thus they fay, an organ of 8, 16, 32 feet, &c. The
organ in the cathedral church at Ulm in Germany is
93 feet high and 28 broad: its largeft pipe is 13 inches
diameter, and it has 1 6 pair of bellows.
The fevera! parts of the church-organ are as follow.
HIK is the found-board: which is coinpufed of two
parts, the upper board or cover HHH, and the under
board HI, which is much thicker than the other;
each of thefe confifts of ftveral planks laid with their
edges to each other, and joined very ciofe together.
In ».n._ unuer fii.e of the lower board there are made
feverai channels, which rum in the dire&ion LL, MM,
&c. and are continued as far as there are ftops in the
organ, and come almoft to the edge HK. Thefe
channels are covered over very ciofe with parchment
or leather all the way, except a hole that is commonly
at the fore-end next HK, upon which a valve or puff
is placed. Thefe channels are called partitions. When
this vdve cr flap is ihut, it keeps out the air, and ad¬
mits it when open. On the upper fide of the lower
board there are likewife cut feveral broad fquare chan¬
nels, lying crofs the former, but not fo deep as to
reach them ; thefe lie in the direftion LN, PQ, &c.
To fit thefe channels, there are the fame number of
wooden fli 'ers cr regifttrs /,/,/, &c. running the
whole length ; and thefe may be drawn out or thruft
in at pleafure. The number of thefe is the fame as
that of the ftops in the oigan.
IKKK is the wind-cheft, which is a fqnare box
fitted ciofe to the under fide of the lower board, and
made air-tight, fo that no air can get out but what
goes through the valves along the partitions.
.Ware the valves or puffs which open into the
wind-cheft ; they are all inclofed in it, *and may be
placed in any part of it, as occafion fhall require. One <
of thefe valves, with the fpring that fhuts it, and the
wire that opens it, is reprefented by fig. 2.
C, 1), E, F, &c. are the keys on which the fingers
are placed when the organ is played : thefe keys lie
over the horizontal bar of wood W, in which are ftuck
an equal number of wire-pins z, z, on which keys are
fixed; and the keys move up and down on the bar
as on a centre. There is another bar, againft which
the keys fall when put down, and which is here mark¬
ed 3 : on this alfo are feveral wires, which go through
the keys, to guide them; and on this bar a lift is fa¬
ttened
Plate
CCCLXvUj/
%. 1.
weaker brethren. For though they are highly ornamental, and in fome churches may be produ&ive of irnnd
eftebts, yet the ufe of them is far from being effential, and may he eafily difpenfed with g 1
(d) Organs have never yet been ufed b the eftablifhment of Scotland, fince that became Prefbyterian • but
the} are ufed in Holland, where that form of church-government alio obtains. Bifhop Horne in a ffrmrr
which he preached at the opening of the new organ at Canterbury in 1784, fays that he believes Kme P n
tma» diflenters in England have adopted it iu Utah places of worlhjp. L L Sermon,
O R G [ 488 j O R G
Organ, ftencd to hinder the keys from knocking again ft the
vvood.
The keys are made to communicate with the valves
feveral ways, as we (hall now defcribe. Firft, r,
are the key-rollers, moving on the pivots t, t: thefe
rollers lie horizontally, one above another, and are of
fuch a length as to reach from the valve to the key :
«, a, a, are arms or levers fixed to the key-rollers :
<&/, w, the valve-wires fixed to the arms a, a, and to
the valves V,-and go through the holes h, h, in the bot¬
tom of the wind-cheft: b, b, b, are likevvife arms fixed
to the key-rollers: t/, cl, d, the key-wires, fixed to the
arms b, b, and to the keys C, D, E. Now, when the
end of any one of the keys C, D, E, is put down, it
pulls down the arm b, by the wire d, which turns about
the roller s with the arm a, that pulls down the wire
«ev, which opens the valve that is fhut by the fpring as
foon as the preffure is taken off the key. In this con-
ftnuftion there muft be a worm-fpring faftened to the
key, and to the bar W on the further fide, to keep
down the end 5 of the key.
Another method of opening the valves is thus : xy,
xy, are {lender levers, moveable on the centres 1, 1 ;
5 x, 5 x, are wires going from the further ends of the
keys to the ends *• of the levers ; yV, j V, are other
wires, reaching from the endsjy of the levers, through
the holes h, to the valves V. So that putting down
the key C, D, &c. raifes the end 5, which thrufts up
the end x of the lever, by the wire yx ; this deprefles
the end y of the lever, which pulls down the wire jy V,
and opens the valve V.
A third way of opening the valves is this : At the
end of the key b, is a lever 8, 9, moving in the cen¬
tre 7. This makes, with the key, a compound lever.
From the end 9, a wire goes to the valve. Now the
putting down the end 6 of the key, raifes the end 8,
which deprefles the end 9, ol the lever 8, 9, pul's
down the wire, and opens the valve. There is only
one of thefe drawn in the fcheme, and but a few of the
others, to avoid confufion.
R, R, are the rollers, to move the Aiders, by help
of the arms r/, r/, which are fixed horizontally in
thefe rollers : be, ke, are alfo levers fixed in the rol¬
lers ; le, le, are the handles, which lie horizontally,
imd pafs through the holes /they are faftened to the
lever be, being moveable about a joint ate.
Now, any handle Ip, being drawn out, pulls the
end e toward l, which turns about R b, along with the
arm c f; and the end f pulls out the Aider f g ; and
when p is thruft in, the arm c/likewife thrufts in the
Cider
tJpon the feveral rows of holes which appear on the
top of the upper board, there are fet up an equal
number of rows of pipes. The pipes of an organ are
of two kinds ; the one has a mouth like a flute, the
other with reeds. The firft, called pipes of mutation,
Plate confift, (1.) of a foot AABB (fig. 3.), which is a
ccclxvii. hollow cone, that receives the wind that is to found
the pipe : (2.) To this foot is faftened the body of
the pipe BBDD. Between the foot and the body of
the pipe is a diaphragm or partition FEF, that his a
long but narrow aperture by w’hieh the wind comes
out; over this aperture is the mouth BBC, whofe
upper lip C, being level, cuts the wind as it coHaes
«ut.
N* 253.
The pipes are of pewter, of lead mixed with a Organ
twelfth part of tin, and of wood. Thofe of pewter ^
are always open at their extremities : their diameter
is very fmall, and their found very clear and fhrill.
Thofe of lead mixed with tin are larger ; the ftrorteft
are open, the longeft quite flopped ; thofe of a mean
fize are partly flopped, and have befide a little ear on
each fide the mouth, to be drawn clofer or fet further
afunder, m order to raife or lower the found. The
wooden pipes are fquare, and their extremity is flop¬
ped with a valve or tampion of leather. The found
of the wooden and leaden pipes is very foft; the large
ones flopped are commonly of wood, the fmall ones
of lead. The longeft pipes give the graveft found,
and the fhorteft the moft acute : their lengths and
widths are determined by a fixed proportion to their
founds ; and their divifions are regulated by a rule,
which is called the diapafon. The longeft has com¬
monly 16 feet; but in very large organs it has 32
feet. The pedal tubes are always open, though made
of wood and of lead. Whatever note any open pipe
founds, when its mouth is flopped it will found an oc¬
tave lower ; and a pipe of twice its capacity will like-
wife found »n odlave lower.
A reed-pipe confifts of a foot AABB (fig. 4.),
that carries the wind into the /ballot or reed CD,
which is a hollow demi-dylinder, fitted at its extre¬
mity D, into a fort of mould, by a wooden tampion G.
The fhallot is covered with a plate of copper KKLL,
fitted at its extremity II, into the mould, by the fame
wooden tampion. Its other exti'emity KK is at li¬
berty : fo that the air entering the fhallot makes it
tremble or fhake againft the reed ; and the longer
that part of the tongue IL, which is at liberty, is
made, the deeper is the found. The mould II, that
ferves to fix the fhallot or reed, the tongue, tampion,
&c. ferves alfo to flop the foot of the pipe, and make
the wind go out wholly at the reed. Laftly, in the
mould is foldered the tube HH, whofe inward open¬
ing is a continuation of that of the reed : the form of
this tube is different in different ranks of pipes. The
degree of acutenefs or gravity in the found of a reed
pipe, depends on the length of the tongue, and that of
the pipe CK, taken from the extremity of the fhallot
to the extremity of the tube. The quantity or inten¬
tion of the found depends on the width of the reed,
the tongue, and the tube ; as alfo on the thicknefs of
the tongue, the figure of the tube, and the quantity
of wind. Todiverfify the founds of the pipes, a valve
is added to the port-vent, which makes the wind go
out in fits or fhakes. In fig. 1. X reprefents a flute-
pipe of wood, Z a flute-pipe of metal, Y a trumpet-
pipe of metal. The pipes, to prevent them from fall¬
ing, pafs through holes made in boards, placed upon
the upper board.
The pipes are made to communicate with the wind-
cheft in the following manner. There are holes bored
that go through the upper and lower boards, and
throtigh the Aider (when it is drawn out), into the
partition below; fo that any pipes placed upon thofe
holes will then communicate with the partition, which
by its valve communicates with the wind-cheft. But
when the Aider is thruft in, its holes do not anfwer to
thofe in the upper and lower boards; therefore, the
com-
Plate
CCCLXV1I.
O R G ■ [ 480 ] O R G
communication is flopped, fo that no wind can get to
the pipe.
To every larpe organ there mufl be at lead two pair
of bellows, which are marked in fig. 1. by TU, TU.
O, O, are the handles, moving upon the axis n », n n.
Each of thefe bellows confid of two boards, the
lowed of which is immoveable ; and in this there is a
valve r, opening inwards, and'a tube leading to it,
called the conveying tube. There is alfo a hole in this
under board, from which a tube leads to the port-
vent, which is a fquare tube marked 4, riling upward,
and inferted into the under fide of the wynd-chefl at
2. In the tube leading to the port-vent, there is a
valve that opens towards the port-vent, and fuffers the
air to go up the port vent, but not to return. Now
the handle O being pulled down, raifes the upper
board T, and the air enters through the valve r ; and
when the handle is let go, the weight of the upper
board, which carries three or four pound to every
fquare foot, continually defcending, drives the air
through the port-vent to the found-board : and as the
bellows work alternately, one pair is conilantly de¬
fcending, which eccafions a continual blafl through
the port-vent. In chamber-organs there is but one
pair of bellows; but they are formed of three boards,
in the manner of a fmith’s bellows, and fo have a con¬
tinual blaft. All the internal ftrudlure of the organ is
concealed from the fight by the front of the inllru-
ment, which Hands upon the part between the num¬
bers 3 and 6 (fig. 1.)
In every organ the number of partitions LL, MM,
See. there are in the found-board (fig. 1.) that of the
valves VV, that of the rollers s s, or of the levers
xy or 8 9 and their wires, and that of the keys ABC,
&c. mull be always equal. Large organs have com¬
monly four or five fets of keys, befide thofe that be¬
long to the pedals or large pipes, the Hops to which
are played by the feet ; faid to be the invention of
Bernhard, a German, about the year 1400. Thefe
command certain pipes, which, to increafe the har¬
mony, are turned below the diapafon. The keys of
an organ are ufually divided into four odlaves; which
are, the firft fub odlave, fecoud fub-odlave, middle oc¬
tave, and firft odtave. Each odlave is divided into 12
flops or frets, of which feven are black and five white ;
the former mark the natural notes, and the latter the
artificial notes, that is, flats and fharps. The number
of keys, therefore, when there are four oftaves, muft
be 48. Some organifts add one or more flops to the
firft; and fecond fub-odlaves. The pedals have two or
three odlaves, at the option of the organift ; fo that
the number of flops is indeterminate. The keys are
placed between GG (fig. i.), but the fcheme could
not‘contain them all. There are alfo as many handles
/, /, &c. rollers RR, &c. Aiders ft f, &c. as there
are flops upon the organ ; and it mull be obferved,
that between the Aiders /, /, &c. there are as many
Aiders on the right hand, and the fame number of
handles and rollers, and other rows of pipes placed
between LN, PQ_j which could not be exprefl'ed in
the figure.
The leaft pipes and partitions are placed toward the
middle of the organ, and the greateft on the outfide.
The flops of an organ have various denominations, ac¬
cording to the founds they are to produce : fume of
Vol.XUI. Part II.
which are diapafon, principal, fifteenth, twelfth, tearce,
cornet, trumpet, French horn, vox humana, flute, baf-
foon, cremona, &c. I he foreign organs, efpeciaily
thofe of Germany, have many more : particularly that
in the abbey church of Weingarten, a town in the up¬
per Palatine, which has 66 flops, and contains no fewer
than 6666 pipes. The organ at Haerlem is faid to have
60 flops, many of them but little known to the Eng¬
lish workmen, and diftinguilhed by names that exprefs
the found which they produce.
W hen this magnificent inftrument is played, the
handle O of the bellows is firft put down, which raifes
the upper board T, and gives room for the air to en¬
ter by the valve r. Then the other handle O is put
down : in the mean time the board T, belonging to
the firft handle, defcending, and (hutting the valve r,
drives the air through the other valve, up the port-
vent, and into the wind-cheft. Then drawing out any
handle, as that of the flute-flop/)/, which draws out
the Aider fg, all the pipes in the fet LN are ready to
play, as foon as the keys C, D, E, See. are put down:
therefore, if the key D be put down, it opens the cor-
refponding valve m V, through which the air enters
into the pipe X, and makes it found. In the fame
manner any other pipe in the fet LN, will found when
its key is put down ; but no pipe, in any other fet,
will found till the Aider be drawn out by its corre-
fponding handle.
Among the modern improvements of the organ, the
moft remarkable are the fwell and the tremblant : th«
former, invented by an Englilh artirt, confilts in a
number of pipes placed in a remote part of the inftru¬
ment, and inclofed in a kind of box, which, being
gradually opened by the preflure of the foot, increafes
the found as the wind does the found of a peal of
bells, or fupprefies it in like manner by the contrary
adlion. The tremblant is a contrivance by means of
a valve in the port-vent or paffage from the wind-
cheft, to check the wind, and admit it only by ftarts ;
fo that the notes feem to Hammer, and the whole in¬
ftrument to fob, in a manner very offcnfive to the ear.
There is a tremblant in the organ at the German
chapel in the Savoy. See Hawkin’s Hijiory of Mujtc,
and Burney.
Hydraulic Orgjn, denotes a mufical machine that
plays by water inftead of wind. Of thefe there are
feveral in Italy, in the grottos of vineyards. Cte-
febes of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Ptole¬
my Euergetes, is faid to have invented organs that
played by comprefling the air with water, as is Hill
pra6lifed. Archimedes and Vitruvius have left us de-
feriptions of the hydraulic organ.
In the cabinet of Queen Chriftina is a beautiful and
large medallion of Valentinian, on the reverfe whereof
is feen one of thefe hydraulic organs ; with two men*
one on the right, the other on the left, feeming to
pump the water which plays it, and to Men to its
found. It has pnly. eight pipes, placed on a round
pedeftal. The infeription is placea spetri, if it be
not wrong copied, which we fufpedt to be the cafe.
ORGASM cpycKx/to;, denoting violence or turgef-
cency; formed from opyaa, turgeo, “ I fwell,” an ec-
ftacy or impetuous defire of coition, occafioned by a
turgefcency of the feminal vefiels, which are no longer
able to reftrain their contents. The ancients alfo ex-
3 Q_ tend
o I! I [ 490 ] O R I
Oi";ia tend orgr.fm to the other humours, and even excre-
3ribafus men‘:8’ 'v*1'c*5 being accumulated, and coming to fer-
, ment, demand excretion. Quincy ufes orgsfm for an
impetuous or too quick motion of the blood orfpirits;
whereby the mufcles are diftended with an uncommon
force.
ORG1A, fends end facrifices in honour of Bacchus,
held every third year, and chiefly celebrated by wild
diflracbed women, called Bacchx. The chief fokm-
nities wTere performed in the night, to conceal, per¬
haps, their (blocking impurities ; and a mountain was
generally chofcn as the place of celebration. They
were inflituted by Orpheus ; and from him are fome-
tfmes called Orphica. Authors are not agreed as to
the derivation of the word ; but if we confider the
frantic proceedings of the Bacchanalians, ’’py*, furor,
bids fair for the true etymology. See Bacchanalia.
Orgia, according to Serving, was a common name
for all kinds of facrifices among the Greeks, as cere-
montx' was amongft the Romans.
ORGUES, in the military art, are thick long
pieces of wood, pointed at one end, and (hod with
iron, clear one of another; hanging each by a parti¬
cular rope or cord, over the gateway of a ftrong
place, perpendicularly, to be let fall in cafe of the ap¬
proach of an enemy.
Orgues are preferable to.herfes, or portcullices, he-
caufe thefe may be either broke by a petard, or they
may be flopped in theib falling down : but a petard
is ufelefs againil an orgue ■; for if it break one or
two of the pieces,” they immediately fall down again
and fill up the vacancy ; or if they flop one or two of
the pieces from falling, it is no hinderance to the reft ;
for being all feparate, they have no dependence upon
one another.
Orgues, is alio ufed for a machine compofed of
feveral ! arquebufs or mufket barrels bound together,
by means whereof feveral explofions are made at the
fame time. It is ufed to defend breaches and other
places attacked.
ORGYA, ofyvia} an ancient Grecian meafure con¬
taining fix feet.
ORIBASIA, in botany : A genus of the tnonogy-
nia order, belong to the pentandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or¬
der, Siellatx. The corolla is fmall, tubulated, and
monopetalous. The pericarpium is a globular berry,
grooved longitudinally ; is quinquelocular, and contains
one feed. Of tiiis there are fix fpecies, ail natives of
the warmer parts of America, viz. 1. Officinalis:
the natives of Cuuxia make infufions of the leaves, and
give them in cafes of fpafmodic afthma. 2. Kacemofa.
3. Violaeea. 4. Lutea. 5. Paniculata. 6. Longi-
flora. r{ he habit of all thefe plants refembles thofe
cf Pfychotria.
ORIBaSUS, a celebrated phyfician greatly efteem-
cd by the emperor Julian, in whole reign he flounfhed.
He abtidged the works of Galen, and of all the
moll refpedlable writers on phyfic. This was done
at the lequeft of the emperor. He accompanied Ju- Orkhab
ban into the eaft, but his fkdl proved ineffefitual in cum-
attempting to cure the fatal wound which his bene- 
fadlor had received. After Julian’s death he fell into
the hands of the barbarians
ORICHALCUM, or Aurichalcum, a metallic
fubftance refembling gold in colour, but very inferior
tn value. It was well known to the old Romans, who of¬
ten took advantage of its refemblance to gold: for foroe
Sacrilegious charaflers, who could not refill the tempta¬
tion of taking gold from temples and other public places,
chofe to conceal their guilt by replacing it with orichai-
cum. It was thus that Julius Caefar atted when he rob¬
bed the capitol of 3000 pound weight of gold; in which
he was followed by Vitellius, who defpoiled the temples
of their gifts and ornaments, and replaced them with
this inferior metal. It has been a matter of difpute
with philofophers and others, what this metal could
be, or how it was procured or made ; it is probable
at leafl that it was greatly analogous to our brafs, if
not wholly the fame with it. (See Brass.) The value
of our hrafs is much lefs than that of gold, and the
refemblance of brafs to gold, in colour, is obvious at
fiiii. fight. Both brafs and gold, indeed, are fufeep-
tule of a variety of fhades of yellow ; and, if very
pale brafs be compared with gold, mixed with much
copper, fuch as the foreign gokifiniths, efpecially, ufe
in their toys, a difparity may. be feen ; but the near*
nefs of the refemblance is fuffieiently afeertained in
general, from obferving that fubftances gilded with
brafs, ©r as it is commonly called Dutch leaf are not
eafily diftinguifhed from fuch as are gilded with gold
leaf.
The Romans were not only in pofTeffion of a me¬
tallic fubftance, called by them orichalcum, and refem¬
bling gold in colour, but they knew alfo the manner
of making it, and the materials from which they made
it were the very fame from which we make brafs.
I here are, indeed, authors of great repute whd
think very differently ; and who confider the art of
making brafs as an invention wholly modern. Thus
hi. Cronftedt does not think it juft to conclude from
old coins and other antiquities, that it is evidently
proved that the making of brafs was known in the
moil ancient times ;* and the authors of the French * Mint?.
Encyclopedic affure us, that our brafs is a ve’-y ic-p-nS. "
cent invention (a). It appears, however, from Pliny’s
Nat. Eli ft. lib. xxxiv. $ 2. and from the concurring
teftimony of other writers, that orLhalcum was not a
pure or original metal ; but that its bafis was copper,
which the Romans changed into orichalcum by means
of cadmia, a fpecies of earth which they threw upon
the copper, and which it abforbed. It has indeed
been contended that the cadmia of Pliny was native
arfenic, an opinion which fcarcely merits confut.tion,
but which muft appear extremely groundlefs, when we
refledt that it is impoifible to make either brafs or cop¬
per from arfenic, and that Pliny exprtfsly calls it afont
from which brafs was made. The teftimony of /lm-
brofe
( a ) Art. Onchalque—“ The veffels here called braze#, after ancient authors, cannot have been of the ma,
terials our preient brafs 13 compofed of; the art of making it is a modern difcovery.,, See Laughton’s Hdh
f Ancient Egypt, p. 58. 0
/
t
* Tor.
Vranf
>d. i- p. I
O It I [ 4g
trofe bifhop of Milan, in tlie 41!i centur/, and of
Primaiius bif^ p of Adrurnetun', in Africa, in the
6th, and of Ilidorus Li (hop of Seville in the 7 th,
nil fecm to confirm Pliny’s account. We may there¬
fore fafely conclude that the Remans knew the me¬
thod of making' brafs by mixing cadmia or calamine
with copper ; yet it is probable they were not the in¬
ventors of this art, but that they borrowed it from
forne other country. It appears from a variety of
tdlimonies that brafs was made in Afia, in a manner
very fimiiar to that at Rome ; and a variety of places
are mentioned in that extenfive country where it was
commonly made; and it is fuppofed by fonie that in
India, as well as in other parts of Afia, it was made
in the remoteft ages.
With refpefl to orichalcum, it is generally fuppofed
that there were two forts of it, one fa&itious, the
other natural. The faflitious, whether we confider its
qualities or compofition, appears to have been the
lame with our brafs. As to the natural crlchalcum,
there is no impofiibility in fuppofing, that copper
ore may be fo intimately blended with an ore of zinc,
or of fome other metallic fubflance, that the com¬
pound, when fmelted, may yield a mixed metal of a
paler hue than copper, and lefembling the colour of
either gold or fiiver. In Du Halde’s hiftory of China,
we meet with the following account of the Chinefe
white copper. “ The mod extraordinary copper is
called de-tong, or white copper : it is white when dug
out of the mine, and ftill more white within than with¬
out. It appears by a vail number of experiments
made at Peking, chat its colour is owing to no mixture ;
011 the contrary all mixtures diminilh its beauty; for,
when it is rightly managed, it looks exactly like fiiver:
and w#re there not a necefiity of mixing a little tutenag,
or fome fuch metal with it, to foften it and prevent
its brittlentfs, it would be fo much the more extia-
ordinary, as this fort of copper is perhaps to be met
w ith nowhere but in China, and that only in the pro¬
vince of 7~un-nan.*,y Notwithftanding what is here
(Tj. find of the colour of this copper being owing to no
mixture, it is certain that the Chinefe white copper,
as brought to us, is a mixed metal ; fo that the ore
from which it is extracted mull confifl of various me¬
tallic fubftances, and from fome fuch ore it is poffible
that the natural orichalcum, if ever it exifted, may
liave been made. But, notwithftanding that the exilt-
ence of natural orichalcum cannot be fhown to be im-
poffiblc, yet there is fomc reafon to doubt whether it
ever had a real exigence or not.
We know of no country in which it is found at
prefent ; nor was it anywhere found in the age of
Pliny ; nor does he feem to have known the country
where it ever had been found. He admits, indeed,
its having been formerly dug out of the earth ; but it
is remarkable that in the very paflage where he is
mentioning by name the countries mod celebrated for
the production of different kinds of copper, he only
fays in genttal, concerning orichalcum, that it had
been found in other countries, without fpecifying any
particular country. Plato acknowledges, that ori¬
chalcum w'as a thing only talked of even in his time ;
it was nowhere then to be met with, though in the
liland of Atlantis it had been formerly extrafled from
its mine. The Greeks were in poffefiion of a metallic
? ] OR!
fubfiance, called orichalcum, before the foundation of Oiichal-
Rome ; for it is mentioned by Homer and by Heiiod, cuni
and by both of them in fuch a manner as fhows that q - j[,un1
it was then held in great efieem. Other ancient > —- ^ r-
writers have exprefled themfelves in fimiiar terms of
commendation ; and it is principally from the circum-
ftance of the high reputed value of orichalcum that
authors are induced to fuppofe the ancient orichalcum
to have been a natural fubftance, and very different
from the factitious one in ufe at Rome, and probably
in Afia, and which it has been fhown was nothing
different from our brafs.
But this conclufion cannot be validly drawn from
their encomiums upon it ; for at whatever time the
method of making it was firft difeovered, both its no¬
velty and fcarcentfs, joined to its utility, would en¬
hance its value ; at leaft there can be no abfurdiiy in
fuppofing, that when firfl introduced it was greatly
prized, even though it be granted that it poffefled no
other properties than fuch as appertain to brafs.
Refpediing toe etymology of the word there is great
diveriity. of opinions. Thofe who write it aurichalcum
think it is coinpofed of the Latin word aurum, “gold,”1
and the Greek “ brafs or copper.” The moll ge¬
neral opinion is, however, that it is compofed of Vf “ a
mountain” and alluding perhaps to its being
found in mountains or mountainouscountries.Theabove
account is chiefly extradled from a paper in the fecon i
volume of Memoirs of the Literary and Philofophical
Society of Manchefter, written by the prefent bilhop
of LandafF, Dr Watfon, and communicated by Df
Percival. To this paper then we refer our readers" who
dtfire-a more copious account of it. To the above
two etymological meanings of the w^ord we fhall fub-
jom the following, mentioned by the learned bifhop,
and which, in our opinion, is equally well founded,
and certainly as ingenious, as the other two.
The Hebrew word Or, Aur, fignifies light, fire,
flame ; the Latin terms aro “ to burn,” and aurum
“gold,” are derived from it, inafmuch as gold refemblej
the colour of flame: and hence it is not improbable,
that orichalcum may be compofed of an Hebrew and
a Greek term, and that it is rightly rendered, fame-
coloured copper. In confirmation of this it may be ob-
ferved, that the Latin epithet lucidum, and the Greek
one are both applied to Orichalcum by the
ancients.
ORIFICE, the mouth or aperture of a tube, pipe,
or other cavity.
ORIGANUM, Origany, or Marjoram : A ge¬
nus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the qzd order, ^Ferticellata. There is
a ftrobilus or cone colliding the calyces together.
The principal fpecks are, two hardy perennials and
an annual for the open ground, and five perennials for
the green-houfe : viz. 1. The vulgare, or wild pot-
marjoram ; 2. The herackoticum, or winter fvveet-
marjoram. Thtfe are finely feented aromatics, ex¬
cellent for culinary purpofes, particularly for broths,
foups, &c. they have likewife merit for medical ufes,
and for giving fragrance to ointments ; fo that the
plants are proper both for kitchen and phyfie gardens,
and may alfo Le employed in the pleafure-ground as
plants of variety. 3. The marjorana, or amial fweet-
3 morjoramp
o R I [ 492 ] O R I
Orient marjoram, is an aromatic of the highell fragrance, is
0rJ' admirable for kitchen ufe, and excellent for nofegays ;
^ . fo is proper both for the kitchen and pleafure garden,
but more particularly for the former. It is often called
knotted marjoram, from the flowers growing in clofe
knotted-like heads. The following moflly affume an
underfhrubby growth ; frequently with abiding flalks,
if they have flicker here in winter. 4. The diftam-
nus, or dittany of Crete. 5. The fipyleum or ori¬
ganum of mount Siplus. 6. The creticum, or Cre¬
tan origany. y. The fmyrnseum, or Smyrna origany.
8. The iEgyptiacum, or Egyptian origany. " All
thefe eight fpecies of origanum flower in July and
Auguft; the flowers are frnall, monopetalous, rin-
gent, univerfally hermaphrodite, and colledted into
verticilli round the ftalks ; fucceeded by ripe feed in
autumn ; though in this country the annual marjoram
and the three green-houfe forts feldom perfedt feed
well, unlefs the autumn proves remarkably fine and
warm: in default, however, of feed, the propagation
of all the perennial forts, both hardy and green-houfe
kinds, is eafily effe&ed by flips of the roots, &e. And
the feed of the annual fort is imported plentifully from
France or Italy by the feed-dealers.
ORIENT, a harbour of France, in the province
of Bretagne, in the bottom of the bay of St Lewis.
Since the year 1720, a handfome town”has been built
here, where the Eafl: India company have large ma¬
gazines. 'IheEnglifh attempted to become mafters
of it in 1746, but mifcarried. W. Long. a. 22. N.
Lat. 47.^45.
ORIENTAL Philosophy. See Philosophy.
ORIQEN, one of the moft celebrated ecclefiaftical
writers, greateil geniufes, and moft learned men of
the primitive church, during the third century, was
born at Alexandria in the year 185; and was fur-
named either from his indefatigable applica¬
tion to ftudy, or from the firmnefs he difcovered amidft
the torments he fuffered for the faith. Leonidas his
father tiained him at home with great care, and made
him apply to the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures from
his infancy, in which he made furprifing progrefs.
The fon’s inclination and turn fuited exadHy with the
father’s defign ; for he purfued his ftudies with a moft
extraordinary zeal and ardour: and, being endued
with a quick apprehenfion and a ftrong imagination,
did not content himfelf with that fenfe which at firft
prefented itfelf, but farther endeavoured to dive into
myfterious and allegorical explications of the facred
books. He would fometimes even puzzle his father,
by too much foliciting him for recondite meanings ;
which obliged the good man to reprehend him a little,
3
and withal to advife him not to attempt to penetrate Origen.
too far in the ftudy of the holy fcrlptures, but to -y—
content himfelf with their moft clear, obvious, and
natural fenfe. Hence it appears, how early he was
feized. with that furor al/ego ficus, as a learned modern
calls it, that rage of expounding the fcriptures alle¬
gorically, which grew afterwards to be even a Jiftcm-
per, and carried him to excefles which can never be
excufed (a). He had afterwards in philofophy Am-
monius the celebrated Chriftian philofopher, and St
Clement of Alexandria for his mailer in divinity. At 18
years of age he fucceeded that great man in the office
of catechift; an important employment, which confifted
in teaching divinity, and expounding the fcriptures.
Leonidas his father had fullered martyrdom the year
before, during the perfecution of Severus in 202 ; and
Origen had fhown fuch eagcrnefs to follow his father
to martyrdom, that his mother was obliged to hide
his clothes to prevent his going abroad. Origen had
a great concourfe of auditors who attended his fchool,
fome of whom were of the faithful, and the others pa-
gans. He confirmed and ilrengthened the firft in
their faith, and converted moft of the others ; and
there were fuch a number of martyrs amongft his
difciples, that it might he faid, that he kept rather a
fchool of martyrdom than of divinity. He taught
the doeftrines of Chriftianity to the girls and women
as well as te the men; and taking in a too literal fenfe
what Chrift fays of becoming voluntary eunuchs, caf-
trated himfelf, to prevent his deferving or fuffering
fcandal. Fie took a voyage to Rome in 211, in the
beginning of Caracalla’s reign, and under the pontifi¬
cate of Zepherinus. At his return he publilhed many
works, by which he acquired an extraordinary reputa¬
tion, that drew to him a great number of auditors. But
D emetrius, bilhop of Alexandria, conceiving a jealoufy
of him, endeavoured by various pretences to injure
him. At length Origen went to Antioch, whither
the emprefs Mammasa had fent for him to hear him
difeourfe ©nt he Chriftian religion. He did not how¬
ever ftay long there, but returned to Alexandria,
where he continued to teach till the year 228, when
he left that city, and travelled into Achaia. In that
journey he went into Paleftine, and was ordained by
the bifliops of that province at 42 years of age. Hia
being ordained by foreign bifnops without the per-
miffion of Demetrius, renewed that prelate’s refent-
ment againft him ; on which Origen haftily returned
to Alexandria, to endeavour to mollify him : but De¬
metrius drove him from thence in 231, and caufed
him to be excommunicated, and even depofed in a
council held in Egypt. Oiigen then retired to Casfa-
tea
(^) 18 the firft Chriftian (whole notions on this fubjedl have come down to us) who believed in the reftitution
ot all things. This 13 his fixth diftinguiftiing tenet; to which is added this lingular notion, that as Chrift had
een cruci re in this world to fave mankind, he is to be crucified in the next to lave the devils. The other
o noxious tenets ot Origen are thefe five: viz. r. That in the Trinity the Father is greater than the Son,
aiK 1 k ^•°n c aii Ghoft. 2. I he pre-exiftence of fouls, which Qrigen confidered as fent into
mor a o les .or tie punifhment of fins committed in a former ftate of being. 3. That the foul of Chrift
was uni e ^0 t e worid before the incarnation. 4. That the fun, moon, and ftars, &c. were animated and
a lationa ouls. 3. hat after the refurre£bon, all bodies will be of a round figure. It is pro-
EccJ Hft vol ^"ft 1C 1 ie0lu£y modern Quakers and other feels is derived from Origeu. See Mojheim
O R I [ 49.3 1 O R I
Orlgen. rea in Paleftine, wiicre he raifed a celebrated fchool,
^ ‘ and had 8t Gregory Thaumaturgus, and a great
number of other perfons who were illuitrious for their
virtue and learning, for h?s d'fciples He afterwards
travelled to Athens; and then, at the delire of Firmi
lianas,ftaidfome time atCsefarea inCappadocia; whence
he was invited into Arabia, to convince and bring
back to the truth B'eryllus hi fir op of Boftra, who
maintained that, the Word had no exigence before his
incarnation. Origen had the happinefs to make him
fenlible of his miltake ; and fome years after was fent
for into Arabia by an alfembly of bilhops, to difpute
againlt the Arabians, who maintained that the fouls of
the dead remained in a ftate of infenfibility till the
general refurrettion. At length the feventh perfecu
tion of the Chriftiass bet an in the reign of Decius,
and none were ufed with greater feverity than Origen.
He fupported with incredible conilancy the dreadful
torments which the perfecutors of the Chriflians in¬
vented againlt them ; torments that were the more
infupportable, as they were made to continue a long
time, and as they took the greateft care to prevent his
expiring in the midft of his tortures : but in the midft
of the molt excruciating torments, he difeovered an
heroic courage, and fuffered nothing to efcape him
that was unworthy a difciple of Jefus Chrift. He
died at Tyre in 2^4, aged 69. He was the author of
a great number of excellent works. The principal of
thofe which have been handed down to us are, 1. A
Treatife againlt Celfus, of which Spencer has given a
good edition in Greek and Latin, with notes : this
learned treatife hns been tranflated into French by Elias
Bouhereau, a proteflant minifter, born at Rochelle.
2. A great number of Homilies, with Commentaries
on the Holy Scriptures. 3. Philocaliat and feveral
other treatifes. 4. Fragments of his Hexaples, col¬
lected by father Montfaucon, in two volumes folio.
Of all Origen’s books, the lofs of the Hexaples is molt
to be regretted. This work was thus named from its
containing fix columns ; in the firit of which was the
Hebrew text of the Bible ; in the fecond, the fame
text in Greek chara&ers ; in the third, the Greek
verfion of the Scptuagint; in the fourth, that of
Aquila ; in the fifth, that of Symmachus; and in the
frxth, Theodofian’s Greek veriion. This admirable
work gave the firft hint for our Polyglot Bibles.
- 5. The book of Principles; of which we have only an
incorredt Latin verfion. In all his writings he dif-
covers a furprifing degree of modefty, candour, and
humility ; a noble and fublime genius, profound
learning, and vaft erudition. His manners were ex¬
tremely pure, and he had a warm zeal for fpreading the
truths and morals of the gofpel.
Much has been written both for and againft this
celebrated father, both by his contemporaries and
others: he has indeed fullered great abufe, which he
did not deferve, and w hich we lhall not retail; con¬
tenting ourfelves with the following account of his
character by7 Dupin, and fome remarks on it by Dr
Bibl.Avt. Jortin. “ Origen (fays Dupin) had very quick parts,
EccUf. a very ftrong and enlarged imagination ; but he relied
tom. 1. tt)0 muci1 on ^e vivacity ot his genius, and often loft
himfelf, out of too great earneftnefs to fathom and
fubtilife every thing Fie had a very happy inven¬
tion, and a more happy delivery of what he invented;
but he had not that exasftnefs in his inventions, nor Origen.
that graeefulnefs of delivery, as might be wifhed. He
carrie i on his works with fo great eafe, that he is faid
to have di&ated to feven or eight perfons at a time ;
and he was fo ready in txpnefling himfelf, that he
made the greateft part of his homilies extempore :
upon which account his ftyle was not very correct or
coherent. He had a vaft memory, but often trailed
too much to it. He was a perfon of moft profound
learning : he particularly ftudied Plato s philofophy,
and was indeed too much addicted to it for a Chriitian.
He underltood likewife the doctrines of other p dlo- .
fophers. He applied himfelf mightily to the itudy of
human learning. He was neither ignorant of hiftory
nor mythology ; and he had as great a knowledge
in all the profane fciences, as thofe who ftudied nothing
tlfe. But he particularly excelled in the knowledge
of the Hfoly Scriptures, which he learned all by heart;
and that he might ntgledt nothing for attaining a
right underitanding of the letter thereof, he carefully
examined all the verlions oi the Bible, mid compared
them all together with the Hebrew text, fubjoining a
literal commentary upon the moft difficult pLces He
was not very well Ikilled in the Hebrew ; yet he knew
enough of it to underftand it, and to obfervs the dif¬
ference of the text and the tranflhtions. Nevertheless,
he did not adhere to the literal explication of the
Bible, but thought it neceflary, for the faxe of gain¬
ing it credit with the heathens, who delpifed its plain-
nefs and fimplicity, and of rendering it more ufeful to
the w'orld, to give myftical and allegorical interpreta¬
tions of every thing in itT
Dr Jortin tells us, “ That Origen was very learned jort;n*s rs.-
and ingenious, and indefatigably induitrious. His^^j,
whole life from his early years was fpent in examining, vol.ii,
teaching, and explaining the Scriptures ; to which he
joined the ftudy of philofophy and of all polite litera¬
ture. He was humble, modeft, and patient under
great injuries and cruel treatment, which he received
from Chriftians and Pagans : for though he ever had
a confiderable number of friends and admirers, on ac¬
count of his amiable qualities and ufeful accompiifh-
ments, he was perfecuted and calumniated by men,
who had neither his learning nor his virtue, degraded
from the order of preffiyters, driven from his home,
and excommunicated by one Demetrius bilhop of A-
lexandria, who envied him, fays Eufebius, for the re¬
putation which he had gained. His inquifitive genius,
and his mixing philofophy with Chriftianity, led him
perhaps into fome learned fingulariues and ingenious
reveries ; but he was by temper far from dogmatizing
in fuch points, from fomenting fchifms, and fetting up
himfelf for the head of a party. He lived in times
when Chriftians were not 10 ffiackled with fyftems and
determinations, as they were afterwards, nor fo much
expofed to difingenuous and illiberal objections ; and
had more liberty to purlue their inquiries and to fpeak
their mind.—He was ever extremely fober and exem¬
plary, practifing what he preached to others ; and he
lived and died poor, and deftitute even of common
conveniences.”—The moft complete edition of his
works is that of Father Delarue, a Benedidtine, in
Greek and Latin. The celebrated Montfaucon like¬
wife publilhed, in 2 vols folio, fome remains and frag¬
ments of his Hexabla,
He
#ri<r«rtiam
.11
Oriolus.
O R 1 [ 494
Tie ought not to be confoonded with another Ori-
gen, a Platonic philofopher, and the difciple and
— friend of Porphyry, who ftudied philofophy under
Ammonius: perhaps this Origen was theVoimder of
the Origenians.
ORIGENIANS (Origcn'mni), ancient heretics, who
even furpaffed the abominations of the Gnoftics.
Epiphanius fpeaks of them as fubfifting in his time ;
but their numbers, he fays, were inconfiderable. He
feems to fix their rife about the time of the great Ori¬
gen ; hut does not fay that they derived their name
horn him. On the contrary, he diilinguifiies them
from the Origenijls, whom he derives from Origen Ada-
mantius; adding, indeed, that they firft took their
name fipm one Grigen-; by which he intimates, that it
was not the great Origen. And St Auguftme exprefs-
Jy afierts, tnat it was another. rI heir dodtnnes were
Shameful: t^ey rtjedted marriage; they ufed feveral
apocryphal books, as the adts of St Andrew, &c. and
endeavoured to excufe their open crimes, by faying,
that the Catholics did the fame in private.
ORIGEN1STS. in church-hiftory, a ChrifHan fedt
in t_e fourth century, fo called from their drawing
their opinions from the writings of Origen. The
Origenilts maintained, that the fouls of men had a
pre-exiftent date : that they were holy intelligences,
and had finned in heaven before the body was created:
that Child is only the fon of God by adoption ; that
he has been fuccefiively united with all the angelical
natures, and has been a cherub, a feraph, and all the
celedial virtues one after another; that, in future
ages, he will be crucified for the falvation of the de-
viis, as he has already been for that of men ; and that
their punifhrnent, and that of the damned, will .con¬
tinue only for a certain limited time.
ORi GIiN AL, a fird draught or defign of any thing,
which ferves as a model to be imitated or copied. *
Original Sw, the crime of eating the forbidden
fruit, of which, it is faid, all mankind are guilty at
their conception, by the imputation of Adam’s tranf-
greffion ; which is accounted for by fuppofing, that
Adam, as he was to be the father, was alfo the foe-
detal head and reprefentative, of the whole human
race : and that, on his finning, all that were to fpring
from him partook of his crimes. See Theology,
&c.
ORIGUELA, a town of Spain in Valentia. It is
feated between the mountains on the banks of the ri¬
ver Segura, in a place fortified by nature, and in a
fertile plain, abounding in all things, efpecially corn.
It is furroundtd with pleafant gardens, and has a uni-
verfity and a bifhop’s fee. It is defended by an old
c^e ’ an.c^ 18 cap.tal of a government independent
of V alentia, whofe jurifdidtion extends 30 miles in
length and 15 in breadth. W. Long. c. 56. N. Lat.
38.22
1 ORI
ftrils final!, placed at the bafe of the bill, and partly
covered. Tongue divided at the end. Toes, three
forward, one backward ; the middle joined near the
bafe to the outmoil one.—Thefe birds are inhabitants
of America, except in a few inftances ; are a noify
gregarious, frugivorous, granivorous, and voracious
race, very numerous, and often have penfile nefts.
The feveral fpecies (which are very numerous, for
Mr Latham enumerates and deferibe, 45) feeui to be
principally diftinguilhed by their colour. We have
given engravings of two of them, the (harp tailed and
Ba! timore oriole.
The fharp-tailed oriole is about the fize of a lark :
Orioluv'
?i!rtr\^ed W!th a waI1; raifed on the fhouldtr of
thole baftions that have cafemates, to cover the cannon
in the retired flank, and prevent their being difmount-
<dnPTnTTT^y' See Fortification, p.364.
ORIOLUS, or Oriole, in ornithology, a genus
tadonging to the order of pica:. The bill in this ge-
»us is ftrait, conic, very fliarp-pointcd; edges cultrated,
iflchmng inwards j mandibles of equal length. No-
1 he bill is dufley ; the crown is brown and cinereous ,
the cheeks are brown, bounded above and below witn
deep dull yellow. The throat is white; the brealt,
files, thighs, and vent, ate a dull pale yellow, fpotted
with brown; the belly is white 5 the back is varied
VvIlu afh-colour, black and white; tne wing-covcrts are
dulky, with ferruginous edges. The quills are alfo
dufley ; the tail confifts of narrow fharp pointed fea-
thers, of a dulky colour tinged with olive, and ob-
fcurtly barred ; and the legs are pale brown.
The other fpeeics, v/hich we fhall deferibe, is called
the Baltimore bird by Catelby and Latham, le Balti¬
more by Buffon, the oriolus Baltimore by Linnseus, and
the Baltimore oriole by Pennant, and is an inhabitant of
Eorth America ; which country it quits before winter,
and probably retires to Mexico, the xochitotl of Fer¬
nandez feeming to be of the fame fpecies. The head,
throat, neck, and upper part of the back of the male*
18 deferibed to be blac k ; the lefler coverts of the
wings orange ; the greater black, tipt with white ;
the breaft, belly, lower pait of the back, and coverts
of the tail, of a bright orange; the primaries dulky,
edged with white; the two middle feathers of the tail
black ; the lower part of the fame colour, the remain¬
ing part orange ; and the legs black. The head and
back of the female is orange, edged with pale brown;
the coverts of the wings of the fame colour, marked
with a Angle bar of white; the under fide of the body
and coverts of the tail yellow; the tail duiky, edged
with yellow. The length both of the male and fe¬
male is feven inches.—This bird fufpends its nelt to
the horizontal forks ot the tulip and poplar trees,
formed of the filaments of fome tough plants, curioufly
woven, mixed with wool, and lined with hairs, it is
of a pear fliape, open- at top, with a hole on the fide
through which the younri difeharge their excrements,
and tme fed. In feme parts of North America, this
fpecies, from its brilliant colour, is called the fury hang,
nef. It is named the Baltimore bird from its colours,
refembling thofe in the arms of the late Lord Balti¬
more, whofe family were proprietors of Maryland.
There are feveral other fpecies of the oriole, all in¬
habitants of North America. Thefe, according to
ORTTTr»J c .•<- , Laui3 or rvortn America. 1 fiete, according to
rth fappH •,! 01 1 lcatlo.”» 18 a final* rounding of Mr Pennant’s enumeration, are the white-backed the
rth, taced with a wall: raifed on the m t , , , . , l.nc
baftard, the black, the brown headed, the rufly, the
white-headed, the Hudfonian white-headed, the olive,
the yellow.throated, the unalafchka, the fharp-tailed,
and tne red-wing. I his laft fpecies is known in Ame¬
rica by the name of the red-winged far ling and the
fwamp black-bird. Although they appear at New York
only from April to October, they probably continue
through the whole year in the fouthern parts; at leaft,
Catelby
Plat'?
C C CL,
o II I [ 405 J O R I
O.iob'. Cattfby and Lat’tam make no mention of their depar*
*"   ’ tore. 'They are feen at times in fm h prodigious flecks,
es even to obfeure the fky. They were efteemed the
pelt of the colonies, making mod dreadful havock
among the maize and other grain, both when new
fown and when ripe. They are very hold, and n*t to
be terrilxed by a gun ; for notwithftanding the fportf-
man makes (laughter in a dock, the remainder will
take a fhort flight, and fettle again in the fame field.
The farmers fornetimes attempt their deftnnStion, bv
deeping the maize before they fow it in a deco&ion
of white hellebore. The birds that eat this prepared
corn, ase feized with a vertigo, and fall down; which
fometimes drives the reft away. This potion is parti¬
cularly aimed at the purple grackies or purple jack¬
daw, which conforts in myriads with this fpecies, as if
in confpiracy againft the labours of the hufbandman.
The fowler feldom fires among the flocks without
killing foine of each. They appear in greateft num¬
bers in autumn, when they receive additions from the
retired parts of the country, in older to prey on the
ripened maize. Some of the colonies eftabiifhed a re¬
ward of three-pence a dozen for the extirpation of the
jackdaws ; and, in New England, the intent was ;d-
inoft effected at the cofl of the inhabitants ; who dif-
covered, at length, that Providence had not formed
thefe feemingly deftruftive birds in vain. Notwith¬
ftanding they caufed fuch havock among the grain,
they made ample recompenfe, by clearing the ground
*The Ca- Gf t],e noxious worms* with which it abounds. As
the^W°I< ^oon as t‘‘e kh'ds were deftroyed, the reptiles had full
Plft, or leave to multiply ; and the confequenee was the total
Peafe lofs of the grafs in 1749, when the New Englanders,
Beetle, m t00 la!:e repentants, were obliged to get their hay from
paituuLr. pennfyjvan;a> ami even from Great Britain.
There is befides anoi her oriole of this fpecies, called
the bajlard Baltimore : Its fize is that of the true B d-
timore, but it meafures fomewhat lefs in length : the
bill is lead-coloured ; the forehead and cheeks black
mixed with yellow ; the hind head and nape are olive
grey, marked with a few foots of black ; the upoer
part of the hack is the fame, but fomewhat dull r ;
the lower part of the back, the rump, fore-part of the
neck, breaft, belly, fides, thighs, upper and lower tail-
coverts, and under the wings, are orange-yellow, but
brighteft on, the bread and tail coverts ; the leffer
wing-coverts are deep brown; the greater are the fame,
tipped with dirty yellowifti white: the quills are brown,
bordered on both edges with white ; the two middle
tail-feathers are olive, then blackifh, marked at the
end with a longitudinal yellowifh (pot; the next on
each fide are olive and black, eonfufedly mixed ; and
the four cuter ones are of a yellowifh olive : the le.rs
and claws are bluiili. They inhabit North Ame¬
rica.
1 here feems to be grtat confufion and uncertainty
in the true and baftard Baltimores and their ferhrles;
mod likely at hft they may, the whole of them, turn
out mere varieties of one (ingle fpecies, all of them
perhaps refera’ le to one or other fex of the true Bal¬
timore, in the different ftages of life.
It w ould be abfurd, and indeed impofiible, without
enlarging the article beyond all bounds, to deferibe
each particular variety ; we (hall therefore refer thofe
el our readers who wi(h for a more copious account,
to Mr Latham’s Synopjts of Birch, where the whole Orlcn.
genus is more minutely and more accurately deferibed’“'N' ~
than anv where elft that we know.
ORION, in fabulous h.ftory, was the fon of Jupi¬
ter, Neptune, and Mercury. For as thefe gods were
vifiting the earth, they entered the houfe of Hyrieus,
a native of Tanagra, in Bceotia, under the character of
benighted travellers, on account of his being famed
for hofpitality to ftrangers. Hyrieus treated them in
the bed manner in his privver; and even killed an ox,
the only one he had, for their entertainment. At
which the gods were fo pleafed, that they offered the
old man whatever he would afk ; who letting them
know that he defired nothing fo much as a fon, they,
to gratify his wifh, caufed the ox’s hide to be brought
before them, in which, having depofitel their urine,
they bad him keep it under ground for nine months.
He then dug for the (kin, and found in it a beautiful
child, whom he called Urion ah urina. The name was
afterwards changed into Orion by the corruption of
one letter, as Ovid obferves : Perdidit antiquum litera
prima fonum. Orion foon became confpicuous ; and
Diana took him among her attendants, and even be¬
came deeply enamoured of him. His gigantic ftacure,
however, difpltafed (Euopion king of Chios, whofe
daughter Hero or Merope he requefted in marriage.
The king, not willing to deny him openly, promifed
to make him his fon-m-law as foon as he delivered his
Hand from wild beads. This talk, which (Enopion
fuppofed to be impradficable, was foon performed by
Orion, wdio eagerly demanded his reward. CEnopion,
on pretence of complying, intoxicated his illuftrious
gueft, and put out his eyes on the fea (bore, where
he bad laid himfelf down to deep. Orion found him-
felf blind when he awoke. He went, dire&ed by the
found, to a neighbouring forge, where he placed one
of the workmen on his back, and by his directions
went to a place where the riling fun was feen with the
greateft advantage. Here he turned his face towards,
the luminary; and, according to report, he immediate¬
ly recovered his eye-fight, and haftened to punifh the
perfidious cruelty of CEnopion. Orion was reported
to be an excellent workman in iron, and to have fabri¬
cated a fuhterraneous palace for Vulcan.
Aurora, whom Venus had infpired with love, car¬
ried him away into the Hand of Delos, that (he.might
enjoy his company with greater fecurity ; but Diana,
who was jealous of this, deftroyed him with her nr»
ro vs. Some fay, that Orion had provoked Diana’s
refentment, by offering violence to Opis, one of her
female attendants ; or, as others fay, hecaufe he had
attempted the virtue of the goddefs htrfelfi Accord¬
ing to Ovid, Orion died of the bite of a fcorpion,
which the earth produced to punifti his vanity, in
boafting that no animal on earth could conquer him.
Some fay that Orion was fon of Neptune and Euryale,
and that he had received from his father the privilege
and power of walking over the fea without wetting his
feet. Others affert, that he wras a fon of Terra, like
the reft of the giants. He had married a nymph call
ed Sida, before his connexion with the family of
OEnopion ; but Sida was the caufe of her own death,
by boalling herfelf fairer than Juno. Diodorus fays,
that Orion was a celebrated hunter, fuperior to the reft
of mankind, by his (Irength and uncommcn ftature.
4 He
O R I [ 496 ] O R K
Orion. ]^e bmh: the port of Zancle, and fortified the coaft of
' “ Sicily againft the frequent inundations of the fea, by
heaping a mound of earth called Pelcrum, on which he
built a temple to the gods of the fea. After death
Orion was placed in heaven, where one of the conftel-
lations ftill bears his name. The conflellation of O-
rion w7as placed near the feet of the bull. It was com-
pofed of 17 liars in the form of a man holding a-fword ;
for which reafon the poets often fpeak of Orion’s fword.
As the conftellation of Orion, which riles about the
qth day of March, and fets about the 21ft of June, is
generally fuppofed to be accompanied at its rifing with
great rains and llorms, it has acquired the epithet of
aquofus given it by Virgil. Orion was buried in the
iiland of Delos ; and the monument which the people
of Tanagra in Bceotia Ihowed, as containing his re¬
mains, was nothing but a Cenotaph. The daughters
of Orion diftinguifhed chemfelves as much as their fa¬
ther ; and when the oracle had declared that Bceotia
fhould not be delivered from a dreadful peftilence be¬
fore twTo of Jupiter’s children were immolated on the
altars, they joyfully accepted the offer, and voluntarily
facrificed themfelves for the good of their country.
Their names were Menippe, and Metioche. They had
been carefully educated by Diana ; and Venus and
Minerva had made them very rich and valuable pre-
fents. The deities of hell.were ftruck at the patrio-
tifm of thefe tw'o females ; and inllantly two liars were
obferved to arife from the earth, which ftill fmoked
with their blood, and they were placed in the heavens
in the form of a crown. According to Ovid, their
bodies were burned by the Thebans, and from their
afhes arofe two perfons, whom the gods foon after
changed into conflellations.
Orion, in aftronomy, one of the conftellations of
the fouthern hemifphere. The word is formed from
N3 253.
the Greek wfwv,il to make waterthe ancients fup- OriftagnJ
pofing that it raifed tempers at its rifing and fetting. II
The liars in the confteliation Orion, in Ptolemy’s ca-. °r>rt~ilC^‘ ,
talogue are 37, in Tycho’s 62, in the Britannic cata-^ ^
logue 80.
ORISTAGN1, an ancient town of the ifiand of
Sardinia, with an archbifhop’s fee It is pretty large
and well fortified ; but thinly inhabited, on account
of the unhealthy air : it is feated on the weftern coait,
in a bay of theiame name, in li. Long. 8. i;8. N. Lat.
39’5 v
ORIX A, a kingdom of Indoftan, lying on the
Gulph of Bengal. It is divided from the ancient
kingdom of Golconda, by a ridge of mountains, the
end of which runs a little way into the Sea. it is fer¬
tile in corn and cattle, and they have feveral good
towns and harbours on the coaft ; there are alfo ma-
nufadlures of diderent kinds carried on throughout the
kingdom. The prince is a Gentoo, who pays to the
Great Mogul a tribute to the amount of about 12,0001,
yearly.
Orixa, in botany : A genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe that are
doubtful. The calyx is quadripartite ; the petals are
four, plain and lanceolated ; the ftigma globular ; the
capfule and feeds unknown. Of this there are two
fpecies, viz. 1. The frutefeens ; 2. Japonica, both na¬
tives of Japan.
ORKNEY islands, called Orcades by the ancients,
certain iflands on the north of Scotland! a), from which
they are feparated by a frith 20 miles in length and
20 in breadth.
As writing feems to have been unknown in the
northern iflands, during thofe periods which the an¬
tiquarian would call the molt curious and important,
the
(a) The northern ifles of Scotland have been often mentioned by ancient authors, and called by different
names from thofe they now go by ; fo that it is fometimes difficult to know which of them are meant. The an¬
cient name, however, of the iflands, which are the fubjeft of this article, has never been difputed. The Ebuda, it
is agreed, are the modern Hebrides ; and there is no doubt of the ancient Orcades being the fame with the
Orkneys. Of 1 hule, however, we are not fo certain ; and whether it means the Shetland ifles, or Iceland,
remains undetermined. Pythias, a Maffilian, pretends to have vifited thefe iflands, and particularly Thule ;
but he does not mention the Orcades. xhe geographer Mela, who was cotemporary with the emperor Clau-
diuSj is the next writer w ho deferibes the northern iflands. Of the Orkneys he gives a remarkably juft ac¬
count, and fays they were thirty in number, with narrow channels between them j but he is lefs accurate with
refpecl to the reft. Pliny the Elder is the third who mentions the northern iflands. He makes the number
ot the Orkneys to be forty, and of the Hebrides to be thirty. Solinus, the fuppofed cotemporary with
Agricola, is the next after Pliny. In his time, and according to his account, thefe iflands had not a Angle inha¬
bitant, and were overgrown with rufhy grafs. It feems on the whole to be pretty generally allowed, that
Julius Agricola, who firfl failed round Britain, difeovered the Orcades till then unknown, and fubdued them*.
Claudius was fo far from reducing them (as is aflerted by Jerom in his Chronicle), that Juvenal has thefe lines
xn Hadrian’s time;
Arma quid ultra
Littora Jnvernrc promovimus et modo captas
Orcades ^ et minima content os node Britannos. Sat. II. 160.
In vain, O Rome, thou doft this conqueft boaft
Beyond the Orcades’ ffiort-nighted coaft. Dryden.
1 acitus informs us, that, before the completion of the firft century, the Roman fleets failed round Scotland,
and landed in the Orcades to refrefh.
* I he Romans, never that we know, vifited thefe ifiands again but once, which was probably after Honorius had defeated
the Saxons in the feas of Orkney.
O R K [ 4Q7 1 O R K
fMtriey* the cliief part of our information refpefting the an-
cient ftate of the Orkneys muft be derived from tra¬
dition and conjecture. Their mountainous fituation,
and natural jealoufy of ftrangers* obftructed the pro-
grefs both of knowledge and religion : for inftead of
receiving either from their fouthern neighbours, we are
certain that they derived their knowledge of Chriftia-
nity from Norway, during the expeditions undertaken
by that nation (in the end of the icth or beginning
of the nth century) to make fcttlcments in the Ork¬
neys and on the coaft of Caithnefs (a). The beft
(becaufe it is in all probability the molt authentic) ac¬
count that we have of this early part of the hiilory
of the Orkneys, feems to be in Torfeus. See Tor-
F^nus . His hiftory muft, doubtlefs, have been com¬
piled chiefly from tradition, which is far from be¬
ing the fureft mode of information. During the time
of Gregory the Great, when by his policy the Piets
we're driven from other parts of Scotland, they came
to the Orcades as an afylum ; but it does not appear,
and is far from being probable, that they received a
favourable reception, for many of them migrated to
Shetland, and from thence to the oppofite coafts of
Norway, A particular hiftory of thefe iflands during
thofe early ages would afford little entertainment, be¬
caufe its authenticity is at lea'* doubtful. Thefe iflands
were at various times harafled and plundered by ad¬
venturers from Scandinavia ; and the Norwegian
princes frequently laid the inhabitants under tribute.
We have faid that the Chriftian religion was tranf-
ported to the Orkneys from Norway, and that this
happened in the beginning of the i ith century. A-
bout which time Sigurdis pofiefled the entire dominion
of thofe ifles, and for many years exercifed all the
powers of a monarch in the north. At the fame time
Vol. XIII. Part II.
Chriflianity had dawned on'Scandinavia, and had be- Orkney
come the eftablifhed religion in the feat of government *
in Norway. Its doftrines interwove themfelves with
the policy of the nation : its principles, fo nearly in-
terefting to human happinefs, made their farther pub¬
lication an object of much moment to the adventurous
princes, and gave a new law to their entepriz.es.
While the power of thefe principles was ailing with
original force upon the minds of the people, and their
zeal rendered them ambitious of any exploit, whereby’
they could diffufe their influence ; Oiaus prince of
Norway equipped a fqnadron deftined to carry the
knowledge of the gofpel to other fhores. On this
pious adventure he was accompanied not only by num¬
bers of all ranks, whom, as ufual, a love ©f enterprife
invited ; but by many perfons of diftinguifhed know¬
ledge and abilities, men of fincere piety, who had be¬
come particularly well acquainted with the Chriftian
do&rines, and entertained a deep fenfe of their infi¬
nite importance. Thefe entered into the fleet, joyful
in the profpeef of fpreading the truths which they re¬
vered through yet unenlightened countries ; and the
fquadron foon appeared off the Orcades Olaus got
Sigurdis on board of his fleet, wuth his fon, and but
a few attendants, and, as the heir of Harold, he claim¬
ed all the provinces over which Sigurdis reigned ; and
at the fame time he ordered him to renounce and abjure
the religion of his fathers, and to embrace Chriftianity.
Delay was not permitted ; Chriftianity was forced upon
him and his fubjedfs ; and, on the departure of Olaus, he
carried, the fon of Sigurdis as an hoftage for what he had
engaged; which w'as to give honourable protection to all
thofe holy men whomigbt choofe to refide in thofe parts
for the purpofe of inftrudting the people in the nature of
the Chriflian dodlrines ; for many of the more intelli-
3 R gen£
(a) It has been aflerted, that the Orkneys, as well as the hills of Shetland, were originally peopled from
Norway, in the ninth, tenth, or eleventh century. Others again imagine, with as much probability, that
the Pifts were the original inhabitants, and call Orkney the ancient kingdom of the Pidhs. Certain lingular
houfes, now overgrown with earth, are called Pints houfes; and the Pentland frith (formerly Pightland or
PiElland) is fuppofed to retain their name. Claudian’s lines, cited by Mr Camden, prove, that the Pidts,
with fome other German colony, particularly the Saxons, were at that time in poffeflion of thefe ifles ; and
fo Ninnius exprefsly fays. Many of the prefent inhabitants ufe the Norfe language, which differs but little
from the Teutonic or Pidlifh language, and was in general ufe to the laft century ; but except in Foula,
where a few words are ftill known by the aged people, it is quite loft. The Englifh tongue, with a Norwe¬
gian accent, is that of thefe iflands; but the appearance of the people, in their manners and genius, evi¬
dently flrow their northern origin. Ninnius, c. 5. puts their arrival at Orkney not lefs than 900 years after
the coming of Brutus into Britain, which he fays wan in the time of Eli the Jewiih high-prieft. The an¬
cient furnames are of German original. Some date the firft fettlement of the Pidts here A. M. 4867 ;
when, emigrating from their native country, they planted a colony in Orkney, and thence crofiing Pidtland frith,
and traverling Caithnefs, Rofs, Murray, Marr, and Angus, fettled in Fife and Lothian ; thence called by our wri'-
ters Pialandia Others think they did not fettle here till the time of Reuther king of Scotland, when the Pidts^
joining with a party of the Scots, were repulfed, with Ihe lofs of their king Gethus, and many of the PidH
and Scottiih nobility, with great flaughter.: but the invafions of the Britons, at the fame time, conftrained
the Pidfsto fly to Orkney, where they chofe for king Gothus their decealed fovereign’s,brother, till they were
able to return to Lothian, and drive out the Britons. After this they flourifired here, and were governed by
kings of their own. There ftill remains a place called Cunningfgar, the dwelling place of the minifter of
Sandwick, whofe name and form befpeak it the refidencc of fome of them. But no traces of their hiftory re¬
main, except the name of Belus, in ancient charadfers, on a ftone in the church of Birla, where ftill is to be
feen one of the principal palaces. This government probably fublifted till the fubverfion of the Pidtifh king¬
dom in Scotland, A. D. 839, by Kenneth II. king of Scotland. On the whole, however, the time of the
difeovery and population of the Orkneys is certainly unknown. Probably it was ve^y early } for we are told
that they owe their .name to the Greets:
Orcades has memorant diftas a nomine Graeco,
Claudian.
O R K [ 498 ] O R K
Orkner. gent and religious men who had come from Norway
^ with C>laiis, remnined in the Orcades and in the north
of Scotland, to fulfil their pious refolution of fpread-
ing the light of the gofpel there. Ohus, with the reft
©f his followers, failed on another expedition towards
the frith of Moray. The Jeath of Kindius his fon,
which happened foon after Olaus’s return to Norway,
releafed Sigurdis from his engagements with him ;
and he entered into one with Malcolm II. one of whofe
daughters he had in marriage, and by whom he had a
fon, Porphinns Torphinus’s bravery, magnificence,
generofity, and hofpitality, endeared him to the inha¬
bitants ; and he ruled without controul tor many years,
till Ronald, a grandfon of Sigurdis, who had lived
an Norway, and who was efteemed the rightful heir of
the earldom of Orkney, made a fncctfsful defeent up¬
on it. Torphinus wifhed to give him battle ; and in
a fea-fight, with the afiiftance of fome fhips from Ar-
ninus, a man who had filled fome of the firft places in
Norway, he totally defeated him By courting the
friendthip of that court, his dominions remained quiet
for the greater part of his life; the latter part of which
was no lefs eminent for eftiblifhing falutary laws, and
■encouraging the arts of induftry, than the former
had been diftinguifhed for military fame andfuccelsin
the exploits of war. He lived to an advanced age,
until after Malcolm III. had afeended the throne of
Scotland. Torphinus had built a fumptuous church
in Byrfa, where the firft bifhops of Orkney refided.
In the decline of life he retired to that iflan 1, and,
iinlfiiing his days with exemplary piety, was with much
folemnity interred in the temple which he had raifed.
His country long lamented the lofs of fo celebrated a
ruler, who had eftablifhed fecurity in it, through the
influence of his laws, and had taught it to enjoy the
arts and blefilngs of peace. He left two fons, Paul
and Erland, who through the whole of their live*
amicably (hared both in the honours and adminiftra-
tioia of their father’s extenfive domain. During this
period, the northern counties are faid to have arrived
at a very fuperior degree of cultivation and improve¬
ment, which became equally confpicuous in the rich-
jiefs of their lands, and in the mildnefs of their difpo-
fitiona. Their fons, however, did not both inherit
their father’s virtues. Magnus, the fon of Erland,
was pious and peaceable ; a great promoter of reli¬
gion, an 1 anxious in patronifing the Romifh mifliona-
ries, and in piote&ing the ellablifhments of Chriftia-
nity: but Hacon, the heir of Paul, was vehement,
wild, and impatient of reftraint. He faw how Mag¬
nus was revered, and envy drove him to revenge ; for,
by the moft deliberate and deceitful villainy, he got
Mignus into his power, and murdered him without
mercy. The latter part of his life was fpent in penance,
and in improving his dominions.
Magnus’s fingular piety, and the manner of his un¬
fortunate death, were fo well reprefented at the court
©f Rome, that he was canonized. Hacon left two
fons, Paul the Silent, and Harold the Orator. Caith-
nefs came to Harold, and the Orkneys were governed
by Paul.
Ronald, a defeendant of St Magnus, an elegant
and accomplifhed youth, appeared at the court of
Norway, and was fupported in a claim upon the Ork¬
neys, as the heir of the canonized martyr. He fent
mefTengers to Paul, and offered to (hare the govern- Orkney
ment with him ; but this propofal was refufei, and ■—v™111^
the ambaffidors were treated with great contempt.
They, however, round perfons of power difpofed to
fecon i their mafter’s views; who foon after their re¬
turn fet out, and vowed, if he fucceeded, to build a
magnificent church, and to dedicate it to St Magnus.
All feemed fatisfiel with the enterprife ; and, full of
hope, the fleet fet fill. Paul in the mean time put
himfrlf in a ftate of defence. By very artful ma¬
noeuvres, however, Ranall obtained his nurpofe, and
willingly (hired his fovereignty with Harold, the le¬
gal heir of Paul. They lived amicably together; and
on the affaflination of Ronald, which was arcomplifh-
ed by a proud chieftain, who thought himfelf infulted,
he was buried with great pomp. Harold now fully
poflefled the unrivalled fovereignty of the north, and
lived long to enjoy it. We find that in 119b he was
able to bring 7000 men to the field, and a body of ca¬
valry, againft the army of William king of Scotland,
but was immediately defeated. In the next year, the
Caithnefians rebelled again, headed by one Roderic,
and Torphinus, fon to Harold. The king met and
defeated them near Invernefs. Roderick was (lain ;
and William, feizing on Harold in the extremity of
Caithnefs, detained him till Torphinus furrendered
himfelf asanhoftage ; but on fome new treafons of the
father, the king, according to the barbarity of the times,
caufed the eyes of the unhappy youth to be put out ;
and had him emafcnlated, of which he (oon perifhed
in prifon. Harold died in the 73d year of his age ;
and with him ended, in its earls, the independent fo¬
vereignty of the north of Scotland. The Norwegians
feem to have been in poflefiion of thefe ides as late a»
1266; for then Magnus IV. king of Norway, being
worded in war with the Scots, yielded them to Alex¬
ander III. king of Scotland by treaty, and Haquin
king of Norway confirmed the pofleffion of them to
king Robert Bruce in the year 1312. Laftly, in 1464*
Chriftian I. king of Norway and Denmark, when he
gave his daughter in marriage to James III. king of
Scotland, transferred all his right to them to his fon-
in-law and his fucceflbrs; to make which more binding
the Pope’s confirmation was obtained. We are told
by fome, that Magnus fold them to Alexander for the
fum of 4000 merits Sterling, and a yearly acknow¬
ledgment of 100‘merks.
They are about 30 in number; hut many of them
are uninhabited, the greater part being (mall, and
producing only pafturage for cattle. The principal
i(lands are denominated by the names of Mainland^
South Ronaldjha. S<w'mna> Flotta, Cop\nJhay Strupen-
Jha, Stronfay Sandat &c. the terminationa in a, ox hay
being generally given in the Teutonic to fuch places
as are furrounded by water. The currents and tides
flowing between the iflands are extremely rapid and
dangerous. Near an ifland called Swinna are two
great whirlpools, called the •wells of Sivinna, which
are counted dangerous by mariners, efpecially in a
calm. When failors find themfelves fucked into the
vortex, it is faid they throw out a barrel, or fome
bulky fubftance, which fmooths the water till it is
fucked down and thrown up at a conliderable diftancCj
during which time the Ihip pafles over in fafety.
But when there is a breeze of wind, thefe whirlpools
may
O R K
Oifcney, rr.yj be crofTed without any danger. The largeft of
thefe ifl-inds is called Pomona, in length 33, and in
breadth 9 miles, containing 9 panih-churches, and 4
excellent harbours
The air of thefe iflands is moift, on account of the
neighbourhood of the fea ; and froft and fnow do not
continue long. In fome places the foil is bare and
mountainous, and in others fandy and barren ; how-
ever, many of the iflands produce large crops of barley
and oats, but no wheat or other grain excepting what
is inclofed in gardens. Thefe, when duly cultivated,
produce all kinds of kitchen her1 s and roots, bring¬
ing even fruit-trees to maturity ; but out of them, in
the open country, there is fcarce a tree or ftirub to
be feen, except juniper, wild myrtle, heath, and the
cyur hodon : yet this deficiency cannot be imputed to
the poverty of the foil, or the nature of the climate;
for the trunks of large oaks are frequently dug up in
the maffltes. This is likewife the cafe in the molt
barren parts of the Highlands of Scotland, where not
a ftirub is to be feen above the furface of the earth j
nay, the inhabitants frequently find, deep in the earth,
the roots of large trees, evidently exhi! iting marks of
the ax by which they were felled ; fo that thefe nor*
them parts mull have undergone fome ftrange revolu*
tions The Orkneys produce great variety of herbs
and berries, grafs and corn, which laft is exported as
far as Edinburgh. In fome of the iflands, the natives
have difeovered mines of tin, lead, and filver, though
none of them are wrought to any advantage ; in
others, we find abundance of marl, grey and red
flate, quarries of freeftone, and even of marble and
alabafter. When the wind rages to any violence, the
fea throws in plenty of timber, torn from other coun¬
tries ; and, not unfrequently, the people find large
pieces of ; mbergreafe. The frelh water in thefe
iflands is very pure and limpid ; and, though there
are no large rivers in the Orkneys, the ground is well
watered with lakes and pleafant rivulets, that not only
ferve to turn their mills, but alfo abound with trout
of the mod delicate flavour.
Befidea the abundance of little horfes, black cattle,
fheep, fwine, and rabbits, the inhabitants of the Ork¬
neys rear all forts of domeftic animals and tame poul¬
try. Their heaths and commons yield plenty of red
deer, and all forts of game ; partridges, growfe,
heath-cocks, plover, duck, teal, and widgeon: the
fca-coafl teems with feals and otters; and are vilited
by whales, cod, ling, tufle, herrings, and all manner
of fiftr : on the fhore they find fpermaceti, os fepise,
and a great variety of flrells and corallines, with a mul¬
titude of oyflers, remarkably large mufcles, crabs,
and cockles. The rocks are covered with fea-fowl,
wild geefe, folan geefe, barnacles, eagles, hawks,
and kites. With refpeft to the barnacles, or, as the
natives call them, the deck getfe, they are faid to be
found in {hells flicking by the bills to trees, in feveral
iflnnds. M-itin affirms he has feen them in this iitua-
tion, but could not perceive them alive ; and indeed
the whole account of their generation and production,
exhibited by the northern natuialifts, is ablurd and
unphilofophical. The Orkney eagles are fo llrong,
that, according to the reports of the country, they have
been known to carry away young children in their ta¬
lons. Certain it is, they make fuck havock among
o R k
the lambs, that he who kills an eagle is entitled by Orkney,
law to a hen from every h^ufe in the parifh where it v—■
was killed. The king’s falconer vifits thefe iflnnds
every year, in order to fetch away the young hawks
and falcons from their nefls among the precipices £
he enjoys a yearly falary of twenty pounds, and may
claim a hen or a dog from every houfe in the coun¬
try, except thofe that are exprefsly exempted from
this impofition.
The gentry of the Orkneys are civilized, polite,
and hofpitable ; and live like thofe of Scotland, from
whom they are chiefly defeended. They live com¬
fortably, are remarkably courteous to ftrangers, and
drink a great quantity of wine, with which their
cellars are generally well ftored. Indeed the inhabi¬
tants of the Orkneys may be now juftly deemed a
Scotch colony. They fpeak the language, profef®
the religion, follow the fafhions, and are fubjedl to
the laws, of that people. They are frugal, fagacious,
circumfpeft, religious, and hofpitable. Their mariners
are remarkably bold, a&ive, dexterous, and hardy.
Many furprifing inftances of longevity occur here, as
well as in Shetland, of perfons living to the age of
140. The Orkney women are generally handfome
and well fhaped, and bring forth children at a very
advanced age. In the Orkneys, fome particular lands
are held by a tenure called Udal Right, from Ulcius,
or Olaus, king of Norway, who farmed the lands,
on condition of receiving one-third of the produce ;
and this right devolved in fucceffion, without any
charter granted by the fovereigo. The inhabitanca
of Orkney, inftead of meafuring their corn, weigh
it in pifmores or pundlers. Their leait denomination
is a mark, confuting of 18 ounces, and 24 mailers
make a lifpound, which is a Danilh quantity. The
poorer fort of people in the Orkneys appear very
meanly habited, with a piece of feal fltin" irtftead of
fhoes ; and living chiefly on falt-fifti, are fubjeft to
the feurvy. They are much addifted to fuperttitioug,
rites; in particular, interpreting dreams and omens,
and believing in the force of idle charms. The iflands
of Oikney, we have already obferved, produce very
bold, able, and hardy mariners. The common peoplf-j,
in general, are inured to fatigue, and remarkably ad¬
venturous, both in fiftring during rough weather, and
in climbing the rocks for the flefli, eggs, and down,
of fea-fowl. Formerly, while they were expofed to
the invalions of the Norwegians, or weitern ifianders,
every village was obliged to equip a large boat well
manned ; and all the fencible men appeared in arms,
when the alarm w'as given by the beacons lighted
on the tops of the rocks and higheit mountains.
Thefe beacons, known by the name of nvard-hilh,
are ftill to be feen in every ifland. Their corn land
they inclofe with mud or ftone walls, to preferve it
from the ravages of their (beep, fwine, and cattle,
which wander about at random, without being al¬
iened by herdfmen : their ordinary manure, efpe-
daily near the fea-coafl, is fea-weed, which they
carefully gather and divide into equal portions. Their
flieep are marked on the ears and nofe ; but fo wild,
that when they have occafion to {hear them in the
month of May, they are obliged to hunt every indi¬
vidual, with dogs trained for that purpofe. Their
manner oi catching lea-fowl is curious and particular.
3 R. 2 Under
l 499 1
O R K
Orkney. Under tdie rock where thefe fowls build, they row
■—v  their boat, provided with a large net, to the upper
corners of which are fattened two ropes, lowered down
from the top of the mountain by men placed in that
ftation. Thefe hoifting up the net, until it be fpread
oppofite to the cliffs in which the fowls are fitting, the
boatmen below make a noife with a rattle, by which
the fowls being frightened, fly forwards into the bo-
fom of the net, in which they are immediately en-
clofed and lowered down into the boat ; others prac-
tife the method ufed in Iceland and Norway, and
are lowered down by a fingle rope from the fummit
of the mountain ; this is the conttant way of robbing
the hawk’s nett. SeeBiKD-catc/iing. In thefe iflands fome
ft range effects are produced by thunder and lightning.
In the year 1680, the lightning entered a cow-houfe,
in which 12 cows ftood in a row, and killed every fe-
cond beaft as fhe ftood, and left the reft untouched.
The dittempers that prevail moftly in the Orkneys are
agues, comfumptions, fcurvy, and itch. The agues,
which abound in the fpring, the natives cure with
a diet drink of bitters and antifcorbutics infufed in
ale : for pbthifical complaints they ufe the plant
arby, and the caryophyllus marinus boiled with fweet
milk.
The ifles of Orkney and Shetland compofe one
ftewartry, and fend one member to the Britifh parlia¬
ment. The right of fuperiority to the Orkneys was
difmembered from the crown by the union parliament,
and granted for a certain yearly confideration to the
earl of Morton, by Queen Anne, who appointed him
hereditary fteward and judiciary. This nobleman pof-
feffes the power of creating certain judges, called bai¬
liff's. There is one of thefe eftablifhed in every ifland
and parifh, with power to fuperintend the manners of
the inhabitants, to hold courts and determine civil
caufes, according to the laws of Scotland, to the va¬
lue of ten pounds Scots money, amounting to 16 s.
8 d : but all contefts of higher import are reftn-ed to
the decifxon of the fteward or his deputy, who refides
at Kirkwall, which is the feat of juftice. Subfer-
vient to the bailiffs are fix or feven of the moft repu¬
table and intelligent inhabitants, who overfee the con¬
duct of their fellows, adting as conftables, and make
report of all enormities to the bailiff; who caufes the
delinquent to be apprehended and punifhed, if the
crime be within the extent of his judicial power; other-
wife he tranfmits him to Kirkwall, where he is tried
by the fteward. The Proteftant religion prevails in the
ifles of Orkney, according to the rites and difeipline
of the kirk ; thefe, and the ifles of Shetland, conftitu-
ting one prefoytery, which affembles at Kirkwall. The
country is divided into 18 parifties, containing 31
churches, and above 100 chapels.
The trade of the Orkneys is not at prefent very
confiderable, though it might be extended to great
advantage. They fupply with frelh provifions, for
ready money, the fhips and veffels that touch upon
the coaft in the courfe ©f northern voyages, or in their
paffage from the Eaft Indies, when they go north
about Ireland and Scotland, in time of war, to avoid
the privateers of the enemy. They are alfo vifited by
thofe engaged in the herring-fifhery, though there is
not fuch a refort on this account to thefe iflands as to
the illes of Shetland. Neverthelefs, a good number of
O R K
boats from the weftern parts of Scotland, as well as Orkney
from Londonderry, Belfatt, and other parts of Ire¬
land, filh for herring as far north as the Leuze,
and fupply the Orkneys with tobacco, wine, bran¬
dy and other fpiritous liquors, cloths, and divers
manufactures. Thefe they exchange for fifh, and oil
extrafted from porpoifes, feals, and other fea-animals.
The people of Orkney export annually great numbers
of black cattle, fwine, and fiieep; together with large
quantities of corn, butter, tallow, fait, and ftuffs made
in the country, over and above the Ikins of feals, ot¬
ters, lambs, and rabbits, down, feathers, writing-
quills, hams, and wool ; yet all thefe articles would,
in point of profit, fall infinitely ftiort of their herring-
fi hery, were it profecuted with induftry, economy,
and vigour. As there are no merchants in the Ork¬
neys at prefent who export fiih on their own account,,
what herrings are taken, they fell to the Dutch or
Scotch dealers in and about Invernefs. They gene¬
rally filh for herring on the weft fide of the Orkneys ;
and are therefore more remote from markets than
thofe who are employed in the fame manner on the
coaft of Shetland. In the Orkney iflands they fee to
read at midnight in June and July ; and during four
of the fiummer months they have frequent communi¬
cations, both for bufinefs and curiofity, with each
other, and with the continent: the reft of the year,
however, they are almoft inacceflible, through togs,
darknefs, and ftorms. It is a certain fact, that a
Scotch filherman was imprifoned in May, for pub-
lithing the account of the prince and princefs of Orange,
being raifed to the throne of England the preceding.
November; and he would probably have been hanged,
had not the news been confirmed by the arrival of a
Ihip.
We may reckon among the curiofities of the Ork¬
neys, the Phafeoli) commonly known by the name of
Molucca leans, and fometimes they are called Orkney
leans. They are a fort of fruit found on the Ihore of.
the Orkney iflands, being thrown on them by ftorms of
welterly wind. They are of feveral diltinft fpecies,
and ate none of them the produce of thofe iflands,
nor of any places thereabout, but are probably of A-
merican origin, many of them being plainly natives of
Jamaica, and other iflands of the Indies.
They are found principally on thofe coafts which
are molt expofed to the waves of the great ocean,
and are on thefe fo plentiful, that they might be ga¬
thered in large quantities, if of any value ; but the
only ufe they are put to, is the making of fnuff-boxes
out of them. Sir Robert Sibbald, and Mr Wallace,
in their accounts of Scotland, have both named them
Mollucca Beans. Many ftrange filhesand curious fhells
are alfo frequently call up by the ocean; of thefe laft a
vail variety are preferved for adorning the cabinets of
modern naturalifts. Sometimes exotic fowls are driven
upon the Orkneys by tempeftuous weather: filh, as large
as whitings, have been thrown alhore to a confiderable
diftance within the land. At Cantick-head, in the
ifland Waes, and fome other places, huge ftones are
often heaved up by the violence of the fea and wind,
and call over high rocks upon the land. A fingle
Laplander has been feen more thaupnee on this coaff,
in his flender canoe, covered with Heins, being driven
hither by adverfe winds and ftorms. The Orkneys
c are
[ s00 1
O R K
[ 50
Orkney, are not altogether deftitnte of ancient monuments and
  r~~ curiofities of art. In Hoy we find an entire ftone,
36 feet long, 18 in breadth, and 9 in thicknefs, ly¬
ing between two hills, and known by the name of
dwarjlc /lone. It is hollowed within by the tools of
a mafon, the marks of which are Hill apparent. The
entrance is a fquare hole about two feet high, with
a Hone, by way of door, Handing before it. With¬
in w'e find a bed with a pillow cutout of the ftone ; at
the other end is a couch of the fame kind ; and in
the middle a hearth, above wdnch there is a hole
or vent for the exit of the fmoke. This curiofity is
found in the midft of a defolate heath,- and is fup-
pofed to have been the refidence of a hermit : in
the very neighbourhood of this ftone there is a very
high and fteep mountain, called the wart hill of Hoy,
near the fummit of which, in the months of May,
June, and July, fomething at noon-day is feen to
Ihine and fparkle with remarkable luftre, fuppofed by
the common people to be an inchanted carbuncle :
many perfons have clambered up the hill in queft of it,
but found nothing. Perhaps this fplendour is produ¬
ced by the reflection of the fun on a fmall ftream of
water' Hiding over the face of a fmooth rock. At
Stennis, in the main land, there is a caufeway of
Hones over a loch or lake, at the fouth end of which
we obferve a circle of ilones rifing about 20 feet above
ground, each being fix feet in breadth, and from one
to two feet in thicknefs : between this circle and the
caufeway two ftones of the fame dimenfions ftand by
themfelves, and one of them is perforated in the
middle. At the diftance of half a mile from the
other end of the caufeway appears a larger circle of
the fame kind of ftones, the diameter of which may
amount to x 10 paces ; fome of thefe ftones are fallen;
and to the eaft and weft of the larger circle are two ar¬
tificial green mounts. Both rounds are furrounded
with a ditch ; and one cannot view them without ad¬
miration, confidering the art that muft have been ufed
to bring fuch unwieldy mafles together in this order.
They were pro! ably temples and places of facrifiee
ufed in times of pagan fuperftition ; and feem to bear
a great affinity with the celebrated monument called
Stonehenge, on Salifbury Plain in England. In one
of the mounts, at the north end of the caufeway, the
natives found x\.vc\z Jibuhe, or claips of hlvei, formed
into a circle, and refembling a horfe-fboe. In many
different places of the Orkneys we find rude obelifks
or fingle ftones of a great height, fet up either as me¬
morials of battles, treaties, or the deceafe of remark¬
able perfonages. Iu Roufay, between two high
mountains, there is a place which the natives diftin-
guifh by the appellation of the camp of Jupiter Fringe
but the meaning of this' name, handed down by tra¬
dition, is not known. At the weft end of the main
land, near Skeal, we find a furpriling caufeway, above
a quarter of a mile in length, on the fummit of high
hills, compofed of reddifh ftones of different magni¬
tudes impreffed with various figures both on the up¬
per and under furface. Some gentlemen in the neigh¬
bourhood have carried off the moft beautiful of thefe
ftones, to be fet in their chimneys by way of ornament,
like the painted tiles of Holland. This country pro¬
duces many fepulchres of different nations. In the
plains or links of Skeal, the fand being blown away
1 ] o R K
from the fur face of the ground, feverai fquare cata
combs appear built of ftones well cemented together, ^
containing fome parcels of black earth, and each fe-
cured by a large ftone at the mouth. Sepulchres of
the fame kind are found at Roufum in Stronfa; which
is likewife remarkable for a different kind of monu¬
ment, confifting of one entire ftone cylinder hollow--
ed, with a bottom like that of a barrel, and a round
ftone to fill up the entrance : above, the ftone was
fharpened into an edge ; within were found fome
burned bones and red clay ; a'nd over it was placed a-
large flat ftone for the piefervation of the whole.-
Thefe, in all probability, were Roman catacombs. In
Weftra divers Danifh graves have been difeovered : in
one of thefe appeared the fkeleton of a man, with a
fword on one fide and a IDanifh ax on the other.
Some have been found buried with dogs,- combs,
knives, and other utenfils. In many places of the
country we find round hillocks or barrows, here known-
by the name of brogh, fignifying, in the I eutonic lan¬
guage, burying place, fuppofed to have been the ce=
meteries of the ancient Saxons. In different parts of
thefe iflands we fee the remains of great buildings,
believed to have been fortreffes eredled by the Danes
or Norwegians when they pofleffed the country. One
of thefe in the ifle of Wyre, called the cajlle of Cop-
pi-row, fignifying a town of fecurity, is furrounded
by a foffe, and the firft floor ftill remains above
ground, a perfeft fquare of ftone wall, very thick,
ftrongly built, and cemented with lime, the area with¬
in not exceeding ten feet in length. Of this coppi-
row the common people relate many idle Tables. In
the chapel of Get, in- the ifle of Sanda, there is a
grave 19 feet long, in which was found part of a
man’s back bone, larger than that of a horfe. Hu¬
man bones, of nearly the fame fize, have been dug up
in Weftra ; and indeed this country is remarkable for
producing men of a gigantic ftature. Within the an¬
cient fabric of Lady Kirk in South Ronalftxaw, there
is a ftone four feet long and two feet broad, on which
the print of two feet are engraven, fuppofed to be the
place where, in times of popery, penitents flood to
do public penance. The cathedral of Kirkwall, the
capital of the Orkneys, is a fine Gothic budding, de¬
dicated to St Magnus, but now converted into a pa-
rifh church. Its roof is fupported by 14 pillars on
each fide ; and its fteeple, in which is a good ring of
bells, by four large pillars. The three gates of the
church are chequered with red and white polilhed
ftones, embofied and elegantly flowered.
Campbell, in his Political Survey, fuggefls two im¬
provements in the Orkneys : 1. The ereding an uni-
verfity ; of which he recapitulates the probable advan¬
tages, arifing from their centrical fituation: And,
2. Allowing the Eaft India company to ered a fpaci-
ous magazine in one of thefe iftands ; where alfo a
colie dor, and a fufficient number of king’s officers,
fhould refide, to receive the duties of fuch Eaft India
commodities as might be taken off by Britifh fubjeds.
Thefe he propofes for the Orkneys in particular, and
in addition to improvements propofed for the whole
iflands in general. We are told that the Orkneys
contain 30,000 inhabitants, and are equal in extent to
the county of Huntingdon.
ORLE, Orxet, or Orloy in architcdure, a fillet*
under.
Orkney,
Orle.
Orle
II
Orleans
O R I,
under the ovolo, or quarter round of a capital,
it is at the top or bottom of a (haft, it is called cinc¬
ture. Palladio ufes the word orlo for the plenith of
the bafis of the columns.
Orle, in heraldry. See Heraldry, p. 4154.
ORLEANOIS, a province of France, including
the fevtral diftri&s of Orleanois-Proper, Beauce-Pro-
per, or Chartrain, Dunois, Vendomou, Blaifois, the
grcatdl part of Gatinois, and Perche-Gouet The
principal rivers of it are the Loire, the Loiret, the
Cher, the Laconic, the Aigle, the Hyere, the Yonne,
and the Eyre. There are a!fo fome remarkable ca¬
nals, particularly thofe of Bn'are and Orleans. I he
river Loire, and the canals drawn from thence, great¬
ly facilitate and promote the inland trade of the king¬
dom, and particularly of this government, which lies
entirely within the jurifdi&ion of the parliament of
Paris; and, beiides the chief governor, has feveral fub-
ordinate ones.
Orleanois, in Latin Aurehanenjis is bounded
on the fouth i»y Sologne, on the north by Upper-
Beauce, on the eaft by Gatinois, and on the weft by
Dunois and Vendomois. The Loire divides it into
Upper and Lower; the former lying to the north and
the latter to the fouth of that river. It yields plenty
of grain, wine, wood, and fruit, and abounds in cattle,
game, and fifh.
ORLEANS, the capital of the government of
Orleanois. It was anciently called Genabum, or Cena-
lum; and afterwards denominated Aurelia, Aurc/ix,
and Aure/ianum, by the emperor Aurelian, who confi-
derably enlarged it In Julius Caefar’s time it was
the capital of the Carnutes. It (lands about 20 leagues
fouth of Paris, on the northern hank of the Loire;
acrofs which Mr Wraxall fays there is an elegant
bridge of nine arches, the entrance by which is ex¬
ceedingly noble and ftriking, the ftreet which leads
from it being compofed of moft elegant modern build-
ings. In general, however, excepting this ftreet, it is
very meanly built; the ftreets are narrow, and the
inhabitants in general poor. It is furrounded with
walls, and fortified with 40 towers. The ftreets al-
moft all terminate at the quay for the convenience of
trade,
before
C ] o r l
When foreft, the largofl in the whole kingdom. Before the OrleaR*
revolution it belonged to the Duke of Orleans • to -v—
wdiom the timi er felled in it, one year with another
brought about ioo,coo livres. Ever fince the year
13+4 th,s efty has been a dukedom and peerage, and
ufuady an appennage of fome piince of the blood.
I he late duke, who has taken the name o{Egalite, and
who is ftill alive, feems to be one of the moft deteftable
monfters which ever difgraced humanity. Louis XIV
gave the dukedom to his own brocher Philip, who began
and fin.fired the canal ; wnich, ! y the duties paid'
by velfels going up and down, brought in, one year
with another, 150,000 livres The bifttop was fuffra-
gan to the archbfihop of Paris, and had a revenue of
24,000 hvres, out of which his tax to Rome was 2000
florins. A new bdhop, it is faid, on the firft day of
his entering, had the privilege of releafing all the pri-
foners m it, except thofe committed for treafon Ini'
the ftreet leading from the bridge ftands the celebrated
monument where Charles VII. and Joan of Arc the
Maid of Orleans, are reprefented on their knees before
the body of our Saviour, who lies extended on the lap
of the Virgin. It was ceded by order of that mo-
oarch m 1458, to perpetuate his vidories over the
Enghfh, and their expulfion from his dominions. All
th!< hiffUL 8 ar in, i.r°,n\ The king appears bareheaded,
and by him lies his helmet furmounted with a crown
Oppofite to him is the Maid herlelf, in the fame atti¬
tude of grateful devotion to Heaven. It is a moft
precious and invaluable hiftorical monument
“ in the Hotel de Ville (fays Wraxall) is a portrait
of the fame immortal woman, which I ftudied long and
attentively. Though it was not done till 1581, which
was near 130 years after her deceafe, it is yet the
oldeft and belt pidure of her now exifting. The
painter feems undoubtedly to have drawn a flattering
refemblance of her, and to have given his heroine
imaginary charms. Her face, though long, is of ex¬
ceeding beauty, heightened by an expreflion of intel-
.gence and grandeur rarely united. Her hair falla
loofely down her back, and (he wears on her head a
fort of bonnet enriched with pearls, and (haded with
white plumes, tied under her chin with a firing.
It is a place of confi'lerahle ^aitude find a , 31™ d™'Sf’
the revolution had feveral inferior courts of on her bofom. a r„ “P*
. —   inferior courts
jufrcc, and an univerfity of no great repute. It was
alfo a bifhop’s fee ; and the cathedral is a moft fuperb
Gothic flrudure, and had the fintfl fleeple in France
till it was damaged in the time of the civil wars. There
wen. 2 ? parifhes in it, and a great number of churches
fome of which were collegiate, and religious houfes!
1 heie is aifo a public walk, planted with feveral tows
of trees ; and there ufed to he fome fugar bakers; a
manufaaurc of flockings and fhetp fkins ; a ftminary
in which divinity was taught ; a great trade in bran-
y, wine, fpices, and feveral manufactures, which,
w t nearly other commodities, ufed to he conveyed to
Pans by means of the Loire, and the canal which takes
its name from the city The canal begins about two
nuUs a. ove the city ; is near 18 leagues in length i and
teimmates on the Loing, which falls into the Seine.
1 he environs of Orleans, more cfpecially in the pro-
vmcc of Sologne, to the fouth of the Lo'ire, are ve^
agree-ble It is in general a level country, covert
wuh corn and vines, a q the north of the c*fy is a
on her bofom, a necklace compofed of fmall links.
Her drefs, which is that of a woman, 1 find it difficult
exadly to deferibe. It fits clofe to the body, and is
cut or flaffied at the arms and elbows. Round her
waifl is an embroidered girdle, and in her right hand
ihe holds the fword with which fhe expelled the ene¬
mies of her fovereign and her country. I am not
furprifed at the animated and enthufiallic attachment
which the Lrench ftill cherifh for her memory. I he
critical and defperate emergency in which fhe appear¬
ed ; her fex, youth, and even the obfeunty of her
birth; the unparalleled fuccefs which crowned her
enterpnze; the cruel and deceftable fentence by which
-ne was put to death ; the air of the marvellous fpread
over the whole narration, increafed and ftrengthened
y that veneration which time affixes to every great
event— all thefe united caufes confpire to place her
acove mortality. Rome and Athens would undoubt¬
edly have ranked her among their tutelary deities,
and have ereded temples to her honour; nor can I
help being amazed, that amid$ the almoft infinite
numbe
O R M r J O R N
©rlesn* numlicr of modem faints who croud and difgrace their
. churches, no altar has yet been dedicated to the iflaid
of Orlean8.,, See Franc*, n° tot.
The bridge was new built this century, and opened
in 1760 ; and the French tfteem it the fiiseft; in the
world. E. Long 1. 59. N. Lat. 47 54.
Orleans (Peter Jofeph), a French Jefuit, whom
it is proper to mention, becaufe he wrote an Hijloire des
Revolutions d’ Angleterre, was born at Bourges in 1641.
He taught the belles lettres for fome time in his fociety,
but afterwards devoted himfelf to the writing of hif-
toiy. This purfuit he continued till his death, which
happened in 1698. He wrote alfo A Hiftory of the
Revolutions of Spain ; A Hiftory of Two conquering
Tartars, Chunchi and Camhi ; The Life of Father
Coton, &c. His Hiftory of the Revolutions in Eng¬
land, under the Family of the Stuarts, from the Year
1603 to 1690, was tranflated into Englifii, and pub-
lilhed at London, 1711, in one vol. 8vo : to v/hich is
prefixed an Introduction, by Laurence Echard, M. A.
who fays, that “ the great varieties and wonderful
changes in thefe reigns are here judicioufiy comprifid
in a moderate volume with no lefs perfpicuity than
ftriftnefs; and with a beautiful mixture of fhort cha-
rafters, nice reflexions, and noble fentences, which
render the whole agreeable and inftruXive. But
while the reader is entertained with fo much fkill and
fincnefs, we ought to caution him with relation to the
education and religion of the author : for though he
has great marks of a generous candour, and a laudable
deference to all fuperiors yCt he is to be confidered,
in all places, as one in favour with the French king,
and not only a true papift, but a complete jefuit.”
ORLOPE, in the fea language, the uppermoft fpace
or deck in a great Ihip, reaching from the main to the
mizen maft. In three-deck fhips, the fecond and loweft
decks are fometimes called orlopes.
ORMOND, the northern divifion of the county of
Tipperary, in the province of Munfter in Ireland. For
a long time it gave the title of early and afterwards of
marquis and duley to the noble family of Butler, de-
feended from a lifter of Thomas a Becket archbiftiop
of Canterbury; till, at the acceffion of George I. the
laft duke was attainted of high treafon, and died abroad.
In that part of the country the family had great pre¬
rogatives and privileges granted by Edward III.
ORMSIDE a town of England, near Appleby, in
Weftmoreland, with a church and parifti, but fmall. A
great number of vcflels of brafs, fome of which feemed
to have been gilt, were difeovexed near the manor-
houfe, by the water wafhing away the foil. The
manor-houfe is built caftleways.
ORMSKIRK, in Lancaftiire, in England, is a
handfome town, with a good inland trade. By the
late inland navigation, it has communication with the
rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent,
Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which naviga¬
tion, including its windings, extends above 500 miles,
in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lan-
cafter, Weftmoreland, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter,
Oxford, Worctfter, &c. There is a bituminous earth
about this place, from which oil of amber is extraXed,
that preferves raw flelh, and ftrves the poor people in-
ftead of candles.
There is nothing remarkable at Ormfkirk, but the
monuments of fome of the ancient family of the Stan¬
leys before they were ennobled. Not far from it is Ormus
Latham Houfe ; to which belongs a large eftate, and .11
a fine park. It is remarkable only becaufe it was galF
lar.tly defended in the civil wars by lady Charlotte
countefs of Derby, who held it to the lalb extremity
againft the parliament forces, which could never oblige
her to capitulate. She held out glorioufly till ftie was
relieved by Prince Rupert. It was, however, ruined
in a fecond fiege ; and fo'd by the family to the late
Sir Thomas Bootle, who built a very magnificent houfe
upon it.
ORMUS, a fmall ifland of Afia, at the bottom of
the gulph of the fame name, at the entrance of the
Gulph of Perfia. It is about two leagues from the
main land, and about fix leagues in circuit. They
catch excellent oyfters about the ifland ; and it yields
plenty of fine white fait; alfo a kind of fhining black
fand, which is ufed for dulling writings, and is tranf-
ported in confiderable quantity to Europe. There is
neither fweet water nor grafs upon it, the foil being
of a fait fulphureous nature. It was taken by the
Portuguefe in 1507, who fortified it; and it was af¬
terwards frequented by a vaft number of merchants,
who were extremely rich. In 1622 the Perfians, by
the affiftance of the Englilh, conquered this place,
and demolifhed the houfes, which were 4000 in num¬
ber, containing 40,000 inhabitants. Some time after,
the Perfians rebuilt the fort, and placed a garrifon in
it; but they could never bring it to be a place of
trade as before : however, it is the key of the Perfian
Gulph, as well on account of the importance of the
place, as the commodioufntfs of the harbour. It ia
now almoft deferted, for it produces nothing but fait,
which fometimes is two inches deep upon the furface
of the earth. E. Long. 56. 25. N. Lat. 27. 20.
ORN1CUS lapis, a name given by fome authors
to the fapphire of the ancient®, which is a peculiar
fpecies of our lapis lazuli, in which the gold-coloured
matter is not difpofed in veins, but in feparate fpots,
of the form of a ftar. It was firft called orinifius and
orinur, by corruption from aurinus, “ golden and
thence came at length the word ornicus.
ORNITHINE, a name given by the ancients to
certain winds, which ufually blew in the fpring, at the
time when the birds of paffage came over to thens,
Pliny fays, that thefe winds blew from the weft, and
that by fome the Ecefian winds were called by this
name. Others fuppofe that they blew from the north,
or north-weft.
ORNITHOGALLUM, Star of Bethlehem
A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the
hexandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 10th order, Coronarue.. The corol¬
la is hexapetalous, eteX, perfifting, and patent above
the middle; the filaments alterdilated at the bafe.
There are feven fpccies ; all of them herbaceous per¬
ennials, riling from fix inches to three feet high, ha¬
ving ftalks terminated with long fpikts of hexapeta-
lous, ftar-lhaped, white, and yellow flowers. Six
of the fpecies are very hardy, and will profper in any
fituation ; but one, named the capetifey a native of the
Cape of Good Hope, requires the affiitance of artifi¬
cial warmth to preft-rve it in this country. They are
all eafily propagated by off-fets from the roots. The
bulbous roots of all the fpecies are nutritious and
wholefome.
€
ORNITHO
C 5°4 1
ORNITHOLOGY.
^■\Rnithology is a fcience which treats of birds ;
defcribes their form, external and internal; and
teaches their ceconomy and their ufes.
A biid is an animal covered with feathers; furnifh-
;ed with a bill; having two wings, and only two legs ;
with the faculty, except in a very few inflances, of re¬
moving itfelf from place to place through the air.—
But before proceeding to analtfe the charafteriftic
parts of birds, it will be proper to premife an expla¬
nation of the terms ufed by naturalifts in defcribing
.them.
EXPLANATION ot fome Technical Terms in Or¬
nithology ufed by Pknnan-t and Linnjeus.
Fig.
i. Cere. Cera The naked ficin that covers
the bafe of the bill in the hawk
kind.
A word ufed by Linnaeus to
exprefs the fliort feathers on the
forehead juft above the bill. In
crows thefe fall forwards over
the noftrils.
The fpace between the bill
and the eye, generally covered
with feathers; but in fome birds
naked, as in the black and white
grebe.
The fkin that furrounds the
eye, which is generally bare ;
particularly in the heron and
.parrot.
A bill is called rojlrum emar-
ginatum when there is a fmall
notch near the end: this is con-
fpicuous in that of butcher-birds
and thrufiies.
Vibrljfa peftinaU, ftiff hairs
that grow on each fide the mouth,
formed like a double comb, to
be feen in the goatfucker, fly¬
catcher, &c.
A fmall joint riling at the
end of the middle part of the
wing, or the cubitus; on which
are three or five feathers.
The fmall feathers that lie in
ieveral rows on the bones of the
wings. The under coverts are
thofe that line the infide of the
wings.
_ The feathers that lie imme¬
diately over the quill feathers
and fecondary feathers.
The largeft feathers of the
wings, or thofe that rife from
the fir ft bone.
I hofe that rife from the fe*
cond.
2. Capljlrutn
3. Lorutn
4. Orbits. Orlita
5. Emargmatum
6. Vibriffa
7. Bajlard wing
Alula fpuria
8. Lejfer coverts of the
wings.
Teblri ces prhnte
9. Greater coverts
Tectrices fecuntla
10. Quill feathers
Primores
21. Secondary feathers
Secundaria
NQ 25
12. Coverts of the tail
Uropygium
13. Vent-feathers
14. The tail. RcGrices
15. Scapular feathers
16. Nucha
17. Rojlrum fubulatum
18. Pes ambulator'ius.
19. Pes grajforius
20. Pes fcanforius
21. Finned foot. Pes
cobatus
2 2. Scolloped foot. Pes
pinnatus
23. Pes tridaclylus vel
curforius
24. Pes didablylus
Thofe that cover the bafe of
the tail.
Thofe that lie from the vent
to the tail. Criffum Linn&i,
That rife from the /boulders,
and cover 'the fides of the beck.
The bind part of the head.
A term Linnaeus ufes for a
ftraight and flender bill.
All the toes divided to the
bottom.
The outer toe more or lefs
united to the middle one, par¬
ticularly confpicuous in the feet
of the kingsfilher.
The foot of the woodpecker
formed for climbing. Clim ing
feet.
Such as thofe of the grebes.
The webs indented in the
fides, as in the coots and fcol-
loped-toed fandpipers.
Such as want the b ick toe.
25 • Semipdlmated. Pes
femipalmatus
26. Ungue pojlico fejfdi
27. Digitis 4 omnibus
palmatis
Rojlrum cultratum
28. Unguiculatum
29. Lingua ciliata
30. Integra
31. Lumbriciformis
Pedes compedes
32. Nares Lineares
33. Emarginatce
In which the foot is compo*
fed of two toes, obferved only
in the oftrich.
When the webs reach only-
half way of the toes.
When the hind claw adheres
to the leg without any toe, as
in the petrels.
All the four toes connedled
by webs, as in the corvorants.
When the edges of the bill
are very fharp, fuch as in that
of the crow.
A bill with a nail at the end,
as in thofe of the goofandera
and ducks.
When the tongue is edged
with fine briftles, as in ducks.
When plain or even.
When the tongue is long,
round, and flender like a worm,
as that of the woodpecker.
When the legs are placed fo
far behind as to make the bird
walk with difficulty, or as if in
fetters ; as is the cafe with the
auks, grebes, and divers.
When the noftrils are very-
narrow, as in fea-gulls.
With a rim round the nof¬
trils, as in the ftare.
Sect
OlCNTTHOJ, O GX.
Plate CCCLXVUT.
Se&. r.
External
I'artf.
ORNITHOLOGY.
S°S
Sec t. I. External parts of Birds.
A Bird may be divided into heady Ivdy, and limbs.
I. HEAD.
t. Bill (roJlrum)y is a hard horny fubftance, con¬
fiding of an upper and under part, extending from the
head, and anfwering to the mandibles in quadrupeds.
Its edges generally plain and (harp, like the edge of a
knife, cultratedy as are the bills of crows ; but fome-
times ferratedy as in the toucan ; or jagged, as in the
gannet and fome herons; or peSimited, as in the duck ;
or denticulated, as in the merganfers; but always de-
ftitute of real teeth immerfed in fockets.
The bafe in falcons is covered with a naked Ikin or
cere {cera) ; in fome birds with a carneous appendage,
as the turkey ; or a callous, as the curaffo.
In birds of prey, the bill is hooked at the end, and
fit for tearing : in crows, llraight and ftrong for pick¬
ing : In water fowl, either long and pointed, for ftri-
king; or flender and blunt, for fearching in the mire ;
or fiat and broad, for gobbling. Its other ufes are for
building nefts ; feeding the young; climbing, as in
parrots ; or, laftly, as an inftrument of defence or of¬
fence.
2. Nostrils, {naves'), the nice inftruments of dif-
cerning their food, are placed either in the middle of
the upper mandible, or near the bafe, or at the bafe,
as in parrots ; or behind the bafe, as in toucans and
bornbills : but fome birds, as the gannet, are deftitute
of noftrils. The noftrils are generally naked ; but
fometimes covered with briftles refkdted over them, as
in crows, or hid in the feathers, as in parrots, &c.
The forepart of the head is called the front (caps-
Jlrwn); the fummit {vertex), or the crown : the hind
part, with the next joint of the neck {nucha), the nape:
the fpace between the bill and the eyes, which in he¬
rons, grebes, See. is naked, {loro), the Jlraps \ the
fpace beneath the eyes [gene), the chcehs.
3. Orbits {orbhte), the eye-lids ; in fome birds
naked, in others covered with fiiort foft feathers.
Birds have no eye brows ; but the grous kind have
in lieu a fcarlet naked fkin above, which are called fu-
percilia ; the fame word is alfo applied to any line of
a different colour that pafies from the bill over the
eyes.
Ears. Birds are deflitute of auricles or exter¬
nal tars, having an orifice for admifiion of found; open
in all but owls, vvhofe ears are furnifhed with valves.
5. The Chin, the fpace between the parts of the
lower mandible and the neck, is generally covered with
feathers ; but, in the cock and fome others, has car-
neous appendages called wattles {palearia) ; in others,
is naked, and furniflied with a pouch, capable of great
dilatation (facculus), as in the pelican and corvorants.
6. Nf.ck [collum), the part that connects the head
to the body is longer in birds than in any other animals ;
and longer in fuch as have long legs than in thofe that
have fhort, either for gathering up their meat from the
ground., or finking their prey in the water, except in
web-footed fowl, which are, by reverfing their bodies,
deftined to fearch for food at the bottom of waters, as
fwans, and the like. Birds, efpecially thofe that have
a long neck, have the power of rctradting, bending, or
Vol. XIII. Part 21.
flretching it out, in order to change their centre of External
gravity from their legs to their wings.
II. BOD Y.
1. Confifls of the Back {dorfum), which is flat*
firaight, and inclines ; terminated by the
2. Rump {uropygium), furnifhed with two glands,
fecreting a fhttifii liquor from an orifice each has, which
the birds exprefs with their bills to oil or anoint the
difeompofed parts of their feathers. Thefe glands are
particularly large in moft: web-footed water-fowl; but
ih the grebes, which want tails, they are fmaller.
2. Breast {peftuj), is ridged and very mufcular,
defended by a forked bone {clavicula), the merry¬
thought.
The fhort winged birds, fuch as grous, &c. have
their breafts moft flefhy or mufcular; as they require
greater powers in flying than the long-winged birds,
fuch as gulls and herons, which are fpecifically lighter
and have greater extent of fail.
4. Belly {abdomen), is covered with a ftrong'fkin,
and contains the entrails.
5. The Vent, or vent-feathers {criffvm), which lies
between the thighs and the tail. The anus lies hid in
thofe feathers.
HI. LIMBS.
I. Wings, {ala), adapted for flight in all birds
except the dodo, oftriches, caflbwary, great auk, and
the pinguins, whofe wings are too fhort for the ufe of
flying ; but in the dodo and oftrich, when extended,
ferve to accelerate their motion in running; and in the
pinguins perform the office of fins, in fwiraming or
diving.
The wings have near their end an appendage cover¬
ed with four or five feathers, called the bajlard wing,
{ala notha), and alula fpuria.
The leffer coverts {tedrices), are the feathers which
lie on the bones of the wings.
The greater coverts are thofe which lie beneath the
former, and cover the quill-feathers and the feconda-
ries.
The quill feathers [primores), fpring from the fir ft
bones (digit's and metacarpi) of the wings, and are 10
in number.
Quill-feathers are broader on their inner than exte¬
rior fides.
The fecondaries (fecondaria), are thofe that rife
from the fecond part {cubitus), and are about 18 in
number, are equally broad on both Tides. The primary
and fecondary wing-feathers are called remiges.
A tuft of feathers placed beyond the fecondarie*
near the jundtion of the wings with the body. This
in water-fowl is generally longer than the fecondaries,
cuneiform, and may not unaptly be called the tertials.
The fcapularsare a tuft of long feathers arifincr near
the jundfion of the wings {brachia) with the body,
and lie along the Tides of the back, but may be eafily
diftinguiftied, and raifed with one’s finger.
The inner coverts are thofe that clothe the under
fide of the wing.
The fubaxillary are peculiar to the greater Paradife.
The wings of fome birds are inftruments of offence.
The anhima of Marcgrave has two ftrong fpines in the
front of each wing. A fpecies of plover, Edw. tab. 47.
3 S and
506
O R N I T H
External and 280. has a Tingle one in each ; the whole tribe of
Farts jacana, and the gambo, or fpur-winged goofe of Mr
c”"~v Willoughby, the fame.
2. The Tail is the dire^or, or rudder, of birds in
their flight ; they rife, fink, or turn by its means ; for
when the head points one way, the tail inclines to the
other fide : it is, befides, an equilibrium or counter-
poife to the other parts ; the ufe is very evident in the
kite and fwallows.
The tail confifts of ftrong feathers (reftrices), 10
in number, as in the woodpeckers, See.; 12 in the
hawk tribe, and many others ; in the gallinaceous, the
merganfers, and the duck kind, of more.
It is either even at the end, as in moft birds, or fork¬
ed, as in fwallows ; or cuneated.as in magpies, &c.; or
rounded, as in the purple jackdaw of Catelhy. The
grebe is deftitute of a tail, the rump being covered
with down ; and that of the calfowary with the fea¬
thers of the back.
Immediately over the tail are certain feathers that
fpring from the lower part of the back, and are called
the coverts of the tail (uropyguim )
3. Thighs (femora), are covered entirely with fea¬
thers in all land-birds, except the butlards and the
oftriches; the lower part of thofe of all waders, or
cloven-footed water-fowl, are naked ; that of all web¬
bed-footed fowd the fame, but in a lefs degree; in ra¬
pacious birds, are very mufcular.
4. Legs (crura) ; thofe of rapacious fowls very
ftrong, furnilhed with large tendons, and fitted for
tearing and a firm gripe. The legs of fome of this
genus are covered with feathers down to the* toes, fuch
as the golden eagle; others to the very nails; but thofe
of moll other birds are covered with feales, or with a
flein divided into fegments, or continuous. In fome of
the pies, and in all the paflerine tribe, the fldn is thin
and membranous ; in thofe of web-footed water-fowl,
ftrong.
The legs of moft birds are placed near the centre of
gravity: in land-birds, or in waders that want the back
toe, exaftly fo ; for they want that appendage to keep
them eredt. Auks, grebes, divers, and pinguins, have
their legs placed quite behind, fo are neceffitated to
fit eredt: their pace is aukward and difficult, v alking
like men in fetters : hence Linnaeus ftyles their feet
pedes compedes. ^
The legs of all cloven-footed water-fowl are long,
as they muft wade in fearch of food : of the palmated,
fliort, except thofe of the flamingo, the avofet, and the
courier.
5. Feet (pedes), in all land-birds that perch, have-
a large back toe: moft of them have three toes forward,
and one backward. Woodpeckers, parrots, and other
birds that climb much, have two forward, two back¬
ward ; but parrots have the power of bringing one of
their hind toes forward while they are feeding them-
felves. Owls have alfo the power of turning one of
their fore toes backward. All the toes of the fivift
turn forwards, frhich is peculiar among land-birds:
the tridadfylous woodpecker is alfo anomalous, having
only two toes forward, one backward ; the oftrich is
another, having but two toes.
6. Toes (digiti). The toes of all waders are di¬
vided ; but, between the exterior and middle toe, is
7
O L O G Y. Sea. r.
generally a fmall web, reaching as far as the firft External
joint. ( Pam’
The toes of birds that fwim are either plain, as in
the Angle inftance of the common water-hen or galli-
nule ; or pinnated, as in the coots and grebes ; or en¬
tirely webbed or palmated, as in all other fwdmmers.
All the plover tribe, or charadrii, want the back-
toe. In the fwimmers the fame want prevails among
the albatrofles and auks. No water- owl perch, except
certain herons, the corvorant, and the fnag.
7. Claws (ungues). Rapacious birds have very
ftrong, hooked, and (harp claws, vultures excepted.
Thofe of all land-birds that rooft on trees have alfo
hooked claws, to enable them to perch in fafety while
afleep.
The gallinaceous tribe have broad concave claws for
feraping up the ground.
Grebes have flat nails like the human.
Among water-fowl, only the fkua, Br. Zool. II.
p. 529. N° 243. and the black-toed gull, Br. Zool. II.
p.532. N°244. have ftrong hooked or aquiline claws.
All land-birds perch on trees, except the ftruthious
and fome of the gallinaceous tribes. Parrots climb ;
woodpeckers creep up the bodies and boughs of trees;
fwallows cling.
All water-fowl reft on the ground, except certain,
herons, and one fpecies of ibis, the fpoonbxll, one or
two fpecies of ducks and of corvorants.
IV. FEATHERS.
Feathers are defigned for two ufes ; as coverings
from the inclemency of the weather, and inftruments
of motion through the air. They are jalaced in fuch
a manner as to fall over one another (tegulatim), fo as
to permit the wet to run off, and to exclude the cold;
and thofe on the body are placed in a quincuncial form;
moil apparent in the thick-fkinned water-fowl, parti¬
cularly in the divers.
1. The parts of a feather are, the fhafts ; corneous,
ftrong, light, rounded, and hollow at the lower part
at the upper, convex above, concave beneath, and
chiefly compofed of a pith.
2. On each fide the lhafts are the vanes, broad on
one fide, narrow on the other; each vane confifts of
a multitude of thin laminae, ttiff, and of the nature of
a fplit quill. Thefe laminae are clofely braced toge¬
ther by the elegant contrivance of a multitude of fmall.
briftles; thofe on one fide hooked, the ether ftraight,
which lock into each other, and keep the vanes fmooth*
compaift, and llrong.
The vanes near the bottom of the fhafts are foft,
unconne&ed, and downy.
3. Feathers are of three kinds: (1.) Such as com-
pofe inftruments of flight; as the pen-feathers, or thofc-
which form the wings and tail, and have a large (haft.
The vanes of the exterior fide bending downward, of
the interior upward, lying clofe on each other, fo that
when fpread not a feather milTes its impulfe on the
air. The component parts of thefe feathers are de-
feribed before.
(2.) The feathers that cover the body, which may
be properly called the plumage, have little fhaft, and
much vane; and never are exerted or relaxed unlefs in
anger, fright, or iilnefs,
(s)
Sea II.
*'kght- (3») The Dowrj fphfn/t), which is difperfed over
^ 1 ‘ the whole body amidit the plumage, is fhort, foft, iin«
connefted, confifts of lanuginous vanes, and is intend¬
ed for excluding that air or water which may penetrate
or efcape through the former. This is particularly ap¬
parent in aquatic birds, and remarkably fo in the an-
ferine tribe. There are exceptions to the forms of
feathers. The vanes of the fubaxillary feathers of the
Parndife are unconne&ed, and the laminae diftant,
looking like herring-bone. Thofe of the tail of the
oflrich, and head of a Ipecies of curaffo, curled. Thofe
of the cafibwary confill of two lhafts, arifing from a
common Item at the bottom : as do at the approach
of winter (alter moulting) thofe of the ptarmigans of
arftic countries. The feathers of the pinguins, par¬
ticularly thofe of the wings, eonfift chiefly of thin flat
fhafts, and more refemble fesdes than feathers; thofe
of the tail, like fplit whale bone.
Sect. II. Flight of Birds.
The flight of birds is various; for, had all the fame,
Hone could elude that of rapacious birds. Thofe which
are much on wing, or flit from place to place, often
owe their prefervation to that, caufe : thofe in the wa¬
ter, to diving:
Kites, and many of the falcon tribe, glide fmoothly
through the air, with fcaree any apparent motion of
the wings.
Moft of the order of pies fly quick, with a frequent
repetition of the motion of the wings. The Paradife
floats on the air. Woodpeckers fly aukwardly, and by
jerks, and have a propenlity to fink in their progrefs.
The gallinaceous tribe, in general, fly very flrong
and fwiftly ; but their courfe is feldom long, by reafon
of the weight of their bodies.
The columbine race is of Angular fwiftnefs; witnefs
the flight of the carrier-pigeoij. See Carrier-PI-
geon.
The paflerine fly with a quick repetition of flrokes;
their flight, except in migration, is feldom diftant.
Amohg them, the fwallow tribe is remarkably agile,
their evolutions fudden, and their continuance on wing
long.
Nature hath denied flight to the ftruthious; but
hill, in running, their fhort wings are of ufe, when
ereft, to colleft the wind, and like fails to accelerate
their motion.
Many of the greater cloven-footed water-fowl, or
waders, have a flow and flagging flight ; but moft of
the lefler fly fwiftly, and molt of them with extended
' legs, to compenfate the fhortnefs of their tails. Rails
and gallinules fly with their legs hanging down.
Coots and grebes with difficulty are forced from
the water; but when they rife, fly fwiftly. Grebes and
alfo divers fly with their hind parts downwards, by
reafon of the forwardnefs of their wings.
Web-footed fowl are various in their flight. Several
have a failing or flagging wing, fuch as gulls. Pin¬
guins, and a Angle auk, are denied the power of flight.
■Wild geefe, in their migrations, do not fly pell-mell,
but in a regular figure, in order to cut the air with
greater eafe ; for example, in long lines, in the figure
of a > , or fomc pointed form or letter, as the ancients
ORNITHOLOGY. 507
report that the cranes a {Turned in their annual migra- Nuptials,
tions, till their order was broken by ftorms.
Strymona /ic gelidum, Iruma pellente^ relinquuntf
Potura /<?, Nile, Gkvzs,primoque volatu
Fffingunt varias, cafu monjlrante, fguras.
Max ubipercuffit tenfas Not us altior alas,
Confufos temere imnujhe glomeraniur in orbes,
Et turbata per it difperfs litera* pennis. * TAAS
Lucan, lib. v. /. 71 r.
From obfervation it appears, that the flight of birds
is much affifted by their being' endowed with the pe¬
culiar faculty of enlarging their bulk at will; and from
this circumftance the animal is enabled to buoy itfelf
up the eafier in the air, its fpecific gravity being lef-
fened in proportion as the bulk is irtcreafed.
This arifes from certain air veffels communicating
with the lungs, and difperfed over various parts of the
body, even to the bones ; whereby the bird, by filling
or emptying thefe veflels, has the pawer of contracting
or dilating itfelf according to the occalion it may
have for the change. See Comparative Anatomy,
n° 121—123.
Sect. III. Of the Nuptials, Nidif cation, and
Eggs of Birds.
I. Most birds are monogamous, or pair ; in fpring
fixing on a mate, and keeping conftant till the cares
of incubation and educating the young brood is paft.
This is the cafe, as far as we know, with all the birds
of the firft, fecond, fourth, and fifth orders.
Birds that lofe their mates early, aflbeiate with others;
and birds that lofe their firft eggs will pair and lay
again. The male, as well as the female, of feveral, join
alternately in the trouble of incubation, and always in
that of nutrition ; when the young are hatched, both
are bulled in looking out for and bringing food to the
neftlings ; and, at that period, the mates of the melo¬
dious tribes, who, before, were perched on fome fprig,
and by their warbling alleviated the care of the females
confined to the neft, now join in the common duty.
Of the gallinaceous tribe, the greateft part are po¬
lygamous, at ieall in a tame ftate ; the pheafant, many
of the grous, the partridges, and buftards, are mono- -
gamous; of the grous, the cock of the wood, and the
black game, aflemble the females during the feafon of
love, by their cries,
Et venerem incertam rapiuni.
The males oT^olygamous birds negledt their young;
and, in fome cafes, would deftroy them, if they met
with them. The ceconomy of the ftruthious order, in
this refpeft, is obfeure. It is probable that the birds
which compofe it are polygamous, like the common
poultry, for they lay many eggs; the dodo, however,
is faid to lay but one.
All waders or cloven-footed fowl are monogamous ;
and all with pinnated feet are alfo monogamous, ex¬
cept the ruffs.
The fwimmers or web-footed fowl obferve the fame
order, as far as can be remarked with, any certainty ; 4
but many of the auks affemble in the rocks in fuch
numbers, and each individuaWb contiguous, that it is
3 S 2 not
5o8 O R N I T H
NidiS- not pcffible to determine their method in this ar-
, catlon- tide.
^ " It may be remarked, that the afFedion of birds to
their young is very violent during the whole time of
nutrition, or as long as they continue in a helplefs
itate ; but as foon as the brood can fly and fliift for
itfelf, the parents negled, and even drive it from their
haunts, the affe&ion ceafing with the neceffity of it:
but, during that period.
The mothers nurfe it, and the fires defend.
The young difmifs’d, to wander earth, or air.
There flops the inftinft, and there ends the care:
The link diflblves; each feeks a ffefli embrace;
Another love fucceeds, another race.
2. The Nest of a bird is one of thofe daily miracles
that, from its familiarity, is pafled over without regard.
We flare with wonder at things that rarely happen,
and negled the daily operations of nature that ought
firft to excite our admiration and claim our atten¬
tion.
Each bird, after nuptials, prepares a place Anted to
its fpecies, for the depofiting its eggs and flieltering
its little brood : different genera, and different fpecies,
fet about the talk in a manner fuitable to their feveral
natures ; yet, every individual of the fame fpecies col-
lefts the very fame materials, puts them together in
the fame form, and choofes the fame fort of fituation
for placing this temporary habitation. The young
bird of the laft year, which never faw the building of
a neft, dire&ed by a heaven-taught fagacity, purfues
the fame plan in the ftrudture of it, and felefts the
fame materials as its parent did before. Birds of the
fame fpecies, of different and remote countries, do the
fame. The fvvallows of Britain, and of the remoter
parts of Germany, obferve the fame order of architec¬
ture ; and in many inftances have been known to re¬
turn to the fame places in which they had reared their
young the year before.
The nefls of the larger rapacious birds are rude,
made of flicks and bents, but often lined with fome-
thing foft; they generally build in high rocks, ruined
towers, and in defolate places: enemies to the whole
feathered creation, they feem confciousof attacks, and
feek folitude. A few build upon the ground.
Shrikes, allied to the rapacious birds, build their
nefts in bufhes, with mofs, wool, See.
The order of pies is very irregular in the ftrufture
of their nefts. Parrots, and in fadt all birds with two
toes forward and two backward, lay their eggs in the
hollows of trees. And moft of this order creep along
the bodies of trees, and lodge their eggs alfo within
them.
Crows build in trees : among them, the neft of the
magpie, compofed of rude materials, is made with much
art, quite covered with thorns, and only a hole left for
admittance. -
Ihe nefts of the orioles are contrived with wonder¬
ful fagacity, and are hung at the end of fome bough,
or between the forks of extreme branches. In Eu¬
rope, only three birds have penfile nefts; the common
oriole, the parus pendulinus or hang-neft titmoufe,
and one more. But in the torrid zone, where the
birds fear the fearch of the gliding ferpent and inqui-
. litive monkey, the inftances are very frequent; a mar-
8
O L O G Y. Sea. HU
t
vellous inftinft implanted in them for the prefervation NirHfj-
of their young. See Oriolus. cation. ^
All of the gallinaceous and ftruthious orders lay v
their eggs on the ground. The oftrich is the only
exception, among birds, of the want of natural af¬
fection : “ Which leaveth her eggs in the earth, and
warmeth them in the dull, and forgetteth that the
foot may crufh them, or the wild beaft may break
them.”
The columbine race makes a moft artlefs neft, a few
flicks laid acrofs may fuffiee.
Moil of the pafferine order build their nefts in
ftmrbs or bufhes, and fome in holes of walls or banks.
Several in the torrid .zone are penfile from the boughs
of high trees ; that of the taylor-bird, a wondrous in*
ftance *. Some-of this order, fuch as larks, and the*See Motet
goatfucker, on the ground. Some fwallows make aciila, n0c»
curious plafter-neft beneath the roofs of houfes ; and
an Indian fpecies, nefts of a certain glutinous matter,
which are colledfed as delicate ingredients for foups of
Chinefe epicures. See the article Birds Nejls.
Moft of the cloven-footed water-fowl, or waders,
lay upon the ground. Spoonbills and the common
heron build in trees, and make up large nefts with
flicks, &c. Storks build on churches, or the tops of
houfes. '
Coots make a great neft near the water fide.
Grebes, in the water, a floating nett, perhaps ad¬
hering to fome neighbouring reeds.
Web-footed fowl breed on the ground, as the avo-
fet, terns, fome of the gulls, merganfers, and ducks :
the laft pull the down from their breads, to make a
fofter and warmer bed for their young. Auks
and guillemots lay their eggs on the naked ihelves of
high rocks ; pinguins, in holes under ground: among
the pelicans, that which gives name to the genus,
makes its neft in the defart, on the ground. Shags,
fometimes on trees ; corvorants and gannets, on high
rocks, with flicks, dried algse, and other coarfe ma¬
terials.
3. Rapacious birds, in general, lay few eggs; eagles
and the larger kinds, fewer than the leffer. The eggs
of falcens and owls are rounder than thofe of moft
other birds; they lay more than fix.
The order of pies vary greatly in the number of
their eggs.
Parrots lay only two or thee white eggs.
Crows lay fix eggs, greeniih, mottled with dulky.
Cuckoos, as far as we can learn, two.
Woodpeckers, wryneck, and kingsfifher, lay eggs
of a clear white and femi-tranfparent colour. The
woodpeckers lay fix, the others more.
The nuthatch lays often in the year, eight at a time,
white, fpotted with brown.
The hoopoe lays but too cinerous eggs.
The creeper lays a great number of eggs.
The honeyfucker, the leaft: and moft defencelefs of
birds, lays but two : but Providence wifely prevents
the extin&ion of the genus, by a fwiftnefs of flight:
that eludes every purfuit.
The gallinaceous order, the moft ufeful of any to
mankind, lay the moft eggs, from 8 to 20 Benigna
circa hoc natura, innocua et efculenta anlmaha fcecunda gc~
neravit, is a fine obfervation of Pliny. With excep¬
tion to the buftard, a bird that hangs between
the.
Sea.lV. ORNITH
Eggs, the gallinaceous and the wadere, which lays only
tWThe columbine order lays but two white eggs; but
the domeftic kind, breeding almoft every month, fup-
ports the remark of the Roman naturahft.
All of the pafferine order by from four to fix eggs;
except the titmoufe and the wren, which lay 15 or 18,
and the goatfucker, which lays only two.
The ftruthious order difagrees much in the numner
of eggs: the oftrich laying many, as far as 50; the
dodo but one.
The cloven-footed water-fowl, or waders, lay, m
general, four eggs: The crane and the Norfolk plo¬
ver feldom more than two. All thofe of the fnipe and
plover genus are of a dirty white, or olive fpotted
with bbck, and fcarce to be diftinguilhed in the holes
they lay in. The bird called the Land Rail (an am¬
biguous fpecies), lays from rj to 20. Of birds with
pinnated feet, the coot lays feven or eight eggs, and
fometimes more. --Grebes, from four to eigot, anc
thofe white. , ,
The web-footed,'-or fwimmers, differ in the number
of their eggs. Thofe wdiieh border on the order ot
waders, lay few eggs; the avofet two ; the flamingo
three ; the albatrofs, the auks, and gu.llemots, lay
only one egg a-piece: the eggs of the two lalt are of
a fize ftrangely large in proportion to the bulk of the
birds. They are commonly of a pale green colour,
fpotted, and ftriped fo varioufly, that not two are
alike ; which gives every individual the means of di-
ftingufhing its own on the naked rock where fuch
multitudes affemble.
Divers only two.
Terns and gulls by about three eggs, of a dirty
olive, fpotted with black.
Ducks lay from eight to twenty eggs; the eggs ot
all the genus are of a pale green, or white, and un
fpotted.
Pinguins probably by but one egg.
Of the pelican genus, the gannet lays but one egg ;
the (hags or corvorants, fix or feven, all white ; the
laft, the moft oblong of eggs.
A minute account of the eggs of birds might occupy
a treatife of itfelf. This is only meant to fhow the great
conformity nature obferves in the fhape and colours of
the eggs of»congenerous birds; and alfo, that kre Keeps
the fame uniformity of colour in the eggs as in the
plumage of the birds they belong to.
Zinanni publifhed, at Venice, in I737> ^ Treatife
on Eggs, illuftrated with accurate figures of 106 eggs.
Mr Reyger of Dantzick publifhed, in 1766, apofthu-
mous work by Klein, with 21 plates, elegantly co-
loured: but much remains for future writers.
Sect. IV. Syjlem.
Considering the many fyftems that have been of¬
fered to the public of late years, Mr Pennant gives
the preference to that compofed by Mr Ray in 1667,
and afterwards pulifhed in 1678 ; but obferves, at
the fame time, that it would be unfair to conceal the
writer, from whom our great countryman took the
original hint of forming that fyftem which has proved
0 L O G Y. ^ 5°9'
the foundation of all that has been comjnfed fioce . /
that period.
He was a Frenchman, Belon of Mans, who firlt at¬
tempted to range birds according to their natures; and
performed great matters, confidermg the unenlightened
age he lived in ; for his book was publifhed in 1555.
His arrangement of rapacious birds is as judicious as
that of the lateft writers. For his fccond chapter treats
of vultures, falcons, fhrikes, and owls : in the two
next, he pafTes over to the web-footed water-fowl, and
to the cloven-footed : in the fifth, he includes the
gallinaceous and ftruthious; but mixes with them the
plovers, buntings, and larks: in the fixlh ate the pies,
pigeons, and thrufties ; and the feveiith takes in the
reft of the paflerine order.
Notwithftanding the great defefts that every natu-
ralilt will at once fee in the arrangement of the lefier
birds of this writer, yet be will obferve a reftitude of
intention in general, and a fine notion of fyftem, which
was left to the following age to mature and bring to
perfe&ion. Accordingly Mr Ray, and his illuftrious
pupil the honourable Francis Willoughby, affumed the
plan ; but with great judgment flung into their pro¬
per ftations and proper genera thofe which Belon had
confufedly mixed together. They formed the great
divifion of terreftrial and aquatic birds; they made
every fpecies occupy their proper place, confulting at
once exterior form and natural habit. They could not
bear the affected intervention of aquatic birds in the
midft of terreftrial birds. They placed the laft; by
themfelves; clear and diftindl from thofe whofe haunts
and osconomy were fo different.
The fu! joined fcheme of arrangement by Mr Pen-
nant, is introduced with the following obfervations.
“ Mr Ray’s general plan is fo judicious, that to me Pennant’s
it feems fcarce poffihle to make any change in it for
the better : yet, notwithftanding he was in a manner
the founder of fyftcmatic zoology, later difeoveries
ha,ve made a few improvements on his labours. My
candid friend Linnaeus did not take it amifs, that I,
in part, neglexR his example : for I permit the land-
fowl to follow one another, undivided by the water-
fowl, the grallse, and anferes of his fyftem f; but, in f See
my generical arrangement, I molt pundtually attend^-
to the order he ha-.i given in his feveral divifions, ex¬
cept in thofe of his anferes, and^'a few of his gralJoe.
For, after the manner of Mr Briffon, 1 make a diftindt
order of water fowl with pinnated feet, placing them
between the waders or eloven-footed water-fowl and
the web-footed. The oftrich, and land-birds with
wings ufelefa for flight, I place as a diftindt order.
The trumpeter (pfophia Linna‘t)y and the buftards, I
place at the end of the gallinaceous tribe. Ail are
land-birds. The firft multiparous, like the generality
of the gallinaceous tribe ; the laft granivorous, fwift
runners, avoiders of wet-places; and both have bills
fomewhat arched. It muft be confeffed, that both
have legs naked abovd the knees; and the laft, like
the waders, lay but few eggs. They feem ambiguous
birds that have affinity vV.h each order; and it is hoped
that each naturalift may be indulged the toleration of
placing them as fuits his own opinion.”
TABLE
5*o»
Arrange,
*nent-
O R N I T H
TABLE c%f Petinant^s Arrangement, with thecor-1
refpondent ORDERS and GENERA in the Sys¬
tem* Naturae of Linn ecus.
Division I. LAND-BIRDS. Div. IF. WATER-FOWL
Order I. Rapacious. Accipitres Linn as.
II- Pies. Pica.
UP Gallinaceous. Gallinx.
Divif. 1. IV. Columbine. Pafferes.
V. Paflerine. Pajferes.
VI. Struthious. f G“llT'
[ Lrralla.
'Order VII. Cloven-footed 7 »
or Waders, j
Dir if. II. . VIIT. Pmnat.,1 f,.,t S ■'M""-
Gralla.
Anferes.
j, I Gralla.
O L O G Y,
69 Plover Charadriu* 73 Rail
yoOyftereatcherHctmaiopm Sheathhill
71 Jacana Parra 75 Gall mule
7s Pratincole Hirundo
Aa’fut
Pulic?
SeA IV,
Arrange¬
ment.
Ord.VTII. PINNATED-FEET.
78 Grebe Celymbut
76 Phalarope Trinr
7 7 Coot Fulica
VIII. Pinnated feet.
IX. Web-footed.
DIV. I.
1 Vulture
a Falcon
4 Shrike
5 Parrot
6 Toucan
7 Mot mot
S Hornbill
0 Beefeater
i@ Ani
11 Wattle
12 Crow
13 Ro'ler
14 Oriole
15 Grakle
16 Paradife
Ord.I. rapacious.
Vultur
Falco
3 Owl
Strive
Ord. II. PIE S.
Laniut
PJittacus
Pamphaflns
Ratnphajios
Bucercs
Bupbana
Crotophaga
Corvus
Coraciat
Oriolus
Gracnla
Baradifxa
17 Curucui Trogon
18 Barbet Bucco
19 Cuckoo Cuculus
20 Wryneck Junx
21 WoodpeckerP/Var
22 Jacamar Aicedo
23 Kingsfifbcr Alceda
24 Nuthatch Sitta
25 Tody Todui
26 Bee-eater Merops
27 Hoopoe Upupa
28 Creeper C-rtbia
29 Honeyfucker Trcchilut
30 Cock
31 Turkey
32 Pintado
33 Curaffo
34 Peacock
Ord. III. GALLINACEOUS.
Fhajlnnus
■Mekagrit
JAumida
Crax
Pa vo
Ord. IV.
35 Pheafant Phafianus
Grous Tetrao
37 Partridge ‘Pet, ao
38 Trumpeter Pfopbia
3 9 Bullard Oth
COLUMBINE.
40 Pigeon Columba
Ord.V. passerine.
41 Stare
42 Thrulh
43 Chatterer
44 Coly
45 Grolheak
46 Bunting
47 Tai.ager"
48 Finch
Sturnut
‘Turdu;
Air petit
Loxia
Loxia
Emberiz*
‘Tanagra
Fringilla
Ord. VI.
57 Dodo DiJus
49 Flycatcher Mufcicapa
50 Lark Alauda
51 Wagtail Mot a cilia
52 Warblers Motacilla
53 Manakin Pip ra
54 Titmoufe Parut
55 Swallow Hirundo
56 Goatfucker Capnmulgut
STRUTHIOUS.
58 Ollrich Strutbi*
D I V. II.
Ord. VII. CLOVEN-FOOTED, or WADERS
59 Spoonbill
60 Screamer
61 Jabirn
62 Boatbill
63 Heron
P lot ale a
P alaniedca
Myfteria
Cancroma
A-rdta
f>4 Umhre
65 Ibis
66 Curlew
67 Snipe
68 Sandpiper
Scopus Briss.
‘Tantalus
Scolopax
Scolspax
Tringa
Ord. IX. WEB FOOTED.
79 Avofetta
80 Courier
81 Fiammant
82 Albatrofs
83 Auk
84 Guillemot
85 Diver
86 Skimmer
87 Tern
Becurvirofira
Currira Bkiss
Pb f nicopter us
Dhmedia
utlca
Colymbus
Coly mbits
Rhyncops
Sterna
88 Gull Earns
89 Petrel Prtcellaria
90 Merganfer Mergus
Anas
C Diomede »
91 Duck
92 Pinguia
03 Pelican
S4 Tropic
9J Darter
\ Phaeton
Pelicanus.
P fact oh
Plotus
, .To tfie above, we have thought it neceffary to fub*
jmn an extraft of the orders and genera as they ftand
in the Index Ornitbo/ogicus and General Synopfis of birds
as published by Mr Latham ; as from the copious
manner in which he has treated the fubjed, and from
a very great addition he has been enabled to make to
this branch of natural hiftory, fome deviations from
the plan of preceding authors, as well as the forma¬
tion of fome new genera, have neceffariiy arifen.
TABLE of the ORDERS and GENERA of
BIRDS, according to Mr Lathai^.
Ind. Orn.
AVIUM ORDINES.
Div. I.
I. Accipitres.
II. Piece
III. Palferes.
IV. Collumbte
V. Gallinae
VI. Struthiones
Div. II.
VII. Grallse
VIII. Pinnatipedes
IX. Palmipedes
AVIUM GENERA.
Div. I.
A FES TERRESTRES
Ordo I
ACCIPITRES.
1 Vultur
2 Falco
3 Strix
Ordo II.
pica;.
4 Lanins Sbribe
5 Pfittacus Parrot
6 Ramphaitos Toucan
7 Momotus Plot mot
8 Scythrops
9 Buceros Hornbill
10 buphaga Beefeater
11 Crotophaga Ani
12 Callaeas ’ Wattle-Bird
13 Corvus Crow
14 Coracias Roller
Syn. of Birds.
ORDERS OF BIRDS,
Div. I.
Rapacious
Pies
Pafferine
Columbine
Ga llinaceous
Struthious s
Div. II,
Waders
Pinnated feet
Webfoooted
GENERA OF BIRDS,
Div. I.
LAND BIRDS.
Order I.
RAPACIOUS.
Fulture ,
Falcon
Owl
Order H„
PIES.
15 OHolus
Se£t. IV.
Arrange- Jnd< Qnu
15 Oriotus
16 Gracula
I <7 Pavadifaea
j8 Trogoa
19 Bucco
20 Cuculus
21 Yunx
22 Picas
23 Galbula
24 Alcedo
25 Sitta
26 Todus
27 Merops
28 Upupa
29 Certhia
30 Trochilus
Ordo III.
PASSERES.
31 Sturnus
32 Tardus
3 3 Ampeli8J
34 Colius
35 Loxia
36 Emberiza
37 Tanagra
38 Fringilla
39 Phytotoma
40 Mufcicapa
41 Alauda
42 Motacilla
43 sylvia
44 Pipra
45 Parus
46 Hirundo
47 Caprimulgus
Ordo IV.
COLUMB2E.
48 Columba
Ordo V.
GALLING.
49Pavo
50 Meieagris
51 Penelope
52 Numida
53 Crax
• 54 Phafianus
55 Tinamua
56 Tetrao
37 Perdix
38 Pfophia
39 Otis
Ordo VI.
STRUTHIONES.
60 Did us
6.1 Struthio
62 Cafuarius
6.3 Rhea
Qr'iote
Grakle
Paradife Bird
Curucui
Bnrbet
Cuckoo
IVryneck
Woodpecker
Jacamar
Klngsjijher
Nu/hatch
Tody
Bee-eater /
Hoopoe
Creeper
Humming Bird.
Order III.
PASSERINE-
Starling
Thrufh
Chatterer
Coly
Grojbeah
Bunting
Tanager
Finch
Ind. Orn,
DIV. II.
4VES AgUBTICE.
Ordo VII.
GRALLiE.
64 Platalea
65 Palamedea
66 Myfterla
67 Cancroma
68 Scapus
69 Ardea
70 Tantalus
71 Numenius
72 Scolopax
VSTringa _
74 Charadrius
75 Curforius
76 Haematopus
77 Glareola
78 Rahus
79 Parra
80 Galiinula
81 Vaginalis
Ordo VIII.
PINNATIPEDES.
Sytt' of Birds.
DIV. II.
WATER BIRDS.
Order VII.
WADERS.
Spoonbill
Screamer
"Jabiru
Boatbill
Umbre
Heron
Ibis
Curlew
Snipe
Sandpiper
Plover
Oyjler-catxher
Pratincole
Rail
Jacana
G allinule
Sheath-bill
Order VIII.
With PINNATED*
FEET.
ORNITHOLOGY.
Syn. of Bird:.
511
Arrange¬
ment.
Flycatcher
Lark
Wagtail
Warbler
Manakin
Tltmoufe
Swallow
Goatfucker
Order IV.
COLUMBINE.
Pigeon
Order V.
GALLINACEOUS.
Peacock
Turkey
Pintado
Cur off0
Pheafant
Tinamon
Grous
Partridge
Trumpeter
Bujlard
Order VI.
STRUTHIOUS.
JDodo
African OJlrich
Cajfowary
American Of rich.
82 Ph-alaropus
83 Fulica
84 Podicepo
Ordo IX.
PALMIPEDES.
* Pedibus longioribus
85 Recurviroitra
86 Corrira
87 Phoenicopterus
•j-f Pedibus brevioribus
88 Diomedea
89 Alca
90 Uria
91 Colymbus
92 Rhynchops
93 Sterna
94 Larus
95 Procellaria
96 Mergus
97 Anas
98 Aptenodytes
99 Pelicanus
100 Phaeton
101 Piotus
In the latter arrangements of birds, although it can¬
not be faid that the authors have loft fight of their
great predeceffor Linnaeus,yet the necefiity of deviating
from him muft feem obvious, when the very great num¬
ber of fpecies which have come to our knowledge of-
late years, fuflicient to'juftify fuch alteration, and
fatisfy the moft fcrupulous advocates of this great man,
is confidered. In his laft edition of the Syjlema Na¬
ture, Linnaeus enumerates about 930 birds only; but
Phalarope
Coot
Grebe
Order IX.
WEB-FOOTEDa
* With long legs
Avofet
Courier
Flamingo
^ \ With fiort legs.
Albatrofs 1
Auk
Guillemot
Diver
Skimmer
Tern
Gull
Petrel
Merganfer
Duck
Pinguin
Pelican
Tropic Bird
Darter
O R N I T
in the Index and Synopfis of Mr Latham, they have
been increafed to very near 4000, a number never ima¬
gined by former writers on the fubjeft to exift in na¬
ture.
M. Biberg, in his excellent treatife Oeconorrua Na¬
tural aman. acad. vol. 2. calculates the probability of the
vegetable kingdom furnilhingas far as to,000 fpecies ;
that of the vermes 2000 ; infe&s 10,000 ; amphi¬
bia 300; fiflies 2000 ; birds 2000 ; quadrupeds 2co.
mem.
H O L O G Y. oecC( iV#
How far we have already exceeded this number In every Arrange-
department the naturalift can teffify ; but how much
farther the lilt may be increafed, no one will pre¬
tend to fore tel, whilft the ardour and indefatigable in-
duflry of the prefent race of naturalilh, added to the
taite for poflefiing new acquifitions, and exploring new
countries, fliall continue.
For Linnaus’i Arrangement* See Zoology.
O R O
<3rnitho» ORNITIIOMANCY, a fpccies of divination per-
mancy formed by means of birds; being the fame with au~
Orobio. Sury- See Divination and Augury.
y 1 ORNITHOPUS, in botany : A genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
32d order, Papdionacea. The legumen is articulated,
cylindrical, and bent in the form of a bow.
ORNUS fraxinus, is that fpecies of the afh tree,
in the Linnsean fyftem, which, according to Dor Ci-
rillo of Naples, produces the manna. It is the afh
tree, whofe fmalkr leaves are favved, with flowers ha¬
ving petals. In order to obtain the manna, thofe
whofe bufinefs it is, in July and Auguft, make an ob¬
long incifion, and take off from the bark of the tree
about three inches in length and two in breadth : they
leave the wound open, and by degrees the manna runs
out, and is almoft fuddenfy thickened to its proper
conliftence, and is found adhering to the bark of the
tree. This is colle&ed in bafkets, and called manna
graja. When they want fine manna, they apply to
the incifion of the bark thin ftraw, or fmalf bits of
fhrubs ; fo that the manna in coming out runs upon
thefe bodies, and is collected in a fort of regular tubes,
which give it the name of manna in cannoli.
ORuBANCHE, in botany: A genus of the
angiofparmia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 40th order, Perfonatee. The calyx is bifid ; the
corolla ringent; the capfule unilocular, bivalved, and
polyfpermous ; there is a glandule under the bafe of
the germen.
OROBIO (Don Balthafar), a celebrated Jew of
Spain. He was carefully educated in Judaifm by his
parents, who were Jews, though they outwardly pro-
fefled themfelves Roman Catholics; abftaining from
the practice of their religion in every thing, except
only the obfervation of the fait of expiation, in the
month Tifis or September. Orobio ftudied the fcho-
lattic philofophy ufual in Spain, and became fo flailed
■in it, that he was made profefibr of metaphyfics in the
univerfity of Salamanca. Afterwards, however, ap¬
plying himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic, he praftifed that
art at Seville with fuccefs, till, accufed of Judaifm, he
was thrown into the inquifition, and fuffered the moil
dreadful cruelties, in order to force a confefiion. He
himfelf tells us, that he was put into a dark dungeon,
fo ftrait that he could fcarce turn himfelf in it;
and fuffered fo many hardihips, that his brain beiran
to be difturbed. He talked to himfelf often in this
way . Am I indeed that Don Balthafar Orobio. who
walked freely abouFin Seville, who was entirely at eafe,
N° 253.
O R O
and had the blefiings of a wife and children ?” Some- OroVim
times, fuppofing that his pall life was but a dream  r—*
and that the dungeon where he then lay was his true
birth-place, and which to all appearance would alfo
prove the place of his death. At other times, as he
had a very metaphyfical head, he firlt formed argu¬
ments of that kind, and then refolved them ; perform¬
ing thus the three different parts of opponent, re-
fpondent, and moderator, at the fame time. In this
whimfical way he amufed himfelf from time to time,
and conflantly denied that he was a Jew. After ha¬
ving appeared twice or thrice before the inquifitors,
he was ufed as follows : At the bottom of a fubterra-
neous vault, lighted by two or three fmall torches, he
appeared before two perfons, one of whom was judge
of the inquifition, and the other fecretary ; who, a/k¬
ing him whether he would confefs the truth ? protefl-
ed, that in cafe of a criminal’s denial, the holy office
would not be deemed the caufe of his death if he
ffiould expire under the torments, but that it mull be
imputed entirely to his own obltinacy. Then the
executioner ftript off his clothes, tied his feet and
hands with a flrong cord, and fet him upon a little
ftool, while he palled the cord through fome iron
buckles which were fixed in the wall; then drawing away
the ftool, he remained hanging by the cord, which the
executioner ftill drew harder and harder, to make him
confefs, till a furgeon aflured the court of examinants,
that he could not poffibly bear more without expiring.
Thefe cords put him to exquifite tortures, by cutting
into the flefh, and making the blood burft from under
his nails. ^ As there was certainly danger that the
cords would tear off his flelh, to prevent the worft,
care was taken to gird him with fome bands about the
breaft, which however were drawn fo very tight, that
he would have run the rilk of not being able to
breathe, if he had not held his breath in while the
executioner pat the bands round him ; by which de-
vice his lungs had room enough to perform their
funftions. In the fevereft extremity of his fufferings,
he was told that this was but the beginning of his
torments, and that he would better confefs before
they proceeded to extremities. Orobio added further,
that the executioner, being on a fmall ladder, in order
to frighten him, frequently let it fall again ft the Ihin-
bones of his legs ; fo that the ftaves being fli irp, crea¬
ted exquifite pain. At lart, after three years confine¬
ment, finding themfelves baffled by his perfeverance in
denying his religion, they ordered his wounds to be
cured, and difeharged him. As foon as he had got
liberty, he refolved to quit the Spanifti dominions ;
and, going to France, was made profeffor of phyfic at
Tbouloufc
O R O [ 513 J O R P
Orobus, Thouloufe. The thefea which he made as candidate prefence their right to the fucceflion. Phraates, the Orontium
°ro^es' for this place were upon putrefadtion ; and he main¬
tained them with fo much metaphyfical fubtlety, as
embarraffed all his competitors. He continued in this
city for fome time, ftill outwardly profeffing popery :
but at laft, weary of diffembling, he repaired to Am-
fterdam, where he was circumcifed, took the name ol
Ifaac, and profeffed Judaifm ; ftill continuing, how¬
ever, to pradtife phyfic, in which he was much efteem-
ed. Upon the publication of Spinoza’s book, he
defpifed a fyftem the falfenefs of which he quickly
difcovered ; and when Bredenbourg’s anfwer to it
came to his hands, Orobio, being petfuaded that the
writer, in refuting Spinoza, had alfo admitted fome
principles which tended to Atheifm, took up his pen
againft them both, and publiflied a piece to that pur-
pofe, intituled, Certamen philofoph'icum adverfus J. B.
Prinapia. Bur the difpute which he held with the
celebrated Philip Limhorch againft the Chriftian reli¬
gion made the greaceft noife. Here he exerted the
utmoft force of his metaphyfical genius, and carried
himfelf with great temper. The three papers which
he wrote on the occafion were afterwards printed by
his antagonift. in an account which he publilhed of
the controverfy, under the title of Arnica CoUatio cum
Jud<zo. Orobio died in 1687.
OROBUS, bitter vetch \ A genus of the de-
candrta order, belonging to the diadelphia clals of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
3zd order, Papilionacea. The ftyle is linear; the calyx
obtufe at the bafe, with the upper fegments deeper
and fhorter than the reft. There are nine fpeeies. All
of them have fibrated roots, which are perennial, but
are annual in ftalk, rifing early in fpring and decaying
in autumn. They are very hardy plants, and profper
in any common foil of a garden. Moft of the forts
are very floriferous, and the flowers confpicuous and
©rnameHtal for adorning the flower compartments.
The flowers are univerfally of the papilionaceous or
butterfly kind, confifting each of four irregular petals,
i. e. a ftandard, two wings, and a keel ; and are all
iucceeded by long taper ieed-pods, fumifhing plenty of
ripe feed in autumn; by which the plants may be pro¬
pagated abundantly, as alfo by parting the roots.
The Scots Highlanders have a great efteem for the
tubercles of the roots of the tuberofus, or fpecies
fometimes called wood-pea. They dry and chew them
in general to give a better relifti to their liquor ; they
alfo affirm that they are good againft mod diforders of
the breaft, and that by the ufe of them they are enabled
to refill hunger and thirft for a long time. In Bread-
albane and Rofsfhire, they fometimes bruife and deep
them in wrater, and make an agreeable fermented liquor
with them. They have a fweet tafte, fomething like
the roots of liquorice ; and, when boiled, we are told,
they are nutritious and well flavoured ; and in times of
icarcity they have ferved as a fubftitute for bread.
ORODES, a prince of Parthia, who murdered his
brother Mithrcdvtes, and afeended his throne. He
defeated Crafliis the Roman triumvir, and poured
melted gold down the throat of his fallen enemy, to
reproach him for his avarice and ambition. He fol¬
lowed the intereft of Caffius and Brutus at Philippi.
It is faid, that when Orodes became old and infirm,
bis 30 children anplied to him, and difputed in his
Vol.XIII. Part II.
elded of them, obtained the crown from his father; Qr
and, to haden him out of the world, he attempted to 1 '
poifon him. The poifon had no effedt; and Phraates,
ftill determined on his father’s death, firangled him
with his own hands, about 35 years before the Chrif-
tian era. Orodes had then reigned about 50 years.
ORONTIUM, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
fecond order, Piperitce. The fpadix is cylindrical,
covered with florets ; the corolla hexapetalous and
naked ; there is no ftyle ; the follicles are monofper-
mous.
OROONOKO, a great river of terra firma, in
South America, w-hich rifes in Popayan, and falls into
the fea with 16 mouths.
ORPHAN, a fatherlefs child or minor; or one
that is deprived both of father and mother.
ORPHEUS, a celebrated poet and mufician of an¬
tiquity. His reputation was eftablifhed as early as
the time of the Argonautic expedition, in which he
was himfelf an adventurer ; and is faid by Apollonius
Rhodius not only to have incited the Argonauts to
row by the found of his lyre, but to have vanquifhed
and put to filence the firens by the fuperiority of his
ftrains. Yet, notwithllanding the great celebrity he
had fo. long enjoyed, there is a paffage in Cicero,
which fays, that Ariftotle, in the third book of his
Poetics, which is now loft, doulted if fuch a perfun as
Orpheus ever exi/led. But as the work of Cicero, in
which this paffage occurs, is in dialogue, it is not
eafy to difeover what was his own opinion upon the
fubject, the words cited being put into the mouth of
Cams Cotta. And Cicero, in other parts of his wri¬
tings, mentions Orpheus as a perfon of whofe exift-
ence he had no doubts. There are feveral ancient au¬
thors, among whom is Suidas, who enumerate five
perfons of the name of Orpheus, and relate fome par¬
ticulars of each- And it is very probable that it has
fared with Orpheus as with Hercules, and that wri¬
ters have attributed to one the arftions of many. But,
however that may have been, we fhall not attempt to
colledl all the fables that poets and mythologifts have
invented concerning him ; they are too well known to
need infertion here. We ftudl, therefore, in fpeak-
ing of him, make ufe only of fuch materials as the
beft ancient hiftorians, and the moft refpe&able wri¬
ters among the moderns, have furnifhed towards lus
hiftory.
Ur Cudworth, in his InlelleElual Syjltm*, after exa- *• go ,kl
mining and confuting the objefiions that have been kct. 17.
made to the being of an Orpheus, and with his ufu 1
learning and abilities clearly eftablifliing his exid-
ence, proceeds, in a very ample manner, to fpeak of
the opinions and writings of our bard, whom he re¬
gards not only as the firft mufician and poet of anti¬
quity, but as a great mythologifl, from whom the
Greeks derived the Thracian religious rites and my-
fteries.
“ It is the opinion (fays he) of fome eminent phi-
lologers of later times, that there never was any fuch
perfon as Orpheus, except in Fairy land ; and that
his whole hiflory was nothing but a mere romantic ai-
legory, utterly devoid of truth and reality. But there
O R P
Orpheus, is nothing alleged for this opinion from antiquity, ex*
cept the one palfage of Cicero concerning Aritlotle ;
who feems to have meant no more than this, that
there was no inch poet as Orpheus anterior to Homer,
or that the verfes vulgarly called Orph:cal were
not written by Orpheus. However, if it (hould be
granted that Ariftotie had denied the exiflence of fuch
a man, there feems to be no reafon why his fingle tef-
timony fhould preponderate againft the univerfal con-
fent of all antiquity : which agrees, that Orpheus was
the fon of (Eager, by birth a Thracian, the father
or chief founder of trie mythological and allegorical
theology amongft the Greeks, and of all their molt
facred religious rites and myfteries ; who is commonly
fupoofed to have lived before the Trojan war, that
is, in the time of the Ifraelitifh judges, or at halt to
have been fenior both to Hdiod and Homer ; and to
have died a violent death, molt affirming that he was
torn in pieces bv women, hecaufe their hulbands de-
ferted them in order to follow him. For which reafon,
in the vifion of Herns Pamphilius, in Plato, Orpheus’s
foul palling into another body, is faid to have chofen
that of a fwan, a reputed inufrcal animal, on account of
the great hatred he had conceived for all women, from
the death which they had inftifted on him. And the
hiftoric truth of Orpheus was not only acknowledged
by Plato, but alio by Ifocrates, who lived before
Ariftotle, in his oration in praife of Bufiris ; and con¬
firmed by the grave hiftorian Diodorus Siculus, who
fays, that Orpheus diligently applied himfelf to litera¬
ture, and when he had learned ’■<* ^oKoya^a, or the
mythological part of theology, he travelled into E-
gypt, where he foon became the greateft proficient
among the Greeks in the rnyfteries of religion, theolo¬
gy, and poetry. Neither was his hiftory of Orpheus
contradified by Origen, when fo juftly provoked by
Celfus, who had preferred him to our Saviour ; and,
according to Suidas, Orpheus the Thracian was the
firft inventor of the religious mylleries of the Greeks,
and that religion was thence called Threjkeia^
as if a Thracian invention. On account of the great
antiquity of Orpheus, there have been numberlefs fables
intermingled with his hiftory ; yet there appears no
reafon that we (hould diffielieve the exiftence of fuch a
man.”
Cudworth is alfo of opinion, that the poems aferibed
to Orpheus were either written by him, or that they
were very ancient, and contained his dodlrines. He
farther argues, that though Orpheus was a polytheift,
and aliened a multiplicity of gods, he neverthelefs
acknowledged one fupreme unmade deity, as the ori¬
ginal of all things ; and that the Pythagoreans and
Platonifts not only had Orpheus in great efteem, be¬
ing commonly called by them the Theologer, but were
alfo thought in great meafure to have owed their theo¬
logy and philofophy to him, deriving it from his prin¬
ciples and traditions.
* Watbiu* 'pjjg bJfhop of Gloucefter* fpeaks no more doubt¬
fully of the exiftence of Orpheus than of Homer and
Hefiod, with whom he ranks him, not only as a
poet, but alfo as a theologian, and founder of reli-
g'on-
The family of Orpheus is traced by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton for feveral generations : “ Sefac palling over the
Heilefpoiit, conquers i brace $ kills Lycurgus, king
o r r
of that country ; and gives his kingdom and one of Orpheus,
his finging-women to CEagrus, the fon ofTharops, and —-v—^
father of Orpheus ; hence Orpheus is faid to have had
the mufe Calliope for his mother.”
Fie is allowed by moft ancient authors to have ex¬
celled in poetry and mulic, particularly the latter ; and
that to fuch a degree, that he is reprefented as taming
the moft ferocious animals, changing the courfe of the
winds by his melody, and as eauling the trees of the
foreft to dance in concert with his lyre. This ac¬
count, though we mult fuppofe it fabulous, yet proves
his excellence to have been great before it could have
given rife to Inch iidiions. He is faici to have early
cultivated the lyre, in preference to every other inftru-
ment : fo that all thole who came after him were con¬
tented to be his imitators ; whereas, according to Plu¬
tarch, he adopted no model; for before his time no other
mufic was known, except a few airs for the flute.
Mufic was fo cloftly conne&ed in ancient times with Burney's
the moft fublime fciences, that Orpheus united it not Hift. 'rf
only w ith philofophy, but with theology and legiflation. Mufic,
Fie abftained from eating animal tood ; and held eggs^T10*
in abhorrence as aliment, being perfuaded that the egg
fubfitled before the chicken, and was the principle of
all exiftence : both his knowledge and prejudices, it is
probable, were acquired in Egypt, as well as thofe of
Pythagoras many ages alter.
With refpeft to his abftaining from the flefh of
oxen, Gefncr fuppofes it may have proceeded fiom
the veneration Ihown to that animal fo ufeful in tillage,
in the Eleufinian myfteries inftituted in honour of
Ceres, the goddefs of agriculture. He might have
added, that, as thefe mylteries^weie inftituted in imi¬
tation of thofe eftablilhed in Egypt in honour of Olirts
and Ills, this abftinence from animal food was of the
like origin, and a particular compliment to Apis.
But Abbe Fraguier, in an ingenious diftertation upon
the Orphic Life> gives ftill more importance to the pro¬
hibition ; for as Orpheus was the legillator and huma-
nizer of the wild and favage Thracians, who were ca-
nibals, a total abolition of eating human flefh could
only be eftabliflied by obliging his countrymen to ab-
ftain from every thing that had life.
With refpedi to theology, Diodorus Siculus tells nw. Si-
us, that his father (Eeagrus gave him his firft inftruc-
tions in religion, imparting to him the myfteries ofcaP<iJ*
Bacchus, as they were then ptacHfed in Thrace. He
became afterwards a difciple of the Idaei Dadtyli in
Crete, and there acquired new ideas concerning reli¬
gious ceremonies. But nothing contributed fo much
to his Ikill in theological matters,.as his journey into
Egypt; where being initiated into the myfteries of
Ills and Oiiris, or of Ceres and Bacchus, he acquired
a knowledge concerning initiations, expiations, fune¬
ral rites, and other points of religious worfliip, far iu-
perior to any one of his age and country. And being
much connected with the defeendants of Cadmus, the
founder of Thebes in Boeotia, he refolved, in order to
honour their origin, to traniport into Greece the
whole fable of Oliris, and apply it to the family of
Cadmus. The credulous people eaftly received this
tale, and were much flattered by the inftitution of the
ceremonies in honour of Ofiris. Thus Orpheus, who
was held in great veneration at the Grecian Thebes, of
which he wa# become a citizen, admirably adapted
this.
[ 5'4 1
o
O R p L' 5<5
©rpheu*. this fable, and rendered it refpedlable, not only by his
beautiful verfes and manner of finging them, but by
the reputation he had acquired of being profoundly
Heilied in all religious concerns. Diodorus Siculus alio
fays that he was a moll attentive Undent in all kinds
of literature, whether facred or profane.
At his return into Greece, according to Paufanias,
he was held in the higheft veneration by the people, as
they imagined he had difeovered the fecret of expia¬
ting crimes, purifying criminals, curing difeafes, and
appealing the angry gods. He formed and promul¬
gated an idea of a hell, from the funeral ceremonies
of the Egyptians, which was received throughout
all Greece. He inftituted the myfteries and worlhip
of Hecate among the Eginetes, and that of Ceres at
Sparta.
Judin Martyr fays, that he introduced among the
Greeks near 360 gods; Hefiod and Homer purfued
his labours, and followed the fame clue, agreeing in
the like doftrines, having all drank at the fame Egyp¬
tian fountain.
Profane authors look upon Orpheus as the inventor
of that fpccies of magic called evocation of the manes,
or raifing ghoft's ; and indeed the hymns which are at¬
tributed to him are moftly pieces of incantation, and
real conjuration. By all accounts he was an admirable
mufician : he is faid to have received a lyre from
Apollo-, or according to fome from Mercury, upon
which he played with fuch a mafferly hand, that even
the moll rapid rivers ceafcd to flow, the favage beads
of the foreft forgot their wildnefs. and the mountains
cametoliden to his fong. All nature feemed charmed
and animated, and the nymphs were his conllant com¬
panions. Eurydice was the only one who made a
deeu impreflion on the melodious mulician, and their
nuptials were celebrated. Their happinefs, however,
was but fhort: for Ariftasus became enamoured of her;
and as fire fled from her purfuer, a ferpent that was
lurking in the grafs bit her foot, and die died of the
poifoned wound. Her lofs was feverely felt by Or¬
pheus, and he refolved to recover her or perifh in the
attempt. With his lyre in his hand, he entered the
infernal regions, and gained an eafy admiflion to the
palace of Pluto. The king of hell was charmed with
the melody of his drains ; and according to the beau¬
tiful txpreffions of the poets, the wheel of Ixion (lop¬
ped, the (lone of STyphus Hood ftill, Tantalus forgot
his perpetual third, and even the furies relented.
Pluto and Proferpine were moved with his forrow,
and confented to redore him Eurydice, provided he
forbore looking behind him till he had come to the ex-
tremeft borders of hell. The conditions were gladly
accepted, and Orpheus was already in light of the up¬
per regions of the air, when he forgot his promifes,
and turned back to look at his long lod Eurydice.
All dangers pad, at length the lovedy bride
In fafety goes, with her melodious guide ;
Longing the common light again to (hare,
And draw the vital breath of upper air :
He fird, and clofe behind him followed (he ;
vor fuch was Proferpine’s fevere decree.
Vhen drong defires th’ impatient youth invade ;
lb little caution, apd much love betrayed :
] o it P
A fault which eafy pardon might receive,
Were lovers judges, or could hell forgive.
For near the coniines of etherial light,
And longing for the glimm’ring of a fight,
Th’ unwary lover cad a look behind,
Forgetful of.the law, nor mader of his mind.
Straight all his hopes exhal’d in empty fmoke ;
And his long toils were forfeit for a look.
Dryden’s Virgil.
He faw her, but die indantly vaniflied from his eyes:
He attempted to follow her, but he was refufed ad~
miffion ; and the only comfort he could find was to
footh his grief at the found of his mufical indrument
in grottoes or on the mountains. He totally fepa-
rated himfelf from the fociety of mankind ; and the
Thracian women, whom he had offended by his cold-
nefs to their amorous paffion, or, according to others,
by his unnatural gratifications and impure indulgen-
ci'es, attacked him while they celebrated the orgies of
Bacehus ; and after they had torn his body to pieces,
they threw his head into the Hebrus, which dill ar¬
ticulated the words Eurydice ! Eurydice ! as it was
carried down the dream rnto the iEgean fes. Others
think, that, as he attempted to conjure his wife from
the dead, which they underhand by the dory of his
going down to hell, he thought he faw her; and when
afterwards, on looking back, he miffed her, he died of
grief. There is certainly fome reafon for fuppofing
this to be the cafe : for there were perfons and tem¬
ples publicly appointed for the purpofe.; and Paufanias
really fpeaks of that temple which was in Thefprocia,
and where Orpheus went to call up the ghoit of Eu¬
rydice. Poets often mention this frbjedt; and in¬
dances of it occur in hidory both facred and pro¬
fane. The witch of Endor is weil known to thofe
who read the hidorical part of the Bible. But to
particularife indances, whether facred or profane,
would be endlefs. Some maintain that he was kill¬
ed by a thunder-bolt. He was buried at Pieria
in Macedonia, according to Apollodotus. The inha¬
bitants of Dion boaded that his tomb was in their
citv, and the people of Mount Libethrus in Thrace
claimed the fame honour ; and farther obferved that
the nightingales which built their neds near his tomb,
fang with greater melody than all other birds. Or¬
pheus, as fome report, after death received divine
honours ; the mufes gave an honourable burial to his
remains, and his lyre became one of the condellations
in the heavens.
Tzetzes explains the fable of his drawing his wife
Eurydice from hell, by his great (kill in medicine, with
which he prolonged her life, or, in other words,
fnatched her from the grave. iEfculapius, and other
phylicians, have been faid to have raifed from the
dead thofe whom they had recovered from dangerous
difeafes. y
The bifliop of Glouceder, in his learned, ample,
and admirable account of the Ekufinian myfteries,
fays, “ While thefe myfterics were confined to Egypt
their native country, and while the Grecian lawgivers
went thither to be initiated, as a kind of defignation
to their office, the ceremony would be naturally de-
feribed in terms highly allegorical. This way of
3 T 2 fpeaking
1
O R P
^Orpheus, fpeaking wee ufed by Orpheus, Bacchus, and others :
v, y—an(j continued even after the myfteries were introdu¬
ced into Greece, as appears by the fables of Hercules,
Caftor, Pollux, and Thefeus’s defeent into hell; but
the allegory was fo circumftanced, as to difeover the
truth concealed under it. So Orpheus is faid to get
to hell by the power of his harp :
¥hreicia fretus cithara, fuhbufque canons.
ViRG.iEn.vi.ver. iiq.
That is, in quality of lawgiver; the harp being the
known fymbol of his law’s, by which he humanized a
rude and barbarous people.— Had an old poem, un¬
der the name of Orpheus, intitled A chfcent into Hell,
been now extant, it would perhaps have ihown us,
that no more was meant than Orpheus's initiation.”
See Mysteries.
Manyancient writers, in fpeaking of his death, relate,
that the Thracian women, as hinted at above,enraged at
being abandoned bytheir hufbands, who were difciples of
Orpheus, concealed themfelves in the woods, in order
to fatiate their vengeance ; and, notvvithftanding they
pollponed the perpetration of their defign feme time
^ through fear, at length, by drinking to a degree of
intoxication, they fo far fortified their courage as to
put him to death. And Plutarch afibres us, that the
Thracians ftigmatized their women, even in his time,
for the barbarity of this a&ion.
* Warbur- Our venerable bard is defended by the author * of
*on, tl>e Divine Legation, from fome infinuations to his difad-
vantage in Diogenes Laertius. “ It is true (fays he),
if uncertain report was to be believed, the myfteries
were corrupted very early ; for Orpheus himfclf is faid
to have abufed them. But this was an art the de¬
bauched rnyflas of later times employed to varnifh their
enormities ; as the detefted paederafts of after-ages
feandalized the blnmelefs Socrates. Befides, the ftory
is fo ill laid, that it is detefted by the fureft records
of antiquity : for in confequence of what they fabled
of Orpheus in the myfteries, they pretended he was
torn in pieces by the women ; whereas it appeared
from the infeription on his monument at Dium in
Macedonia, that he was ftruck dead with lightning, the
envied death of the reputed favourites of the gods.”
This monument at Dium, confifting of a marble
urn on a pillar, was ftill to be feen in the time of Pau-
fanias. It is faid, however, that his fepulchre was
removed from Libethra, upon Mount Olympus, where
Orpheus was born, and from whence it was transfer¬
red to Dium by the Macedonians, after the ruin of
Libethra by a fudden inundation which a dreadful
ftorm had occafioned. This event is very minutely re¬
lated by Paufanias.
Virgil bellows the firft^place in his Elyfmra upon
the legiftators, and thofe who brought mankind jrom a
Jlate oj nature into fociety :
Magnanimi heroes, nati melicribus amis.
At the head of thefe is Orpheus, the moft: renowned
of the European lawgivers, but better known under
the charafter of a poet : for the firft laws being written
in meafure, to allure men to learn them, and, when
learnt, to retain them, the fable would have it, that
by the force of harmony Orpheus foftened the favage
inhabitants of Thrace
O R P
 Dhr c ictus long a cum vejie facer do s
Olloquitur numeris feptem diferirnina vocum :
f unique eadem digitis, jampetHmt pulfat eburno.
JEn. lib. vi. ver. 645.
The feven ftrings given by the poet in this paftage
to the lyre of Orpheus, is a circumftance fomewhat
hiftorical. The firft Mercurean lyre had, at moft,
but four flrings. Others were afterwards added to it
by the fecond Mercury, or Amphion : but, according
to feveral traditions preferred by Greek hiftorians, it
was Orpheus who completed the fecond tetrachord,
which extended the fcale to a heptachord, or feven
founds, implied by the feptem diferirnina vocum. For
the aflertion of many writers, that Orpheus added two
new ftrings to the lyre, which before had feven, clafnes
with the claims of Pythagoras to the invention of
the oftachord, or addition of the found projlamlano-
mcnos to the heptachord, of which almoft all antiqui¬
ty allows him to have been the inventor. And it is
not eafy to fuppofe, that the lyre fhould have been
reprefented in ancient fculpture with four or five ftrings
only, if it had had nine fo early as the time of Or¬
pheus, who fiourifhed long before fculpture was known
in Greece. Seethe article Lyre.
With refpeft to the writings of Orpheus, he is men¬
tioned by Pindar as author of the Argonautics, and
Herodotus fpeaks of his Orphics. His hymns, fays
Paufanias, were very fhort, and but few in number :
the Lycomides, an Athenian family’, knew them by
heart, and had an excluiive privilege of finging them,
and thole of their old poets, Mufeus, Onomacritus,
Pamphus, and Olen, at the celebration of the Eleufi-
nian myftcries ; that is, the piicfthood w'as hereditary
in this family.
Jamblicua tells us, that the poems under the name
of Orpheus were written in the Doric dialect, but
have iince been tranfdialefted, or modernifed. Jt was
the common opinion in antiquity that they’ were ge¬
nuine ; but even thofe who doubted of it, gave them
to the earlieft Pythagoreans, and fome of them to Py¬
thagoras himfclf, who has frequently been called the
follower of Orpheus, and has been fuppofed to have
adopted many of his opinions.
Of the poems that are {till fublifting under the
name of Orpheus, which were eollefted and publtftv-
ed at Nuremberg 1702, by Andr. Chrift. Efchen-
bach, and which have been fince reprinted at Leipftc
1764, under the title of op<i>£X22 aiianta, feveral have
been attributed to Onomacritus, an Athenian, w’ho
flourilhed under the Pyfiftratidae, about yco years
before Chrift;. Their titles are, 1. The Argonautics,
an epic poem. 2. Eighty-fix hymns ; which are fo
full of incantations and magical evocation, that Daniei.
Heinfius has called them veram Satan# liturgiam, “ the
true liturgy of the devil.” Paufanias, who made nc
doubt that the hymns fubfifling in his time were coir"
pofed by Orpheus, tells us, that though lefs elegant,
they had been preferred for religious purpofes to tbofe
of Homer. 3. Delapidilus, a poem on precious ft->nes.
4. Fragments, collefted by Henry Stevens. Orpheus
has been called the inventor, or at leaft the prop gator,
of many arts and doftrines among the Greeks, t. I he
combination of letters, or the art of writing. 2 Mujic,
the
r 516
Orpheus.
A *
O R P [5
Omlicus, the lyre, or cithara, of feven ftnngs, adding three to
Orp ment. that of Mercury. 3. Hexameter verfe. 4. Myfcerm
1 f ' and theology. 5. Me&ar.e. 6. Magic and dHhrn-
tion. 7. rjlrology. Servius upon the itkth xi^neidj
p. 4C0, fays Orpheus firft inftituted the harmony of the
fpheres. 8. He is faid likewife to have been the firft
who imagined a plurality of Koorldsy or that the moon
and planets were inhabited.
Orpheus, in ichthyology, the name of a hfa caught
in the Archipelago. It is of a broad and flat figure,
and of a fine purple colour ; its eyes are large and
prominent, and its teeth ferrated ; it has only one
fin on the back, and the anterior rays of that are
prickly, the others foft to the touch; its anus is finall,
and is faid to have no paffage for the temen. .
This was the fifh called orphem by the ancients, but
the modern Greeks call another filh by that name.
It is a fpecies of the fparus, of a flat figure, but very
thick, has a fmall mouth, and is covered with fmail
but very rough feales, which adhere very tirmly to
the fle(h; the tail is not forked ; it has fiefhy^lips, and
very fmall teeth ; its back and fidcs are biack ; its
belly white ; it has a large black fpot at the root of
the tail ; its head is reddilh, and ics fins are veiy
elegantly diverlified witn various colours ; it Las oiuy
one back-fin, and that has the anterior ray prickly,
the hinder ones not at all fo. It grows lomedmes
to 20 pounds weight, and is much efteemed among
the modern Greeks. _
ORP1MENT, auripigmentumy in natural hillory, a
bituminous mineral compofed.of fulphur and arfenic,
fometimes artificially produced, but found alfo native
in the earth, and conliitutirigr one of the ores of ar¬
fenic. It is of two kinds, red and yellow, the former
generally found in an indurated date; though Cronftedt
fuppofes that it may alfo be met with in loofe fcaly
powder, as it is fometimes met with in the (hops. It
is commonly found in fhapelcfs maifes, very felclom
cryftallifed ; though Baron Borne once found it in a
polyhedral form on a blue clay in Hungary. The
name red orpiment has been given by the more judi¬
cious to fapd&rach, and by the vulgar to red arfe-
fenic; but it is to be reftrained only to this folfile,
which is of a fine bright red, and of the regular tex¬
ture of the orpiments, and anfwering all their cha-
rafters. It is a very beautiful fubftance Oi a hue
bright red, very glofly, and a little traniparent, and
is found in the Turkifh dominions, in the iflands of
the Archipelago, and even in our own country, E)r
Hill having received fome of it from Cornwall, under
the name of red niundte. I he yellow kind is met with
commonly of fhining flexible lamelix like mica, the
fpecific gravity about 5 5^5* f^ buinswiih a bme flame,
and contains about one tenth of its weight, of ful-
jhur. It is found native in Hungary, and in many
ptrts of Germany and the Turkish dominions: it is
the common orpiment of the (hops, borne are of
ophion, that the noxious qualities of the arfenic arc
fo mich counteracted by the fulphur with which this
fubilaice is mixed, that it may be fwallowed with
fafety but Macquer pofitively afferts the contrary,
ai\d ven ferioufly cautions againft its ufe, even though
we be ertain that the orpiment is native. There is
befides abroad-flaked, gold-coloured kind, well known
among tl> ancients, as is plain fiom the defcription
7 3 11 R .
of it left us by Diofcorides, and much efieemed at Orpine,
prefent by our painters. This is found in feveral Qrrery-
places, as in the iflands of the Archipelago, in the
mines of Gofltlaer in Saxony, in fome parts of Tur¬
key, and the Eait Indies, and in its utmofl purity
about Smyrna; this makes the'fineft of all yellows in
painting. *1 he fmall-flaked, yellow kind, which is the
common orpiment of the (hops, is alfo a fine colour,
though greatly inferior to the former. The Indians
ufe orpiment, com died with juice of lemons, with
good fuccefs again ft fevers.
The red aifenic, or realgar, is likewife found in an
indurated ftate, and in irregular or flalacfitical mafles.
It is either opaque or femitranfparent; fometimes it
is found quite tranfparent, and regularly cryftallifed
in odloedial prifms or pyramids; in which laft fornr
it is called ruby of arfenic. Its fpeciiic gravity is about
3225 ; it contains 16per cent, of fulphur ; and its red
colour is eaiily deftroyed by the nitrous acid. In or¬
der to analyie thefe two kinds of orpiment, they ought
to be digefted in marine acid, adding the nitrous by
degrees to alfift the folution. The fulphur is then
left on the filter, while the arfenic remains in the fo-
lution, from which it may b? precipitated in its metal¬
lic form by zinc, adding fpirit of wine to the folution.
ORPINE, in botany. See Sedum.
ORRERY, a curious machine for reprefenting the
motions or phafes of the heavenly bodies. See Astro¬
nomy, n 13, 487, 488, and 490.
The rtafon of its being called an Orrery, was this :
Mr Rowley, a mathematical inftrument-maker, having
got one from Mr George Graham, the original in¬
ventor, to be fent abroad with fome of his own in-
flruments, he copied it, and made the firft for the
earl of Orrery'. Sir Richard Steel, who knew no¬
thing of Mr Graham’s machine, thinking to do ju-
ftice to the firft encowrager, as well as to the inventor,
of fuch a curious inftrument, called it an Orrery, and
gave Mr Rowiey the praife due to Mr Graham.
It would be too great an undertaking here to give
an account of the medianifm of the larger fort of or¬
reries, which reprefei.t the movements of all the hea¬
venly bodies; nor indeed can it be done either by
diagram or defeription, to render it intelligible to the
moft difeerning reader : but, inflead of that, we (hall
exhibit an idea of the theory and ftru&ute of an ufe-
ful, concife, and portable planetarium, which any
gentleman m?.yr have made for a fmall expence, and
will exhibit very juftly the motions of all the pri¬
mary planets about the fun, by wheel-work; and thofe
that have fecondaries, or moons, may have them
placed about their primaries moveable by the hand,
fo that the whole (hail be a juft reprefentation of the .
folar fyftem, or true ftate of the heavens, for any given
time of the year.
In order to this, we muft compare, and find out the
proportion, which the periodical times, or revolutions
of the primary planets, bear to that of the earth: which,
with refped to the Georgium Skins, are not as yet
fufficicntly afeertained; but thofe of the other pla¬
nets are fuch as are exprefied in the ta.ble below',
where the firit column is the time of the earth’s period
in days and decimal parts ; the fecond, that of the
planets ; the-third and fourth are numbers in the fame
propGition to each other: as,
365>255
Orrery
Orrus.
Plate
Ccclxix
365>2S
365,25
365>25
365,25
o
88
224,7
686,9
4332,5
i°759,:
R
£
?
&
ip
R r 51
83 : 20, for Mercury.
1
; 52
40
7
: 5
32, for Venus.
75, for Mars.
83, for Jupiter.
: 148, for Saturn.
If we now fuppofe a fpindle or arbor with fix
woeels fixed upon it in an horizontal pofition, having
the number of teeth in each correfponding to the
numbers in the third column, viz. the wheel AM
of 83 teeth, BL of 52, CK of 50 (for the earth),
III or 40, BH of 7, anfl FG of 5 ; snd ano-
ther fet of wheels moving freely about an arbor, ha¬
ving the number of teeth in the fourth column, viz.
AN of 20, BO of 32, CP of 50 (for the earth), DO
of 75, ER of 83, and FS of 148 ; then, if thofe two""
arbors of fixed and moveable wheels are made of the
fize, and fixed at the diftance from each other, as here
reorefented in the fcheme, the teeth of the former will
t^lee tnofe of the latter, and turn them very freely when
the machine is in motion.
Thefe arbors, with their wheel, are to be placed in
a box, of an adequate fize, in a perpendicular pofi¬
tion ; the arbor of fixed wheels to move in pivots at
tiic top and bottom of the box 5* and the arbor of move-
able wheejs to go through the' top of the box, to a
piopei neigbr, on the top of which is to be placed a
round ball gilt with gold to reprefent the fun. On
each of the moveable wheels is to be fixed a foc-
ket, or tube, afeending above the top of the box
and having on the top a wire fixed, and bent at a
proper diltance into a right angle upwards, bearing
on the top a fmall round ball, reprefenting its proper
planets.
If then on the lower part of the arbor of fixed
wheels be placed a pinion of ferew-teeth, a winch turn-
ing a fpindle with an endlefs ferew, playing in the teeth
of the arbor, will turn it with all its wheelsand
thefe wheels will move the others about, with their
planets, in their proper and refpeaive periods of time,
very exadly. For while the fixed wheel CK moves
its equal CP once round, the wheel AM will move
AN a little, more than four times round, and fo will
nearly exhibit the motion of Mercury; and the wheel
FG will turn the wheel FS about ^— round, and fo
will truly reprefent the motion of Saturn : and the
fame is to be obferved of all the reft.
Orrery (Earls of). See Boyle.
ORRICE. See Iris.
ORRUS, in botany, a name by which many of
the ancients called the cultivated pine-tree, from its
being remarkably full of juice.
i he firft perron who has given us the name is Theo-
phraftus ; but he is followed in it not only by the
other Greeks, but alfo by the Latins, who have call¬
ed the fame tree for the fame reafon fapinus, a con¬
traction or abbreviation of the word fapapinus. the
juicy pine. Pliny tells us, that this laft was the name
ot the.manured pitch tree ; but in this he errs; for
Vitruvius, and others, tell us, that the pine-nuts,
nuCes P™*? whlcrh were eaten and ufed in medicine,
were the fru.t of the>W,„„; m fapinu,; a„d it i
evident, thnt chefe mud be the produce of a pine-
tite, not of a pitch-tree, or any thing of the fir
kmd. 0
O R T
ORSATO (Sertorio), a celebrated antiquarian, hi-
ftonan, and poet, was born at Padua in 1617, and
early difeovered a tafte for literature and the fciences.
* He applied himfelf to fearching out antiquities and
ancient inferiptions ; for which purpofe he travelled
through all the different parts of Italy, and in the
mean time poetry was his amufement. When ad¬
vanced in age, he taught natural philofophy in the
univerfity of Padua. . He was alfo a member of the
academy of the Ricovrati. Having prefented to
the doge and fenate of Venice the hiftory of Pa¬
dua, which he had dedicated to them, he made a
long fpeech, during which he ftruggled with a na¬
tural want, and died of fuppreffion of urine, on the
3d of July 1678. He wrote a great number of books
which are efteemed, feme in Latin, and others in Ita¬
lian.
lie ought not to be confounded with John Bap-
tljl Orsato, an able phyfician and antiquary, -who
was born at Padua in 1673, and wrote, 1. Dijfertatio
epijtuiaris cle Lucernis anUquis. 2. A diflertation De
patera antiquorum. 3. A fmall treatife De Jlernis ve-
terum ; and fome other works.
ORSI (John Jofeph), an ingenious philologer and
poet, was born at Bologna in the year 1652 ; and
ftudied polite literature, philofophy, the civil law’, and
mathematics. His houfe was a kind of academy,
where many perfons of literature regularly afTembled!
He wrote many ingenious fonnets, paftorals, and other
works in Italian, and died in 1733.
OR i EGAL cape, the moft northern promontory
of Spain, where there is alfo a caftle of the fame name.
W. Long. 8.20. N. Lat. 44.0.
ORTjlLiUS (Abraham), a celebrated geogra¬
pher, bom at Antwerp, in 1527, was well nulled in
the languages and the mathematics, and acquired fuch
reputation by his fkiil in geography, that he was fur-
named the Pto/emj of his time. Juftus Liplius, and
moft of the great men of the 16th century, were Or-
telms’s friends. He refided at Oxford in the reign
of Edward VI. and came a fecond time into England
10 I577* His Theatrum Orbis wts the completed
woik of tne kind that had ever been publifhed, and
gained him a reputation equal to his immenfe labour
in compiling it. He alfo wrote feveral other excel¬
lent geographical works ; the principal of which are
his Thefaurus, and his Synonyma Geographica. The
world is hkewife obliged to him for the Britannia,
which he perfuaded Cambden to undertake. He died
at Antwerp in 1598.
ORFilLZ, a city in the province of Bearn, and
per,laps the meaneft in all France. It was, however,
till the Revolution, a bifhop’s lee. The cathedral is
a wretched edifice, veT ancient, built in a barbarous
ityle, and almoft in ruins. The remains of the caftlt
°: Orthez are v;ry noble, and its fituation is fine, rn
a hill, winch commands the town and a great extnt
of country. The people call it Le Chateau de la Feme
Jeanne, becaufe that queen refided in it during jiany
years, in preference to the caftle of Pau. Some >f the
apartments, though in ruins, may yet be entered The
pnneefs Blanche, daughter to John king of Aragon
and Navarre, was fhut up, and died here, i- 1464.
ier brotner being dead, fhe became heiref to the
ciown of Nivarre ; but her father having dePered her
into the hands of her younger filter Leono* councefs
1 of
Orfato
o
O R T I S'
Orthodox of Foix, file confined the unhnppy Blanche in the
II . eaftle of Orthez, and, after an imprifonment of two
| ■ 0rt>’gia-, years, caufed her to he poifoned.
’ ORTHODOX, in church hiftory, an appellation
given to thole who are found in all the articles of the
Chriftian faith ,
ORTHOGRAPHIC p kojection of the Sphere,
that wherein the eye is fuppofed to ’ e at an infinite
diftnnce ; fo called, hecaufe the perpendiculars from
any point of the fphcre will all fall in the common
interfeftion of the fphere with the p»lane of t ie pro¬
jection. See Geography, n° 63, &c. and Projec¬
tion.
ORTHOGRAPPIY, that part of grammar which
teaches the nature and affections of letters, and the juft
method of fpelling or writing words, with all the pro¬
per and neceffary letters, making one of the. four great-
ell divifions or branches of grammar. See Grammar.
Orthography, in geometry, the art of drawing
or delineating the fore-right plan of any ol jedt, and of
exprefiing the heights or elevations of each part. It
is called Orlhograply, for its determining things by
perpendicular lines falling on the geometrical plane.
Orthography, in architedlure, the elevation of a
building. _
Orthography, in perfpeAive, is the fore-right
fide of any plane, /. e. the fide or plane that lies pa¬
rallel to a flraight line, that may be imagined to pafs
through the outward convex points of the eyes, conti¬
nued to a convenient length.
ORTHOPNOEA, a fpecies or degree of aflhma,
where there is fuch a difficulty of refpiration that the
patient is obliged to lit or Hand upright in older to
be able to breathe. See Medicine, n° 291.
ORTIVE, in aftronomy, the fame with eqjlern.
The ortive or eaftern amplitude, is anarch of the hori¬
zon intercepted between the placewhere a flar rifes, and
the call point of the horizon, or point where the ho¬
rizon and equator interfeft.
ORTOLAN, in ornithology. See Emberiza.
ORTNAU, a county of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, lying along the Rhine, and fcparating it from
Alface. It is bounded on the fouth by Breflau, on
the north by the margrav.’.te of Baden, and on the
eaft by the duchy of Wirtemberg. It contains
three imperial towns ; namely, Oflenburg, Gegen-
bach, and Zell. It belongs partly to the houfe of Au-
firia, partly to the bifhepric ot Spire, and partly to
the county of Hannau.
ORTYGIA, the birth-place of Diana, was a beau¬
tiful grove of trees of various kinds, chiefly cypreffes,
near Ephefus ; on the coaft, a little up from the fea.
This place was filled with flirines and images. The
priefbs of the goddefs were eunuchs, and exceedingly
refpe&ed by the people. A general affembly was held
there yearly,and fpkndid entertainments were provided,
and myftic facrifices folemnized. The Cenchrius,
probably a crooked river, ran through it ; and. above
it was the mountain Solmiffius, on which, it was
fabled, the Curetes flood, and rattled on their ffiields,
to divert the attention of Juno. The improved face
of a country is perifhable like human beauty. Not
only the birth-place of Diana and its fanftity are for¬
gotten, but the grove and buildings which adorned
it appear no more; and perhaps, fays Dr Chandler,
9 1 O R Y
the land has encroached on the fea, and the valley, in
which Arvifia is, was once Ortygia, See Ephesus
and Diana, &c.
ORVIETO, a town of Italy, in the patrimony of
St Peter, with a biffiop’s fee, and a magnificent pa¬
lace. It is the capital of the province of Orvietano,
in the ecclefiattic ftate, in E. Long. 13. Eat. 43. It
is a large ftrong town, fituated at the conflux of the
Tiber and the Chiane, on a fteep hill, furrounded on
every fide with rocks and precipices. To this fitua-
tion it is owing that it has no fprings; but there is a
very furprifing well cut into the rock, to fupply it
with frefh water. The mules which bring up the wa¬
ter on their backs, go down by a ftaircafe of 1 jo
fleps, and 60 windows, and come up by anotner,
without meeting. The architect of this fmgular
building was the famous Antonio da San Gallo, em¬
ployed'by Clement VII. At the entrance is this in-
feription, Quod nature munimento divider at, indujlrla ad-
fat. This city, called Herbarium by Pliny, and Ur-
bevetanum by Procopius, is the fee of a bifhop fuffra-
gan of Rome.' Phe cathedral, which is of Gothic ai *
chitefture, is a handfome building, which was begun
in 1260 by Nicolo Pifano. the front is adorned
with fine ftatues, among the reft the Virgin Mary
and the four Evangehfts, with a baffb-relievo of the
laft judgment, by the faid Nicolo Pifano, and others
reprefenting fome hiftories of the old teftament. The
other half of the front is a furprifing work in Mofaic,
by Scalzi, expreffing the hiftory of the new teftament.
In the church there is a very fine organ, and a baffo-
relievo of Raphael da Moute Lupo. Here is alfo a
chapel, which was begun to be painted by F. Angelo,
a dominican. and fimfhed by Luke Signorelli, whei e yon
fee a very beautiful reprefentation of the laft judgment.
Orvieto was once a potent and populous city, but is
now much upon the decline.
ORYZA, rice, in botany: A genus of the di~
gynia order, belonging to the hexandvia claiS of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 4th or¬
der, Gramma. The calyx is a bivalved uniflorous glume;
the corolla bivalved, nearly equal, and adhering to the
feed. There is but one fpecies, namely the. fativa or
common rice. This plant ia greatly, cultivated in
molt of the eaftern countries, where it is the chn f
fupport of the inhabitants ; and great quantities of it
are brought into England and other European cou i-
tries every year, where it is much efteemed foi pud¬
dings, &c. it being too tender to be produced in thefe
northern countries without the affiftauce ot artihcic-d
heat ; but from fome feeds which were formerly fent to
Carolina there have been great quantities prouuced>
and it is found to fucceed as well there as in the eattein
countries. . . , . ,
This plant grows upon moift foils, where the ground
can be flowed over with water after it is come up. So
that whoever would cultivate it in this country ffiould
fow the feeds upon a hot-bed ; and when the plants
are come up, they fhould be removed into pots filled
with light rich earth, and placed in pans of water, which
fhould be plunged into a hot bed; and, as the water
waftes, it muft from time to time be renewed again.
In July thefe plants may be fet abroad in a warm iitu-
ation, ft ill preferving the water in the pans, other-
wife they will not thrive j and, toward the latter end
o R Y r 520 1
^ of Auguft, they will produce their grain, which will ty in the flomach.
ripen tolerably well, provided the autumn proves fa¬
vourable. The leaves of rice are long, like the reed,
and flefhy ; the flowers blow on the "top like barley ;
but the feed which follows is difpofed in chillers, each
of which is inclofed in a yellow hulk, ending in a
fpiral thread, i he feed is oblong, or rather oval, and
white.
Rice is the chief commodity and riches of Damieta
in Egypt. Dr Haflelquifl gives the following de-
fcription of the manner in which they drefs and^fepa-
rate it from the hulks. “ It is pounded by hollow
iron peflles of a cylindrical form, lifted up by a wheel
worked by oxen. A perfon fitting between the two
pellles, pulhes forward the rice when the peftles are
riling; another fifts, winnows, and lays it under the
peftles. In this manner they continue working it un¬
til it is entirely free from chaff ami hulks. When
clean, they add a 30th part of fait, and pound them
together ; by which the rice, formerly grey, becomes
white. After this purification, it is palled through
a fine lieve to part the fait from the rice ; and then
it is ready' for iale.,, Damieta fells every year 60,800
facks of rice, the greateft part of which goes to Tur¬
key, fome to Leghorn, Marfeilles, and Venice.
Kice, according to Dr Cullen, is preferable to all
other kinds ot grain, both for largenefs of produce,
quantity of nourilhment, and goodnefs. This, he fays,
is plain from macerating the different grains in water ;
for, as the rice fwells to the iargeft fize, fo its parts are
wore intimately divided. Rice is faid to affect; the
eyes ; but this is purely prejudice. Thus it is alleged a
particular people ot Alia, who live on this grain, are
blind-eyed : but it the toil be fandy, and not much
covered with herbage, and as thefe people are much
employed in the field, this affeftion of their eyes may
be owing to the Itrong refleftion of the rays of light
fiom this fandy foil; and our author is the more in¬
clined to this opinion, becaufe no fuch effedl is ob-
ferved in Carolina, where rice is very commonly
ufed. 3
Di Percival informs us, that asa wholefome nourifh-
ment rice is much interior to falep. He rligelled feveral
alimentary mixtures prepared of mutton and water, beat
up with bread, fea-bifcuit, falep, rice flour, fago pow¬
der, potato, old cheefe, &c. in a heat equal to that of
the human body. In 48 hours they had all acquired a
vinous fmell, and were in brilk fermentation, except
the mixture with rice, which did not emit many air-
bubbles, and was but little changed. The third day
feveral of th& mixtures were fweet, and continued to
ferment; others had loll their inteftine motion, and
were four ; but the one which contained the rice was
become putrid. From this experiment it appears that
rice, as an aliment, is flow of fermentation, and a very-
weak correftor of puttefadion. It is therefore an im¬
proper diet for hofpita! patients, but more particularly
for bailors, m long voyages, becaufe it is incapable of
preventing, and will not contribute much to check the
progrefs of, that fatal difeafe the fea-fcurvy. Under
certain circumllances, rice feems difpofed of itfelf, with¬
out mixture, to become punH. For by long keeping
it fometimes acquires an offenfive foetor. &Nor, accord¬
ing to our author, can it be confidered as a very uutri-
tlVN^253 ^ °n aCC0Unt of its difficult folubui-
O R Y
Experience confirms the truth ofOryzivera,
this conclufion ; for it is obferved by the planters in 0:^)or11-
the Weft Indies, that the negroes grow thin, and are
lefs able to work, whilll they fubfill upon rice.
ORYZIVERA, called the rice-bird of Catelby.
It is about the fize of a fparrow, being fix inches
three quarters long, with the head, and whole under
fide ol the body, black ; hind part of the neck in
fome pale yellow, in others white ; coverts of the
wings and primaries black ; the laft edged with white j
part of the fcapulars, lefler coverts of the wings, and
rump, white ; back black, edged with dull yellow ;
tail of the fame colours, and each feather fliarply point¬
ed : the legs are red. The head, upper part of the
neck, and back, ot the female is yellowilh brown, fpot-
ted with black ; under part of a dull yellow ; fides
thinly tlreaked with black. Thefe birds inhabit in vail
numbers the ifland of Cuba, where they commit great
ravages among the early crops of rice, which precede
thofe of Carolina. As foon as the crops of that pro¬
vince are to the-r palate, they quit Cuba, and pafs
over the lea, in numerous flights, diredlly north, and
are very often heard in their paffage by failors frequent¬
ing that courte. Their appearance is in September,
while the rice is yet milky; and they commit fuch de-
vaflations, that fortyacresof that grain have been totally
mined by them in a fmall time. They arrive very lean.
but foon grow fo fat as to fly with difficulty ; and
when (hot often eurfl wilh the fall. They continue
in Carolina not much above three weeks, and retire by
tire time the rice begins to harden, going on to other
parts, and flaying in each only fo long as the rice con¬
tinues green. They come into Rhode Ifland and
New' It ork at the end of April, or the fecond week
in May, frequenting the borders of fields, and live on
infects, &c. till the maize is fit for their palate, when
they begin by pecking holes in the fides of the hufks,
and after fatiating themfelves go on to another, which
leaves room for the rain to get in, and effe&ually fpoils
the plants. They continue there during the furnmer,
and breed, returning as autumn approaches to the
fouthvvard. Ehe males and females do not arrive to-
gether ; the females come firfl. 1. hey are elleemed to
be the mofl delicate biids of thofe parts, and the male
is faid to have a fine note. This fpecies is known in
the country by the names of Bob Lincoln and Con-
quedlc ; likewife called by fome the Wbite-backed Maize-
thief
, OSBORN (crancis), an eminent Englifh writer
in the 17th century. He was educated in a private
manner ; and at ripe years frequented the court, and
was mailer of the horfe to William earl of Pembroke.
Upon the breaking out of the civil wars, he adhered to
the parliament party, and had feveral public employ¬
ments conferred upon him. In the latter part of his
h.e he lived at Oxford, in order to print feveral books,
and to look after his fon, for whom, by the favoiw
of the parliament, he procured a fellow (hip in All-
fouls college. His Advice to a fon, fo foon*as it was
publifried, being complained of to Dr John Tenant
vu_e chancellor of Oxford, as of irreligious tendency,
tneie was a propofal made to have it publicly burnt;
but that taking no effiedl, it was ordered that no book-
felier or others fhould fell it, which only made it fell
the falter. He wrote aifo Hiilorical Memoirs of the
reigns
fQ S C t 5*1 ] O S I
Ofchopho* reigns of queen Elizabeth and king James I.; a Dif-
m, courfe on the greatnefs and corruption of the church
t ofa!la- of Rome ; a Difcourfe upon Machiavel, 8cc. He died
in 1659.
OSCHOPHORIA, a feftival obferved by the
Athenians. It receives its name tju ra;
from carrying boughs hung up with grapes,” called
Its original infliuition is thus mentioned by
P/ut. in The/. Thefeus, on returning from Crete,
forgot to hang out the white fail, by which his father
was to be apprized of his fuccefs. This negle£t proved
fatal to iEgeus, for he threw himfelf into the fca, and
perilhed. Thefeus no fooner reached the land, than
he fent a herald to inform his father of his fafe return,
and in the mean time he began to make the facrifices
which he had vowed to make when he hrft fet fail from
Crete. The herald, on his entrance into the city,
found the people in great agitation. Some lamented
the king’s death, while others, elated at the fudden
news of the victory of Thefeus, crowned the herald
with garlands in token of their joy. The herald car¬
ried back the garlands on his Uaff to the fea fhore ;
and, after waiting till Thefeus had finifhed his facri-
fice, he related the melancholy account of the king’s
death. Upon this the people ran in crowds to the
city, fhovving their grief by cries and lamentations —
From this circumftance, therefore, at the fealt of Of
chotrhoria, not the herald hut his ftaff is crowned with
garlands, and all the people that are prefent always
exclaim <«> ««• the firft of which exprefles hafte,
and the others a confternation or deprefixon of fpirits.
The hiftorian further mentions, that Thefeus, when
he went to Crete, did not take with him the ufual
number of virgins, but that in the place of two
of them, he took two youths of his acquaintance,
whom he caufed to pafs for women, by difguifing
their drels, and by accuffomint them to the ointments
and perfumes of women, as well as by a long and fuc-
cefsful imitation of their voice. The impofition fuc-
teeded ; their fex was pot difeovered in Crere ; and
when Thefeus had triumphed over the Minotaur, he
with thefe two young men led a proceffion, with
branches in their hands, in the fame habit, which is
fb.ll ufed at the celebration ot the fettival The
branches which were carried were in honour of Bacchus
or Ariadne, or becaufe they returned in autumn, when
the grapes were ripe. Befides this procellion, there
was alfo a race, in which young men only whole pa¬
tents were both alive were permitted to engage. It was
cuitom*ry for them to run from the temple of Bacchus
to that of Minerva, which was on the le i-lhore. The
place where they flopped was called o^o^ev. becaufe
the boughs which they carried in their hands were de-
pofited there The rewards of the conqueror was a
cup called t “ five fold,” becaufe it contained a
mixture of five different things, wine, honey, cheefe,
meal, and oil.
OSCILLA, fmall images of wax or clay made in
the lhape of men or women, and confecrated to Saturn,
to render him propitious. '1 he word isfometimes ufed
to fignify a kind of mafks fcooped from the bark of
trees, and worn by the performers of comedy in the
juder ages of Rome. In this fenfe we find it in
Virg. Geo. ii. 386. It alfo fignifies little heads or
images of Bacchus, which the countrymen of old
hung upon trees, that the face might turn every way,
Vox.. XIII. Fart II.
out of a notion that the countenance of this god gave Ofeneyr.
felicity to themfelves, and fertility to their vineyards. , ^
An allufion to this opinion and cuftom is alfo found in
Virgil, Geo. ii. 388.
OSENEY-island, in England,is formed by the river
Ifis in the meadows near Oxford, where a magnificent
abbey was eredled, at the infligat on of a concubine
of King Henry I. to atone for her fins; and the faid
king built a palace there, wherein King Richard I.
was born, which Edward II. converted into a mona-
ftery.
OSIRIS, in mythology, one of the gods of ancient
Egypt, and very generally believed to have been the
fun, or at lead the mind adluating that luminary.
The Egyptians derived all things from two prin¬
ciples, an adive and a pajfive. Their aftive principle,
according to the learned Jablonfki*, was an infinite *
and eternal fpirit; and their pufiive principle was night.
This fpirit they confidered fometimes as a male, fome-
times as a female, divinity, and occafionally they attri¬
buted to it hath /exes ; but it does not apoear to have
been the obje<£l of their worfhip. It firall be fhown
elfewhere (fee Polytheism), that the earlie't objefta
of pagan adoration were the fun, moon, and planets $
and that the philofophers and prieils of ancient Egypt
worfiiippec! the fun by the name of Oftris, may be
proved by numberlefs teftimonies from the moft au¬
thentic records of antiquity. Diogenes Laertius af¬
firms, that they held the fun and moon for divinities,
and that they called the latter Ifs; and Macrobius
fays exprefsly, “ Nec in occulto eft, neque aliud efle
OJlrin quam Salem, nec IJim aliud effe quam terramP
The fame writer informs us, that in the hieroglyphic
writings of ancient Egypt, “ Ofiris was reprefenced
by a feeptre and an eye,” to denote that this god was
the /i/n looking down from heaven on all things upon
earth.
It muft not, however, be concealed, that fome of
the ancients, and a few of the moft learned moderns,
have contended, that by OJirls the Egyptians under-
ftood the Nile or fpirit of the Nile, whilft others have
confounded him with the Grecian Bacchus. Scaliger
and Selden have adopted the former of thefe opinions,
and Servius on Virgil has given his countenance to the
latter. But that they are all miftaken, has been evin¬
ced by Jablonlki in fuch a manner as to enforce the
fuileft. convidlion: “ When the Egyptians, in their
facred books, fometimes give the name of OJiris to the
Nile and its wonderful increafe during the heat of firm-
mer, they mean nothing more (fays he) but to attri.
bute to their god Ofiris the gift which fertilizes their
country.” This they would the more readily do that
tsey believed the Nile to have its fource in heaven.
Hence Eufebius tells usf, onpir eo-7<v » NaAof, o» 4 oupx-j pre^a/tit
»ou Kxlx-ftc.o-tiai oirAa.-, Ofiris is the Nile, becaufe they think Evangd.
it is fent down from heaven.— In one fenfe Ofiris might
be Bacchus, btcaufe the original Bacchus was himfelf
the fun (tee Mysteries, n 12 ); but that the Egyp¬
tian god could not be worihipped as the inventor of
wine is indeed undeniable, if, as Jablonfki labours to
prove, the primitive religion of that country inculcated
upon its votaries, that wine was the gift, not of a be¬
nevolent god, but of an evil genius, the enemy of the
human race. In iupport of this opinion our learned
author quotes a p.'ffagc frsro Plutarch, from which it
appears, that, before the aera of Prommeticbus, the
3 U Egyptians
O S I t 522 1 O S I
Egyptians neither drank wine themfelves nor offered it
in libations to the gods, becaufe they believed that
the firfl vine fprung from the earth that was impreg¬
nated by the blood of thofe giants who perifhed in the
war with the gods. It is indeed true, that the Greeks,
who borrowed their religion as well as the firft prin¬
ciples of fcience from Egypt, attributed to their Bac¬
chus many of the adbions of Ofiris ; but it is likewife
true, that they gave him other attributes, which the
Egyptian god could not poffefs confidently with the
known fuperfiitions of that country. Salmafius, how¬
ever, attempts to prove, from the import of the name,
that the Ofiris of Egypt muft have been the Bacchus
of Greece. 2'V’, or ^ he fays, fignifies a fon in the
JEgvptian language; and hence be concludes, that the
god was by that people called OJirisy for the fame rea-
fon that by the Greeks he w’as called and by
the Romans Liber. But this feems all to be a mi-
ftake. Siris makes a part of many Egyptian proper
names, as Bu-jiris, ‘Lermofris, Lapo-fris, &c. and is in
all probability derived from the Hebrew word Sar,
Sur, or Sir, which fignifies a prince, potentate, or gran¬
dee. As the name of the god was in Egypt not Ofris,
but Ifris or Tjiris, it was probably made up of Sir or
Siris, and the flebrew prefix / or IJh, denotingfrength;
fo that the whole word will fignify the frc.'g or mighty
prince. If fo, we cannot doubt, as Diodorus Siculus,
Eufebius, Sextus Empiricus, &c. all affirm, that the
Egyptians worfiiipped the fun by the name of Ofris,
but that by this name they meant the power or govern¬
ing mind of the fun, as the Greeks and Romans feem
to have done by their Phcehus and Apollo.
But though the original Ofiris was undoubtedly the
fun, or the intelligence a£luating the fun, yet there is
reafon to believe that there was afecondary Ofris, who
at a very early period reigned in Egypt, and was dei¬
fied after his death for the benefits he had rendered
to his country (fee Polytheism). This is indeed fo
generally admitted, as to have occafioned great con-
troverfies among the learned refpedling the time when
he flourifiied, and whether he was the civilizer of rude
barbarians or the vi&orious fovereign of a polifiied na¬
tion. The illuftrious Newton, it is well known, has
adopted the latter opinion ; and with much plaufibili-
ty endeavoured to prove, that Ofris was the fame with
Sefofris ox Serac; but it mud be conftfied, that his
condufion is contrary to all the mofl authentic records
of antiquity ; and that it v/ould be eafy, by the fame
mode of arguing, to give a (how of identity to two
perfons univerfally known to have flourifhtd in very
diftant ages (a) The anliais of Egypt, as may be
feen in the writings of Plerodotus, Diodorus Siculus,
Strabo, Plutarch, and others, who copied from thofe
annals, exprefsly afitrted the diftindf perfonality of O-
liris and Stfoilris, and placed them in asras vafily di¬
ftant from each other, Ofiris, if any credit be due to
thofe hiftorians, was the founder of the Egyptian mo¬
narchy ; and, as was cuflomary in thofe days, having
either received the name of the fun, or communicated
his own to that luminary, was after his death deified Ofnund*,
for the benefits which he ha! rendered to his country:
and being at firft worfhipped only as a. demigod, was
in procefs of time advanced to full divinity, and con¬
founded with his heavenly godfather. The Greeks,
who, though original in nothing, were always prompt¬
ed by their vanity to hold themfelves out as the firft;
of the nations, claimed this Ofiris as their own, and
pretended that he was the fon of Jupiter and Niobe.
He reigned, fay they, over the Argives; but afterwards
delivered his kingdom to his brother Algideus, and
took a voyage into Egypt, of which he made himfelf
mafter, and married lo or Ifis. He eftablifhed good
laws there ; and they were both after their deaths
worfhipped as gods. That this is a ridiculous fiftion
needs no proof; fince every one knows, that good
laws were eftablifhed in Egypt long before the Argives
had any king, or indeed exifted either as a tribe or
nation.
OSMUND A, moonwort ; a genus of the order of
filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
There are feveral fpecies; the moft remarkable of which
is the regalis, ofmund-royal, or flowering fern. This
is a native of Britain, growing in putrid marfhes. Its
leaf is doubly winged, bearing bunches of flowers at
the ends. ^ The root toiled in water is very flimy ;
and is ufed in the north to fliffen linen inftead of
ftarch. Some of the leaves only bear flowers.
OSNABURG, a bifhopric of Germany, fituated in
the centre of the circle ofWeflphalia, between the
Wtfer and the Ems, having Minden on the eaft,
Munfter on the weft, DIepholt on the north-eaft, and
Ravenfburg on the fouth-weft. It is about 45 miles
long and 25 broad, producing fome rye, feveral forts
of tuif, coals, marble, and good pafturage. The in¬
habitants, who are a mixture of Proteftants and Ro¬
man Catholics, breed a conliderable number of cattle,
efpecially hogs, of which they make excellent bacon
and hams; but a great part of the country confifts of
heaths. By the treaty concluded here in 1648, the
bifhopric was to be an alternative between the Roman
Catholics and Lutherans ; and the Lutheran bifnop
was to be a younger prince of the houfe of Bruniwic
Lunenburg, or, on failure thereof, of Brunfwic Wol-
fenbuttle In eonfequence of this fettlement, it hash'en
twice held by a Britifli prince fince the acceffioa of the
family of Hanover. The bifhop is able to raifi 2500 men,
his revenue being between 20,000 and 30.C00I hechief
manufactures of the country are a coarfe kind of linen
cloth and yarn, which are faid to bring into it an¬
nually about 1 ,ooo,oqq of rix dollars. i here are alfo
fonie woollen manufactures in Ofnaburg and Bramfche.
The land-eftates of the bilhopric are, the chapter, the
knights, and the four towns. The diets are held at
Ofnaburg, when called together by the bilhop The
count of Bar is hereditary fenefchal or Iteward, and
prefident of the college ol knights. 1 he bilhop is a
prince of the empire ; and in the matricula is rated at
6 horfe and 36 loot, or 216 florins monthly, in lieu of
them.
(a) This has been in faCt done by Warburton ; who employs Newton’s mode of reafoning with equal
jplaufibility, and perhaps fuperior force, to prove the identity of King Arthur and WilUani the Conquerors.
See Divine Legation of Mofs, Vol, HI, Book iv. SeCt. 5.
0 8 N [ml O S 0
©inaW-g. tliem. To t!ie cliamber of the empire he contributes
each term 8i rix dollars, 14 kruitzera and a half.
The capital of this bifhoprie is
Osnaburg, or Ofnabruck. It was formerly an im¬
perial city, and one of the Hanfe towns ; but is now
fubjeft to the bifhop, though it hill enjoys many pri¬
vileges, and a revenue of about 8000 or 9000 rix dol¬
lars. It has its name from a bridge over the river
Hafe, or Ofe, which divides it into the Old and New
Town, and hands 7; miles weh of Hanover, and 30
north eafl ofMunher, being furrounded with walls and
ditches, but commanded by a mountain within cannon
Ihot. It hands in a fine plain, and is adorned with
fevera.l good buildings, and on the mountain there is
an abbey. The magihracy of this city, which is re-
chofen yearly on the 2d of January, is Lutheran; and
the churches belong, fome to the Lutherans, and fome
to the Papihs. Both parties have the full and free
e'xercife of their religion, whether the bifhop be Pro-
tehant or Papift. The bifhop’s palace, called Peterf-
kurg, was built by Bifhop Erneft-Auguftus, brother to
K ing George I. It is well fortified, and feparated from
the town by a bridge. It is a hexagon, with a court
in the middle, and at each corner a turret. In the
town-houfe are ftill preferved the pidlures of the ple¬
nipotentiaries that allified at the conferences there for
the famous treaty of Wefiphalia. In the treafure of
the cathedral are flill to be feen fome ornaments given
by Charlemagne, cs slfo his crown, which is only of
filver gilt, and his comb and batoon, fix feet in length,
both of ivory ; together with other curiofities. Char¬
lemagne is laid to have ere&ed here a fchool for Latin
and Greek, which the Jefuits in 1625 converted into
an academy. They have the bell bread and beer that
is to be met with in all Weftphah’a, and have a pretty
good trade in bacon and linen ; as alfo by brewing a
palatable thick fort of beer called lufe. This city is
noted for a treaty betwixt the emperor and the king
of Sweden in 1648, wherein the affairs of the Protell-
ants were regulated, which was a branch of the treaty
of Wefiphalia. The town, with the reft of the prin¬
cipality, is fuhjeft to its hifhop, who is a count of the
empire, and by the treaty of Weftphalia muft be al¬
ternately a Proteftant and Papift. The Popifh bifhop
is fuffragan to the archbifhop of Cologne ; but the
Proteftant bifhop is indeed a temporal prince, and al-
Svays of the houfe of Brunfwic, in confideracion of the
principality of Halberftat, which was taken from this
houfe, and conferred upon the ele&or of Brandenburg.
Frederick duke of York, fecond fon of his majefty
George III. is the prefent bifhop. The cathedral is
in the hands of the Roman Catholics, with the church
and monaftery of the Dominicans io the old city, and
v the collegiate church of St John in the new. The
Proteftants are matters of the great parochial church
iof St Mary in the old city ; and both religions have
a voice in the eleftion of the magittrates. Of 25 ca¬
nons belonging to the cathedral, 18 are Roman Ca¬
tholics, and the revenues of 4 more are enjoyed by the
Jefuits for the fupport of their college j fo that there
ere but 3 Proteftant canons, who have no voice in the
ele&ion of the Roman Catholic biihop, when it is his
turn to fucceed. The biftrop’s palaee is fortified like
a caftle : here it was that George 1. was born on the
s8th of May 166c, his father EtRcft-Auguftus being
then oifhop and pr'nfce ©f the place ; and here alfo he Ofnahnr^
died in the night of the 10th of June 1727, and, as ofonlJ>*
fome fay, in the very room in which he was born. The ' '
biftropric is fituated in the centre of the circle; the
north part of it is marfhy, but at the fouth extre¬
mity of it are fome mountains. The inhabitants have
confiderable raanufa&ures of linen, and a good breed
of cattle; and of their hogs, for which they are re¬
markable, is made the belt Weftphalia bacon. Not
far from this city are to be Len the ruins of an old
church and caftle, called Beelern^ which fome fay was
built by King Witekind upon his converfion ; and
about two miles from it lies the monaftery of Ruile,
en the bank of a like fo deep, that report fays it
could never yet be fathomed. This was the firft town
in Weftphalia which received the Lutheran doftrine.
0snaburg Ijland, one of the ifiands in the South Sea,
difeovered by Captain Wallis in 1767- *s a high,
round illand, not above a league in circuit ; in fome
parts covered with trees, in others a naked rock.
S. Lat. 22.48. W. Long. 141. 34.
OSORIUS (Jerom), was born of a noble family at
Lifbon, 1500. He was educated at the univerfity o£
Salamanca, and afterwards ftudied at Paris and Bo¬
logna. On his return to Portugal he gradually rofe
to the bifhopric of Sylves, to which he was appointed
by Catherine of Anftria, regent of the kingdom in the
minority of Sebaftian. At the requeft of cardinal
Henry of Portugal, he wrote his Hiftory of King E-
manuel, and the Expedition of Gama; which his
great contemporary Camoens made at the fame time
the fubje& ol his immortal Lufiad ; a poem which has
at length appeared with due luftre in our language*
being tranflated with great fpirit and elegance by Mr
Mickle. It is remarkable that the hiftory of Oforius*
and the epic poem of Camoens, were publifhed in the
fame year, 1572 : but the fate of thele two great au*
thors were very different; the poet was fullered ter
perifti in poverty, under the reign of that Henry who
patronized the hiftorian : yet allowing for the diffe¬
rence of their ptofefilons, they piffleffed a fimilarity of
mind. There appear many traces of that high heroic
fpirit even in the prieft Oforius, which animated the
foldier Camoens : particularly in the pleafure with ^
which he feems to deferibe the martial manners of hi#
countrymen under the reign of Emanuel. “ In that
age (fays the hiftorian in the clofe of his manly work),
poverty and fadnefs were baniflied from Portugal. Com*,
plaints were never heard ; but every place, from the
court to the cottage, refounded with mirth and mufic.
Illicit love was unknown ; nor would the ladies lifter!
to themoft honourable addreffes of fuch youths ns had
not fignalized themfelves in war. No young man about
court, however noble by birth, was permitted to wear
the drefs of manhood till he had palled over into A-
frica, and thence brought back with him fome animal
efteemed for its rarity ; and fuch was the hardy edu¬
cation of the nobilit y in that age, that many of them
travelled everywhere in quell of adventures.” This
is a ftriking picture of the manners of chivalry, to
which Portugal owed much of its glory in that fplen-
did period. '1 here is one particular in the charafter
of Oforius, which, confidering his age and country,
deferves the highett encomium ; and that is his tole¬
rating fpirit. In the firft book of his hill or y, he
3 U 2 fpeaks
OSS [ '5H ] OSS
QJWrius fpeaks of Emanuel’s cruel perfecufion of the Jews in
c J) the following generous and exalted language : “ 'i’his
at' , (fays he) was authorifed neither by law nor by reli¬
gion. Can men be compelled to believe what they re-
jedd with abhorrence ? Do you take upon you to re-
flrain the liberty of the will, or to fetter the under-
llanding ? Such an attempt muft be unfuccefsful; and
is not acceptable to Chrill, who expe&s from man the
devotion of the heart, and not that formal worfhip
which is the offspring of pains and penalties. He
wifhes them to ftudy his religion, and adopt it from
conviftion, not from terror: for who does not fee that
forced belief is mere hypocrify ?” Oforius is faid to
have ufed many arguments to diffuade Sebaftian from
his unfortunate expedition into Africa, and to have
felt fo deeply the miferies which befel the Portugucfe
after that fatal event, that his grief was fuppofed to
accelerate his death. He expired in 1580, happy,
fays De Thou (who celebrates him as a model of Chri-
ftian virtue), that he died juft before the Spanifh army
entered Portugal, and thus efcaped being a witnefs to
the defolation of his country.—His various works were
publifhed at Rome in 1592, by his nephew Oforius,
in four volumes folio, with a life of their author. A-
mong thefe are two remarkable productions; the firft,
An Admonition to our QjJeen Elizabeth, exhorting her
to return into the Church of Rome ; the fecond. An
Effay on Glory, written with fuch claffical purity, as
to give birth to a report, that it was not the compo
fition of Oforius, but the laft work of Cicero on that
fubjexi.
OSPREY. See Falco, fp 17
OSSA, a lofty mountain of Theffaly, near the Pe-
neus, which runs between this mountain and Olympus;
famous in the fabulous ftory of the giants (Homer,
Virgil Horace, Seneca, Ovid). The bending and un¬
bending of its pines, on the blowing of a ftrong north
wind formed a clafhing found like thunder (Lucan).
It was once the refidence of the Centaurs, and was for¬
merly joined to Mount Olympus; but Hercules, as
fome report, feparated them, and made between them
the celebrated valley ofTempe, This fepatation of
the two mountains was more probably eff't&ed by an
earthquake which happened about 1885 years before
the Chriftian era. Its grcateft celebrity arifes from its
being one of thofe mountains which the giants in their
wars againft the gods heaped up one on the ot her tofcale
the heavens with more facility. A town of Macedonia.
OSS AT (Arnauld de), born in the diocefc of Auch
in x >36, of mean parentage, was taken notice of by a
gentleman in the diocefe, who made him ftudy with
his ward the Lord of Caftlenau de Magnoac. He
ftudied the law at Dijon under Cujace, and applied
himfelf to the bar at Paris. He was fecretary at
Rome to M. de Foix, archbifhop of Thouloufe ; to car- Offian,
dinal Efte; and afterwards to cardinal de Joyeufe, by
the French king’s exprefs command. A ter rifing to
the higheft dignities both in church and date, in 1599
he was created a cardinal by pope Clement VIII. He
died in 1604. •^kn enunent French writer gives him
the following chara&er : “ He was a man of prodi¬
gious penetration; applied himfelf fo clofely to affairs,
and efpecially was fo judicious in forming his refolu-
tions, that it is almoft impoffible to find out one falfe
ftep in the many negociations in which he was con¬
cerned.” His woiks, and efpecially his letters, have
been much efteemed in the leatned world.
OSSIAN, the fon of Fingal, a celebrated Celtic
poet, who flourifhed about the end of the fecond and
beginning of the third century. Several incidents in
his poems point out this as his sera: particularly the
engagement of Fingal with Caracul, or Caracalla, the
fon of the emperor Severus, ftyled by Oflian, The Son
of the King of the World. M. Tillemont fixes the ele¬
vation of Catacalla to a (hare in the government to the
year 198, and the afibciation of his brother Geta to
208.. About which time Gibbon fixes the Caledonian
war, and fpeaks thus upon the fubjeft: “ This Ca¬
ledonian war, neither marked by decifive events, nor
attended with any important confequences, would ill
deferve our attention ; but it is fuppofed, not without
a confiderable degree of probability, that the invafion
of Severus is connedfed with the moft fhining period
of the Britifh hiftory or fable. Fingal, whofe fame,
with that of his heroes and bards, has been revived in
our language by a recent publication, is faid to have
commanded the Caledonians in that memorable junc¬
ture, to have eluded the power of Severus, and to
have obtained a fignal vidtorv on the banks of the Ca-
tun, in which the fon of the King of the Worlds Cara¬
cul, fled from his arms along the fields of his pride *. * ojjian->.
Something of a doubtful mill ftill hangs over thefe
Highland traditions ; nor can it be entirely difpelled vol. i.
by the moft ingenious refearches of modern criti- P-175»
cifm(A): but if we could with fafety indulge the.
pleafing fuppofition, that Fingal lived, and that Olfian
fung, the linking contrail oi the fituation and manners
of the contending nations might amufe a philofophic
mind. The parallel would be little to the advantage
of the more civilized people, if we compared the un¬
relenting revenge of Severus with the generous cle¬
mency of Fingal; the timid and brutal cruelty of Ca¬
racalla, with the bravery, the tendernefs, the elegant
genius of Oflian ; the mercenary chiefs who, from mo¬
tives of fear or intereft, ferved under the Imperial
ftandard, with the free-born warriors who ftarted to
arms at the voice of the king of Morven : if, in a
word, we contemplated the untutored Caledonians
3 glowing
(a) “ That the Caracul of Ofiian is the Caracalla of the Roman, hiftory, is perhaps the only point of
Britifti antiquity in which Mr Macpherfon and Mr v hitaker are of the fame opinion ; and yet the opinion
is not without difficulty. In the Caledonian war, the fon of Severus was known only by the appellation of
Antoninus ; and it may feem ftrange, tnat the Highland bard fhould delcribe him by a nick-name, invented
four years afterwards, fcarcely ufed by the Romans till after the death of tiiat emperor, and feldom employed
by the moft ancient hiftorians. See Dion. i. Usvii. p. 1317. Hilt, Auguft. p. 89. Aurel. Vidtor. Eufeb. in
Chroit. ad ann. 214.
w *
Oilifin,
Fin gal,
• iv.
OSS
glowint? with the warm virtues of nature*, and the de
generate Romans polluted with the mean vices of
wealth and 11 very.”
The date o'- this aftion, if the poems be true* is
rather confoundin.r: for the next expedition, which is
p -oduce i to fix the time in which Offian ftourifhed,
was conduced by Ofcar < again ft the ufurper Carau-
fius, the Caros of Offi n), who did not affume the
purple till fo late as the year 287. This account
indeed correfponds pretty well with the account ^gi*
ven by Irifh hiltor'es, which place the death ot tin-
gal in the year 283, and that of Ofcar (who died
many years before h!8 ‘ather Ofiian) in the year 296.
Thefe hints are not thrown out becaufe we think th y
militate againft the authenticity of the poems ; tor
diftant though thefe dates he, it is yet poffihle to re¬
concile them. Old age was and is very common in
thofe regions; and Offiau himfelf, e are told, was m
inilance of great longevity- Indeed at fuch a diftan e of
time it cannot be txpeAed that we fhould give either
a very particul ir or a very exaA account of Ofliun and
his heroes. Were there no dou ts remaining of the
truth of the faAs, it is Itill natural to fuppofe tuat
they mu ft have fuffered obfeurity through the ruft
©f time, and above all through the negleA of the
poems, which till lately were unknown
The find expedition on which Offian s father fent
him was, to raife a ftone on the banks of Crona, to
perpetuate the memory of a viAory winch the king oi
Morven had obtained at that place The Highlanders
talk of this as being emblematical of that immortality
which heroes were to receive from his future compofi-
tions. In this expedition he was accompanied by
Tofcar, father of the beautiful Malvina, the amiable
companion of his grief, after the death of her beloved
Ofcar, his fon. It appears Irom his poems, that, in
one of his early expeditions to ■ reland, he had fallen
in love with and married Evirahin, daughter to Bran-
no, petty king of Lego. . “ I went in fuitof the maid
of Legp’s fable furge ; twelve of my people were
there, the fons of ftreamy Morven. We came to
Branno, friend of ftrangers ; Branno of the founding
mail.—* From whence (he faid) are the arms of fteel?
Not eafy to win is the maid that has denied the blue¬
eyed fons of Erin. But bleft be thou, O fon of Tin-
gal! happy is the maid that waits thee. I hough
twelve daughters were mine, thine were the choice,
thou fon of fame.’—Then he opened the hall of the
maid; the dark-haired Evirallin This Evirallin
was the mother of his fon Ofcar, whofe exploits he
celebrates in m^ny of his poems, and whofe death he
laments in the firft book of Temora. Evirallin died
feme time before Ofcar (Fingal, B. iv.), who feems
to have been her only child; and Offian di l not many
afterwards : fo that his pofterity ended in the death
of Oicar; who feems to have died as he wa^ about to
be married to Malvina, the daughter of Tof. ar. Se¬
veral of her lamentations for her lover are recorded by
Offian, which paint her grief in the ftrongeft and moft
beautiful colours. “ It is the voice of my love » few
are his vifits to my dreams. But thou dwelleft in the
foul of M )Ivina fon of mighty Offian. My fighs arife
with the teams of the tail; my tears defeend with
the drops of night. I was a lovely tree in thy pre-
fence, Ofcar, with all my branches round me: but
©fllim.
525 ] OSS
thy, death came like a bhft from the defert, and laid  
my green head low; the fpring returned with its "^
fhowers, but no green leaf of mine arofe.” Poem of
Croma.
The principal refidence of Offian was in the vale of
Oona, now Glenco in Argylefhire See Fiscal
His poems relate many of his expeditions to Ire¬
land, Scandinavia, Clyde, and Tweed or 1 eutha.
His exploits on thefe occafions, after making a large
allowance for poetical exaggeration, ffiow him to have
been no lefs a warrior than a poet: (See Ossian’s
Works, in the poems C alt bon and Colma/, Latbmonf
Be’-rathon, &c By thefe expeditions, which were al¬
ways undertaken for the relief of the diftrefled, the
mind of Offim feems to have been cultivated and en¬
larged beyond what is ufually to be met with in fo
rude a period of fociety as that in which he lived. Hia
poems breathe, throughout, fuch a fpirit ot generolity
and tendernefs, efpecially towards the fair fex, as ia
feidom or never to be met with in the compofitions of
other poets who lived in a more advanced ftate ot civi-
lifation. He lived to an extreme old age ; having fur-
vived all his family and friends, many of whom perifh-
ed by a fatal accident, recorded in one of his poems
called the fall of Tura *. Malvina, alone, the love of
his fon Ofcar, remained with him till within a few
years of his death, and paid him every attention that
could be expeAed from the tender relation in which
fine flood to him. To her he addreffes m my of his
poems, which feem to have been compofed for the moft
part in his old age. Her death is p ithetically la¬
mented by him in the poem of Berrathon: towards the
cloft of which, he gives the prefages of his own de¬
parture; an event which he often wishes for, under the
blmdnefs and other calamities oi his declining years.
“ Roll on, ye dark-brown years, for ye bring no joy
on your courle. Let the tomb open to Oifi m, for
his ftrength has failed. The fons of the fong are gone
to reft : my voice remains, like a bhft; that roars
lonely, on the fea furrounded rock, after the winds
are laid. The dark mofs whifiles there, and the di¬
ftant mariner fees the waving treesf. ’ ‘‘ But Offian f »oemoi:
is a tree that is withered. Its branches are blatfed Berrathon.
and bare ; no green leaf covers its boughs. From
its trunk no young (hoot is fetn to fpring. The
breeze whiftles in its grey mofs : the blaft ffiakes its
head af age. -The ftorm will Toon overturn it, and
ftrew all its dry branches with thee, O Hermid ! and
with all the reft of the mighty dead, in the green
winding vale of Cona J.” • _ t Galic An*-
It is not certain at what age Offian died; but fromtiq itUr,
his having been long blind with years, and from the
many contrails between his piefent and pall fituations, er"'1 *
in poems compofed, as it would appear, at a coanderaoie
diftance of time from each other, it is moft likely he
lived to an extreme old age. The cut rent tradition is,
that he died in the houfe of a Culdee, called the Son of
•jiprn, with whom he is faid to have held feveral con¬
ferences about the doAnnes of Chriftianity. One of
thefe dialogues is ftill preferved, and bears the genuine
marks of a very remote antiquity ; (Dlffertation pre¬
fixed to Offian's Works). Several ot Offim s poe sare
addieffed to this fon of Alpin, who was probably one of
thofe Chriftians whom the perfecution under Diondian
had driven beyond the pale of the Roman empire.
OfiTiafi,
t OJpan s
Work,,
|>oera of
Jicrrat/ien.
OSS
i The poems of Ofllan, though
higheft efteem by thofe who knew them, were allowed
to remain in the obfcurity of their original Gaelic, till
Mr Macpherfon, about 30 years ago,°tranflated a col-
leflion of them into Engliih, which immediately at¬
tracted the attention of every perfon who had a true
tafte for poetry. Dr Blair, in particular, introduced
thefe poems into the world with thofe critical remarks
which do no lefs honour to himfelf than to the poet.
According to that eminent critic, the two great cha-
ratferiflics of OfBan’s poetry are tendernefs and fub-
limity. OfTnn is, perhaps, the only poet who never
relaxes, or lets himfelf down into the light and anm-
fing drain He moves perpetually in the high region
of the grand and pathetic. The events which he re¬
cords are all ferious and grave; the fcenery wild and
romantic. We find not in him an imagination that
fports itfelf, and dreffes out gay trifles to pleafe the
fancy. His poetry, more perhaps than that of any
other, deferves to be flyled the poetry of the heart. It
is a heart penetrated with noble fentiraents, with fub-
Ime and tender paffions ; a heart that glows and kin¬
dles the fancy ; a heart thst is full, and pours itfelf
forth. Of all the great poets, Homer is the one whofe
manner and whofe times come the neared to Offian’s.
t Srf ] OSS
always held in the mutual feall, and Hlten together to the fonjr of their OtfU.i,
bards 1 v——/
But the fublimity of moral fentiments, if they want- p°t’nt
ed the foftening of the tender, would be in hazard of *
giving a ftiff air to poetry. It is not finough that w^e
admire. Admiration is a cold feeling in comparif
of that deep intered the heart takes in tender and pa*
thetic feenes. With feenes of this kind OflHn abounds •
and his high merit in thefe is incontedable. He may
be blamed for drawing tears too often from our eyes ;
but that he has the power of commanding them, no
man who has the lead fenfibility can queftion. His
poems awake the tendered fympathies, and infpire the
mod generous emotions No reader can rife from him
without being warmed with the fentiments of humani-
ty, virtue, and honour.
But the excellency of thefe poems occafioned irt
many perfons a doubt of their authenticity. Their*
genuinenefs, however, has been very ably defended by
Dr Blair and Lord Karnes, and warmly fupported by
the author of the Gaelic A aiquities^ who has given the
public fome more remains of Oflhm’s poetry.
t Go tic An-
Hguiiits,
poem of
‘Jfrat Lai.
Homer’s ideas were more charged, and his characters
more diverfified. Offian’s ideas fewer, but of the kind
nlted for poetry ; the bravery and generofity of he¬
roes, the tendernefs of lovers, and the attachment of
nends. Homer is diffufe; Offian abrupt and ccncife.
His images are a blaze of lightning, which flaffi and
vanilh. Homer has more of impetuofity and fire ;
Offian of a folemn and awful grandeur, in the pathe*
tic, Homer has a great po wer; but Offian exerts that
power much oftener, and has the charaaer of ten¬
dernefs more deeply imprinted on his works. No
neW ketter. how to feize and melt the heart,
v ith regard to digrfity of fentimertt, we muft be fur-
pnlcd to find that the pre eminence muft clearly be
given to the Celtic bard. This appears nowhere more
remarkable than in the fentiments which he expreffies
towards h.s enemies. “ Uthal fell beneath my fword,
and the fons of Berrathon fled.—It was then I faw
Dm in ms beauty, and the tear hung in my eye.
i hou art fallen, young tree, I faid, with all thy beau-
y round thee. Them art fallen on thy plains, and
the field is tare. I he winds come from the defart,
and there is no found in thy leaves! Lovely art thou
in death, fon of car-borne Larthmore f.” His fup-
pofition, that all the little feuds and differences of
this life ffiould be forgot in a future ftate, and that
thole who had once been foes would “ ftretch their
arms to the fame ffiell in Loda,” gives us the higheft
idea of the man as well as of the poet. “ Daughter
o eauty, thou art low ! A ftrange ftiore receives thy
the Shofts of Morven will open their halls
hen they fce thee coming. Heroes around the feaft
of dim Ms, in the midft of clouds, ffiall admire thee;
and virgins fhall touch the harp of mill t.’’ « The
feuds of other years by the mighty dead are forgotten.
on theTrS T mCet in Pe3Ce’ ride together
noife of h/f W’n|- N° Clan^ 0f the ^ no
inal 9 ? ifperl’ 1 l heard ln the,'r Peaceful dwell-
thdr Th uv Wh° °nce mixed in battIe
. 1 here, Lochlm and Morven meet at the
As the nature of our work will not allow us to
treat this matter at full length, we ffiall only give a
brief view of the arguments offered in fupport of the
authenticity of thefe poems, referring oiir readers to
the authors juft now mentioned and others, for fuller
fatisfaftion.
“ In ever7 Period of fociety (fays Dr Blair), human
manners are a curious fpeftacle ; and the moft natural
pictures of ancient manners are exhibited in the an.*
cient poems of nations. Thefe make us acquainted
with the notions and feelings of our fellow-creatures
in the moft nttlefs ages ; difeovering what objects they
admired, and what pleafures they purfued, before
thofe refinements of fociety had taken place, which
enlarge indeed, and diverfify the tranfa&ions, but dif-
guife the manners mankind.
Befides this, ancient poems have another merit with
perfons of tafte. They promife fome of the higheft
beauties of poetical writing. That ftate, in which
human nature ffioots wild and free, though unfit for
other improvements, certainly encourages the high
exertions of fancy and paffion.
In the infancy of focieties the paffions of men have
nothing to reftrain them : their imagination has no¬
thing to check it. And as their feelings are ftrong,
fo their language of itfelf affumes a poetical turn.
Men never have ufed fo many figures of ftyle, as in
thofe rude ages, when, befides a warm imagination
to fuggeft lively images, the want of proper and pre*
cife terms for the ideas they would exprefs, obliged
them to have recourfe to circumlocution, metaphor,
comparifon, and all thofe fubftituted forms of expref-
fion, which give a poetical air to language. An A-
merican chief, at this day, harangues at the head of
his tribe in a more bold metaphorical ftyle than a
modern European would adventure to ufe in an epic
poem. r
, Poetry has been faid to be more ancient than profe^
which, in a qualified fenfe, is true. Mufic or fong
has been found coteval with fociety among the moft
barbarous nations ; and the only fubje£ls which ctaild
prompt men, in their firft rude ftate, to utter tneir
thoughts in compofitions of any length, were fucb as
4 naturally
OSS [ 527 ] OSS
Oflun. naturally affumed the t@ne of poetry ; praifes of their
' gods, or of their anceilors ; eommeaiorations of their
own warlike exploits ; or lamentations over their mif-
fortunes. And before writing was invented, no other
compofitions, except fongs or poems, could take fuch
hold of the imagination and memory, as to be pre-
ferved by oral tradition, and handed down from one
race to another.
“ Hence we may expedt to find poems among the an¬
tiquities of alknatfons. It is probable, too, that an
extenfivc fearch would difcover a certain degree of re-
femblance among all ihe moft ancient poetical pro-
dudtions, from whatever country they have proceed¬
ed. in a fimilar flate of manners, fimilar objefts and
paffions operating upon the imaginations of men will
ftamp their productions with the fame general charac¬
ter. Some diverfity will, so doubt, be occafioned by
climate and genius. But mankind never bear fuch re-
fembling features as they do in the beginnings of
fociety. What we call the oriental vein of poetry,
becaufe the earlieft poetical productions have come to
us from the ea!t, is probably no more oriental than oc¬
cidental ; it is charaCteriftical of an age rather than a
country ; and belongs, in fome meafure, to all nations
at a certain period. Of this the works of Ofiian feem
to fumifh a remarkable proof.
“ He appears clearly to have lived in a period w'hich
enjoyed all the benefit I have juft now mentioned of
traditionary poetry. The exploits of Fralhal, Tren-
mor, and the other anceftors of Fingal, are fpoken of
as familiarly known. Ancient bards are frequently al¬
luded to. In one remarkable pafiage, Offian deferibes
himfelf as living in a fort of claffical age, enlightened
by the memorials of former times, conveyed in the
foiigs of bards, and points at a period of ignorance
which lay beyond the reach of tradition. Offi n him¬
felf appears to have been endowed by nature with ex-
quifite fenfibility ; prone to that tender melancholy
which is fo often an attendant oa great genius; and
fufceptible equally of ftrong and of foft emotions.
He was not only a profeffed bard, but a warrior alfo,
and the fon of the moft renowned hero and prince of
his age. This formed a conjunction of circumftances,
uncommonly favourable towards exalting the imagi¬
nation of a poet.
“ The manners of Ofiian’s age wrere favourable to
a poetical genius. Covetoufnefs and effeminacy were
unknown. The cares of men were few. The great
cbjeCt purfued by heroic fpirits, was, ‘ to receive their
fame/ that is, to become worthy of being celebrated
in the fongs of bards; and ‘ to have their names on
the four grey ftones ' To die unlamented by a bard,
was deemed fo great a misfortune as even to dilturb
their ghofts in another ftate. In fuch times as thefe,
in a country where poetry had been fo long cultivated,
and fo highly honoured, is it any winder that among
the race and fuccdlion of bards, one Homer fhould
arife : a man who, endowed with a natural happy
genius favoured by peculiar advantages of birth and
condition : and meeting in the courfe of his life, with
a variety of incidents proper to fire his imagination,
and to touch his heart, Ihould attain a degree of emi¬
nence in poetry, worthy to draw the admiration of
more refined ages V*
Befides, his compofitions, when viewed in them- Offian.
felves, have, we are told, all the internal marks of anti-■--ir",**i
quity fo ftrongly impreffed upon them, that no reader
of tafte and judgment can deny their claim to it.
They exhibit fo lively a pi&ureof cuftoms which have
difappeared for ages, as could be drawn only from,
nature and real life. The features are fo diftinCb,
that few portraits of the life continually paffing be¬
fore us are found to be drawn with fo much likenefs.
The manners uniformly relate to a very early ftage
of fociety; and no hint, no allulron to the arts,
cuftoms, or manners, of a more advanced period, ap¬
pears throughout the poems. To that diftimftion of
ranks, which is always found in adult focieties, the
poet appears to have been a perfect ftranger. The
firlt heroes prepare their own repafts, and indiferimi-
nately condefcend to the moft menial fervices. Their
quarrels arife from caufes generally flight, but in fuch
a period extremely natural. A rivaKhip in love, an
omiffion at a feaft, or an affront at a tournament, are
often the foundation or a quarrel among fingle heroes.
And the wars in which whole tribes are engaged, are
carried on with a view, not to enlarge their territory,
but to revenge perhaps the kilhng of a few deer on
their mountains, or the taking forcibly away one of
their women. Their occupation was war and hunt¬
ing ; and their chief ambition was to have their fame
in the fongs of the bards.
The notions of a future flate, exhibited in thTc
poems, are likewife ftrongly marked with the charac¬
ter of antiquity. A creed fo uncommon that the ima¬
gination of a modern could not be fuppofed to grafp
fo ftrong an idea of it from mere fancy, is uniformly
fupported throughout. This creed is extremely iimple,.
but admirably fuited to the times.
The language too, and the fti uclure, of thefe poems,,
bear the moft linking chara£ters of antiquity. The
language is bold, animated, and metaphorical, fucli
as it is found to be in all infact.Hates ; where the
words, as well as the ideas and objecls, muft be few ;
and where the language, like the imagination, is ftrong
and undifeiplined. No abftra<ft,. and fe w general, terms
appear in the poems of Offian. If objects are but in¬
troduced in a fimile, they are always particularized.
It is “ the young pine of Inifhuna it is “ the bow
of the (bowery JLena.” This character, fo confpicuous
in the poems of Offian, is a ftriking feature in the lan¬
guage of all early Hates; whofe objects and ideas are few
and particular, and whofe ordinary converfation is of
courfe highly figurative and poetical. A picture,.there¬
fore, marked with fuch linking features, could not be
drawn without an original.
The whole texture of the compofition is alfo, like
the language, bold, nervous, and concife ; yet always
plain and arclefs; without any thing of that modern
refinement, or elaborate decoration,, which attend the
advancement of 'iterature. No foreign ornaments are
hunted after. The wild and grand nature which lay
within the poet’s view, is the only fource from which
he draws his Ornaments. Beyond this circle, his ima¬
gination, though quick and rapid, feldora made any
excurfion. We perceive his language always to be
that of a perfon who faw and felt what he deferibes .
who bore a part ia. the expeditions which he cele
brat<?*s
G S S t 5*8 ] OSS
Offian. ferates, und wbo forgbt in tlie battles vi-b?ch be fings.
v 1 * Such is the nature of the internal proof adduced in the
prefent cafe, vhich unqueftionably has weight, and
that not inconfiderable; but unfupported by external
proof, or contrary to fadls, however forcible it may
be in itfelf, when confidcred in this connexion, and
found wanting, it will neither filence the querulous
fccptic, nor, in all probability, will it ever convince
thofe who have truth for their objeft, and who wifh
to inveftigate, and, if pofiible, difeover it on furer
grounds. Internal proof is of the greateft fervice in
a variety of excellent califes ; but it comes in rather
as a fuccedaneum than as diredb evidence ; and without
fomething more to the purpefe, it may excite admi¬
ration, but will feldom enforce belief. Of the cuffoma
and manners of ancient times, we know but little,
and of that little we have often but a confufed notion.
There is therefore room for genius and ability to exert
itfelf in deceiving ; and in proportion to the darknefs
-in v\ hicb the fubjedb is involved, the deception will ge¬
nerally be the more complete, and the fecret w indings
of ei ror lefs eafy to be developed.
Deflitute of external proof, authenticity may appear
to be probable, but cannot he certain ; and in fuch
-circun ftances, cn many occrfcna, and efpecially w ith
refpeft to ancient writings, we nay, without any of¬
fence to truth or to found reafoning, give them
up as fpurious. In the prefent inftance, therefore,
it is juft and proper to add to w'hat has been al¬
ready laid, the more external and pofilive proofs of
the authenticity of the poems in queftion, by the
ftrength or vveaknefs of which the fubjedl muft be
finally determined. It is obferved, therefore,—That
there have been in the Highlands ef Scotland, for fome
ages back, a vaft many poems aferibed to Olfian :
That thefe poems have been held in the higheft vene¬
ration, repeated by almoft all perfons, and on all oc-
cafions. Thefe are fa&s fo well known, that no¬
body as yet has been hardy enough to deny them.
There is not an old man in the Highlands, who will
not declare, that he heard fuch poems repeated by his
father and grandfather, as pieces of the moft remote
antiquity. There is not a diftrid in the Highlands
"where there are not many places, waters, ifies, caves,
and mountains, which from time immemorial are
called after the names of Oflian’s heroes.—There is not
a lover of ancient tale or poetry, however illiterate,
who is not well acquainted with almoft every Angle
name, charafter, and incident, mentioned in thofe tranf.
lations of Cfiian’s poems, which he may have never
heard of.—Bards, who are themfelves feveral centuries
old, quote thofe poems, imitate them, and refer to
them.— The ordinary converfation and comparifons of
■the Highlanders frequently allude to the cuftoms and
« See ex- charafters mentioned in them ;—and many of their
an gles un- rr oft common proverbs, eflablifhed by the moll ancient
thtfeTeads are ^nes korrowecl from the poems of Oflian.*—
in the Galic^-^ moft. ancient of the clans boaft of deriving their
Antiquities, pedigree, each from fome one of Ollian’s heroes ;—and
P-93-94- 95- many of the fxgns armorial aftumed by them, are drawn
* l[ld' in frCrr tl e ftat8 afcribed to their predeceflbr’s in thofe
111 Poem8t-— Manufcripts are mentioned, in which fome
% Karnes's of thole l ave been pnfervei for feveral centuries| ;
Shubes, and a lift of living names, in different parta of the
N° 254.
Highlands, is appealed to, as perfons who fttf! repeat Offian.
a part of thefe poems ||.—Wbilft Mr Mscpherfon was'—^
engaged in the tranflation, many refpe&able perfons,
gentlemen and clergymen, avowed to the public, that
thefe were Oflian’s poems, with which they had long
been acquainted, and that the tranflation was literal^. § See
This appears alfo from the large fpecimens of the ori- names,' Ap-
ginals publifhed and compared by proper judges. Thepeniix to Df
originals lay a conflderable time in the hands of the ^bir’.s
bookfeller, for the infpedion of the curious ; they have
been afterwards fhown frequently to many of the beft Works,
judges, and offered for publication if the editor had id edit,
been favoured with fubferiptions. The editor of
the pamphlet, in which their authenticity is atteft-
ed by many refpedfable names of undoubted veracity,
obferves, by way of conclufion, “ that more tefti-
monies might have been produced by a more enlarged
correfpondence with the Highland counties : But I
apprehend, if any apology is neceffary, it is for pro¬
ducing fo many names in a queftion where the eon-
fenting fllence of a whole country was, to every un¬
prejudiced perfon, the ftrongeft proof that fpurious
compofitions, in the name of that country, had not
been obtruded upon the world.” It is likewife ar¬
gued in fupport of the authenticity of thefe poems,
that candid fceptics, on hearing fome of them re¬
peated by illiterate perfons, who had never feen the
tranflation, caufed them to give the meaning of what
they repeated, by an extempore tranflation into En-
glifti, and by this means had all their doubts of the
authenticity of Oflian removed*. They urge fur-#pref. t#
ther, that fuch paffages of Ofiian’s wrorks as are ftillDr Percy**
repeated by fome old men, are among the moft beau-^ S’"" °/
tiful parts of Oflian’s poems; fuch as the battle °f
Lora, the moft affe&ing parts of Carthon, Berrathon, jft edit,
the death of Ofcar, and Darthuia, or the children of
Ufnoth, &c. : which gives a credibility to his being
^qual to the other parts of the colle&ion, none of it
being fuperior to thefe in merit.
I o thefe and the like arguments advanced in fup¬
port of the authenticity of the poems aferifeed to
Oflian, many objedlions have been urged. Thofe of
Johnfon and his friend Shawr are univtrfally known.
A later writer objects to them in the following
manner : No fragments of Britifli poetry in Scotland Pinkerton.
are to be found. Many fpecimens of Irifh poetry in
Scotland have been publiflied ; but none older than a
century or two. rl ranflations have alfo appeared {
but, in general, of no fidelity. Thofe of the poems
aferibed to Oflian, in particular, have defervedly drawn
much of the public attention ; but they will only
mifkad any reader who wifhes to form an idea of Cel¬
tic poetry. He that believes Oflian to have flouriftied
about the year 300, and his writings preferved by oral
tradition for 1460 years, large is his faith, and he
might move mountains ! Gentlemen of the Highlands
of Scotland, with whom our author converfed on the
fubjeft, affured him, that they looked upon nine-
tenths of Mr Macpherfon’s work as his own ; and up¬
on the other tenth, as fo much changed by him, that
all might be regarded as his own coirpofition. There
are pofitive evidences, he fays, which convince him
that not one of the poems given to Oflian, and pro¬
bably not one paffage of them, is older than the \ 5 th
century.
OSS r 529 3 OSS
Oflian. ccnturv. The very fjrft author we know who men-
—tions Fingal is Barbour, a Scotch poet, who wrote
.in 1375.. Fingal was an Irifh hero : and one Good,
a fchoolmafter of Limeric, fent fome account of Ire¬
land to Camden, in 1 ^66, in which mention is made
of fome ftrange fables, that the people amufe them-
felves with, about the “ giants Fin Mac Huyle, and
Other Mac OJhin” of which we (hall fpeak more largely
prefently. In the mean time, to thefe, and fuch like
obje&ions, it has been anfwered, That poetry has been
cultivated with moft fuccefs in the earlieft llages of fo-
ciety ; that in Greece, Orpheus, Linus, Hefiod, and
Homer, wrote their admirable poems fome ages before
any thing had been written in profe in the Greek lan¬
guage ; that the book of Job, written in a very early
period of fociety, is highly poetical; that among the
tribes of Lapland and America, there have been found,
in the earlieft ftate, fome excellent pieces of poetry.
That the Caledonians, in particular, had feme peculiar
inftitutions, which tended to improve their poetry :
their druids were among the moft learned philofophers
which perhaps any age or country produced ; their
bards or poets were the difciples of thofe druids, and
were always a Handing order, to which none but the
moft promifing geniufes were admitted. This fland-
ing college of poets was furnilhed, not only with the
fruits of their own long ftudy and obfervation, but al-
fo with as much as merited to be preferved of the
compofitions of their predeceflbrs in office, fince the
“ light of the fong” ftrft dawned. They had the
advantage of one another’s converfation; which would
excite their emulation, and make them afpire to emi¬
nence : They were always prefent, and generally en¬
gaged, in every grand operation that was tranfadled ;
which could not fail to infpire their mufe with the
trueft poetic fire.
The cafe of Offian was particularly favourable. He
lived in an age when manners came to a confiderable
degree of refinement under the care of the bards and
druids. Poetry in his day was confiderably advanced ;
and the language, though ftrong and figurative, had
undergone fome degree of cultivation, and learned to
flow in regular numbers, adapted to the harp, the fa¬
vourite inftrument of the times. As a prince and a
warrior, his mind muft have been expanded and much
enlarged by his excurfions to other countries. At
home he had Ullin, Alpin, Carril, and Ryno, to con-
verfe with ; all of them poets of eminence, who would
have advanced him greatly by their example and con¬
verfation. All thefe advantages, meeting with a na¬
tive fire and enthufiafm of genius, as in the cafe of Of¬
fian, may well be fuppofed to have produced poems
that might challenge the veneration of ages.
But it is not to their merit alone that we owe the
prefervation of thefe poems fo long by oral tradition.
Other circumftances concurred ; of which, the irjfti-
tution of the Bards deferves particular notice. In a
country, the only one perhaps in the world in which
there was always, from the earlieft period almoft to
the prefent age, a handing order of poets, we cannot
reafonably be furprifed, either at finding excellent
poems compofed, or, after being compofed, care¬
fully preferved from oblivion. A great part of the
bufinefs of this order was to watch over the poems
of Offian. In every family of diftin£tiqa there was
Vol. XIII. Part II,.
always one principal bard, and a number of dif¬
ciples, who vied with each other in having thefe
poems in the greateft perfection. Should the inftitu-
tion of the bards laft for ever, the poems of Ofiian
could never perifh.
Nor were they only the bards of great families who
took an intereft in thefe poems; the vaffal, equally
fond of the fong with his faperior, entertained him-
ftlf in the fame manner. This, with a life free from
care, a fpirit unbroken by labour, and a fpace of time
unoccupied by any other employment or diverfion,
contributed to render the Highlanders a nation of
fingers and poets. From fuch a people, the fuperior
merit of Olhan’s poems would naturally procure
every encouragement, which they always retained
as long as the manners of the people remained un¬
changed.
Many other reafons confpired to preferve the poems
of Offian. The martial and intrepid fpirit which they
breathed, made it the intereft of the chieftains to pre¬
ferve them : the ftrain of juftice, generofity, and hu¬
manity, which runs through them, recommended them
to the fuperinteridants of religion, who well knew how
much the morals of a people muft be tindured with
thofe fongs which they are continually repeating, and
which have all the advantages of poetry and of mufic.
In fuperftitious ages, the people revered thefe poems,
from their being addreffed-generally to fome “ fon of
the rock,” fuppofed to be the tutelar faint of the
place, or the great Irifh apoftle St Patrick. Befides,
every hill and dale which the natives of the Highlands
walked over, was claffic ground. Every mountain,
rock, and river, was immortalifed in the fong. This
fong would naturally be fuggerted by the fight of thefe
objefts, and every body would hum it as he walked
along. All the proverbs and cuftoms to which thefe
poems gave rife, would operate in the fame manner.
The fon would alk what they meant, and the father
would repeat the fong from which they were- taken.
The diftimft and unfubdued ftate in which the High¬
landers remained for fo long a courfe of ages, every
clan, one generation after another, inhabiting the fame
valley, till towards the prefent century, contributed
much to preferve their traditions and their poems ;
and the conftant and general cultom of repeating thefe
in the winter-nights, kept them always alive in their
remembrance.
To thefe caufes and cuftoms the prefervation of
Oflian’s poems, for fo many ages, has been aferibed.
But thefe caufcs and cuftoms have ceafed to exift; and
the poems of Offian, of courfe, have ceafed to be
repeated—Within a century back, the Plighlands of
Scotland have undergone a greater revolution than it
had done for ten before that period. With a quicker
pace the feudal fyftem vaniftied ; property fluctuated;
new laws and new cuftoms ftept in, and fupplanted
the old t and all this, with fuch hidden and fuch
violent convulfions, as may well account for the {halting
of a fabric which had ftood fo many ages, that it
feemed to have bidden defiance to all the injuries of
time. Even lince Mr Macpherfon gathered the poems
in his collection, the amttfexnents, employments, and
taite of the Highlanders arb much altered. A greater
attention to commerce, agriculture, and pafturage, has
quite eivgrofled that partial attention which was paid,.
3 X even
Ofliarn.
OSS [ 530 ] 0 s s-
Oflkn. even tlien, to the fong of the Lard. In twenty years
hence, if manners continue to change fo fall as they
do at prefent, the fainteft traces will fcarce be found
of thole tales and poems. “ Oflian himfelf is the lall
of his race; and he too fhall foon be no more, for
his grey branches are already ftrewed on all the
winds.”
Among the caufes which make thefe poems vanifh
fo rapidly, poverty and the iron rod Ihould come in
for a large lhare. From the baneful lhade of* thofe
murderers of the mufey the light of the fong mull fall
retire. No other reafon needs be given why the pre¬
fent Highlanders negledl fo much the fongs of their
fathers.—Once, the humble, but happy valfal, fat at
his cafe, at the foot of his grey rock or green tree.
Few were his wants, and fewer Hill his cares ; for he
beheld his herds fporting around him, on his then un-
meafured mountain. He hummed the carelefs fong,
and tuned his harp with joy, while his foul in filence
blefled his children.—Now, we were going to draw the
comparifon :
• fed Cynthlus attrem
Ve//it et admonuit.
It is more agreeable to remark, as another caufe for
the negledl of ancient poems and traditions, the
growth of induftry, which fills up all the blanks of
time to more advantage, and efpecially the increafe
of more ufeful knowledge. —But above all, the ex¬
tinction of the order of the bards haftened the cata-
ftrophe of Ofiian’s poems. By a happy coincidence
Macpherfon overtook the very lall that remained of
this order, (Macvurich, bard to Clanronald), and
got his treafure. This fad (with the red book fur-
nifhed by Mr Macdonald of Croidart, and fome other
MSS.) accounts for Mr Macpherfon’s having found
thefe poems in greater number and perfection than
they could ever fince be met with. The fragments,
however, which have fince been gathered, give a cre¬
dibility to every thing that has been faid of the ori¬
ginal grandeur of the building.
Although this difquifition has already extended to
a length which readers not partial to Scottilh antiqui¬
ties will perhaps think too great, we cannot difmifs
it without obferving, that Fingal and Offian have been
claimed by the Irifh as well as by the Caledonians.
On this double claim, as well as on the controverfy
concerning the authenticity of the poems, there is
fo much candour and good fenfe in the following re¬
marks of T. F. Hill, publilhed in the 53d volume of
the Gentleman’s Magazine, that we cannot deny our-
felves the pleafure of making them conclude the ar¬
ticle.
Mr Hill travelled through the Highlands of Scot-
laud during the fummer months of 1780. He feems
to have been very ardent in his inquiries concerning
Offian, and to have conduCled thofe inquiries with
great judgment. The confequence was, that he re¬
ceived different accounts in different places, and
picked up various fongs relating to Fingal and his
heroes.
From this collection, it is evident (he fays) that
there are many traditional fongs preferved in the High¬
lands relating to Fingal and his heroes, as well as to
leveral other fubjefts. It is alfo evident, that thefe
fongs contain portions of the very poems publiffied by OflT»n..
Mr Macpherfon and Mr Smith, under the name of ^
OJfean. We may therefore juftly conclude, that thofe
poems are not wholly the forgery of their editors, but
compiled at lead from original fongs. I by no means
think it worth my while to notice the various concef-
fions in favour of this conclufion, which the minor
antagonifts of Offian have of late been forced to make.
1 myfelf have given proofs of it, which need I hope
no external confirmation- To thefe proofs might be^
added, that I met with many traditional prefervers
of thefe fongs, in every different part of the High¬
lands: iome of whom, efpecially in Argylefhire, Lo-
chaber, and on the reft of the weftern coaft, were
faid to pofiefs various poems attributed to Offian, al¬
though 1 had neither leifure nor opportunity to col¬
led copies from them.—But enough has already,
been faid on this fubjeft, if my tdtimony deferves re¬
gard.
“ Thefe principles being eftablifhed, it remains to be
confidered how far the poems publifhed by Macpher¬
fon and Smith deferve to be confidered as the works
of Offian.
“ The fongs attributed to that bard, which contain
paffages of the Offian of Macpherfon and Smith, are
by no means uniformly confident with the poems in
which the parallel paffages are found, but frequently
relate to different events, and even contain different
circumftances. From hence it feems moil probable,
that Mr Macpheribn and Mr Smith compiled their
publications from thafe parts of the Highland fongs
which they moil approved, combining them into fuch
forms as according to their ideas were mod excellent,
and preferving the old names and the. leading events.
In this procefs they were fupported and encouraged
by the variety of ifongs preferved in the Highlands
upon the fame fubjedt, and by the various modes in
which the fame event is related. Mr Macpherfon
may indeed have MSS. of all the poems he has pub¬
lifhed ; which MSS. may either have keen compilej'
by himfelf, or by fome former colledlor ; or they may
poffibly contain entire poems really ancient. But Mr
Smith has honeftly acknowledged, that he himfelf
compiled his Offian in the manner above deferibed.
‘ After the materials were colletted (fays he), the
next labour was to compare the different editions ; to
ftrike off feveral parts that were manifeftly fpurious;
to bring together fome epifodes that appeared to have
a relation to one another, though repeated feparately;
and reflore to their proper places fome incidents that
feemed to have run from one poem into another:  
and hence it was unavoidably neceffary to throw in
fometimes a few lines or fentences to join fome of
the epifodes together. — I am fenfrble that the form
of thefe poems is confiderably altered from what is
found in any one of the editions from which they
are compiled. They have affumed fomewhat more of
the appearance of regularity and art—than that bold
and irregular manner in which they are originally
delivered.’
“ Mr Smith alfo fpeaks of the Offian of Mr Macpher¬
fon in a fomewhat fimilar manner : ‘ That we have
not the whole of the poems of Olfian, or even of the
colleftion tranfiated by Mr Macpherfon, we allow :
yet ftill we have many of them, and of almoft alia
6 part
OSS
OflTan. part. The building is not entire, but \ve have ftill
the grand ruins of it.’
' “ What portion, therefore, of the Ofilan of Mac-
pherfon and Smith is original, no man can determine
except themfelves. Smith indeed fays, that he has
’ mentioned all his material alterations, tranfpofitions,
and additions, in his notes; and that, for the mojl part,
he was guided in them by the Sgeulachds, or tradition¬
ary tales accompanying the fengs’; but there are few
fuch notes in his book, and perhaps as few fuch Sgeu¬
lachds in the mouths of the Highlanders. In Mac-
pherfon and Smith alfo we fee thefe poems divefted of
their idiomatic peculiarities and fabulous ornaments ;
which renders it impoffible to difeover what manners
and opinions are really ancient, and what are of mo¬
dern invention. Yet it is remarkable, that in fpite of
all the objedlions to their authenticity, neceffarily pro¬
duced by fuch a treatment of them, they ftill poifefs
an internal evidence of originality which has enabled
fhem hitherto to withftand all the torrent of oppofi-
tion.
** The Olfian of Macpherfon and Smith appears
therefore to be a mutilated work, even though we
fhould fuppofe that the fongs they originally compiled
from were the ^undoubted works of that celebrated
bard. But this is far from being the cafe j for even
allowing that an Oflian ever exifted and wrote, yet
time rnuft have introduced fuch material changes in his
works, if preferved merely by tradition during fo long
a period, that their own author would hardly know
them again. I think it however doubtful, whether
fuch a being as Oflian ever appeared in the world.
“ All the fongs which I met wich in the Highlands
relative to the Feinne or Fingalians were attributed to
Oflian : his name feems merely a common title, which
is aferibed to all the poetic annals of his race.
“ From thefe confiderations, we feem authorifed
finally to conclude, that the Olfian of Macpherfon and
Smith is a mutilated compilation from Highland fongs,
aferibed indeed to that bard, yet very little likely to
be his compofition. Out of thefe they fele&ed the
belt parts, and rejected fuch as they thought might
diferedit the charafler of Highland antiquity; attri¬
buting them to later times, and the ignorant bards of
the fifteenth century. Perhaps even the works of
Homer himfelf, which had fo many different editions,
very confiderably varying from ea h other, were com¬
piled by a foraewhat fimilar procefs from the ancient
Greek fongs.
“ Another queftion remains to be confidereds Whe¬
ther thefe fongs are the compolitions of the Highlands
or of Ireland ? and, Whether Ofiian was an Irilh or a
Caledonian Scot ? It is my opinion, that the fongs in
this colle&ion evidently manifeft a connexion with
Ireland, though their traditional prefervation in Scot¬
land has fometlmes introduced the name of Scotland
in its Head. One of their principal perfonages is St
Patrick, the peculiar apoftle of Ireland, which alone
feenis fuflicient to mark their origin (a). If there-
o s s
fore we may reafon from a part to the whole, it is Ofllar*.
juft to conclude, that all the other fongs preferved in "y—■“
the Highlands relative to the Fingalians are alfo Irilh.
They are wholly contined to the weftern coaft of the
Highlands, oppoiite Ireland ; and the very tradition*
of the country themfelves acknowledge the Fingalians
to be originally Irilh. The genealogy of Fingal was
there given me as follows: Fioa Mac Coul, Mac
Trathal, Mac Arlht Riogh Erin, or king of Ireland ;
thus attributing the origin of his race to the Irilh. I
am inclined to believe that thefe notions about Fingal
were common to the Scots in the moft ancient times,
and brought by them from Ireland to Scotland, the
hereditary fuperftition 6f both races ; for, notwith-
ftanding it may appear moft probable that Ireland
ftiould receive colonies from Scotland than the con¬
trary, we have dire& hiftoric evidences that Scotland
received them from Ireland ; and no bare theoretic
probability deferves to be oppofed to the pofitive af-
fertions of hiftory.
“ With regard to the Erfe manuferipts, about which
fo much has been faid, it becomes me to acknowledge,
that 1 have never feen enough of them to give any*
decided opinion : thofe which I have feen induce me
to think they principally owe their exiftence to Ire¬
land.
“ 1 fliall not repeat what others have faid to prove
the Fingalians Irilh ; though the connexion of Fingal
with Ireland has been already warmly afferted.
“ But an unnoticed though curious paffage in
Camden affords us the moft remarkable, and perhaps
the moft convincing, proof that Fingal is an Irilh hero,
which demonftrates at leaft that he was indifpuubly
claimed by the Irilh 200 years ago. It is contained in
an extradl (already mentioned) made by Camden, from
an account of the manners of the native Irilh, written
by one Good, a fchoolmafter at Limerick, in 1566.
‘ They think,' fays he, fpeaking of Ireland and its
inhabitants, ‘ the fouls of the deceafed are in com¬
munion with famous men of thofe places, of whom
they retain many ftories and fonnets; as of the giants
Fin-Mac-Huyle, Olker-Mac-Ofshin, or Ofshin-Mac-
Owim ; and they fay, through illufion, that they often
fee them.’
“ The very material importance of this curious paf¬
fage, with relation to the prefent fubjedt, it is unne-
ceffary to urge } for every eye mull fee it. We alfo
obtain from it new information in refpedl to the laft
part of the hiftory of Fingal and his heroes ; as it
enables us to determine who they were, with a preci-
fion which muft otherwife have been wanting, to com¬
plete thefe remarks on the Highland fongs.
“ The lingular agreement of this palfage with the
accounts of Offian which were taught me in Scotland
is worthy particular remark ; it confirms them even
in the moft novel and peculiar iuftances. The Finga¬
lians were generally reprefented as giants ; but the
mod remarkable concurrence is in the mythologic cha-
rader attributed by both to Fingal, Ofcar, and Offian.
3X2 In
I S3* 1
*
(a) “ The Scots indeed lay claim to the birth of St Patrick, and boaft alio his burial-place. Camden, edit.
Gihfon, 1695, pp. 921, 1014. And fo alfo do the Britons, lb. p. 631, 1014; but his life and miracles ail
agree to attribute to Ireland. In Gough’s edition of Camden, the account of St Patrick is in vcl. iii.
612, 6j8. See Patrick (St).
OSS [ 532 ] OSS
In proof of this, I have to obferve, that Mac Nab
defcribed Fingal as the Odin of the Scots, and that a
fong called Urnigb OJJian evidently fpeaks of him as
fuch. This curious paffage reprefents him exactly
in the fame charafter ; a hero with whom the fpirits
of the deceafed are in communion, who is their chief¬
tain, and the lord of their feafts. The gods of all the
northern nations feem to have been of this clafs ;
mighty heroes, efteemed once to have been invincible
on earth, though perhaps not ever ftridbly men, nor
yet conftantly regarded as giants. Such are Odin,
Thor, and the other Teutonic gods; fuch are Fingal,
Ofcar, and the reft of the Fingalians among the an¬
cient Scots; fueh alfo are Hercules, Bacchus, and
even Jupiter himfelf, with all his fons and daughters,
among the original Greeks, a people who agreed in
many particulars with our own anceftors in northern
Europe. The notions entertained about ghofts, as an
intermediate order of beings between men and divi¬
nities, endowed with fome fhare of power to do evil,
is alfo remarkably congruous with this mythology.
<{ As Fingal was a divine hero, fo Offian feems to
have been a divine bard. Some of the gods of
the Teutons were bards in like manner: the god
Nicrd and his wife Skada quarrelled in elegant
verfe of their own compofition ; and Odin is the re
lator of his own Edda. Apollo, the poetic deity of
Greece, likewife fung the hiftory of his fellow-deities
to men on earth, as well as Orpheus his fon. The
bards and traditional prefervers of fongs in Scotland
and Ireland have ever been fond of afcribing all an¬
cient poems to this Ofiian, and efpecially thofe relating
to his own race ; and from this caufe the poems
alcribtd to Offian are become fo voluminous. The
ancient Egyptians had a fimilar cuftom of afcribing
their works to Hermes: yi/u-ifogoi a^ofinoi to. avian rm
supv/xuicc ccvico uvilicrbiaav tg/uou zjxvIx tcc oiKtict (rufypoc/u,
teal* tTrovo^aZovit?, fayS Jamblichus, S. T. c. x. which
rendered the Hermetic writings equally voluminous.
The Egyptians, who pofleffied the art of writing, de-
pofrted their works in the adyta of their temples ; as
the Arabians depofited their poems of old in the
temple of Mecca : but becaufe the Egyptians affixed
to them no author's name, except that of Hermes,
to him, as to the Scottiffi Offian, almoft all the na¬
tional literature was attributed by religious flattery.
“ I fmcerely wifh, that fome gentleman poffefled of
adequate abilities and acquaintance with the Erfe
language, would undertake to colleft thefe Offianic
fongs in their Ample original ftate ; as they undoubt¬
edly contain much curious knowledge, accumulated in
the various ages through which they have defcended
to us, and would probably afford much new informa¬
tion on fubjedts at prefent very ill underltood. I own,
however, that I fhould rather choofe to feek for them
in Ireland than in Scotland ; but neither country
Ihould be unexplored.
“ Alter having thus freely, though 1 hope not un-
candidiy, delivered my fentiments on the Offian of
Mr Macpherfon, it becomes me to acknowledge myfelf
deeply indebted to it f©r the pleafure in perufal it has
n equently afforded me. I am willing, and indeed
happy, thus piiblicly to declare myfelf a warm, ad¬
mirer of it as a literary compofition. The novelty of
us manner, of its ideas, and of the objefts it deferibes,
added to the ftrength and brilliancy of genius which Offification,
frequently appears in it, have enabled me to read it *
with more delight, and to return to it more frequently,
than almoft any ocher work of modern times. And
let it be regarded in what light it may, the praife of
elegant leledfion and compofition certainly belongs to
its editor. If I had not entertained thefe opinions of
its merit, I ffiould never have taken fo much pains to
inveftigate its authenticity ; nor indeed can I believe,
if the general opinion had not concurred with mine,
that the world would ever have walled fo much time in
difputing about it.”
OSSIFICATION, in the animal ceconomy, the
formation of the bones, but more particularly the
converfion of parts naturally foft to the har Inefs and
conliftency of bones. Bones, Dr Drake contends, are
formed out of themoft comminute or broken parts of the
blood ; fince we fee that the blood of old men, which
by a long courfe of circulation becomes in a manner
unfit for the common office of nutrition, will however
offify, and convert into bones, many of the tendons
and ligaments, and even the coats of the veffels them-
felves, whofe fubftance being next to the bones the
moft compaft, admits only of the fmalleft particles of
the blood, which therefore fooneft become offeous, as
they are frequently found. Dr Nelbit’s opinion of of-
iification is, that in the blood, or a fluid fecreted from
it, there is an offifying juice, having particles which
are not apparent : that whenever nature defigns an of-
fification between membranes, or within a cartilage,
ffie occafions a more than ufual afflux of this fluid ;
which fo much diftends the veffels which were before
invifible, as to make them capable of receiving the red.
globules of blood, which is always to be feen near to
the place where offification is begun. In this blood,
gritty bony particles may be felt by the point of a knife,
which have been formed by the attraction and cohefian
of the particles of the offifying juice obftrudfed, along
with the other groffer fluids, in the beginning of the vef¬
fels prepared to receive refluent juices. The blood be-
ing capable of forming fine membranes, the membra¬
nous parts of a bone, which aft as a gluten to keep thefe
particles and fibres together, if there be any fuch, that
do not arife from the coats of its veffels, are produced
by a eoheiion round the cretaceous particles of a part
of the fluid, in which they were generated and coa-
tained. J bus the membranes of cartilages ferve as a
bed between or within which the bony particles are
depofited, or ffioot; but without any intermixture of
the particles of the bone and cartilage, or continuation
of the fibres of the one fubftance to thofe of the other,
as is evident in cartilages containing bones kept long
enough in water, and then flit ; for the bone will, as
loon as the large veffels that enter its fubftance are di¬
vided, flip as eaiily, and perhaps eafier, from it than
an acorn does out of its cup : and there is a fmoothnefa
and poliih of the parts of both cartilage and bone,
which fhow there is no conjunttion of the fibres of the
two fubftances. While the bones are increaiing with..
in cartilages, the caitilages are extended and fpread
out ; by which, with the preffure which they fuffer,
and the gieat influx of various fluids, and the nutriti¬
ous matter being hindered to flow freely into them,
they decreafe continually, and at laft may truly be faid
to be entirely deftroyed. Dr Buddeus endeavours to
prove.
O S T [53
©flifragum prove, that the preternatural offifications, which are
ii commonly faid to be formed in different parts of the
Ofiend.' body, do not deferve that name ; for that thefe hard
u—v—~' fubftances have fcarce any other properties of bone ex¬
cept whitenefs and hardnefs.
OSSIFRA.GUM, in botany, a name given by Bar-
tholinus, and fome other writers, to a kind of grafs
which grows in fome parts of Norway. It comes up
early in the fpring, before any other grafs, and the
cattle are tempted to eat it ; but it emaciates them,
and renders them fickly : their back bones become
protuberant if they feed on it for any time ; and their
kgs fo weak that they can hardly go. The remedy
among the country people, which is a very curious
one, is this: They colleft the bones of different ani¬
mals, and break them into fmall pieces. The cattle
greedily devour this fort of food when offered them in
this difeafe, and there follows a fort of drivelling at the
mouth for a confiderabk time, after which they become
perfedfly well. It is poffible there may be much abfur-
dity in this ftory. The kingdom of Norway is full of
mines, and the effluvia of thefe may be the.occaiion of
the cattles illnefs, and the ceafing of thefe effluvia
their cure ; for it is not probable that either of thefe
effefts ihould be owing to the grafs or,the bones.
OSSORY, the welt divilion of Queen’s-county in
Ireland.
Gssory (Bale bifhop of). See Bale.
OSSUNA, an ancient and confiderable town of An-
dalufia in Spain, with an univerfity, an hofpital, and
the title of a duchy. N. Tat. 37. 8. W. Long. 4. 18.
OSTADE (Adrian Van),an eminent Dutch painter
born at Lubec in 1610. He was a difciple of Francis
Hals, in vvhofe fchool Brouwer was cotemporary with
him, where they contracted an intimate friendfhip.
The fubje&s of his pencil were always of a low kind,
he having nearly the fame ideas as Teniers; diverting
himfelf with clowns and drunkards in flables, ale-
houfes, and kitchens. His pictures are fo transparent
and highly finifhed, that they have the polifh andluftre
of enamel : they have frequently a force fup.erior to
Teniers ; vet it were to be wilhed that he had not de-
jigned his figures fo fflort. He is- perhaps one of the
Dutch matters who beft underftood the chiaro obfcuro;
and he .was often employed to paint figures for the bed
landfeape-painters of his count]ymen. He died in
1685. His works, efpecially thofe of his bell time
and manner, are very fearce ; fo that when they are to
be purchafed, no price is thought too much tor them.
His piints etched by himklf, large and fmall, cpnfift
of 54 pieces.
OSTALRIC, a town of Spain, in Catalonia. It
had a itrong cattle, but was taken by the French and
demoliflved in 1695. It is feated on the river Tordera,
in E. Long. 2.45. N. Lat. 24. 44.
OSTEND, a very ftrong fea port town of the
Netherlands, in Auftrian Flanders, with a good har¬
bour and a magnificent town-heufe. It is not very
large, but it is well fortified. It was much more con
fiderable, before the long liege of the; Spaniards, which
continued from 1601 to r '04, when it was aimed en¬
tirely reduced to athts. The Dutch loft 50,000 men,
and the Spaniards 80,00c. Ifabella Eugenia, gover-
nante of the Netherlands, made a vow file would net
3 ] O S T
thift her knock before Oftend furrendered ; but before Ofteocolia.
the town was taken it had greatly changed its colour. ~
However, the ladies of the court, tto keep her in
countenance, had theirs dyed, that they might be like
that of their miftrefs. This place was taken by the
Dutch in 1706, but reftored to the emperor in 1724,
when an Eaft India company was eftabliihcd here, but
entirely fuppreffed by treaty in 1731* ^ was taken
by the French in Auguft 1745, after ten days fiege,
but rendered back by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapede.
It was lately over-run by the French Republicans, with
Dumourier at their head, but was quickly recovered
by the junction of the allies, and is now in the hands
of the Emperor. It was thought to be in extreme
danger after the unfortunate affair at Dunkirkf ; butfSeptem-
that itorm having blown over, it appears now to beberI7y3*
perfectly fafe. It is ten miles W. of Bruges, eight
N. E. of Newport, 22 N. E. of Dunkirk, and 60
N. W. of Bruffels. E. Long. 3. 1. N. Lat. 51. 14.
OSTEOCOLLA, orEox.oAAa} in natural hiftory, a
white or afh-coloured fparry fubftance, in fflape like a
bone, and by fome fuppofed to have the quality of
uniting broken bones, on which account it is ordered
in fome platters ; a fuppofition we fear which is not
warranted by experience. It is found in long, thick,
and irregularly cylindric pieces, which are in general
hollow, but are fometimes filled up with a marly earth,
and fometimes contain within them the remains of a
Hick, round which the ofteocolla had been formed ;
but though it is plain from thence that many pieces oi
ofteocolla have been formed by incruftations round
flicks, yet the greater number are not fo, but are ir¬
regularly tubular, and appear to be formed of a flat
cake, rolled up in a cylindric thape. The crufts of
which theie are compofed do not form regular concen¬
tric circles round the internal cavity, as mull have been
the cafe had they been formed by incruilation. On
the other hand, they plainly (how that they were
once fo many thin flrata, competing a flat furface,
which has afterwards been rolled up, as one might do a
paper three or four times doubled, into two, three, or
more fpiral lines ; in which cafe, each fingle edge of
the paper would be everywhere a regular point of a
continued fpiial line drawn from a given point; but
they would by no means be fo many detached concen¬
tric circles.- Bhe ofteocolla is found of difleient iizes,
from that of a crow-quill to the thicknefs of a man’s
arm. It is.compofed of fand and earth, which may¬
be feparated by waffling the powdered ofteocolla with
water, and is found, both in digging and in feveral
brooks, in many parts of Germany, and elfewhere.
It is called hammofteus in many parts of Ger¬
many It has this name in thefe places from its always
growing in fand, never in clay, or any folid foil, nor
even in gravel. Where a piece of it any where appears
on the furface, they dig down for it, and find the
branches run ten or twelve feet deep. They ufiially run
ftraight down,but foroetimes they are found fprea ling
into many parts near the furiace, as if it were a fub-
terraneous tree, whofe main item began at 12 feet
depth, and thence grew up in a branched manner till
met by the open air. The main trunk is ufually as
thick as a man’s leg, and the branches that grow out
from it are thtckdi near the trunk, and thinner ag
they
O S T
T 534 j
O S T
Ofteocolla they feparate from it. The thinneft are about thefize
Ofteriald a man,s fingcr* The people employed to collect
. . ‘i it, when they cannot find any mark of it on the fur-
face, fearch after the fpecks of white or little lumps of
whitilh foft matter, which they find lying in variaus
parts on the top of the fand. Thefe always lead
them either to a bed of perfeft ofteocolla, or to fome
in the formation. If they mrfs of it, they Hill find a
fubftance like rotten wood ; which, when traced in
its courfe, is found to proceed from a main trunk, at
the depth of that of the ofteocolla, and to fpread it-
felf into branches in the fame manner. The diggers
call this fubftance the flower of ofteocolla or ham-
moftcus.
The ofteocolla found in the earth is at firft foft and
duftile ; but in half an hour’s time, if expofed to the
air, it becomes as hard as we find it in the fhops.
The method to take up a perfeft piece for a fpecimen
is to open the ground, clear away the fiand, and leave
it fo for an hour or thereabouts : in this time it will
harden, and may be taken out whole. It is certain,
that the ofteocolla is produced at this time ; for if a
pit be cleared of it, there will more grow there in a
year or two, only it will be fofter, and will not harden
fo eafily in the air as the other. What the rotten fub¬
ftance refembling the decayed branches of trees is, we
cannot determine, unlefs it really be fuch ; but the opi¬
nion of the common people, that it is the root of
fomething, is abfurd, btcaufe its thickelt part always
lies at the greateft depth, and the branches all run up¬
wards. The ofteocolla is a marly fpar, which concretes
round this matter; but what it is that determines it
to concrete nowhere on the fame ground but about
thefe branches, it is difficult to fay. The rottennefs
of this fubftance, which forms the bafis of the ofteo¬
colla, renders it very liable to moulder and fall away ;
and hence it is that we ufually fre the ofteocolla hol¬
low. Sometimes it is found folid ; but in this cafe
there will be found to have been a vegetable matter
ferving as its bafts, and inftead of one branch, it will
be found in this cafe to have concreted about a num¬
ber of fibres, the remains of which will be found in
it on a clofe examination. See Philof. Tranf. n° 39.
OSTEOLOGY, that part of anatomy which treats
of the bones. See Anatomy, Part I.
OSTERVALD (John Frederick), a famous Pro-
•teftant divine, was born at Neufchattel in 1663 * an<^
made fuch rapid progrefs in his ftudies, that he be¬
came mafter of arts at Saumur before he was 16 years
of age. He afterwards ftudied at Orleans and at Pa¬
ris. At his return to Neufchattel in 1699, he be¬
came pallor of the church there ; and contra&ed a
ilridl friendlhip with the celebrated John Alphonfus
Turretin of Geneva, and the illuftrrous Samuel We-
renfels of Bafil. The union of thefe three divines,
which was called the Triumvirate of the divines of
Swlflerland, lalted till his death. Mr Oftervald ac¬
quired the higheft reputation by his virtues, his zeal
in inftrufting his difciples, and reftoring eccltfiaftical
difeipline. He wrote many books in French ; the
principal of which are, r. A Treatife concerning the
Sources of Corruption, which is a good moral piece.
2. A Catechifm, or Inftru&ion in the Chriftian Reli¬
gion ; which has been itranflated into German, Dutch,
and Englilh ; and the Abridgment ©f the Sacred Hi-
ftory, which he prefixed to it, was tranflated and print¬
ed in Arabic, in order to be fent to the Eaft Indies,
by the care of the Society for the Propagation of the
Gofpel ; and that Society, eftablilhed in London, paid
him a high compliment, by admitting him an honorary
member. 3. A treatife againft Impurity. 4. An edi¬
tion of the French Bible of Geneva, with Argu¬
ments and RefleCliona, in folio. 5. Ethica Chrljllana.
6. Theologle Compendium, &c. He died in 1747, re¬
gretted by all who knew him.
OSTIA is a borough fituated at the mouth of the
Tiber, about 12 miles to the weltward of Rome. It
was built by Ancus Martius, the fourth king of Rome,
and was called OJha Tiberinci, in the plural number,
i. e. the two mouths of the Tyber, which were fepa-
rated by the Holy Ifiand, an equilateral triangle, whofe
Tides were each of them computed at about two miles.
The colony of Oftia was founded immediately beyond
the left or fouthern, and the port immediately beyond
the right or northern, branch of the river; and the
diftance between their remains meafures fometbing
more than two miles on Cingolani’s map. In the time
of Strabo, the fand and mud depofited by the Tyber
had choaked the harbour of Oftia ; the progrefs of
the fame caufe has added much to the fize of the Holy
Ifiand, and gradually left both Oftia and the port at a
confiderable diftance from the Ihore. The dry chan¬
nels (fiumi morti), and the large eftuaries (Jiagno di Po-
nente, de Levante'), mark the changes of the river, and
the efforts of the fea. Its port was one of the moft
ftupendous works of Roman magnificence, and it was a
long time one of the belt towns on the coalt ; but
having been deftroyed by the Saracens, and the har¬
bour choaked up, as mentioned above, it has not been
able fince to recover itfelf. Though it be an inconii-
derable place, and but poorly inhabited by reafon of
the badnefs of the air, yet it is the fee of a bifhop,
who is always deacon of the cardinals, and crowns
the Pope. The old Oftia, where you fee the ruins of
the ancient harbour, is beyond New Oftia, towards
the fea ; the latter is but a little clufter of houfes*
with a fmall caftle. It is 12 miles S. W. of Rome.
E. Long. 12. 24. N. Lat. 41. 44. There were falt-
works in Oftia;, called Salin* OJlienfes, as early as the
times of Ancus Martius (Livy) ; from which the Via
Salaria, which led to the Sabines, took its name,
(Varro). It gave name to one of the gates of Rome,
which was called OJlienfis (Ammian).
OSTIACKS, a people of Siberia in Alia. They
live upon the banks of the rivers Oby and Jenifay, and
on thofe of fome other rivers which fall into thefe.
Thefe people are very poor, and very lazy, and in the
fummer-time live moftly upon filh. They are of a
middle fize, with broad faces and nofes, and yellowifh
or red hair. All their garments from top to toe are
made of fifh flrins; for they have neither linen nor
woollen ; and indeed they might almotl as well go
naked. Their greateft diverfion is hunting ? and they
go together in crowds, with a weapon like a large
knife faftened in a ftick. In fummer they take and
dry the fifti which ferves them in winter ; and when
that feafon begins, they go into the woods with their
bows and arrows, their dogs and nets, to kill fables,
ermines, bears, rein-deer, elks, martens, and foxes.
Part of the furs of thefe is paid as a tax to the emprefs
of
mia,
Ouiackj.
O S T
Ofttack*. of Ruflla, and the reft are fold at a ftated price to the
‘'“"’-v”—^ Ruffian governors, but fometimes they are allowed to
difpofe of them to private perfons*
They chiefly live upon venifon, wild-fowl, fifh, and
roots, for they have neither rice nor bread. They drink
for the moft part water, and it is faid they can very
well rclilh a draught of train oil. They arc immode¬
rately fond of tobacco, and of fwallowing the fmoke,
which foon intoxicates them. In the winter they build
their huts in woods and forefts, where they find the
greateft plenty of game, and dig deep in the earth to
fecure themfelves from the cold, laying a roof of bark
or rufhes over their huts, which are foon covered with
fnow. In fummer they build above ground on the
banks of the rivers, to enjoy the convenience of fifh-
ing, and make no difficulty of forfaking their habita¬
tions. They have a fort of princes among them, in
one of whofe houfes fome European travellers found
four wives (a). One ofthefe had a red cloth coat on,
and was fet off with all forts of glafs beads. There
was no other furniture than cradles and chefts, made
of the bark of trees fewed together. Their beds
confided of wood-fiiavings, almoft as foft as feathers,
and their children lie naked upon them in cradles.
They can neither read nor write, nor do they culti¬
vate the land ; and feem totally ignorant of times pad.
They have neither temples nor priefts ; and their boats
are only made of the bark of trees fewed together.
Their religion is Pagan ; and they have fome little
brazen idols, tolerably well caft, reprefenting men and
animals, made of wood and earth, all of which are
drefied in filks, in the manner of Ruffian ladies. In
general, however, they are ill made every man be¬
fog his own carver. They place them on the tops of
hills, in groves, and in the pleafanteft places their
country affords, and fometimes before their huts ; yet
they have no fet time for performing religious worlhip,
but apply to their gods for fuccefs in all their under¬
takings. As they have no regular priefts, every old
man may devote himfelf to that fervice, and the office
is frequently performed by the matters and heads of
families. Strahlenberg fays, that when he was among
them he faw one of their temples, which was built of
wood in an oblong form like a great barn, covered at
the top with birch-bark. At the end of the wall fup-
porting the gable was a kind of altar, made of timber*
nn which were placed two idols, reorefenting a man
and woman dreffed in all forts of rags ; and round
thefe were other fmall figures, as deer, foxes, and
hares, all which were roughly carved in wood, and al-
fo clothed in rags. They c^id not appear to have
much devotion, nor any great reverence for their idols.
When they offer facrifices, they prefent the beaft to
the idol; and having bound it, an old man puts up
the petitions of thofe who brought the offering; he
then lets fly an arrow at the beaft, and the people af-
fill in killing it. It is then drawn three times round
O S T
the idol ; and the blood being received into a veffft, Oftraeks
they fprinkle it on their houfes ; they afterwards drefa H.
the flefti and eat it, rejoicing and finging their country Q(tr^c‘fini
fongs : they alfo befmear the idol with the blood of
the facrificc, and greafe their mouths with the fat.
What they cannot eat they carry hdme to their fami¬
lies, and make prefents of it to their neighbours: they
as often facrifice a fifh as a beaft. At the conclufion
of the feaft they fhout, to fhow their gratitude to the
idol for his attending and accepting their devotions; for
they are perfuaded that the faint or hero reprefented
by the image always attends their facrifices, which
when over he returns to his abode in the air. There
is nothing more furprifing, nor, if properly improved,
is there any thing more inftrufting, than the hiftory
of fuperftition. It is with this view that we have given
fo enlarged a view of the Oftiacks, longer, fome may
imagine, than their importance demands. It would,
however, in our opinion, be improper to let fuch an
opportunity flip of exhibiting the extreme weaknefs of
unaffifted reafon, and the confequent neceffity of a di¬
vine revelation. That the religion of thefe ignorant
and mifguided Pagans is the corruption of a primitive
revelation, we think at leaft probable ; nor do we fee
any way of fo fatisfa&orily accounting for the univerfal
ufe of facrifices. The Oftiacks are obliged to take an
oath of fidelity to the Ruffian government; and on
thefe occafions they ufe the following ceremony. Af¬
ter laying down a bear fkin and an axe, and holding
over it a piece of bread on a knife, they fay, “ In
cafe 1 do not to my life’s end prove true and faithful
to the fupreme government of the country, or if I
knowingly and willingly break through my allegiance,
or be wanting in the.duty 1 owe to the faid fupreme
government, may the bear tear me to pieces in the
wood ; may the bread I eat ftick in my throat, and
choak me ; may the knife ftab me, and the axe cut off
my head.” The like ceremony is ufed among them
in the depofition of a witnefa.
OSTRACION, in zoology, a genus of the amphi¬
bia nantes clafs. It has ten long cylindrical obtufe
teeth in each jaw ; the aperture is linear; the body is
covered with a bony fubftance, and it has no belly-
fins. There are nine fpecies ; principally diftinguifhed
by the angles of their bodies, and number of fins near
their tail.
OSTRACISM, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the
banifitment of fuch perfons whofe merit and influence
gave umbrage to the people of Athens, left they Ihould
attempt any thing againft the public liberty. This
punifttment was called o/?nr«/OT, from the Greek word
orfa-iov, which properly fignifies a “ fliell ;” but when
applied to this objeft, it is ufed for the billet on which
the Athenians wrote the names of the citizens whom
they intended to baniih. The learned are divided with
regard to the fubftance of which this billet was form¬
ed : fome. infill that it was a fmall ftone, or a piece of
brick;
r 535 T
(a) They may have as many wives as they pleafe, and make no ftruple of marrying their neareft relations.
They purchafe a wife of her relations for three or four rein-deer, and take as many as they pleafe, returning them
again if they do not like them, only lofing what they gave for the putchafe. Upon the birth of their chil¬
dren, fome give them the name of the firft creature they happen to fee afterwar.d. Thus the child has fre¬
quently the name of an animal, and you hear a man call his fon perhaps Sabatjh, or my little dog ; other*
call their children according to the order of their birth, as Firjl, Second, Third, See.
O S T
[ 536 ]
O S T
..Oflradfin, brick; fome that it was a piece of bark 5 and others
12 v ' afiert, that it was a {hell. The word admits moil of
thefe interpretations. But what determines its true
fenfe, is the epithet given it by ancient authors, of
ceramite mnjlix ; which words fignify., “ The punifh-
. nient of potter’s clay and this exprefiion feems to
us a proof, that the word orpaxov, when applied on this
.occafion, iignities a “ piece of baked earth, in the form
.of a (hell;” and undoubtedly the Latin authors had
this idea of the word here, for they tranflated it by
tefiu/a.
The ancients are like-wife divided with regard to the
time when oflracifm was inftituted- But they all agree,
that, the perfon who moved the law was its hrft vic¬
tim. But as to the name of its patron, and the time
of its eftablifhment, they differ extremely. Many are
of opinion, that oftracifm owes its origin to very re¬
mote times.
However that be, the punifhment of oftracifm was
inflidted by the Athenians when their liberty was in
danger. If, for inftance, jealoufy or ambition had
lowed difcotd among the chiefs of the republic; and if
different parties were formed, which threatened fome
revolution in the (late; the people affembled to propofe
meafures proper to be taken in order to prevent the
confequences of a divifion which in the end might be
fatal to freedom. Oftracifm was the remedy to which
they ufually had recourfe on thtfe occafrons ; and the
confukations of the people generally terminated with a
decree, in which a day was fixed for a particular af-
fembly, when they were to proceed to the fentence of
oftracifm. Then they who were threatened with ba-
nifhment, omitted no affiduity or art which mitjht
gain them the favour of the people. They made ha¬
rangues to evince their innocence, and the great inju-
fiice that would be done them if they were baniihed.
They folicited, in perfsn, the interelt of every citizen ;
all their party exerted themfelvesin their behalf; they
procured informers to vilify the chiefs of the oppofite
fiadtion. Some time before the meeting of the affem-
bfy, a wooden rnclofure was raifed in the forum, with
ten doors, i. e. with as many as there were tribes in
the republic ; and when the appointed day was come,
the citizens of each tribe entered at. their refpedb’ve
door, and threw into the middle of the inclofure the
fmall brick on which the citizen’s name was written
whofe bamfhment they voted. The archons and the
fenate prefided at this affembly, and counted the bil¬
lets. He who was condemned by 6oco of his fellow-
citizens, was obliged to quit the city within ten days;
for 6000 voices, at leaft, were requifite to baniftt an
Athenian by oftracifm.
The Athenians, without doubt, forefaw the incon-
•veniences to which this law was fubjedft ; but they
chofe rather, as Cornelius Neposv hath remarked, fome-
times to expofe the innocent to an unjuft cenfure, than
to live in continual alarms. Yet as they were fenfible
that the injuftice of confounding virtue and vice would
have been too flagrant, they foftened, as much as
they could, the rigour of oflracifm. It was not ag¬
gravated with the circumftances which were moft dif-
honournble and fhocking in the ordinary mode of
exile. They did not confifcate the goods of thofe
who were banifhed by oftracifm. They enjoyed the
•produce of their effedls in the places into which they
N0 254.
were baniihed; and they were banifhed only for a Oflracifm.
certain time. But in the common banifhment, the y
goods of the exiles were always confifcated, and no
hopes were given them of ever returning to Athens.
The feholiaft of Ariftophanes informs us of a third
difference betwixt oflracifm and the common baniih-
ment. He fays, that a particular place of retirement
was affigned to thofe who were baniihed by oftracifm,
which was not appointed to the other exiles. Wefuf-
peff, however, the truth of this obfervation ; fo/ The*
miftocles was certainly not limited in his banifhment.
That great man, as we are told by Thucydides, tho'
his chief refidence was at Argi, travelled over all the
Peloponnefus.
This punifhmest, far from conveying the idea of
infamy, became, at Athens, a proof of merit, by the
objedfs on which it was inflidfed ; as Ariftides the fo-
phifl: juftly obferves, in his fecond declamation againft
the Gorgias of Plato, where he fays, that oftracifm
was not an effedc of the vindidfive fpirit of the people
againft thofe whom it condemned; that the law, whe¬
ther good or bad (for he enters not into an examina¬
tion of the qneftion), was only meant to prune the
luxuriant growth of tranfeendent merit ; that it con¬
demned to an exile of ten years, only thofe illuftrious
men who were accufcd of being exalted far above
other citizens by their confpicuous virtue ; and that
none of that public indignation was fhown to the exiles
by oftracifm, which commonly breaks out againft cri¬
minals.
Such were the mitigations with which this law was
Introduced among the Athenians: and by them we fee
that they were fenfible of all the inconveniences to
which it was fubjedt. They were indeed too enlight¬
ened a people, not to forefee the many inftances of in¬
juftice which it might produce ; that if in fome re*
fpedts it would be favourable to liberty, in others it
would be its enemy, by condemning citizens without
allowing them a previous defence, and hy making a
capricious and envious people arbiters of the fate of
great men ; that it might even become pernicious to
the ftate, by depriving it of its bed fubjedfs, and
by rendering the adminiftration of public affairs an
odious employment to men of capital talents and
virtue.
However great the inconveniences of oftracifm
were, it would not have been impoffible to avoid them;
and we may add, that this law would have been of
fervice to the ftate, if the people by whom it was in¬
ftituted had always had difeernment enough only to
give it force on fuch ©ccafions as endangered liberty.
But its fate was like that of almoft all other laws which
the wifeft legiflators have planned for the good of com¬
munities. Deftined hy. their iaftitution to maintain
order, to reprefs injuftice, and to protedf innocence,
men have found ways to pervert their application, and
have made them inftruments to gratify their private
paffions. Thus oftracifm was eftablifhed to prevent
the dangerous enterprifes of the great, and to preferve
the vigour of the democracy ; but the people of A-
thene, naturally jealous and envious, exerted that law,
to remove men of eminent merit from the ftate, by
whofe prefence they were reproved and intimidated.
The fear of tyranny was commonly but a fpecious
pretext with which they veiled their malignity. The
5 repeated
O S T [
Oftfaci'es, repeated vi&orles which they had gained over the Per-
oftrea- fnnp, had rendered them, fays Plutarch, proud and
^ ”v infolent. Intoxicated with their profperity, they arro¬
gated all its glory to themfelves ; they were jealous of
thofe citizens whofe political and military talents were
the ful jefts of public eulogium. They thought the
glory acquired by great men diminifned their own re¬
putation. An Athenian no fooner diftinguilhed himfelf
by a fplendid a&ion, than he was marked out as a vic¬
tim by public envy. His reputation was a fufficient
reafon for Ivs banifliment.
OSTR ACITES, in natural hiftory, a name ufed
for the foible oyfters, common in many parts of Eng¬
land. They are of various lhapes and kinds ; and
the name is by fome authors made to fignify the fhell
itfelf, when preferved in its native date and condition;
as is the cafe with thofe about Woolwich and Black-
heath ; and by others, the ftones call; or formed in
thofe /hells, or in cavities from whence they have been
wadied away and difiblved : in both thefe cafes the
ftone carries the exaft refemblance of the /hell, even
in its niceft lineaments ; in the firft cafe, bearing
every mark of the infid’e, in the other of the outer
furface. We have this ftone in great plenty in many
parts of England; and it is very famous, in fome
places, for its virtues in cafes of the gravel, and the
like complaints.
OSTREA, the oyster, in zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftacea. The /hell has
two unequal valves; the cardo has no teeth, but a fmall
hollowed one with tranfverfe lateral ftreaks. There are
f 31 fpecies, principally diftinguifhed by peculiarities
■ccctxix. >n their /hells. The common oyfter is reckoned an
excellent food ; and is eaten both raw and varioufly
prepared. The chara&er of the genus, in the words
of Barbut, is, “ The animal a tetbys ; the /hell bivalve,
nnequivalve, with fomething like ears; the binge
void of teeth, with a deep oval hole, and tranfverfe
ftreaks on the fides. There is no womb nor anus.”
The genus is divided into four families, of which
oftrea is the laft. See Pectuns. The fame author
gives us the following enlarged account of the oyfter.
“ This fea-h/h occupies in the feale of nature one
of the degrees the moft remote from perfe&ion ;
deftitute of defenfive weapons and progreffive mo¬
tion, without art or induftiy, it is reduced to mere
vegetation in perpetual imprifonment, though it every
day opens regularly to enjoy the element neceffary to
its prefervation. The animal figure, and the fprings
of its organization, are fcaroe difcernible through the
coarfe and ftispelcfs mafs ; a ligament placed at the
fmumit of the /hell ferves as an arm to its operations.
Oyfters are reputed to he hermaphrodites; the fpawn
which they caft in Msy adheres to the rocks and
other matters at the bottom of the fta; and in the
fpace of 24 hours is provided with /hells, in which
are contained other oyfters, that never leave the fpot
on which they were fixed, till the greedy fifherman
tears them from the element. The green oyfters eaten
at Paris are commonly brought from Dieppe. Their
colour is owing to the care taken to bed them in
creeks, encompuffed with verdure, whence they ac¬
quire their delicacy. Common oyfters fhould be fre/h,
tender, and moift. The moft efteemed are thofe
caupht at the mouth of rivers, and in clear water.
Vol. XIII. Parc II.
;j7 1 O S T
Great account is made of oyflers from Brittany, but Oflrei.
ftiil greater of thofe that come from Marennes in ‘ " v ™
Saintonge. Preference is given to thofe that are
edged with fmall brown fringe, or beard, which epi¬
cures call fecundated oyflers • but that thofe are fe¬
males is a mifiake. The want of frefn water renders
oyhers hard, bitter, and unpalatable. Mud and fea-
weeds deftroy them in their very birth ; galangal
root, mufcles, fcollops, fea-ftars, and crabs, are for¬
midable enemies to the oyfter. There are found in
Spain red and ruftet coloured oyfters ; in Illyria,
brown coloured, with the flelh black ; and in the Red
Sea, of the colour of the Iris. Oyfters ©f the mangle-
tree are of two forts ; thofe of St Domingo are
delicate, adhering to the flumps of the trees that dip
in the water. The negro divers cut them off with a
bill, and they are ferved upon table with the roots.”
Britain has been noted for oyfters from the time of
Juvenal, who, fatyrizing Montanus an epicure, fays,
Circa is nata forent, an
Lucrinum adfaxum, Rutupine'&e edila fundot
OJlrcay callebat primo deprendere morfu.
He, whether Circe’s rock his oyfters bore,
Or Lucrine lake, or diftant Richborough’s/bore,
Knew at firft tafte.
The luxurious Romans were very fond of this
filh, and had their layers or ftews for oyfters as we
have at prefent. Sergius Grata was the firft inventor,
as early as the time of L. Cra/fus the orator. He did Zos/.
not make them for the fake of indulging his appetite,'0* !V'
but thro’ avarice, and made great profits from them.P’I02,
Grata got great credit for his Lucrine oyfters ; for,
fays Pliny, the Britiih were not then known.
The ancients eat them raw, having them carried up
unopened, and generally eating them at the beginning
of the entertainment, but fometimes roafted. They
had alfo a cuftom of /tewing them with mallows and
ducks, or with fifh, and efteemed them very nourilh-
ing-
Britain ftiil keeps its fuperiority in oyfters over
other countries. Moft of our coafts produce them
naturally ; and in fuch places they are taken by dred¬
ging, and are become an article of commerce, both
raw and pickled. The very /hells, calcined, become
an ufeful medicine as an abforbent. In common with
other /hells, they prove an excellent manure.
Stews or layers of oyfters are formed in places
which nature never allotted as habitations for them.
Thofe near Colchefter have been long famous; at pre¬
fent there are others that at leaft rival the former, near
the mouth of the Thames. The oyfters, or their fpats,
are brought to convenient places, where they improve
in tafte and iize. It is an error to fuppofe, that the
tine green obferved in oyfters taken from artificial beds,
is owing to copperas; it being notorious how deftruc-
tive the fubftance or the folution of it is to all fi/li. We
cannot give a better account of the caufe, or of the
whole treatment of oyfters, than what is preferved in
the learned bi/hop Sprat’s hiftory of the Royal So¬
ciety, from p. 307 to 309.
“ In the month of May, the oyfters caft their fpawn,
(which the dredgers call their /pats) ; it is like to a
drop of candle, and about the bignefa of a half-
3 Y penny
O S T
r
eftrea. penny. The fpat cleaves to (tones, old oylter-jhells,
pieces of wood, and fuch like things, at the bottom
of the fea, which they call cultch. It is probably
conjeaured, that the fpat in 24 hours begins to have
a (hell. In the month of May, the dredgers (by the
law of the admiralty court) have liberty to catch all
manner of oyftera, of what fize foever. When they
have taken them, with a knife they gently raife the
fmall brood from the clutch, and then they throw
the cultch in again, to preferve the ground for the
future, unlefs they be fo newly fpat, that they can¬
not be fafely fevered from the cultch ; in that cafe
they are permitted to take the Hone or (hell, &c. that
the fpat is upon, one (hell having many times 20
fpats. After the month of May, it is felony to carry
away the cultch, and punifhable to take any other
eyfters, unlcfs it be thofe of fize, (that is to fay) about
the bignefs of an half-crown piece, or when, the two
(hells being (hut, a fair (hilling will rattle between
them.
“ The places where thefe oyders are chiefly catch-
ed, are called the Pent-Burnharv,y Malden, and Colne
•waters ; the latter taking its name from the river of
Colne, which pafieth by Colchefler, gives name to
that town, and runs into a creek of the fea,^ at a
place called the Hyfhe, being the fuburbs of the
town. This brood and other oyfters they carry to
the creeks of the fea, at Brickelfea, Merfy, Langno,
Fingrego, W^ivenho, Tolefbury, and Saltcoafe, and
there throw them into the channel, which they call
their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten ; and
in two or three years the fmalleft brood will be oyflers
of the fize aforefaid. Thofe oyfter& which they would
have green, they put into pits about three feet deep
in the falt-mardies, which are overflowed only at
fpring-tides, to which they have fluices, and let out
the falt-water until it is about a foot and half deep.
Thefe pits, from fome quality in the foil co-operating
with the heat of the fun, will become green, and
communicate their colour to the oyfters that are put
into them in four or five days, though they commonly
let them continue there fix weeks or two months, in
which time they will be of a dark green. (o prove
that the fun operates in the greening, Tolefbury pits
will green only in fummer; but that the earth hath
the greater power, Brickelfea pits green both winter
and fummer : and for a further proof, a pit within
a foot of a greening-pit will not green ; and. thofe
that did green very well, will in time lofe their qua¬
lity. The oyflers, when the tide comes in, lie with
their hollow (hell downwards ; and when it goes out,
they turn on the other fide : they remove not from
their place, unlefs in cold weather, to cover themfelves
in the oufe. Tbe reafon of the fcarcity of oyfters,
and confequently of their dearnefs, is, becaufe they
are of late years bought up by the Dutch.
“ There are great penalties by the admiralty court
laid upon thofe that fifh out of thofe grounds which
the court appoints, or that deftroy the cultch, or that
take any oyfters that are not of fize, or that do not
tread under their feet, or throw upon the (hore, a fifh
which they call a Jive Jnger, refembling a fpur-rowl,
becaufe that fifh gets into the oyfters when they gape,
and fucks them out.
“ The resfon that fuch a penalty is fet upon any
538 1 O S T
that (hall deflroy the cultch, is, becaufe they find Oftrea,
that if that be taken away, the oufe will increafe,
and the mufclts and cockles will breed there, and de-
ftvoy the oyfters, they having not whereon to ftick
their fpat.
“ The oyfters are fick after they have fp-’t; but in
June and July they begin to mend, and in Auguft
they are perfe&iy well : the male oyfter is black fick,,
having a black fubftance in the fin; the female white-
fick (as they term it), having a milky fubftance in the
fin. They are fait in the pits, falter in the layers, but
(alteft at fea.”
The oyfter affords the curious in microfcopic obfer-
vations a very pleafing entertainment. In the clear li¬
quor many little round living animalcules have been
found, wdiofe bodies being conjoined, form fpherical
figures, with tails, not changing their place otherwife
than by finking to the bottom, as being heavier than
the fluid ; thefe have been feen frequently feparating,
and then coming together again. In other oyfters,
animalcules of the fame kind were found, not conjoin¬
ed, but fwimining by one another, whence they feem-
ed in a more perfeft ftate, and were judged by Mr
Leeuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or femen
of the oyfter.
A female oyfter being opened, incredible multitudes
of fmall embryo oyfters were feen, covered with little
(hells, perfeftly tranfparent, and fwimming along (low¬
ly in the liquor; and in another female, the young
ones were found of a browner colour, and without any
appearance of life or motion.
Monfieur Joblot alfo kept the water running from
oyfters three days, and it appeared full of young oy¬
fters fwimming about nimbly in it; theie increafed in 1
fize daily ; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vi--
negar, killed them.
In the month of Auguftoyfters are fuppofed to breedp,
becaufe young ones are then found in them. Mr Leeu¬
wenhoek, on the 4th of Auguft, opened an oyfter, and
took out of it a prodigious number of minute oyfters,
all alive, and fwimming nimbly about in the liquor,
by means of certain exceeding frnall organs, extending
a little way beyond their (hells; and thefe he calls their
beards. In thefe little oyfters, he could difeover the
joinings of the (hells; and perceived that there were
fome dead ones, with their (hells gaping. Thefe, tho5
fo extremely minute, are feen to be as like the large
oyfters in form as one egg is to another.
As to th6 fize of them, he computes, that 120 of
them in a row wTould extend an inch ; and confe¬
quently, that a globular body, whofe diameter is an
inch, would, if they were alfo round, be equal to
1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are
in one oyfter, and found many of the embryo oyfters
among the bairds ; fome fattened thereto by (lender
filaments, and others lying loofe : he like wife found
animalcules in the liquor 500 times lefs than the em*
bryo oyfters.
It is not very uncommon to fee on oyfter-fhells,
when in a dark place, a (hining matter or blui.h light,
like a flame of brimftone, which (ticks to the fingers
when touched, and continues (tuning and giving light
for a conftderable time, though without any fenfible
heat. This Alining matter being examined with a mi-
crofcope, was found to coniift of three forts of animal-
^ culesj
o s w
cute* 5 t!ie firft whitUh, and having 24. or 25 legs on
II a fide, forked, a black fpeck on one part of the head,
«,M- ^ the back like an eel with the fkin ftripped off. The
fecond fort, red, refembling the common glow-worm,
with folds on its back, but legs like the former ; a
nofe like a dog’s, and one eye in the head. The third
fort, fpeckled. with a head like a foie, with many tufts
, of whitilh hairs on the fides of it. Some much larger
and greyilh might be feen, having great heads, two
horns like a fnail’s, and fix or eight whitiih feet; but
thefe did not feem to fhine.
OSTRICH. in zoology. See Struthto.
OSTROVIZZA, in Dalmatia (fee Dalmatia),
which fome would have the fame as Arauzona, and
others the Stlupi of the ancients, though probably it
has no connexion with either the one or the other.
It was purchafed in 1410 by the republic of Venice,
for 5000 ducats, and fome pieces of land befid s. Its
fortrefs, which was feated on a rock, perpendicularly
cut all round, and defervediy reckoned impregnable
before the ufe of artillery, was taken by Soliman in
1524, but foon after returned under the dominion of
\ enice. At prefent, no traces of its fortification re¬
main, and it is only a bare and ifolated mafs. There
are fome natural curiofities about the place.
OSTUN1, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Napl es, and in the Terra di Otranto, with a bifhop’s
fee. Its territory is well cultivated, and abounds with
«lives and almonds. It is feated on a mountain near
the Gulph of Venice, in E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat.
49. 59.
OSWEGO, a fort of North America, feated on the
Couth fide of the lake Ontario, in W. Long. 70. 35.
N. Lat. 45. 15.
OSWEIZEN, a towm of Poland, in the palatinate
of Cracovia, with the title of a duchy. It carries on
a great trade in fait, and is feated on the river Villula.
E. Long. 19. 47. N. Lat. 50. 1.
OSWESTRY, in the county of Salop, in England,
J72 miles from London, is a very old town, with a
caftle, a wall, and a ditch, and was anciently a borough.
It is a place celebrated in Saxon hiftory and legendary
piety. On this fpot, Auguft 5, 642, w'as fought the
battle between the Chriftian Ofwald kipg of the North¬
umbrians and the pagan Penda king of the Mercians, in
which Ofwnld was defeated, and loft his life. The
barbarian viftor cut the body of the flain prince in
pieces, and ftuck them on flakes difperfcd over the
field as fo many trophies ; but, according to others,
bis head and hands only were thus expofed. A prince
fo dear to the church as Ofwald, and fo attached to
the profefTors of the monaftic life, received every poft-
humous honour they could bellow. Pie was raifed to
the rank of a faint, and his fan&ity confirmed by
numbtrlefs miracles, which are too numerous and
too trifling to admit of particular defcription. Its
church, which is oi- no great antiquity, was formerly a
monafttry, and w s called Blancminlter. It is, how¬
ever, fptcious, and has a handfome plain tower. In
the years 1542 and 1567, this town fuffered much by
fire. It is governed by two bailiffs, burgeffes, &c.
and once drove a great trade in Welch cottons and
flannels, which is now very much eciyed. There is
now fcarce a tolerable houfe tor travellers. But be-
fidea a good grammar fchool, it h noted for an excel-
C 539 1
O S Y
lent chanty-fchool for 40 boys, befidcs girls, which Oftvefiryj
has the beft methods for exciting the emulation of the Ofyman-
children in their learning ; for 20 of the boys are fet . f
to ft rive againft 20 others for fhoes, and the 20 who
perform their talk beft have fhoes firft ; then 10 of
the boys are fet againft 10 others for the like pre¬
mium, and fo on till they are all fhod : fo in the girls
fchool a fhift is put up for the beft fpinner, a head-
drefs for the beft fempftrefs, a pair of ftockings for the
beft knitter, a bi! le for the beft reader, and a copy*
book fur the beft writer. In the wall with which the
town was fortified there were four gates. That called
the Block-gate is demolifhed ; the New-gate, Willow-
gate, and the Beatrice-gate, ftill remain. The Lift,
is a handfome building, with a guard-room on both
fides. There are only two fragments of the caftle re¬
maining. It flood on an artificial mount, furrounded
by a foflV, extending to the Willow-gate.
OSYMANDES, a famous king of Egypt, was,
according to fome authors, the firft monarch who col-
leded a great number of books for the purpofe of
farming a library. fo this curious colleftion he gave
the title of Pharmacy of the Soul. Of all the monu¬
ments of the kings of Thebes, that of Ofyrr.andcs 13
one of the moft magnificent. He appears (fays an
elegant author) to have been a prince of great elegance
and tafte in his day. Diodorus Siculus deferibes ^
many fumptuous edifices ereded by him; among thofe'01*
edifices his palace or maufoleum, whichfoever it was,
has been eminently diftinguifhed for the paintings and
fculptures with which it was adorned. When we look
to the fubjeds of thofe works, we fhall have ceafon to
think that no man in any age could difeover a fairer
and more enlightened judgment than he did in the
employment of the genius around him, which was not
tamely devoted to dull or contraded objeds, nor la-
vifhed on fecnes of favage life, nor wholly engrofled in
allufions to himfclf, but fenhbly enlarged to a variety
of contemplation w'hich might become a great fove-
reign ; and in each of thofe parts the fubject was
charaderiflically great.
“ * ^ one place was reprefented, in a multitude of* Died. Sic,
fculptures, his expedition againft the Badrians, al. 1. p. 45.
people of Afia, whom he had invaded with 400,000edit-Rll°"
foot, and 20,000 horfe, and whom he conquered.
another part was difplayed the variety of fruits and
produdions, with which Pan, the great fource of all
things, had enriched the fertile land over which Ofy-
m :ndes reigned. A third group of figures repre¬
fented the monarch himfclf, as the high prieft of the
country, offering to the gods the gold and filver which
he drew every year from the mines of Egypt. In
another part of the edifice was exnibited, in an infinite
number of figures, an aflembly of judges, in the rnidft
of a great audience attentive to their decifions ; the
prelident, or chief of thofe judges, furrounded by
many books, wore on his breaft a pidure of truth wifh
her eyes fhut—thofe emphatic emblems, beyond which
no age could go for the impreflion of that wifdom and
impartiality which ought to prevail ia adminiftrative
juft ice. ”
In short, we cannot without aftonifhment read the
account which Diodorus Siculus gives of the alraoft
incredible magnificence of this prince, and of the im-
znenfe fumj which he fpent upon thofe grand worksc
3X2 Araonglt
Oiy man-
ties
II
Otaheitee
OTA ’[ 54° 3 OTA
Amon'-ft a variety of other furprifmg cunofitles, was manner that fome violent concufllon would naturally Otaheftce*
to be fecn a llatue in the attitude of fitting, which leave the folid fubftance of the earth; and Mr Forfter    
was the largeft m all Egypt, the length of one of the law a rock with projecting longitudinal angles of black
feet beinp- feven cubits. Not only the art of the comp-id baialtes. The exterior ranges of hills aie
fculptor but alfo the beauty of the Hone which was fometimes entirely barren, and contain a great quan-
perfc ft In its kind, contributed to render this a mafter- tity of yellowilh clay, mixed with iron ochre; but
piece of fculpture. It bore the following infcription: others are covered with mould and wood like the moun-
- -    ’ -n vr tains in the internal parts of the country. Pieces of
4 Rol¬
lin' /tic.
Hijl.
$ Marjham
I'- 403-
G ouguet,
vol. ii.
p. 141.
1
Appear¬
ance of the
country.
J am (JSYM/INDES, king of kings ; whoever will dif
pule with me this titles let him furpafs me in any of my
works.
Indeed (to ufe the words of the fame elegant author
quoted above) “ the palace or maufoleutn of this ac-
complifhed prince mull give us a linking affurance of
the progrefs which had been made in the arts at that
time-; whether he lived, as fome have thought f, the
immediate fucceifor of the firll Buliris, which was
fomewhat later than the period of Semiramis ; or,
as others have conceived fubfequent to Sefoflris,
which would be 400 years later. Diodorus Siculus,
who defcribes that edifice, fays nothing of the age in
which Ofymandes lived ; every opinion therefore on
that point muft be conje&ure. We fhall only remirk,
that there is nothing in the works of art in that edi¬
fice which fhould appear too much for the earlieft age
in which that monarch has been placed, when we look
back to what was done of thofe works in a period
full as early by Semiramis in Affyria.”
OTACOUSTIC instrument, or Auricular Y11 he,
an inftrument to facilitate the hearing. See Acou¬
stics, n° 25'.
OTAHEITEE,. a celebrated ifland of the South
Sea, fituattd in W. Long. 149. 13. S. Lat. 17. 46.
It was difcovered by Captain Wallis in 1767 ; after¬
wards Mr Bougainville touched here; and it was vifited
by Captain Cook in 1773 and 1774, who had in 1769
failed round the ifland in a boat to obfeive the tranfit
of Venus.
The ifland confifls of two diftindl kingdoms, which
are united by a narrow neck of land ; the larger be¬
ing called by the natives Tiarrabou, or Q-Taheitee-Nue;
the fmaller one Opoureonou, or O-Taheitee-Ete. 1 he
circumference of both iflands is about 40 leagues; the
larger kingdom being divided into 43 diftridts. The
country has a delightful romantic appearance. The
coaft, viewed from the fea, prefents a moft beautiful
profpeft, being elevated like an amphitheatre. The
ifland is fklrted with a reef of rocks, and towards the
fea is level, being covered with fruit-trees of various
kinds, particularly the cocoa-nut. At the diftance of
about three miles from the fhore, the country rifes in¬
to lofty hills that are covered with wood, and termi¬
nate in peaks, from which large rivers are precipitated
into the fea. The ftones everywhere appear to have
been burnt, not one being found which did not give
manifeft figns of fire ; fo that there is great reafon for
fuppofing that this and the neighbouring iflands are
either the {battered remains of a continent, or were
torn from rocks, which from the creation of the world
have been the bed of the fea, and thrown up in heaps
to a height which the waters never reach. What is
further extraordinary, the water does not gradually
grow {hallow as we approach the fhore, but is of im-
menfe depth clofe by the land ; and the iflands in this
neighbourhood are almofl everywhere furrounded by
reefs, which appear to be rude and broken in the
quartz are fometimes met with here ; but no indica¬
tions of precious minerals or metals of any kind have
been obferved, non only excepted.
The air is extremely healthy and pleafant; the heat
is not troublefome ; and freih meat will keep very well
for two days, and fifh one day. The winds do not
blow conftantly from the call, but generally a little
breeze from call to fouth-fouth-eaft. The tide rifes
very little ; and, being governed by the winds, is very
uncertain. |“ The climate," fays M. Bougainville, “ is
fo healthy, that notwichftanding the hard labour of the
fhips companies while on fhore, though the men were
continually in the water, and expofed to the meridian
fun, though they flept upon the bare foil, and in the
open air, none of them fell lick ; thole who were af¬
flicted with the feurvy, and were lent on fhore, regain¬
ed their llrength : although they were o Iiged to aflill
in the creating of a fort, and had icarce one uninter¬
rupted night, yet they were io far recovered in the fhort
fpaee of time they continued there, that they were af¬
terwards perfectly cured on board."
Notwithftanding the great height of the inland
mountains of Otaheitee, none of their rocks have the mountains,
appearance of barrenneis, every one of them being co¬
vered with woods. “ We hardly believed our eyes,"
fays M. de Bougainville, “ when we law a peak cover¬
ed with woods up to its highefl fummit, which rifes
above the level of tne mountains in the interior parts
of the fouthern quarter of this ifland. Its apparent
fize feemed to be more than 30 toiies in diameter, and
grew lefs in breadth as it role higher. At a dillance
it might have been taken for a pyramid of immenfe
height, which the hand of an able fculptor had adorn¬
ed with garlands and foliage.” One of the mates of
the Dolphin, with a party of marines and teamen, pe¬
netrated into the interior parts of the ifland ; and ha¬
ving afeended, with great difficulty, a mountain which
they fuppofed to be a mile high, they difcovered
mountains before them fo much higher, that with re-
fpect to them they feemed to be in a valley : towards
the fea the view was enchanting, the hdes of the hills
were beautifully clothed with wood, villages were
everywhere interfperfed, and the valleys between them
afforded a ftill richer profpedl; the houfes flood thicker,
and the verdure was more luxuriant; and Mr Forfler,
with other gentlemen, afeended to the fummic of one
of the highelt mountains in the ifland, from whence
they had a profpeCt of the ifland of Huahine, and
fome others lying at the dillance of 40 leagues ; from
which we may form fome judgment of the prodigious
height of that mountain. The view of the fertile plain
below them, and of a river making innumerable me¬
anders, was delightful in the higheit degree. The ve¬
getation on the upper part of the mountains was luxu¬
riant, and the woods confifted of many unknown forts
of trees and plants. 4
The foil of this ifland is a rich fat earth, of a black- Soil and
^produce >
5 ,
Animal?
OTA [ 54' 3 OTA
It produces fpontaneoufly, or with the no quadrupeds but dogs, hogs, and rats ; and for thefe 0t3h'^
• ■ * ‘ ^ laft the natives were faid to have a fcrupulous regard, v
infomuch that they would by no means kill them ;
however. Captain Cook, in 1773, turned about 14 cats
on the ifland, which have probably reduced the num¬
ber of thefe vermin. No fiogs, toads, feorpions, cen¬
tipedes, or any kind of ferpent, have been found here 2
the ants, however, are troublefome, but not very nu¬
merous. When the Endeavour firft arrived here in
j 769, the flies were found excefllvely troublefome;
but mufquetto nets and fly-flaps in forne meafure re¬
moved the inconvenience. Sydney Parkinfon, in his
journal, fays, that notwithftanding thefe flies are fo
great a nuifance, the natives, from a religious prin¬
ciple, will not kill them. But there is a llrange dif-
agreernent in the accounts ot different voyagers con¬
cerning this matter. For M. Bougainville fays, “ this
ifland is not infelted by thofe myriads of troublefome
infects that are the plague of other tropical countries.^
And Mr Foriter fays, “ not a gnat or mufquetto hum¬
med unpleafantly about us, or made us apprehenlive
of its bite.” This inconvenience muft therefore be felt
at certain feafons of the year, and in certain diftricts
of the country, more fenflbly than at other times and
places. . There is great variety of excellent fifli; and,
according to Aitctirou, a native who embarked with
M. de Bougainville, there are fea-fnakes on the fhore
of Otaheitee, whole bite is mortal. ^
The inhabitants of Otaheitee are a flout,, well-made, r)ercript-o;?
atlive, and comely peoplei The ftature of the-men, 0f the inha-
in general, is from five feet feven to five feet ten inch- bitants, &c,
es ; the talleft man feen by Captain Wallis meafured
fix feet three inches and a half; and Captain Cook,
in his fecond voyage, defcribes O-foo, the king of
Otaheitee, to be of that height. “ In order to paint
an Hercules or a Mars,” fays M. de Bougainville,
“ one could nowhere find fuch beautiful models.”
They are of a pale brown complexion; in general their
hair is black, and finely frizzled ; they have black
eyes, flat nofes, large mouths, and fine white teeth ;
the men wear their beards in many fafhions, all of them
plucking out a great part, and have prominent bellies.
Moft ot them fmell ftrong of the cocoa-nut oil. The
women in general are much fmaller, efpecially thofe
of the lower rank or tawtows, which is attributed to
their early and promifcuous intercourfe with the men;
whiift the better fort, who do not gratify their paf-
fions in the fame unbridled manner, are above the
middle ftature of Europeans. Their fldn is moft de¬
licately fmooth and foft; they have no colour in their
cheeks; their nofe is generally fomevvhat flat, but their
eyes are full of expreflion, and their teeth beautifully
even and white. “ The women,” fays M. de Bou¬
gainville, “ have features not lefs agreeable than the
generality of Europeans, and a fymmetry of body and
beautiful proportion of limbs which might vie with any
of them. The complexion of the men is tawny
but thofe who go upon the water are much more red
than thofe who live on fliore. Some have their hair
brown, red, or flaxen, in which they are exceptions
to all,,the natives of Afia, Africa, and America, who
have their hair black univerfally ; here, in the children
of both fexes, it is generally flaxen. The ftrongeft
expreffion is painted in the countenances of thefe peo¬
ple j their walk is graceful, and all their motions ara
■ - performed:
Otaheitee. iih colour , ,, . .
—v  flighted culture imaginable, a great variety of the
moft excellent fruits ; fuch as bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts,
bananas of 13 forts, plantains, potatoes, yams, a fruit
known here by the name ot jambu, and reckoned moft
delicious; fngar-canes, which the inhabitants eat raw;
ginger ; turmeric ; a root of the falep kind, called by
the inhabitantsa plant called ethee, of which the
root only is eaten ; a fruit that grows in a pod like
that of a large kidney-bean, by the natives called ahee;
a tree called wharra, which produces fruit fomething
like the pine-apple, and which is known in the Eaft
Indies by the name of pandanes ; a ftirub called nemo ;
the morindciy which alfo produces fruit ; a fpecies of
fern; a plant called thieve; and the Chinefe paper-
mulberry, of the bark of which they make their cloth;
an herb which the inhabitants eat raw, its flavour
lomewhat refembling that of the Weft India fpinage
called calletoon, but its leaf very different ; a plant
which the natives call ana or eava, from the root of
which they exprefs a liquor, which, if drank to excefs,
intoxicates like wine or diftilled fpirits. Here are a
fort of fhady trees covered with a dark-green foliage,
bearing golden-coloured apples, which, in juicintfs
and flavour, refemble the ananas or pine-apple. One
of the moft beautiful trees in the world received here
the name of Barringtonia; it had a great abundance
of flowers larger than lilies, and perfeftly white, ex¬
cepting the tips of their numerous chives, which were
of a deep crimfon. Such a quantity of thefe flowers
were feen dropped off, that the ground underneath the
tree was entirely covered with them. I he natives
called the tree buddov ; and faid, that the fruit, which
is a large nut, when bruifed and mixed up with fome
fhell-fifh, and thrown into the fea, intoxicates the fifli
for fome time, fo that they come to the furface of the
water, and fuffer themfelves to be taken with people’s
hands. vSeveral other maritime plants in tropical cli¬
mates are found to have the fame quality. Mr Dal-
rymple defcribes the method of catching fifli with thefe
plants as follows : The plant is thruft under the coral
rocks or hollows where the fifli haunt; the effedl is
moft fenfible in ftill water, though it is effe&ual in
the open fea ; for the fame gentleman fays, he has feen
fifli foon after float on the furface of the water half
dead, and fome totally without life ; and where the
effeft is lefs violent, the fifli will be feen under the
water to have loft their poife, without coming up to
the furface. Fifh caught in this manner are not in the
leaft noxious or ill tafted.
In this ifland they have domeftic poultry exa&ly re-
fembling thofe of Europe: befides which there are
wild ducks; alfo beautiful green turtle-doves; large
pigeons of a deep blue plumage and excellent tafte;
a fmall fort of paroquets, very Angular on account of
the various mixture of red and blue in their feathers ;
alfo another fort of a greenilh colour, with a few red
fpots ; the latter are frequently tamed, and are valued
on account of their red feathers. Here is a king;
fiflier of a dark green, with a collar of the fame hue
round his white throat ; a large cuckoo, and a blue
heron. Small birds of various kinds dwell in the fliady
trees; and, contrary to the generally received opinion
that birds in warm climates are not remarkable for
their fong, have a very agreeable note. There were
7
O T A
-^tahcitae. performec! wfth great vigour and eafe.” ^ „V.V4 „v.
y ' held ftntelier men, (fays Sidney Parkinfon.) The men
of confequence on the ifland wear the nails of their
Angers long, which they confider as a very honourable
badge of diflinftion, fincc only fuch people as have no
occafion to work can fuffer them to grow to that
length. I his cuftom they have in common with the
Cninefe ; but the nail of the middle finger on the right
hand is always kept fhort, the meaning for which pe¬
culiar ty could not be learned. Only one (ingle cripple
*was met with among them, and he appeared to have
been maimed by a fall. The women always cut their
hair ihort round their heads. Both fexes have a cu-
llom of ftaining their bodies, which they call tattiv-
ing; both men and women have the hinder part of
their thighs and loins marked very thick with black
lines in various forms ; thefe marks are made by ftri-
king the teeth of an inftrument fomewhat like a comb
juft through the 1km, and rubbing into the junctures
i a kind of pafte made of loot and oil, which leaves an
indelible ftam. Phe boys and girls under twelve years
of age are not marked; a few of the men, whofe lemi
were marked in chequers by the fame method, ap¬
peared to be petfons of fuperior rank and authority.
Mr Banks faw the operation of tattowing performed
upon the backfide of a girl about thirteen years old.
The inftrument ufed upon this occafion had thirty
teeth; and every ftroke, of whic-h at leift a hundred
were made in a m nute, drew an ichor or ferum a little
tinged with blood. The girl bore it with moft ftoical
refolution for about a quarter of an hour; but the
pain ot fo many hundred pun&ures as ftie had received
in that time, then became intolerable. She fird com¬
plained in murmurs, then wept, and at laft burft into
loud lamentations, earneftly imploring the operator to
defift. He was, however inexorable; and when (he
began to ftruggle, (he was held down by two women,
who fometimes foothed and fometimes chid her; and
now and then, when (he was moft unruly, gave her a
f J4* ] OTA
"I ncer be- middle of the le* j end this they call pmu. Thi. 0.«hel.M,
limple drapery affords the fix an opportunity ofdif-  *
playing an elegant figure to the greateft dvantage ac¬
cording to the talents and ti e of the wearer: no ge¬
neral faftiions force them to disfig re infte ad of adorn-
ing themfelves, but an innate gracefulnefs is the com¬
panion of fimplicity. i'o this cloth they give a very
ftrong perfume. 7
ri he chief ufe which they make of their houfes is to of J-*
fleep in them: for unlefs it rains, they eat in the open haafeu'
air under the (hade of a tree. Thefe houfes are no other
than ihe !s, all built in the wood between the fia and
the mountains ; they are ereded on a i oblong fq nre-
their width is nearly half of their length; tUey are
nothing more than a roof, not quite four feet from the
ground, raifed on three rows of pillars, one row on
each fide, and one m the middle. The roof refirubles
our thatched houfes in England, and contifts of twa
flat fldes inclining to each other. Their thatch con-
hits ot palm-leaves. The floor of their dwelling is
covered with hay, over which they fpread mats. Some
of thefe erections are furniiheJ wuh a (tool, which i-s
appropriated folely to the ufe of the mailer of the
family: they conlift of no otner furniture except a few
blocks of wood, which beia* fq*are, one fide is hol¬
lowed into a curve; and thefe ti.ey ufe as pillows, and
with their apuarel they cover themfelves fn thefe
open dwellings the whole family repofe themfilves at
mgut. i he fize of the houle is proportioned to the
number that conftitutes the family. Tne eitablifhed
order in thefe dormitories ts, for the mailer and his
wile to fleep in the middle ; round them the married
people ; m the next circle the unmarried women ; and
in the next, at the fame diftance, the unmarried men ;
and the iervants at the extremity of the died ; but in
fair weather the latter fleep in the open air.’ Some
few dwellings, however, conilruded for greater pri¬
vacy, are entirely inciofed with wads A reeds, con-
nefted together wfth tranfverig pieces of wool, fo as
fmart blow. Mr Banks (laid in a neighbouring houfe to appear fomewhat like large bird -cages clfteiv *1 ilud •
an hour, and the operation was not over when he in thefe houfes.there is commonly a riole left tor the
went away ; yet it was performed hut upon one fide,   - ' L * - * ■ uie
the other having been done fome time before; and the
arches upon the loins, in which they moft pride them¬
felves, and which give more pain than all the reft, were
Hill to be done. Both men and women are not only
decently but gracefully clothed, in a kind of white
cloth that is made of the bark of a fhrub, and very
much refimbles coarfi China paper. Their drefs con.
fifts of two pieces of this cloth ; one of them, having
a hole made in the middle to put the head through,
hangs from the (boulders to the mid leg before and
behind; anotherpitce, which is between four and five
yards long, and about one yard broad, they wrap
round the body in a very eafy manner : This cloth is
not woven ; but is made like paper, of the macerated
fibres of the inner bark fpread out and beaten toge¬
ther. Their ornaments are feathers, flowers, pieers of
fhell, and pearls; the pearls are worn chiefly by the
women. In wet weather they wear matting of diffe¬
rent kinds, as their doth will not bear wetting. The
drefs of the better fort of women confifts of three or
four pieces: one piece, -bout two yards wide and
-eleven long, they wrap feveral times round their waiit,
ib as to hang down -like a petticoat as low as the
entrance, wuieh can be clofed up .vith a board.
. -Their candies are made of the kernels of a kind of
oily nut, which they (lick, one above another on a
Ikewer that is thruil through the middle of taem ; the
upper one being lighted ourn. to the fccond, at the
fame time confuming that part of the (kewei that goes
through it; the fecond taking fire our ns in tne lame
manner down to the third, and fr> to the laft ; they
burn a confiderabie time, and afford a pretty good
light.. The natives generally retire to reft about an hour
alter it is dark. ?
Hie food of the common people entirely confifts of F<> d, mC-
vegetabies. Thde are, the bread-fruit, with ban mas,thod <lf
plantains, yams, apples, and a four fruit, wuich, though c™ka7'
not pleaiant by itfelf, gives an agreeable relim 1o ’
roalted bread-fruit, with which it ^frequently beaten
up : (See the article Tree). fine flcih, which
is referved tor the tallies ot the great, is either poultry,
hogs, or dogs ; the fleih ot then ibwls is not weil-
taircd, but that oi dogs is efteemed by the natives be¬
yond pork. Tne fmailer filh are generally eaten raw,
as we eat oyfters : every thing that can be procured
from the fea is made an article of their food; for they
will eat not only fea-infe£ts, but what the feamen c ill
8 - blubbers,
OTA t 543 1 OTA,
0faheitcc. bhblen, though feme of them are fo tough that they the feald, good humour and confidence were a^am re- Ota!ie;tee.
are obliged to fuffer them to become putrid before they ftored. The 'gunner of the fhip, who was appointed ‘ 
can be chewed. A very large fiiark being caught by comptroller of the maiket which was eihabUfhed on
the Dolphin’s people was given to the natives ; who fhore with the natives, ufed to dine on the fpot; the
foon cut it to pieces, and carried it away with great aftoni/hment of thefe people was very great to fee him
fatisfaaion. .... jrrjt.r/r drefs hlS P°rk and PoultTy in a Pot 5 at length an old
I hey kill the animals they intend for food by fuffo- man, who was extremely ferviceablc in bringing down
eating them, which is done by Hopping the mouth provifiona to be exchanged, was put into pofieffion of
and nofe with their hands; they then finge off the an iron pot, and from that time he and his friends ate
kair, by holding the animal over a fire, and feraping boiled meat every day. Several iron pots were like-
him with a fhell: with this infirument they cut him up, wife given to Oberea and feme of the chiefs ; which
and take out the entrails; which are walked, and put were in conftant ufe, and drew every body to fee
into cocoa-nut (hells, together with the blood. Dogs them ; but although the particulars of two fucceffive
are eaten that are fed wholly upon bread fruit, cocoa- voyages of Captain Cook to this ifland are circum-
nuts, yams, and other vegetables, and are never fuf- ftantially related, we hear no more of this improvement
fered to tafte any animal food ; and thofe who have in the culinary art, or of the further alfiftance which
tailed the flelh of a dog thus fed, have declared it to has been rendered thofe people in fupplying them with
belittle inferior to Englilh lamb. In order to drefs pots for boiling,; but however defirous the natives'
their food, they kindle a fire, by rubbing the end of might be to eat' boiled meat, it was not advifable to
one piece of dry wood upon the fide of another, in the have fuch an article of barter as iron kettles, when a
manner as a carpenter with us whets a chifel. They few fpike nails, or a common hatchet, would procure
then dig a pit about half a foot deep, and two or one of their large!! hogs..
three yards in circumference ; they pave the bottom Salt water is the ufual fauce to their food ; thofe ‘
with large pebble Hones, which they lay down very who live near the fea have it furnilhed as it is wanted,
ftnootb and even, and then kindle a fire in it with dry others at a diHance keep it in large bamboos. The
wood, leaves, and the hulks of cocoa-nuts. When the kernels of the cocoa nuts furnilh them with another
Hones are fufficiently heated, they take out the embers, fauce : thefe, made into a paHe fomething of the con-
and rake up the alhes on every fide ; they then cover fifience of butter, are beat up with fait water, which
the Hones with z layer of green cocoa-nut leaves, and has a very flrong flavour; but though at firfi it’feemed
wrap up the animal that is to be dreffed in the leaves very naufeous, yet when the tafte "became familiar, it
of the plantain. If it is a fmall hog, they wrap it up was much relilhed.
whole; if a large one, they fplit it. When it is placed Their general drink is water, or the milk of the
m the pit, they cover it with the hot embers, and ky cocoa-nut. They Ihowed in general an averfion to
upon them bread-fruit and yams, which are alfo wrap- ftrong liquors ; and whenever any one of them hap¬
ped up in the leaves of plantain. Over thefe they pened to drink fo freely with any of the (hip’s com-
fpread the remainder of the embers, mixing among pany as to be intoxicated, he refolutely refufed to
them feme of the hot Hones, with more cocoa-nut-tree tafte any thing that was likely to produce the fame
leaves upon them, and then clofe up all with earth, fo effeft again ; but they have a plant which they call
that the heat is kept in ; the oven is kept thus clofed (i<va ava, from the root of which they procure a
a longer or Ihorter time according to the fize of the liquor which has an inebriating quality. Their man-
meat that is drefled. The meat, when taken out, is ner of preparing this ftrong drink is as fimple as it is
faid to be better drefled than any other way. They difgufting to an European. Several of the people
ufe (hells for knives ; and carve very dexteroufly with take fome of the root, and chew it till it is foft and
them, always cutting fro/n themfelves. One of the pulpy ; they then fpit it cut into a platter or other
principal attendants on Oberea, attempting the ufe of veflel, every one into the fame : into this general re-
the knife and lork, could not feed himfelf therewith ; ceptacie water is poured according to the quantity
but, by the mere force of habit, his hand came to his prepared. The juice thus diluted, is drained through
mouth, and the vi&uals at the end of his fork went fome fibrous Huff like fine (havings, after which it i#
away to his ear.. . fit for drinking, and it is always prepared for prefent
^ hey are quite unacquainted with the method of ufe : it has a pepperifh tafle ; drinks flat, and rather
boiling water, as they have no yeflels among them that infipid ; and though it intoxicates, yet Captain Cook
will bear the fire. Whilft the noble Oberea was one faw but one inftance where it had that effedt, as the
morning at breakfaft with Captain Wallis on board natives generally drink it with great moderation, and
the Dolphin, the furgeon filled the tea-pot by turning but little at a time. Sometimes they chew this root
the cock of a vafe that flood upon the table. One of as Europeans do tobacco, and fomt times they will eat
the lady’s attendants obferved this ptailice very atten- it wholly.
lively, and foon afteV turning the cock himfelf, re- They eat alone, or at lead only in company with a
ceived the water upon his hand ; he no fooner felt gueft that happens to call in; and the men and women
himfelf fealded, than he^roared and danced about in an never fit down together to a meal: the (hade of a fpread-
extravagant manner j.he other Indians, unapprifed ing tree ferves them fora parlour; Kroad leaves fpread
of the caufe of thefe emotions, flood gazing at him in in great abundance ferve for a table cloth ; and if a
amazement, and not without fome mixture of terror: perfon of rank, he is attended by a number of fervants
but the gentlemen in company, who foon perceived who feat themfelves round him : before he begins his
the.caufc of the outcry, difpelled the apprehenfiens of meal, he walhes his mouth and hands very clean, and
fheir vifitacts; and feme ointment being applied to repeats this feveral times whilft he is eating. The
quantity
o
Otabeites,
OTA ' [ 544- 1
quantity of foorl which thefe’ people eat at a meal is their faces different ways
prodigious. Captain Cook fays, he has feen one man
devour two or thre fifhes as big as a pearch; three bread¬
fruits, each bigger than two fids ; 14 or 15 plantains,
or bananas, each fix or feven inches long and four or
five round, and near a quart of the pounded bread¬
fruit. Men of rank are conftactly fed by their wo¬
men ; and one of the chiefs who dined on hoard the
finps in 1769, fhowed fuch reludtance to feed himfelf,
that one of the fervants was obliged to feed him to
prevent his returning without his meal. In one of
the excnrfions which the gentlemea- of the fhips made
into the country in 1 773, they arrived at a neat houfe,
where a very fat man, who feemed to be a chief of the
difiridf, was lolling on his wooden pillow; before him
two fervanrs were preparing his defert, by beating up
with water feme bread-fruit and bananas in a large
wooden 4 owl, and mixing with it a quantity of fer¬
mented four pafte called mahie. While this was doing,
a woman, who fat down near him, crammed down his
throat by handfuls the remains of a large baked fifh,
and feveral bread-fruits, which he fwallowed with a vo¬
racious appetite; his countenance was the picture,of
phlegmatic infenfibility, and feemed to rtftify that all
his thoughts centered in the gratification of his appe¬
tite. He fcarce deigned to look at the ftiangers; and
a few monofyllables which he uttered, were extorted
from him to remind his feeders of their duty, when by
gazing at them they grew lefs attentive to him.
That chefe people, who are remarkably fond of fo-
cietv, and particularly that of their women, fhould ex¬
clude its pkafures from the table, where, among all
other nations, whether civil of favage, they have been
principally enjoyed, is truly inexplicable. How a meal,
which everywhere elfe brings families and friends to¬
gether, comes to feparate them here, was a fingula-
rity much inquired about, but never accounted for.
They ate alone (they faid), becaufe it was right;”
but why it was right to eat alone, they never attempt¬
ed to explain. Such, however, was the force of h'.bit
in this inffar.ee, as it is in every other, that they ex-
preffed the firongeft diflike, and even difgufl;, at their
vifitants eating in fociety, efpecially with women, and
of the fame victuals. “ At firft (fays Captain Cook)
we thought this ftrange fihgukrity arofe from feme
fuperftitious opinion ; but they conltantly affirmed the
contrary. We objferved alfo dome caprices in the cu¬
stom, for which we could as little account as the
cuflom itlelf. We could neverprevail with any of the
womtn to partake of the victuals at our table, when
we were dining in company ; yet they would go five
©r fix together into the fervants apartments, and there
eat very heartily of whatever they could find: nor were
they in the leaft difconcerted if we came in while they
were doing it. When any of us have been alone with
a woman, fhe has fometim.es eaten in our company ;
but then fhe has expreffed the great unwillingnefs that
it fhould be known, and always extorted the firongeft
prortiifes ol fecrecy. Among themfelves, even two
brothers and two fifters have each their feparate ba-
fkets of provifions, and the apparatus of their meal.
When they firft vilited us at our tents, each brought
his bafket with him ; and when we fat down to table,
they would go out, fit down upon the ground, at two
or three yards difUnce from each other, and turning
N? 254.
and girls are. kept
and fprightlinefs of
T A
take their repaft without Otaheftee,
exchanging a Angle word. The women not only ab- “■"’V' 11J
ftain from eating with the men, and of the fame vic¬
tuals, but even have their victuals feparately prepared
by boys kept for that purpofe, who depelit it in a fe¬
parate fired, and attend them with it at their meals.
But though they would not eat with us, or with each
other, they have often afked us to eat with them,
when we have viiited thofe with whom we were parti¬
cularly acquainted at their houfes; and we have often
upon fuch occafions eaten out of the fame bafket,
and drank out of the fame cup. The elder women,
however, always appeared offended at this liberty ;
and if we happened to touch their vi&uals, or even
the bafket that contained it, they would throw it a-
way.”
After meals, and in the heat of the day, the middle-
aged people of the better fort generally deep. They
are indeed extremely indolent; and deeping and eat¬
ing are almofl all that they do. Thofe that are older
are lefs drowfy, and the hoys
awake, by the natural activity
their age. g
Thefe idanders, who inhabit huts expofed to all the Dlfeafes.
winds, and hardly cover the earth, which ferves them
for a bed, with a lay er of leaves, are remarkably healthy
and vigorous, and live to an old age without enduring
any of its infirmities; their fenfes are acute, and they
retain their beautiful teeth to the iaft. M. de Bougain¬
ville deferibes an old man, whom they faw on their
landing, who had no other chara&er of old age, than
that refpe&able one which is imprinted on a fine figure.
His head was adorned with white hair, and a long
white beard-; all his body was nervous and flefhy ; he
had neither wrinkles, nor fhowed any other tokens of
decrepitude. This venerable man feemed difpleafed at
the arrival of thefe ftrangers ; he even retired without
making any returns to the courtefies they paid to him;
but he gave no iigns either of fear, aftonifhment, or
curiofity : very far from taking any part in the rap¬
tures which the multitude exprefted, his thoughtful and
fufpicious air feemed to indicate, that he icared the ar¬
rival of a new race of men would interrupt the happi-
nefshe had fo long enjoyed. From whence it may be
inferred, that his mind was not a whit more impaired
than his body. There are, however, feverai forts of
leprous complaints on this ifland, which appear in cu¬
taneous eruptions of the fcaly kind ; fome were feen
that had ulcers upon different parts of their bodies:
yet they feemed little regarded by thofe who were af-
fli&ed with them, and no application whatever was
ufed to them, not fo much as to keep off the flies.
But inftafnees of them are rare, as the excellency of
their climate, and the fimplicity of their vegetable food,
prevent almoft all dangerous and deacly dilorders.
They are fometiines afHifted with the cholic, and
coughs are not unknown among them: and the chiefs,
who fare more fumptuoufly, as a punilhment for their
voluptuoufnefs are fometimes attacked with a diforder
fimilar to the gout, in which tire legs are fweiled and
exceffively painful. M. de Bougainville’s furgeon ai-
fured him, that he had feen many with marks of the
fmall-pox.
The ufual method employed here to reftore the fick
to health, is by pronouncing a fet form of words; after
which
OTA
Olahdtee
which the exorcilt applies the leaves of the cocoa-tree
plaited to the fingers and toes of the fick; fo that na¬
ture is left to conflict v ith the difeafe, without being
affifled with any falutary application of art. But tho^
they feem utterly deftitute of medical knowledge, they
appear to be no inconfiderable proficients in furgery,
which they had an opportunity of proving while the
Dolphin lay here. One of the feamen, when on fhore,
ran a large Iphnter into his foot; and the furgeon not
being at hand, one of his comrades endeavoured to
take it out with a pen-knife ; but after putting the
poor fellow to a great deal of pain, he was obliged to
give it over: an old native, who had been very adlive
and fuccefsful in eftablifhing a good underftanding be¬
tween the Ihip’s company and his countrymen, hap¬
pening to be prefent, called a man from the other fide
of the river, who having examined the lacerated foot,
fetched a fiiell from the beach, which he broke to a
point with his teeth ; with which xnftrument he laid
open the wound, and extra&ed the fplinter. Whilfl;
this operation was performing, the old man went a
little way into the wood, and returned with fome
gum, which he applied to the wound upon a piece of
the cloth that was wrapped round him, and in two
days time it was perfedtly healed. This gum was
produced by the apple-tree; the furgeon of the fliip
procured fome of it, and ufed it as a vulnerary balfam
with great fuccefs. Captain Cook, in 1769, faw
many of the natives with dreadful fears ; one man, in
particular, whofe face was almoft entirely deftroyed :
his nofe, including bone, was perfe&ly flat; and one
cheek and one eye were fo beaten in, that the hollow
would almoft receive a man’s fift; yet no one ulcer
remained.
1 he venereal difeafe is faid to have been entailed up-
thefe people by the crew of M. de Bougainville’s
ftiips, who vifited this ifland a fhort time after Cap¬
tain Wallis had left it. In 1769, more than one-half
of the crew in Captain Cook’j (hip had contracted it,
during a month’s ftay here. The natives diftinguiflied
it by a name of the fame import with rottennefs, but
of a more extenfive fignification. They deferibed, in
the mod pathetic terms, the fufferings which the firft
viCtims to its rage endured ; and told him that it caufed
the hair and the nails to fall off, and the flefti to rot
from the bones ; that it fpread an univerfal terror and
confternation among the inhabitants, fo that the fick
were abandoned by their ntareft relations, left the ca-
»ainity fhould fpread by contaiyion, and were left to
penill alone in fuch mifery as till then had never been
known among them. But there feems to be fome rea-
fon to hope that they had found out a fpecific cure for
it, as none were feen on whom it had made a Treat
progrefs; and one who went from the fhip infeCted
returned, after a fhort time, in per fed health. Both
Captain Cook and Mr Forfter, in their relations of
their voyage in the Refolution, endeavour to eftablifh
the opinion, that this fcourge of licentioufnefs was felt
in the South Sea iflands, previous to any of the mo¬
dern voyages that have been made thither, and that it
was an indigenous difeafe there. But if that condufion
is well-founded, how comes it, that at all the places
where the Refolution touched in 1773, which had
C S45 1
O T
came infeCted by their commerce with the women, and Ota.keite&
not at all fo at places which they vifited, for the firft v1
time, in the Refolution ?
. f h5 Principal manufacture among the Otaheitcans Manua¬
ls their c.oth. ^ T. his. is made of the bark of trees, lures,
w )ich are of three kinds, v/z. the Chincfe mulberry-
tree, m- aouta ; the bread-fruit tree, or ooroo; and one
that is deferibed by Dr Hawkefworth as refembling
the wild fig tree of the Weft Indies. Of all thefe the
been before vifited by the Endeavour in 1769, fuch as
New Zed uid for iafbnce, the crew, more or kf«, be
Vot. XIII. Part II. 2
paper mulberry affords the heft cloth ; what is made
from that being both finer, fofter, whiter, and better
fuited to take a colour; the ooroo produces cloth much
inferior in contexture ; and the laft Is very coarfe, in
colour refembling the darkeft brown paper; but this
lall is the only kind that withftands water: (See the
article Barr.)-—They likewife prepare a red dye;
which is made by mixing the yellow juice of a fmail
fpecies of fig, which the natives call maltee, with the
gieenifh juice of a fort of fern or bindweed, or of fe-
veral other plants, which produce a bright crimfon :
and this the women rub with their hands, if the piece
is to be uniformly of a colour; or they make ufe of a
bamboo reed if the piece is to be marked or fprinklefl
into different patterns. The colour fades very foon,
and becomes of a dirty red ; but notwithftanding this
defect, and its being liable to be fpoiled by rain, the
cloth thus ftained is highly valued, and is worn only
by the principal inhabitants of the country. The in¬
habitants perfume their clothes with certain plants •
concerning which, Mr Forfter made all poffible in¬
quiry. Tabea, a friendly native, fhowed him feveral
plants which are fometimes ufed as fubftitutes; but the
moft precious fort he either could not, or would not,
point out: and from the account of Omai it appears,
that there are no lefs than 14 different forts of plants
employed for this purpofe.
Matting is another Otaheitean manufailure: and in
this they are fo dexterous, that they produce finer mats
than any made in Europe. Ru/hes, grafs, the bark
of trees, and the leaves of a plant called wharrou are
the materials which they work up for this purpofe.
1 heir matting is applied to various ufes : the coarfer
kind is employed for fleeping on in the night, or fit¬
ting on through the day; the finer fort is converted
into garments in rainy weather, their cloth being foon
penetrated by wet. They are very dexterous in ma¬
king bafket and wicker-work : their bafkets are of a
vaft number of different patterns, many of them ex¬
ceedingly neat; and the making them is an art prac-
tiffd by every ofle, both men and women.
Inftead of hemp, they make ropes and lines of the
bark of a tree ; and thus they are provided with fifh-
ing nets; the fibres of the cocoa-nut furnifhthem wbh
thread, with which they fallen the different parts of
their canoes, &c. The bark of a nettle which grows
in the mountains, and is called orazoa, fupplies them
with excellent fifhing-lines, capable of holding any
kind of tifti ; and their hooks are made of mother-of-
pearl to which they fix a tuft of hair, made to re-
lemble the tail of a filh. Inftead of making them
bearded, the point is turned in war Is. They make ?lfo
a kind of feme of a coarfe broad grafs, the blades of
which are like flags. Thefe they'twill and tie to .e- '
ther in a loofe manner, till the net, which is about a»
wide as a large lack, is from 60 to So fathoms long.
3 2 Tin*
OTA [ 546 ] OTA
Ofaheltee. This they haul in fmooth fhoal water ; and its own
v“—~v weight keeps it fo ck'fe to the ground, that fcareely a
fingie hfh can efcape. rrhey make harpoons of cane,
. and point them with hard wood ; with which they can
fir ike fifh more eSeftually than an European can with
T! one headed with iron.
Working The tools ufed by the Otaheiteans for all their pur-
tools. pofes are, an adze made of Hone ; a child or gouge
made of bone, generally the bone of a man’s arm be¬
tween the wrift and elbow ; a rafp of coral, and the
{kin of a fting-ray ; aifo coral and fand, as a file or po-
lifher: and with thefe they fell timber, cleave and po-
lifh it, and hew {lone. The {tone which makes the
blade of their adz.s is a kind of bafakes, of a grey or
blackifh colour, not very hard, but of confiderable
toughnefs: they are formed of different fizes; f >me
that are intended for fdling, wei?h from fix to eight
pounds ; others that are ufed for carving, not more
than as many ounces: but it is necefiary to fharpen
thefe rude tools aimed every minute ; for which pur-
pofe a cocoa-nut {hell full of water and a Hone are
always at hand. With fuch tools they generally take
up feveral days in felling a tree ; but after it is down,
and fplit into pltrks, they fmooth them very dex-
teroufly and expeditioully with their adzes, and can
take off a thin coat from a whole plank without mif¬
fing a fttoke.
Their weapons are flings, which they ufe with great
dexterity ; pikes headed with the Heins of fting-rays ;
and clubs of about fix or feven feet long, made of a
very hard wood. Thus armed, they are faid to fight
with great obfiinacy ; and to give no quarter to man,
vroman, or child, who happens to fall into their hands
during the battle, nor for feme time afterwards, till
tbeir paffion fubfides. They have likewife bows and
arrows ; but the arrows are good for nothing except to
bring down a bird, being headed only with Hone, and
none of them pointed. They have targets of a femi-
circular form, made of wicker-work, and plaited Hrings
of the cocoa-nut fibres, covered with gloffy, bluifh-
green feathers belonging to a kind of pigeon, and or¬
namented with many ihark’s-teeth, arranged in three
*3 concentric circles.
Canoes. Their boats or canoes are of three different forts.
Weapons,
Some are made cut of a fingie tree, and hold from
two to fix men. Thefe are principally employed
in fifhing : the others are conftrnaed of planks very
dexteroufly fewed together; they are of different
fizes, and will bold from 10 to 40 men: they gene¬
rally lafh two of thefe together, and fet up two mails
between them ; or if they are fingie, they have an on-
trigger on one fide, and only one maff in the middle ,
and in thefe veffds they will fail far beyond the fight
of land. The third fort feems to be principally de-
figned for pleafure or fiiew. Thefe are very large, but
have no fail ; and in firape refemble the gondolas of
Venice. The middle is covered with a large awning ;
and fome of the people fit upon it, and fome under it.
The plank of which thefe v';ffels are conffrudled, is
made by fplitting a tree, with the grain, into as many
thin pieces as pofiible. The boards are brought to the
tfeicknefs of about an inch, and are afterwards fitted
to the boat with the fame exaftnefs that might be ex-
pe&ed from an expert joiner. To faften thefe planks
together; holes are bored with a piece of bone, fixed
into a Hick for that purpofe. Through thefe holes a Otaheitee*
kind of plaited cordage is paffed, fo as to hold the •—V""—*
planks ffrongly together. '1 he feams are caulked with
dry rufiies ; and the whole out fide of the veffel u paint¬
ed over with a kind of gummy juice, which fupplies
the place of pitch
The Otaheiteans are a very induftrious people, and CharasSter,.
friendly in their difpofitions ; but like all other nations uianners,
not fully civilized, their paffions are extremely vio-
lent, and they are very fLkle. The manner of Ang¬
ling out a man here for a chofen friend is by taking
off a part of your clothing and putting it upon him.
7 heir ufual manner of expreffing their refpedl to firan-
-gers, or to their fuperiors, at a firft me- ting, is by un¬
covering themfelvcs to the middle. i hey have a cu-
flom of fainting thofe who fneeze, by faying evaroeia-
t-entoua, “ May the good eatoua awaken you,” or
“ May not the evil eatouaJull you afleep 1”
Their propenixty to theft is very great, infomnch,
that M. Bougalnvdle fays, “ even in Europe itfidf one
cannot fee more expert filchers than the people of tin’s
country t,” and indeed, in all the voyages made by
Captain Cook and others, they had abundant expe¬
rience of this difpofition of the natives, which often
produced quarrels, and fometimes even fatal effedts. In
their behaviour they are extremely lafeivious, almoff
beyond credibility. A woman of diffindtion who vi*
fited Mr Banks ufed the following ceremony on her
firil approach to the ffranger. After laying down fe¬
veral young plantain-leaves, a man brought a large
bundle of cloth ; which having opened, he fpread it
piece by piece on the ground, in the fpace between
Mr Banks and his vifitants. There were in all nine
pieces : having fpread three pieces one upon ano¬
ther, tire lady came forward, and, ftepping upon
them, took up her garments all around her to her
waill ; fixe then turned three times round, after which
fire dropped the veil : when other three pieces were
fpread, fixe pradlifed the fame ceremony ; and fo the
third time, when the lafl three pieces were laid out ;
after which the cloth was again rolled up, and deliver¬
ed to Mr Banks as a prefent from the lady, who with
her attending friend came up and faluted him. From
the unbridled licentioufnefs of thefe people, the French
gave this ifland the name of the New Cythera. Nay,
to fuch a degree do they carry their libidinous exceffes,
that a number of the pr incipal people, it is related, have
formed themfelves into a fociety, in which every woman
is common to every man. This fociety is difiineuifhed
by the name of Arreoy, the members of which have
meetings from which all others are excluded. At thefe
meetings the paffions are excited by a fludied courfc
of fenfuality, and the coarfeff and moil brutal plea-
fares are enjoyed by the whole company. If, however,
notwithHanding thefe exceffes, any of the female mem¬
bers of this community fixould prove with child, unlefs
fixe can procure fome man to adopt the child as his
own, not all the ftrong affe&ions of a mother, if fuch
are not entirely eradicated by a courfe of life fubver-
five of the feelings as well as the modeffy of nature,
can fave the life of the precondemned innocent; but
the child as foon as born is fmothered, and the mo¬
ther is left at liberty to renew her former courfe of ex¬
ecrable proftitution. Should any man be found to co¬
operate with a woman in faving the life of a child, they
OTA
©taheitee. are both excluded for ever from the arreoy, and are
coni dered as man and wife. The woman from that
time is diftimruifhed by the term ’wbannow-now, “ the
bearer of children which in this part of the world
only is conlidered as a term of reproach; and fo de¬
praved are thofe people, that being a member of Inch
a fociety is boafted of as being a privilege, in Head of
being ftigmatized as the fouleft crime. The arreoys
enjoy feveral privileges, and are greatly refpe&ed
throughout the Society Iflands, as well as at Ota-
heitee ; nay, they claim a great fliare of honour from
the circumftance of being ehildlefs. Tupia, one of the
moll intelligent natives, when he heard that the king
of England had a numerous offspring, declared, that
he thought hirnfelf much greater, becaufe he belonged
to the arreoys. That this fociety indulge themfelves
in promifcuous embraces, and that every woman is
common to every man, is contradi&ed by Mr Fortfer.
He fays, that thefe arreoys chocfe their wives and
miftrenes from among the proflitutes ; and from this
circumftance, as well as their extreme voluptuoufnefs,
they have fcldom any reafon to dread the intrulion of
children. He had the following circumftanees related
to him by Omai or Omiah, one of the natives, who
was brought to England. He faid, that the pre-emi¬
nence and advantages which a man enjoyed as arreoy
were fo valuable as to urge him againft his own feel¬
ings to deftroy his child ; that the mother was never
willing to confent to the murder ; but that her hufband
and other arreoys perfuaded her to yield up the child ;
and that where intieaties were not fufficient, force was
fometimes made ufe of. But, above all, he added, that
this adlion was a) ways perpetrated in fecret ; infomuch,
that not even the toivtows or attendants of the houfe
were prefent ; be aufe, if it were feen, the murderers
vmuld be put to death.
Both men and women conflantly wafh their whole
bodies three times a-day in tunning water, and are re¬
markably cleanly in their clothes. They are moft ex¬
pert fwiminers, being acc nftomed to the water from
their infancy. Captain Cook relates the following re¬
markable inftance of their expertnefs. On a part of
the fhore where a tremendoufly high furf broke, info-
much that no European boat'could live in it, and the
heft European fwimmer, he was perfuaded, would have
been drowned, as the fl ore was covered with pebbles
and large Hones, yet here were 10 or 12 Indians fwim-
miiig for their amufement. Whenever a furf broke
near them, they dived under it, and rofe again on the
other fide. I he ftern of an old canoe added much to
their fport. This they took out before them, and
fwam with it us far as the outermofl breach ; when two
or three getting into it, and turning the fquare end to
the breaking wave, v.»cre driven in towards the fhore
with increeible rapidity, fometimes almolt to the beach:
but generally the wave broke over them before they
got infir way ; 111 which cafe they dived, and rofe to
the other fide with the canoe in their hands, and fwim-
m:ng out with it again, were again driven Lack This
amazing expertnefs drew the Captain’s attention for
more than half an hour ; during which time none of
the hvimmers attempted to come afhore, but ieemed to
enjoy the fport in the highett degree. At another
time, one of the officers of the quarter-deck intending
to drop a bead into a canoe for a little boy of fix year]
L 547 ]
OTA
of age, it accidentally milled the boat, and fell into Otaheitec.
the lea ; but the child immediately leaped overboard, v' ^
dived after it, and recovered it. To reward him for
this feat, iome more beads were dropped to him ; which
excited a number of men and women to amufe the of¬
ficers with their amazing feats of agility in the water,
and not only fetched up feveral beads fcattered at once,
but likewife large nails, which, from their weight, de-
feended quickly to a confiderable depth. Some of
thefe people continued a confiderable time under wa¬
ter ; and the velocity with which they were feen to go
down, the water being extremely clear, was very fur-
prifing. Here a green branch of a tree is ufed as an
emblem of peace, in exatft conformity to thecuftom of
the ancient nations. We ffiall add an extra# here
from Captain Cook s laid voyage to the Pacific Ocean.
“ Nothing could make a ftronger impreffion at firlt
fight, on our arrival here, than the remarkable con-
traft between tne robuft make and dark colour of the
people of i ongataboo *, and a fort of delicacy and* One of
whitenefs which diftinguiffi the inhabitants of Ota-the Friend,
heitee. It was even fome time before that difference^ Iflaud*'
could preponderate in favour of the Otaheiteans ; and
then only, perhaps, becaufe we became accuftomed to
them, the marks which had recommended the others
began to be forgotten. Their women, however, ftruck
us as fuperior in every refpe#; and as poffiffing all
thofe delicate charabteriftics which diftinguiffi them
.roni the other fex in many countries. The beard
which the men here wear long, and the hair, which
is not cut io ffiort as is the fa 111 1 o n at Pongataboo,
made alfo a great difference ; and we could not help
thinking that on every occafion they ffiowed a greater
degree of timidity and ficklenefs. The mufcular ap¬
pearance, fo common arnongft the Friendly Iflanders,
and which feems a confequence of their being accuf¬
tomed to much action, is loll here, where the fuperior
fertility of their country enables the inhabitants to
lead a more indolent life ; and its place is lupplied by
a plumpnefs and irnoothnefs of the ffiin ; which though
perhaps more confonant with our ideas of beauty, is
no real advantage, as it feems attended with a kind
of languor^ in all their motions, not obfervable in the
others. This obfervation is fully verified in their
boxing and wretiling, which may be called little bet¬
ter than the feeble efforts of children, if compared to
the vigour with which thei'e exereifes are performed
at the Friendly Iffands.
“ Perfonal endowments being in great efteem amongft
them, they have recourfe to feveral methods of im¬
proving them, according to their notions of beauty.
In particular, it is a pradlice, efpecially amongft the
Arreoy> or, unmarried men of fome confequence, to
undergo a kind of phylical operation to render them
Tir. Phis is done by remaining a month or two in
the houfe ; during which time they w ear a great quan¬
tity of clothes, eat nothing but bread fruit, to which
they aferibe a remarkable property in whitening them.
They aifo [peak, as if their corpulence and colour*
at other times, depended upon their food ; as they are
obliged, from the change of feafons, to eft different
foils at different times.
“ The graceful air and firm ftep with which thefe
people walk are not the lealt obvious
perlonal accompiifhments. They
3 z *
proof of their
confider this as a
thing
OTA [ 548 ] OTA
Otaheitee. thing fo natural, or fo necefiary to be acquired, that
U"" * " nothing ufed to excite their laughter fooner, than to
fee us frequently Humbling upon the roots of trees, or
ocher inequalities of the ground.
“ Their countenances very remarkably exprefs the
abundant mildneis or good nature which they pofftfs,
and are entirely free from that favage keennefs which
marks nations in a barbarous Hate. One would, in¬
deed, be apt to fancy that they had been bred up un¬
der the fevereft reftri&ions to acquire an afpect fo fet¬
tled, and fueh a command of their paffions, as well as
lleadinefs in conduft. But they are at the fame time
frank, cheerful, and good-humoured, though fome-
tirr.es, in the prefence of their chiefs, they put on a
degree of gravity, and fueh a ferious air, as becomes
fliff and auk ward,' and has an appearance of referve,
“ Their peaceable difpoilcion is fuffi.cier.tly evinced
from the friencly itception all ft rangers fr-vc met with
who have vifrted them. Inftead «f offering to attack
them openly or clandeftinely, as has been the cafe
with moll of the inhabitants of thefe feas, they have
rever appeared in the fmalkil degree hoftile, but on
the contrary, like the moll civilized people, have
courted an intercourfe with their viiitors by bartering,
which is the only medium that unites all nations in a
fort of friendihip. They underftand barter (which
they call fukkatoii) fo perfecftly, that at firft wtc ima¬
gined they might have acquired this knowledge of it
i»y commercial intercourfe with the neighbouring
iflands ; but we were afterwards affined, that they had
little or no traffic except with Feejee, from which they
get the red leathers, and fome few other articles which
they efteem Perhaps no nation in tire world traffic
with more honeily, and lefs diftruft. We could al¬
ways fafely permit them to examine our goods, and to
hand them about one to another ; mid they put the
lame confidence in us. if either party repented or
the bargain, the goods were re-exchanged with mutual
confent and good humour. Upon the whole, they
feem pofl'effed of many of the moft excellent qualities
that adorn the human mind, fuch as indultry, inge¬
nuity, perfeverance, affability, and perhaps other vir¬
tues which our fhert ftay with them might prevent our
obftrving.
“ The only defecl fullying their charafter that we
know of is their propenfity to thieving, to which we
found thofe of ail ages and both fexes addicted, and
to an uncommon degree. It ffionld, however, be con-
iidered, that this exceptionable part of their conduct
feemed to exilt merely with refpedt to us ; for in their
general intercourfe with one another, I had reaion to
be of opinion, that thefts do not happen, more frequent¬
ly (perhaps Lfs fo) than in other countries, the dif-
honell practices of whole vvorthlefs individuals are not
fuppofed to authorife any indiferiminate cenfure on
the whole body of the people. Great allowances
fhould be made for the foibles of thefe poor natives of
the Pacific Ocean, whofe minds we overpowered with
the glare of objefts, equally new to them as they
were captivating. Stealing, amongft the civilized and
enlightened nations of the world, may well be conii-
dered /s denoting a charadler deeply itained with mo¬
ral turpitude, with avarice unreftrained by the known
rules of right, and with profligacy producing extreme
indigence, and negle&ing the means of relieving it.
But at the Friendly and other iflands which we vilited, (Dtahcffie,
the thefts fo frequently committed by the natives, of —"-■*
what we had brought along with us, may be fairly
traced to lefs culpable motives. They feemed to arife
foleiy from an intenfe curiolity or defire to poiTefs fe me-
thing which they had not been accuflomtd to before,
and belonging to a fort of people fo different from
themfelves. And perhaps, if it were pofii ie that a
fet of beings feemingly as fuperior in our judgment as
we are in theirs fhouid appear amengft us, it might
be doubted, whether our natural reg-ard to juftk<? would
be able to reflrain many from failing into the fame er¬
ror. That I have affigned the true motive for their
propenfity to this practice, appears from their Healing
every thing indiferiminately at firH fight, before they
could have the leait conception of converting their
prize to any one ufeful purpofe. But I believe, with
us, no perfon would fcric-it his reputation, or expofe
himftif to punifnment, without knowing before-hand
how to employ the Itolen goods. Upon the whole,
the pilfering difpofition of thefe ifianders, though cer¬
tainly difagreeable and iroutiefome to Hrangers, was
the means of affording us fome information as to the
quicknefs of their intelle&s. For their imall thefts
were committed with much dexterity ; and thofe of
greater confequence with a plan or fcheme fuited to
thg importance the objects. An extraordinary
inflance of the laff fort was, in their attempts to
carry away one of tiie Difcovery’s anchors at mid¬
day.
“Their common diet is made up of at leafi nine-tenths
of vegetable food ; and i believe more particularly the
irmhee>ox fermented bread-fruit, which makes part almoft
of every meal, has a remarkable effedl upon them, pre¬
venting a coftive habit, and producing a very feniible
coolneis about them, which could not be perceived in
us who fed on animal food. And it is, perhaps, oxdng
to this temperate courfe of life that they have fo few
difeafes among them. See n08.
“ They only reckon five or fix which might be called
chronic, or national diforders ; amongff which are the
dropiy, and the fcfai, or indolent fwellings before
mentioned, as frequent at Tongatahoo. But this wa'
before the anival of the Europeans; for wc have add¬
ed to this fliort catalogue a difeaie which abundantly
fupplies the place of all the others, and is now almoit
univerlal. For this they feem to have no effcCftual re¬
medy. The pnelts, indeed, fometimes give them a
medley of fimples, but they own that it never cuies
them. And yet they allow that in a few cafes nature,
without the affiffunce of a phyiieian, exterminates the
poifor of this fatal diftaie, and a perfect recovery is
produced. T hey fay, that if a man is infected with ft:
he will often communicate it to others in the fame
houfe, by feeding out of the fame utenfils, or handling
them, and that, in this cafe, they frequently die. while
he recovers ; though we fee no reafon why this fhuuld
happen. See n° 9.
“ Their behaviour on all occafions feems to indicate a
great oppennefs and generality of difpofition. Omai,
indeed, who, as their countryman, fliouid be fuppofed
rather willing to conceal any of their defeats, has of¬
ten faid that they are fometimes cruel in punifhing their
enemies. According to his reprefentation, they tor¬
ment them very deliberately ; at one time tearing out
fmall
z''
OTA
[ 549 ]
OTA
Ctaheitce. fmall pieces of flefh from different parts ; at another
—y ' taking out the eyes; then cutting off the nofe ; and
lafliy, killing them by opening the belly. But this
only happens on particular occalions. If cheerfulnefs
argues a confcious innocence, one would fuppofe that
their hfe is feldom fulhed by crimes. This, however,
I rather impute to their feelings, which, though lively,
feem in no cafe permanent ; for I never faw them in
any misfortune labour under the appearance of anxiety
alter the critical moment was pall. Neither does care
ever feem to wrinkle their brow. On the contrary,
even the approach of death does not appear to alter
their ufual vivacity. I have feen them when brought
to the brink of the grave by difeafe, and when prepa¬
ring to go to battle ; but in neither cafe ever obferved
their countenances overclouded with melancholy or fe-
rious refkttion. Such a difpolition leads them to di-
re£l all their aims only to what can give them plealure
and eafe. Their amufements all tend to excite and
continue their amorous paTions ; and their fongs, of
which they are immoderately fond, anfwer the fame
purpofe. But as a conilant fucceffien of fenlual en¬
joyments mull cloy, we found that they frequently va¬
ried them to more retined fubje&s, and had much plea-
fure in chanting their triumphs in war, and their oc¬
cupations in peace ; their travels to other iflands and
adventures there ; and the peculiar beauties, and fupe-
rior advantages of their own illand over the reft, or of
different parts of it over other lefs favourite diftri&s.
This marks that they receive great delight from mufic;
and though they rather expreffed a diflike to our com¬
plicated compoliticns, yet were they always delighted
with the more melodious founds produced fingly on
our inftruments, as approaching nearer to the fimpli-
city of their own. Neither are they ilrangers to the
foothing effedls produced by particular forts of motion,
which in feme cafes feem to. allay any perturbation of
mind with as much luccefs as mufic. Of this 1 met
with a remarkable inftance. For, on walking one day
about Matavai Point, where our tents were erefted,
I faw a man paddling in a fmall canoe fo quickly, and
looking about with fuch eagernefs on each fide, ns te
command a’l my attention. At firil I imagined that
lie had ftolen forntthing fiovn one of the fhips, and
was purfued ; but on waiting patiently faw him repeat
his amufemtnt. He went out from the fhore till he
was near the place where the fwtll begins to take its
rife ; and, watching its lirft motion very attentively,
paddled before it with gieat quicknefs till he found
that it overtook him, and had acquired fufficient force
to carry his canoe before it, without palling under¬
neath. He then fat motionlefs, and was carried along
at the fame fvvift rate as the wave, till it landed him
upon the beach. Then he darted out, emptied his
canoe, and went in ftarch of another fwell I could
not help concluding, that this man felt the moft fu-
preme pleafure, while he was driven on lo faft and fo
fmoothly by the fea ; efpecially as, though the tents
and Ihips were fo near, he did not feem in the lead to
Otaheitec.
envy, or even to take any notice of, the crowds of his t
countrymen coileded to view them as objedts which
were rare and curious. During my Hay, two or three
of the natives came up, who feemed to fhare his feli¬
city, and always called out when there was an appear¬
ance of a favourable fwell, as he fometimes miffed it,
by his back being turned, and looking about for it.
By them I undtrftood that this exercife, which is call¬
ed ehorooe, was frequent amongft them ; and they have
probably more amufements ot this fort, which afford
them at leaft as much pleafure as fkaiting, which is
the only one of ours with vvhofe effects I could com¬
pare it.” . , 15
The language of thefe Handers is foft and melodi-Language,;
ous: it abounds with vowels, and the pronunciation of &c.
it is eafily acquired : but it w’as found exceffxvely dif¬
ficult to teach the natives to pronounce a fingle Eng-
lifh word ; probably not only from its abounding with
confonants, but from fome peculiarity in its ftru&ure ;
for Spanifh and Italian words, if ending in a vowel,
they pronounced with the greateft eaie. A fufficient
acquaintance has not been formed with it to determine
whether it is copious or not; but it is certainly very
imperfeffi, being totally without inflexion either of
nouns or verbs. Few of the nouns have more than
one cafe, and few of the verbs more than one tenfe.
It was impoffible to teach the Handers to pronounce
the names of their guefts. I hey called Captain Cook
Toote ; Mr Hicks, the firff lieutenant, Hete, &c. and
in this manner they formed names for alrnoft every
man in the (hip. In fome, however, it wras not eafy
to find any traces of the original; and they were per¬
haps not mere arbitrary founds formed upon the ocea-
fion, but fignified words in their own language ; and
it feems that they could perfectly rcmemb|er theie ap¬
pellations at the diftance of four years, by theiV inqui¬
ries after fuch gentlemen as were abfent on the fecond
voyage by name. Mr Monkhoule, a midfhipman,
they called Matte, which in their language fignifus
dead; becaufe he commanded a party that killed a man
for {dealing a mufket. The neareft imitation they
could reach of king George, was by calling him Kdu-
argo. We have the following ubfervations on this
in; jeffi, in vol. ii. or Cook’s lalt voyage to the Pacific
Ocean : “ The language of Otaheite, though doubt-
lels radically the fame with that of New Zealand and
the Friendly Iflands, is deftitute of that guttural pro- /
nunciation, and of fome confonants, with which thofe
latter dialefts abound. The fpeeimens we have al¬
ready given are fufficient to mark wherein the varia¬
tion chiefly confifts, and to fhow, that, like the man¬
ners of the inhabitants, it has become foft and footh-
ing. During the former voyage, 1 had collected a co¬
pious vocabulary, which enabled me the better to com¬
pare this dialed with that of the other iflands; and
during this voyage I took every opportunity ot im¬
proving my acquaintance with it, by convcrfing with
Omai before we arrived, and by my daily intercomfe
with the natives while we now remained there (a). It
abounds
(a) See this vocabulary at the end.of the fecond volume of Captain Cook’s fecond voyage. Many correc¬
tions and additions to it were now made by this indefatigable inquirer; but the fpecimens of the language of
Otaheite, already in the hands of the public, feem fufficient for every ufeful purpofe, .
©taheitee
16
C5ovcrn-
Ojem.
° T A [ 550
^ a^otin Tg with beautiful and figurative exprefilons, the
which, were it perfectly known, would I have no
doubt put it upon a level with many of the languages
that are molt in dleem for their warm and bold images,
tor inftance, the Otaheiteans exprefs their notions of
death very emphatically, by faying, “ that the foul
goes into darknefs ; or rather into night.” And, if
you feem to entertain any doubt, in alking the quef-
tion, “ if fuch a perfon is their mother ?” they imme¬
diately reply with furprife, “ Yes, the mother that
bore me.” I hey have one expreffion that corre-
fponds exaftly w'ith the phrafeology of the fcriptures,
where we read of the ‘r yearning of the bowels.” 
1 hey ufe it on all occafions, when the paffions give
them uneahnefg, as they conftantly refer pain from
grief, anxious defire, and other afft-aions, to the
bowels, as its feat ; where they likew fe fuppofe all
operations of the mind ate performed. Their language
aomits of that inverted arrangement pf words which
fo much diftinguifhes the Latin and Greek from molt
of our modern European tongues, whofe imperfeaions
require a more orderly conftruaion, to prevent ambi¬
guities. It is fo copious, that for the bread-fruit alone,
in its different {fates, they have above 20 names ; as
many for the taro root ; and about 10 for the cocoa-
nut. Add to this, that, befides the common dialect,
tney often expoffulate in a kins of ftanza or recitative,
which is anfwtred in the fame manner.”
A map of Otaheitee, engraved for Captain Cook’s
firft voyage, was taken out, and laid before Tuahowthe
high admiral, without informing him of what it wasj
however, he immediately found it out, and was over¬
joyed to fee a reprefentation of his own country. He
pointed out all the diitridts of it, naming every one of
them in their order.
Thefe people have a remarkable fagacity in foretel¬
ling the weather, particularly the quarter from whence
-the wind will blow. In their long voyages they fieer
by the fun in the day, and in the night by the ftars ;
all of which th- y diilinguilh by feparate names, and
know in what part of the heavens they wall appear in
any of the months during which they are vifible ia
their horizon. They alfo know the times of their an¬
nual appearing and difappearing, with more precifion
than would eafily be believed by an European aftrono-
mer. Their time they feem to reckon by moons, 13
of which make a year. 'I he day they divide into fix
parts, and the night into an equal number. They
judge of the time of the day by the height of the fun,
but they cannot afeertain the time of the night by the
ibrs; In numeration, the greatefi; length they can go
is 200 ; that is, when they have counted each of their
fingers and toes ten times over. When they take the
diltance from one place to another, they exprefs it
by the time which is required to pais it.
The government of the Otaheiteans feems greatly
to refemble the early {late of the European nations
under the feudal fyftem. Their orders of dignity are
tar ee-r a hie t which anfwers to king ; euree, baron ;
manahouni, vafial ; and towtow, villein. There are
two kings in the tfland, one being the fovereign of
each of the peninfulas of which it confiiis. Each of
them is treated with great refpea by all ranks, but
does not appear to lie inveited v\ith fo much power as
is exercifed by the earees in their own diitri&s. When
] OTA
king,^ whom they called O-Too, made a vifit to Otaheitee.
Captain ^ook, the chiefs, who happened to be there —~v*~' J
before him, immediately {tripped themfelves in great
hade. Captain Cook took notice of it; upon which
they faid earee, earee, fignifying, that it was on ac¬
count of O-Too being prefent; but this was the on¬
ly outward token of refpeft they paid him, for they
never rofe from their feats, or made any other obei-
fance.
The earees are lords of one or more of the diftri&s
into which each of the peninfulas is divided, and of
which there are 43 in the larger one. Thefe parcel
cut their territories to the manahounis, who fuperin-
tend the cultivation of the ground. The loweft clafs,
called towtows, feem to be nearly under the fame cir-
cumitances wrth the villeins in feudal governments.
I hey do all the laborious work, cultivate the land,
catch filh, fetch wood and water, &c. Each of the
earees keeps a kind oi court, and has a great number
of attendants, chiefly the younger brothers of their
own tribe; and among thefe fome hold particular offi¬
ces, but ot which little more is known than fome of
their names.
In thlrTcountry a child fucceeds to his father’s titles
and authority as foon as he is born ; and thus the king
no fooner has a Ion born, than his fovereignty ceafes.
A regent is tnen chofen ; and the father generally re¬
tains his 'power under that title, until his child be¬
comes of age. The child of the baron fucceeds to the
titles and honours oi its father as foon as it is born,
as well as the fon of the king ; fo that a baron who
was yeflerday called earce, and was approached with
the ceremony ol lowering their garments, lo as to un¬
cover the upper part of the body, is to-day, if his wife
happens to be delivered of a child, reduced to the rank
Oi a private man \ ail marks of rcfpedb being transfer¬
red to the child, if it is buffered to live, though the
father Hill continues poflelTor and adminillrator of his
elfate. But the acquiefcence which the lower clafs of
people, or towtows, yield to the command of their
chiefs, is very remarkable. They are not buffered to
talte any animal food, although they are employed in
feeding it for their lords. They endure patiently very
fevere blows, if, when colkfted into a large body,
they in any manner prefs upon or annoy the king or
a chief in his progrels ; and all this paffive fpirit is
preferved without any power being lodged in the hands
of the king to exadt it ; for he ules no military force,
nor is even attended with body-guards.
1 here are but lew adtions which are reckoned crimes
among the Otaheiteans. Adultery, however, is fome-
times pnnilhed with death : hut in general, the wo¬
man elcfcpes with a levere beating, and the gallant
palfes unnoticed. The regulation of public jultice is
not confined to the magiftrate ; for the injured party
ledrelfes his own wrong by infiidiing whatever punifli-
ment he can upon the-offender: but in matters of no¬
torious wrong, the chiefs fometimes interpofe. The
nobility have livery for their fervants ; and in propor¬
tion as the malter’s rank is more or lefs elevated, thefe
failles are worn higher or lower, being failened clofe
under the arms of the fervants belonging to the chiefs,
and going round the loins ®f thole belonging to the
loweit elals ol nobility. Several parts of the illand
item to be nrivate property, which defeend to the heir
of
OTA
Otaheitee of the pofTeffor on his death, an
[ 551
feems with a
*7
Religion.
.! the defcent
to fall indifferently on m n nr woman. Captain Cook
was of opinion, that the number of inhabitants on the
whole ifland amounted to 204,000, including women
and children.
The religious language of the Otaheiteana, like that
of the Gentoo Bra mins, is different from what is ufed
in common difcourfe ; but, according to tne accounts
we have of their notions concerning the origin of the
world, nothing can be more ridiculous. They ima¬
gine that the Supreme Deity, befides a great many
female defcendants, has one fon named Tane; and to
him they diredl their worfhip, though they do not be¬
lieve that the good or bud condud of mankind here on
earth makes them more or lefs acceptable to this divi¬
nity. They believe the exigence of the foul after
death, and of a greater orleffer degree of happinefs to
be then enjoyed ; but they feem to nave no conception
of a date of punifhmcnt or of filtering hereafter . . i he
(hare of happinefs which they imagine every individual
will enjoy in this future ilate, wdl be aiiigned to him
according to the rank he holds on earth. We are not,
however, told wherein they fuppofe the happinefs or
this future ftate to confift ; but it is moft probably a
pretty exadl imitation of a Mohammedan paradife,
for thefe voluptuaries can hardly be fuppofed capable
of imagining any pleafure independent of the inter-
courfe of the fexes.
Theprieilhood feems to be hereditary in one family
or tribe ; and as it is faid to be numerous, probably
thofe of that order are reftrained from becoming mem¬
bers of the Arreoy : but whether or not any peculiar
decorum is neceflary to be obferved, hath not yet ap¬
peared. Thefe priefts are profelfedly the men of
fcience ; but their knowledge is altogether frivolous
and ufelefs, for it conlifts in being converfant with the
names of their different divinities, and fuch abfurd tra¬
ditions as have been handed down among them from
one generation to another. I heir religious notions be¬
ing depofited in ati unknown tongue, tney are refpedl-
ed becaufe they are not underftood ; and as the cure of
the foul is no object of regard, the moft important
concern to thefe people, the cure of their bodies, is
committed to the pnelts, and much parade is ufed in
their attempts to recover the fick, though their reme¬
dies confift of ridiculous ceremonies and enchantments
rather than any thing elfe.
The marriages of thefe people are merely fecular
contrafts ; but no one has a right to perform the ope¬
ration of tattowing except the priefts ; and this being
a cuftom univerfally adopted by the natives, it may be
] OTA
fhed cre&ed over it, on which lay a corpfe
and fome provifions. Captain Cook then afked it the
plantain were for the Eitua ? i; they fieri need to the
Eatua hogs, dogs, fowls, &c, ? To all of which an
intelligent native anfwered in the affirmative, rfe then
alked if they f.cnfieed men to the Eat an? He was an-
fwere 1, ttiato eno, “ bad men they did; firft tlp.irrahy^
beating them tiil they were dead.” He then atlced if
good men were put to death in this manner ? H s an-
fwer was no, only taato eno. The Captain then afked
If any Earees were? The native replied, they hid
hogs to give the Eatua, and again repeated taato mo.
He’was then aflced if towto vs, who had no hogs, dogs,
or fowls, but yet were good men, were ever faenficed
to the Eatua? The anfwer dill was no, only bad
men. Many other queflions were put to him ; all his
anfwers to which feemed to confirm the ideas chat men
for certain crimes were condemned to be Tcrificed to
the gods, provided they did not poffefs any property
which they might give for their redemption. How¬
ever, in purfuing finch inquiries as thele, no certain in¬
formation could be obtained, on account of the flight
knowledge which had been acquired of the language
of the country : but according to further accounts
which Captain Cook received from Omni, it feems to
reft with the high-prieft to fingle out the vi&ims for
facrifice ; who, when the people are affembled on any
folemn occafion, retires alone into the houfe of God,
and ftays there for fome time; when he comes out, he
informs the affembly that he has feen and converfed
with the great god (the high-prieft alone having that
privilege), and that he has afked for a human facri¬
fice ; and tells them he has defired fuch a perfon,
naming a man prefent, who has moft probably, on
fome account or other, rendered himfelf obnoxious to
this gholily father. The words are no fooner gone out
of his mouth, than the devoted wretch is put to death ;
for his guilt cannot be doubted, after the oracle has
pronounced his doom.
On this ifland was feen the figure of a man con-
ftrudted of bafket work, rudely made, but not ill de-
figned : it was fomething more than feven feet high,
and rather too bulky in proportion to its height. This
wicker fkeleton was completely covered with feathers,
which were white where the fkin was to appear, and
black in the parts which it is their cuftom to paint or
itain, as well as upon the head, which was defigned to
reprefent hair. Upon the head alfo were four protu¬
berances ; three in front, and one behind, which the
Indians called tate. ete, little men. The image was
called Manioc ; it was a reprefentation of Mauwe, one
Otaheitee.
a cultom univeriauy anopvcu uy liw uauivto, may uc v-um-v* , ... .......      -
fuppofed that the performing it is a very lucrative em- of their Eatuas, or gods of the fecond dais,, and was
1   rPl.... nnrlprnr. a hinrt r,f faid to be the Onlv One of the kind OU Otaheitee.
ployment. The males in general undergo a kind of
circumcifion, which it is difgraeeful not to comply
with, and which is likewife the exclufive privilege of
the priefts to perform. But what moft eftablifhes the
credit of this order of men is their {kill in aftronomy
and navigation.
Captain Cook, who had fome reafon to believe that,
among the religious cuftoms of this people, human
facrifices were fometimes offered up to their deities,
went to a morai, or place of woifhip, accompanied by
Captain Furneaux, having with them a failor who
fpoke the language tolerably well, and feveral of the
natives. In tke morai was a tupapovr, a kind of bier,
faid to be the only one of the kind on Otaheitee.
Thefe people pray at fun-rife and fun-fet. They
have alfo a number of fuperftitious pra&ices, in order
to conciliate the influence of evil genii. E-Tee, a
chief, who feemed to be the king’s prime minifter in
1774, very ferioufly afked Mr Forfter whether they
had a god {Eatua) in their country, and whether they
prayed to him {epoore ?) When he told them that
they acknowledged a Divinity who had made every¬
thing, and was invifible, and that they were accu-
ftomed to addrefs their petitions to him, he feem¬
ed to be highly pleafed, and repeated his words
with comment# of his own, to feveral perfons who fat
rmmrf
° T A r 552
Otaheitce. round him; feeming thereby to intimate, that the ideas
of his countrymen correfponded with theirs in this re-
fpect.
Their rrorais are ufed both ?^s burying-grounds and
places of worfliip ; they are approached with the mold
wonderfulexprtfhonsofreverence andhumility; and this,
it fhould feem, not btcaafe any thing there is efteemed
facred, but becaufe they there worth'p an invilible be-
ing, tot whom they entertain the nnotl reverential re-
fpedt, although not excited by the hope ot reward or
the dread of pumihmtnt. Though they do not ap¬
pear to have any vihble objedl of worfhip, yet, fays
Captain Cook, this itland, and indeed the rett that lie
near it, have a particular bird, fome a heron, and
others a kingsfiiher, to which they pay a particular
regard, and concerning which they have fonie fuper-
flitious notions, refpedbing good or bad fortune, as we
have ot the fwallow and robin redbreaft, and will on
no account moleft or kill them. One of thefe ceme¬
teries, or places of worfhip, was known to Captain
Cook, on his firft voyage, by the name of Tootahah’s
raorai, then the regent; but when, on his fecond voy¬
age, after the death of that chief, he called it by that
name, Maratata, a chief that accompanied the party,
interrupted him, intimating, that it was no longer
Tootahah’s after his death, but was then known as^O-
Too’s morai, the then reigning prince. A fine moral
for princes ! daily reminding them of mortality whilit
they live, and teaching them, that after death they
cannot call even that ground their own which their
dead corpfe occupies i The chief and his wife, on paf-
fmg by it, took their upper garments from their {boul¬
ders. From hence it fhould feem, that the royal fa¬
mily have a particular moral, and that it always bears
the name of the reigning prince.
An Indian, who had fnatched away a mufket from
a fen try whilft on duty, was, by the inhumanity of a
iS
Tunerals
midfhmman who commanded the guard, purfued and
(hot. The unhappy fate of this poor fellow gave an
opportunity for feeing the manner in which thefe
people treat their dead. They placed the corpfe in the
open air till the bones became quite dry : a fired was
erefted dofe by the houfe where the deceafed had re-
fided ; it was about 15 feet long, and eleven broad ;
one end was left quite open ; the other end, and the
two Tides, were partly inclofed with a fort of wicktr-
work. The bier was a frame of wood, like that on
which the fea-beds,,called cots, are placed, with a mat¬
ted bottom, and fupported by four polls, at the height
of about four feet from the ground. The body was
covered firft with a mat, and then with white cloth ;
by the fide of it lay a wooden mace, one of thtir
weapons of wa.r; and near the head of it, which lay
next to the clofe end of the ihed, lay two cocoa-nut
fiiells ; at the other end a bunch of green leaves, with
fome dried twigs, all tied together, were ftuck in the
ground, by which lay a ftone about as big as a cocoa-
nut. Near thefe lay one of the young plantain-leaves
that are ufed for emblems of peace, and clofe by it a
ftone ax.^ At the open end of the fhed aifo hung, in
feyeral firings, a great number of palm-nuts ; and
without the fhed was ftuck up in the ground a ftem of
a pirn tain-tree, about fix feet high, upon the top of
whii.ii WtS placed a cocoa-nut (hell full of frefii writer;
.againft the hue of one of the polls hung a fnaall bag,
- N° 25^.
J OTA
containing a few pieces of bread-fruit ready roafted, Otaheit«,
which had not been put in all at one time, fome being ‘ v—<
frefh, and others ftale. 1 his minute examination of
their manner of treating their dead, feemed to be very
unwelcome to the natives. The food fo placed by the
corpfe is defigned as an offering to their gods. , They
caft in, near the body, frnall pieces of cloth, on which
the tears and blood ot the mourners have been fhed ;
for in their paroxyfms of grief it is an univerfal cuflom
to wound themfelves with a fhark’s tooth. The mourn¬
er is always a man ; and he is dreffed in a very lingular
habit. When the bones are itripped of their flefh, and
become dry, they are buried. I his regard to their
dead is. very remarkable : one of the flu'p’s company
happening to pull a flower from a tree which grew on
one of their fepulchral inclofures, an Indian came fud-
denly behind him and ftruck him ; and a party of
failors, who were fent to get fome ftones for ballaft for
the fhip, had like to have been embroiled with the na¬
tives, by pulling down fome part of an inclofure of
this kind. This fiiade under which their dead are laid
is called tupapow; the inclofure in which their hones are
depofited is called ?norai; thefe latter, as has been al¬
ready.related, are alfo places of worfhip. As foon as
a native of Otaheitee is known to be dead, the houfe
is filled with relations, who deplore their lofs; fome by
loud lamentations, and fome by lefs clamorous, but
more genuine expreffions of grief. Thofe who are in
the neareft degree of kindred, and are really affeded
by the event, are filent ; the reft are one moment ut¬
tering. pafiionate exclamations in a chorus, and the next
laughing and talking without the leafl appearance of
concern. In this manner the remainder of the day on
which they affemble is fpent, and all the fucceeding
night. On the next morning the body is fhrouded in
their cloth, and conveyed to the fea-fide on a bier,
which the bearers fupport upon their fiioulJers, at¬
tended by the prieft, who having prayed over the body
repeats his fentences during the proctffion. When it
arrives at the water’s edge, it is fet down upon the
beach ; the prieft renews his prayers, and taking up
fome of the v/ater in his hands, fprinkles it towards the
body, but not upon it. It is then cairied back 40 or 50
yards; and foon after brought again to the beach,
where the prayers and fprinkling are repeated. It is
thus removed backwards and forwards feveral times;
and while thefe ceremonies have been performing, a
houfe has been built, and a fmall fpaee of ground
railed in. In the centre of this houfe, or tupapow, as
they term it, pofts are fet up to fupport "the bier,
which is at length conveyed thither, and placed upon
it ; and here the body remains to putrify, till the
flcfh is wholly wafted from the bones. Thefe houfes
of corruption are of a fize proportioned to the rank
of the perfon whofe body they are to contain. Thofe
allotted to the lower clafs are juft fufficient to cover
the bier, and have no railing round them. The
largeft that was feen was 11 yards long; and ftich
are ornamented according to the abilities and inclina¬
tion of the furviving kindred, who never fail to lay
a piofufion of good cloth about the body, and fome-
tunes aim oil cover the outfide of the houfe. Gar¬
lands of the fruit of the palm-nut, or pandamis, and
cocoa-leaves, twilled by the priefts in myfterious knots,
with a plant called by them ethee no moral, which 13
p MVV
OTA
L 551 1
OTA
otiheitce. particularly confecnted to funeral folemnitiea, are de
V   ' pofited about the place j provtiion and water are alio
left at a little diftance. As foon as the body is de-
pofiled in the tupapow, the mourning is renewed. The
women affemble, and are led to the door by the near-
eft relation, who ftrikes a fhark’s tooth feveral times
into the crown of her head ; the blood copioufly fol¬
lows, and is carefully received upon pieces of linen,
which are thrown under the bier. The reft of tae
women follow this example ; and the ceremony is re¬
peated at the interval of two or three days, as
as the zeal and forrow of the parties hold out. 1 he
tears alfo which are (hed upon thefe occafions, are re¬
ceived upon pieces of cloth, and offered as oblations
to the dead. Some of the younger people cut off their
hair, and that is thrown under the bier with the other
offerings. This cuftom is founded on a notion, that
the foul of the deceafed, which they believe toexiftin
a fepaiate Rate, is hovering about the place where the
body is depofited ; that it obferves the aftions of the
furvivers, and is gratified by fuch teftimomes of their
affe&ionate grief. Whilft thefe ceremonies aie car¬
rying on by the women, the men feem to be wholly
infenfible of their lofs ; but two or three days after,
they alfo begin to perform a part. The neareft rela¬
tions take it in turn to aflume the drefs, and perform
the offices. > .
The chief mourner canies in his hand a long flat
ftick, the edge of which is fet with ffiark’s teeth; and
in a frenzy, which his grief is fuppofed to have in-
fpired, he runs at all he fees, and if any of them hap¬
pen to be overtaken, he ftrikes them moft unmerci¬
fully with his indented cudgel, which cannot fail to
wound them in a dangerous manner. The proceffions
continue at certain intervals for five moons ; but are
lefs and lefs frequent, by a gradual diminution, as the
end of that time approaches. When it is expired,
what remains of the body is taken down from the bier;
and the bones, having been feraped and wafhed very
clean, are buried, according to the rank of the perfon,
either within or Without a moral, if the deceafed was
an earee, or chief, his fkull is not buried with the reft
of bis bones, tut is wrapped up in fine cloth, and put
in a kind of box made for that purpofe, which is alfo
placed in the moral. T his coffin is called twharre no
te oremetua, “ the houfe of a teacher, or mafter.”
After this the mourning ceafes, except feme of the
women continue to be really affiufted at the lofs, and
in that cafe they will fuddenly wound themfelves with
the ffiark’s tooth wherever they happen to be. The
ceremonies, however, do not ceafe with the mourn¬
ing ; for prayers are ftiil faid by the prieft, and offer¬
ings made at the morai. Some of the things, which
from time to time are depofited there, are emblemati¬
cal * a young plantain is faid to reprefent the decea¬
fed, and a bunch of feathers the Deity who is invo-
-ked. '1 he prieft places himfelf overagainft the fym-
bol‘ of the god, accompanied by feme of the rela¬
tions, who are furnifhed with a fmp.ll offering : he re¬
peats his orifon in a let form, confifting of feparate
fenter.ces . at the fame time weaving the leaves of
the cocoa-nut into different forms, which he after¬
wards depofits upon the ground where the bones have
been interred : the Deity is then addreffed by a ffirill
Ycreech, which is ufed only upon that occafion. When
Vol XIII. Part II.
the prieft retires, the tuft of feathers is removed,
the provifions are left to putrify, or be devoured by ~~
the rats.
This ceremony of mourning, as deferibed above, was
performed by Tirope, one of the wives of Fubourai
Tamaide ; who, when the bleeding from the wounds
which (he had thus given herfelf ceafed, looked up
with a fmile on the company round her, and who had
before inquired of her, very earneftly, the caufe of
her behaviour, without receiving any atifwer, or ha¬
ving been at all noticed by her. She then began to
pick up feme fmall pieces of cloth which fhe had.
fpread to catch the blood ; and having got them all
together, ffie went to the ftiorc, and threw them into
the fea. She then plunged into the river ; and having
waftied her whole body, returned to the company a*
cheerful as ever. To add to the fingulamy of this
conduct, the Indians who Rood round her all the time
that this frantic diftrefs w^s performing, converfed
w ith great indifference and jocularity.
There is not a more ancient cuftom handed down to
us than that of cutting the body to expreis grief and
diftrefs of mind. In the code of laws delivered by
Moles to the Ifraelites 1400 years before the Chri-
ftian era, this praftice is cxprefsly forbidden to that
people : “ Ye ffiall not cut yourfelves, or make any
baldnefs between the eyes for the dead,” Deut. xiv. r.
Hence it may be fuppofed that this rite prevailed in
Egvpt, from vs hence the Jews derived moft of thofe
propenfities which were inhibited by their great legif-
lator. We are told likewife in the book of Kings, of
the priefts of Baal wounding themfelves, after they
had long waited in vain for the fupcrnatural interven¬
tion of their idol. D’Arvieux informs us, that the
modern Arabs retain the fame cuftom, and that the
part they chiefly wound is their arms The difference
in the practice as now ptevading in O-i aheitee and
Arabia feems to be, that in the firft none but the wo¬
men make ufe of it, and in the latter it is confined to
the men, and generally ufed to exprefs their defperate
paffion for fome favourite miftrefs.
The mourning which is worn here is an head-drefs
of feathers, the colour of which is confecrated to death,
and a veil over the face. This drefs is called eeva.
The whole nation is faid to appear thus on the death
of their king. The mourning for fathers is very longer
The women mourn for their huffiands, but not the huf-
bands for their wives.
We ffiall conclude this account of Otaheitee with
the hiftory of Omai, or, as he is improperly called 0-
miah, who was brought over to England. He was a
native of Ulietea, or Raietea ; and embarked at Hua-
hine with Captain Furneaux, on board the Adventure,
in September 1773 ; and the two ffiips feparating in
a ftorm of) the coall of New Zealand a few months
afterwards, the voyage of the Adventure was brought
to a much earlier conclufion than that of the Refolu-
tion, for ffie arrived at Spithead the 14th of July fol¬
lowing. This youth is faid to have had fome proper¬
ty in his native fofl, of which he was difpoffeffed by
the people of Bolabola : but he was not one of the
earees, or gentry of that countiy, but of theTniddling
clafs of people. He was eminent neither for figure,
ffiape, nor complexion ; his colour being of a deep
hue, refembling a towtow, or one of the common
4 A people j
O T A f 55
ef-people; and Iwth Captain Cock and Mr For fie r ac-rte
in thinking him no 5 roper fample of the inhabitants of
thole ihande, in refpect of perfonal beauty. However,
iLty are Loth of opinion, that the qualities of his
fceai t and head refembled thofe of his countrymen in
general, and that no one of the natives would have
given mere general fatisfa&ion by his behaviour whilft
he remained in England. He is eleferibed as pofTeffing
a good tmdeiHanding, qui.k parts, and honeft prin¬
ciples: not an extraordinary genius like Tuoia ; vet
► at al deficient m intelligence, which appears front
his knovyledge of the game of chefs, in which,he made
an amazing proficiency. His principal patrons, whilft
in England, were, the Earl of Sandwich, Mr Banks,
and Do&or Solandtr. His nol le patron introduced
him to his Maiefty at Kew ; and, during his ftay in
England, he was careffed by many of the principal no¬
bility. He naturally imitated that eafy and elegant
politenefs which is prevalent among the great, arid
which is one of the ornaments of civilized fociety. In¬
deed he adopted the manner?, the occupation , and
amufements of his companions in geneia!, and gave
many proofs of a quick perception and a lively fancy.
He appears, however, to have been treated, whilft he
re tided here, rather as a fafhionable exhibition, than
as a rational being. No attention feems to have been
paid to toe enriching his mind with ufeful knowledge,
fuch as might have rendered him a valuable acquifitton
to his country on his return thither; no means were
ufed to inrtn.A him in agriculture, or any mechanical
art or ufeiul manufacture ; and, above ail, to pofttfs
him with a moral ferfe; to teach him the exalted ideas
of virtue, and the fublime principles of revealed reli¬
gion. Alter a ftay of two years in England, and ha¬
ving 1 etn inoculated for the fmall pox, he embarked
witii Captain Cook, on board the Rcfolution, on his
return home, loaded with a profufion of prefents. At
parting with his friends here, his tears flowed plenti¬
fully, and his whole behaviour befpoke him to be fin-
cert ly afFeded at the reparation : but though he lived
in the midft of amufements during his refidence in
England, bis return to his native country was always
in his thoughts; and tho’ he was not impatient to go,
he ex pi ebed a latisfadion as the time of his return ap¬
proached.
Such is the account of this people which our limits
permit os to give. In the hiflciy of mafikind it is not
without ftnj ottance ; and in the hands of thephilofo-
pher, the moralift, or the divine, it may be ufeful. The
fubjtft, becaufe but new, has been much agitated, and
is pretty generally known. Such of our readers as
make n en and manners their peculiar ftudy, will be
anxious for further information ; we muft refer them,
ho* ever, to thofe authors who have written particularly
end copicufiy on the fubjedh Ccok and other voyagers
of eminence will at leaft command attention. We may
iuft remark, thot there muft fureiy I e fomething ex¬
tremely fafemating in the perfons, manners, or cuf-
toms of the inhabitants, or in the foil and appearance of
the country, that could tempt the greater part of a
ihip’s crew to refill authority, and forcibly to return
to Otaheitee ; yet fuch we know was the cafe : and
the fufterings of the commander, and thofe who re-
-iqfc.d to join in this vile confpiracv, and who were
* ! O T H
therefore expofed in an open boat, were in ked block¬
ing. An account of it has been lately pnblifhed.
o0 ‘ ALGIA, the Ear ach, in medicine. S^e there,
n 80. and 3^4.
O fELANDb, or Oatlaxps, in England,-in tlic
county of Suny, near Wkybridge, was formerly a royal
palace; wherein Henry duke of Gloucefter, tliird fon^o
king Charles I. was born; and had a deer-park, which.in
the iate civil wars was by the parliamentarians laid open.
End the boufe demolifhed. In 1 6" 3 there was a brick-
wali remaining, which en com pa {Ted ten acres; but there
were then fmall traces of the chief pile, befides the
gardener’s lodge, wherein was the (ilk-worm room
rautd by King James Ids queen, it is now a rr.oft
magnificent building, ?nd commands a moll extenfive.
piofpedl, which words cannot deferibe. In the park
there was a paddock, where Queen Elizabeth ufed to
moot with a crofs bow. It is now the property of
his royal highnefs the Duke of York, who purchafed
it for 53,0001. of the duke of Newcaftle, 1789.
O 1 I ORI), in England, in the county ot Kent, by
the Daunt, at the bottom of a hill. In 793 there was
a battle at this place between the two Saxon kings, Of-
fa of Mercia and Alrick of Kent, who was killed by Of-
fa ; and another in ic,i6, wherein the Danifh king Ca¬
nute was routed by King Edmund Ironfide. The Kid Of-
fa, to atone for the blood he had fhed in that battle, firft
gave'this place to Chrift-church, Canterbury (as the
deed fays), inpafcua porcorvm, '1 for the fupport of the
arenbifhop’s hogs and fo it remained in the arch-
bi(hop’s liberty, till exchanged with King Henry VIII.
for other lands. There was a chantry founded at the
xcye.-ouL in tins parifh. i lie church was once a
chapel to Shortham.
O FHNIEL, in facred kiftory, the fon of Kenaz,
of the tribe of Judah. We are told fjofti xv 1 7 ),
that Othniel was brother to Caleb ; and (Judges i 13)
it is exprefsly faid, that he wn-s C-ilelr’s youngei bro¬
ther There are, however, fome difficulties m this ;
for if Caleb and Othniel had been brothers, the latter
could not have married his niece Achfah the daughter
of Caleb. Secondly, the fcn'pture never affigns to
Caleb and Othniel the fame father : it always names
Kenr.z as father to Othniel, and Jephunnth as the fa¬
ther cf Caleb. Daftly, Caleb muft be much older than
Othniel, fince lie gave Othniel his daughter Achfah
in marriage. Thus it feems much better to fuppofe
Kenaz and Jcphunneh to be two brothers, and* that
Othniel and Caleb were coufin germanj, and in this
fenfe to be nearly related, or brothers according to
the language of feripture. Thus Achfah being but
fecond coufin in refpeft of Othniel, he might marry
her without doing any thing contrary to the letter of
the law.
Celeb having received his portion in the mountains
of Judah, in the midft of a country that was pofltfled
by giants of the race of Anak, after he had taken
the city of Hebron, he advances towards Debir,
otherwiie called Kirjath-fepher, and declares that he
would give his daughter Achfah in marriage to him
that fhould take Kirjath-fepher. Othniel took it, and
had Achfah to wife.
After the death of Jcfhua, the Ifraeiites not giving
themfslvsis the trouble to exterminate the Canaanites
that:
OthnicL
O T K r 55S J O T H
Oti.o. tint were tlien in the land, and not having continued
in thn’r fidelity to the Lord, he delivered them over to
Chufhan ruftnthaim king of Mefopotamia (Judges iii.
4, &c.), to whom they continued in fubje&ion for
eight years. Then they cried to the Lord, who raifed
them up a deliverer in the perfon of Othniel the fon
of Kenaz, who was filled with the fpirit of God, and
judged Iliael He came into the field, and gave battle
to Chuihan-rui'lnthaim, beat him, and delivered Ifraei
in the year of the world 2599 ; and the country was
at reft for 40 years After this Othniel died ; but the
precife year of his death is not known.
O FHO (M Salvius), a Roman emperor, born
A. D. 32, of a family defeended from the ancient
kings of Etruria. He was among the number of
Nero’s favourites, and accordingly was raifed to the
higheft offices of the ftate, and made governor of Pan-
nonia by the interefl of Seneca, who wiffied to remove
him from Rome, left Nero’s love for Poppaea fhouid
prove his ruin. After Nero’s death Otho conciliated
the favour of Galba the new emperor ; but when he
did not gain his point, and when Galba refufed to
adopt him as his fuccdTor, he refolved to make himfelf
abiolute, without any regard to the age or dignity of
1 is friend. The great debts which he had contracted
encouraged his avarice ; and he procured the affaffina-
tion of Galba, and made himfelf emperor, fie was
acknowledged by the fenate and the Roman people ;
but the bidden revolt of Viteilius in Germany rendered
his filtration very precarious, and it was mutually re¬
folved that their refpe&ive right to the empire ffiould
be decided by arms. Otho obtained three victories,
but in a general engagement near Brixellum his forces
were defeated, and he ftabl ed himfelf when all hopes
of fuceefs had vanilhed. This happened about the
37th year of his age, after a reign of about three
’months. It has been juftly obferved, that the laft
moments ol Otho’s life were thofe of a phiiofopher.*
He comforted his foldiers who lamented his fortune,
and he exprefled his concern for their fafety when
they earneftly folicited to pay him the Lft friendly
offi ces liefore he {tabbed himfelf; and he obferved,
that it was better that one man fhouid die than that
all fhouid be involved in ruin on account of his oblti-
oary. His nephew was much affe&ed, and feared
exceedingly the anger and haughtinefs of the conque¬
ror ; but Otho comforted lum, and obferved, that Vi¬
teilius would be kind and affe&ionate to the friends
and relations of Otho, fince Otho was not afhamed to
fay, that in the time of their greateft enmity the mo¬
ther of Vitelhus had received every friendly treatment
from his hands. He alfo burnt the letters which, by
falling into the hands of Viteilius, might provoke his
refentment againft thofe who had favoured the caufe
of an unfortunate general. Thefe noble and humane
fentiments in a man who was the affociate of Nero’s
Thameful pleafures, and who ha ! ftained his hand in
the blood of his mailer, have appeared to fo.ne won¬
derful, and have pa fled for the ft attires of policy, and
not of a naturally virtuous and benevolent heart. His
father was a favourite of Claudius.
Or ho, a tribune of the people, who, in Cicero’s
'Confulft’ip, made a regulation to permit the Roman
knights at public fpeCtaclts to have the 14 firit tows
after the feats of the fenators. This was oppofed with Odin
virulence by feme, but Cicero ably defended it, &c. 11
Of ho (Venius), a very celebrated Dutch painter.
He was defeended of a confiderable family in Leyden,
and was born in 1556. He was carefully educated by
his parents in the belles lettres, and at the fame time
learned to defign of Ifaae Nicholas. He was but 15
when tb« civil wars obliged him to leave his country.
He retired to Liege, finiffied his (ladies, and then*
gave the fir ft prflofs of the excellence of his mind.
He was well known to Cardinal Grocfbeek, who rave
him letters of recommendation when he went to Rome
where he was entertamed by Cardinal Maducci®!
His genius was fo aaive, that he applied hirnfelf to
philofephy, poetry, mathematics, ana painting, all at
once.^ He became a great proficient in defigning un¬
der Frederico Zuchero. He acquired an excellence
in all the parts of painting, efpecially in the know,
ledge of the claro obfcuro; by which means he came
to be accounted one of the moft ingenious men of hi*
age. He lived at Rome feven years, during which
time he performed feveral rare pieces ; and then paf-
fing into Germany, was received into the fervice of
the emperor. After this the duke of Bavaria and the
eledlor of Cologne employed him ; but ail the advan¬
tages he got from the courts of foreign princes could
not detain him there. He had a defire to return into
the Low Countries, of which Alexander Farnefe,
prince of Parma, was then governor. He drew the
prince s picture, armed cap-a-pee, which confirmed his'
reputation in the Netherlands. After the death of
that prince, Venius returned t® Antwerp, where he
acomed the principal churches with his paintings.
'I he archduke Albert, who fucceeded the prince ^of
Parma in the government of the Low Countries, fent
for him to Bruflels, and made him ntafter of tire mint %
a place which occupied much of his time, yet he found
fome time for the exercife of his profeffion. He drew
the archduke and the infanta Ifabella’s portraits at
large, which were font to James I. of Great Britain :
and, to fliow his knowledge of polite learning likewife,
he publiihed feveral treatifes, which he embelhffied with
cuts of his own defigning. Louis Ilf. made him very
great offers to tempt him into his fervice; but he would
never leave his own country, fatisfying himfelf with
the character and employments he held there. He
was the firft, alter Polydore Caravaggio, who reduced
the claro-obfcuro to a principle of the art of painting.
Rubens perfe&ed what he began, and the whole
Flemifh ichool learned it of him. Venius died at
Brufltls, 1634, in his 78th year. He had two bro¬
thers, Gilbert, who was a graver, and Peter a painter.
He had alfo the honour of breeding up the famous
Rubens in his art. %
OTHONNA, in botany: A genus of the poly-
gamia neceffaria order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
wider the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is
naked ; there is almoit no pappus; the calyx is mono-
phyllous, multifid, and nearly cylindrical
G i HRYADES, one of the 300 Spartans who
foug .t againft 300 Argives, when thofe two nations
difputed their refpeelive right to Thyreata. Two
Argives, Alcinor and Cronius, and Otiiryades, furvived
4 A 2 '
*1
o T L [ 556 1 O T R
Oti-s the battle. The Argives went home to carry the
'Ot’ey. news of their vi&ory ; but Othryades, who had been
""“V reckoned among the number of the flain on account
of his wounds, recovered himfelf, and carried fome of
the fpoils of which he had ilrippcd the Argives into
the camp of his countrymen; and after he had raifed a
trophy, and had written with his own blood the word
via on his fhield, he killed himfelf, unable or unwilling
to furvive the death of his countrymen.
O ITS, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of grallse. There are four fpecies, prin¬
cipally diitinguifhed by their colour One of the
fpecies, the tarda, or buftard, is the largeft of the
Ilritifh land-fowl; the male at a medium weighing
25 pounds ; there are inftances of fome very old ones
weighing 27 : The breadth nine feet; the length
near four. BePdes the fize and difference of colour,
the male is diitinguifhed from the female by a tuft of
feathers about fiv-e inches long on each fide of the
lower mandible. Its head and neck are afh-coloured :
the back is barred tranfverfely with black and bright
ruft colour : the greater quill-feathers are black : the
belly white : the tail is marked with broad red and
black bars, and confifts of twenty feathers : the legs
duiky-
The fema.le is about half the fize of the male : the
crown of the head is of a deep orange, traverfed with
black lines; the reft of the head is brown. i he
lower part of the fore-fide of the neck is afh coloured:
in other refpefts it refemblcs the male, only the colours
of the back and wings are far more dull.
Thefe birds inhabit moft of the open countries of
the fouth and eaft parts of this ifiand, from Dorfet-
Ihire, as far as the Wolds in Yorkfhire. They are
exceeding fhy, and difficult to be fhot ; run very faft,
and when on the wing can fly, though flowly, many
miles without refting- It is laid that they take flight
with difficulty, and are fometimes run down with
grehounds. They keep near their old haunts, feldom
wandering above 20 or 30 miles. Their food is corn
and other vegetables, and thofe large earth-worms that
appear in great quantities on the downs before fun-
rifing in the fummer. Thefe are replete with rnoifture,
anfwer the purpofe of liquids, and enable them to live
long without drinking on thofe extenfivc and dry
Plate traits. Befides this, nature hath given the males an
AccLxix. admirable magazine for their fecurity agatnft drought,
being a pouch, whofe entrance lies immediately under
the tongue, and which is capable of holding near
feven quarts ; and this they probably fill with water,
to fupply the hen when fitting, or the young before
they can fly. Buftards lay only two eggs, of the fize
of thofe of a goofe,. of a p*le olive-brown, marked
with fpotr, of a dark colour; they make no neft, only
ferape a hole in the ground. In autumn they are (in
Wiltfhire) generally found in large turnip-fields near
the JDovvns, and in flocks of 50 or more.
OTLEY, a town of England, in the Weft Riding
of Yorklhire, under a cliff called Chevin, on the fouth
fide of the river Wherfe. The adjacent parts are
reckoned the moft delightful in England. Its church
has lately been elegantly fitted up, in which are feve-
ral good old monuments. The adjacent country is
much improved, and from the Chevin is a mofl: beau¬
tiful view gf an exienfive fcope of undeferibed manfions.
3
This manor was given by Athelftan to the fee of York, Otocflm,
whofe archbifhop had a palace here, with feveral exten- 0l:rarito‘ f
five piivileges. There is a jree grammar-ichool in this
place, iounded by Mr Cave, 1611, c.dled Prince Hen~
ry'sS chool. In 1673, fuffered much by an inunda¬
tion ; which carried away feveral bridges, mills, &c.
as well as much corn, &c.
OTOD1NI,ancient Britons,feated,as forne fuppofe,
to the nbrth eaft of the Brigantes, in the countries now
called Northumberland, Mt-ife, and the Eothians. As
the Otodini are not mentioned by any of the Pvoman hif- Henry's
torians, but only by Ptolemy, it is uncertain whether Hi ft. Or.
they formed a diftinct independent itace, or were united ^ vo^*
with the Brigaates. They were, however, a conii-p'i ^
derable people, and poflefied a long traft of the fea-
coaft, from the river Tine to the Firth of Forth.
Their name is derived by Baxter from the old Britifh
words Qt 0 dineu, which iignify “ a high and rocky
fliore deferiptive enough of their country. They
were probably reduced by Agricola at the fame time
with their more powerful neighbours the Brigantes;
but as they lived without the wall of Severus, they
were, like the reft of the Maeatae, engaged in frequent
revolts. In the moll perietl date of the Roman go¬
vernment in this ifiand, the country of the Otodini
made a part of the Roman province called Vnlentia;
which comprehended all that large tradl bet ,veen the
two walls. As this province was never long together
in the peaceable poffcffion of the Romans, they had
but few ftations in the country of the Otodini, except
thofe on the line of the wall of Severus.
Various authors have derived the name of tins-
people in various ways, and it is very differently fuel¬
led ; and various opinions Hill feem to be entertained-
among the learned refpecting their real fituation : and
it is even doubtful whether their country was in Eng¬
land or in Scotland. The celebrated Drummond of
'Hathomden contends for the latter.
O f RANTO, or Terra d’Otr.anto, a province of
Italy in the kingdom of Naples; bounded on the north
by the Terra di Bari and by the gulph of Venice, on
the eaft by the fame gulph, and on the fouth and
weft by a great bay which is between that and the Ba-
filicata. It is a mountainous country, abounding in
figs, olives, and wine. It is often vifited by locufts,
and by Algerine pirates, who carry off all the people,
they can catch into flavery. But to keep them olf,
there are a great many forts on the coafis.
Otranto, a city ol Italy, in the kingdom or
Naples, and capital of the province of the fame name,
with a commodious harbour, an archbifhop’s lee, and
a ftrong citadel where the archbifhop refides. Mr
Swinburne* gives this account of it: f‘ It is (fays he) * Travels
fmall, Hands on a hill, and contains only 3000 inhabi-
tants. Its little harbour is not fo bad but it might
induce mere people to fettle here, as no port on the
coall lies fo convenient lor traffic with Greece. I,ne
Adriatic gulph is here but 60 miles wide. I climbed
to the top ol a tower, to get a fight of the Acrocerau-
nian mountains ; but a vapour hanging over the fea,
along the horizon, hid them from my vie^: in a clear
morning, their fnowy tops are faid to be very vifiblc.
The cathedral of Otranto is Gothic, and, according to
the Puglian falhion, has its fubterraneous fancluary.
The columns are of. beautiful marble and granite,;
' - the
() H K FJ t Y.
Plate CCChXW
O T T [ 557 1
a rude ffecies of mofaic, commonly two fairs
tlie pavement, a *j.  *
cal lei Saracenic: Asltlstobe met within all churches
founded by the Norman kings of Sicily, the arttfts
who laid it were probably Saracens, or at lead Gree s,
their fcholars. Thefe mofaics are compofed of pieces
of porphyry, ferpentine, and cubes of gi t glafs,—dil-
pofed in ftnrs, circles, or chequers 1 he compart¬
ments of the Halls are bordered with them ; and the
fmall twilled columns, which fupport the pulpits and
canopies, are ornamented with a fpiral flnpe of tne
fame work. It is a pity fo much durability, compatt-
nefs, and beauty of materials, ihould have beenlivifhed
on fuch barbarous defigns. Otranto was a Roman
colony, as is certified by an infcription, almoft the on¬
ly monument of antiquity left there (a). n tx.e I°t‘1
century it was made an archbifuop’s fee. in 1480,
Laurence de Medici, to deliver himfelt from the at¬
tacks of the king of Naples, perfuaded Mahomet II.
to invade the realm; and Otranto was the unfortunate
place where the Turks landed. It was 1 nveiled, Itorm-
ed, and pillaged. Its prelate was flam at the door of
his church ; Soo principal citizens dragged out ot the
Sates and butchered ; their bodies left 12 months un¬
buried, till the duke of Calabria retook the city, and
committed them to hallowed earth. About 100 years
after, a devout perfon affirmed, that thefe bones had
appeared to him in a dream ; and, upon the firengtu
of his vifion, they became, for the vulgar, objects ot
almoft equal veneration with the relicts of the ptunitive
OI’RICO LI, a fmall town of Italy, in the ecclefia-
Uic Hate, and in the duchy of Spoleto^in E. Long. 13.
I c. N. Lat. 42. 25. fituated on a riling ground on the
frontiers of the patrimony of St Peter. From this
town is feen a fine plain, and fome of the windmgs o
the famous river Tiber. The ruins that are fcattered
here and there at the entrance of the plain, dekencling
from Otricoli, are thought to be the remains of the
ancient Otriculum ; they confift of feme lhapelefs.frag¬
ments of columns, cornices, and other pieces of marble.
In the middle of the great ftrect of Otncoli, there is
a marble pedeftd, upon which you lee an jnfcript.on,
fhowing they had ere&ed flatue to Julia Lucilla,
who had built public baths at Otricoli at her own ex¬
pence.
OTTER, in zoology. See Mu stela.
Otter of Rof?s. See Roses.
OTTERBURN, in England, in the county of Nor¬
thumberland, near Ellefdon. It was the field of battle
between the Engliffi and Scots in 13,88, wherein Hen¬
ry Percy, called Hotfpur, was taken prifoner, and Dou¬
glas the Scotch general was killed. On this battle was,
founded the delightful old ballad of Chevy-chafe ; the
village being fituated by the river Rhead, on the fouth
fide of the Cheviot hills. The entrenchments are Hill
vifible ; and a number of tumuli fcattered over the ad¬
jacent ground mark to future ages the flaughter made
^ OTTERY, St Mary’s, a market town in Devon-
O T W
The church is very ancient, and fomewhat
refembles a cathedral. A very extenfive woollen manu-
fa&ory was lately eftablifned here by Sir GeoA onge an 4
Sir John Duntze, harts. It has no corporation, it de¬
rived its name, as fome fuppofe, from the river Otter, and
that from the otters formerly found in it. | ms town
was given by king Edward the Conlellor to the chuicu
of Sr Mary at Rouen in Normandy; but was afterwards
bought by Gtrandifon biffiop of Exeter ; who made of
it a quarter college in 10 Edward III and therein
placed fecular priefts, with other mimilers, to whom
he gave the whole manor, pariffi, tythes, fines, ipi-
ritual profits,.&c. which amounted to L. 304 : 2 : 10
yearly.
OTWAY (Thomas), an eminent tragic poet, was
the fon of Mr Humphry Otway, rettor of Wolbetiing
in Suflex ; and was burn at Trottin in that county
on the 3d of. March 1651. He was educated at Ox¬
ford ; when, leaving the univerfity without a degree,.,
he retired to London, where, he commenced player,,
but with indifferent fuccefs- However, the fprightli-
nefs of his converfation gained him the favour ot
Charles Fitz-Charles earl of Plymouth, who procured
him a cornet’s commiffion in one of the new-ratfed re¬
giments fent into Flanders; but he returned from
thence in very neceffitous circumflaiices, and applied,
hitrfelf again to writing for the fiage. In comedy he
has been deemed too licentious ; which, however, was
noerreat objedlion to his pieces in the profligate days •
of Charles II. But, in tragedy, few EngUffi poets
have ever equalled him ; and perhaps none ever ex¬
celled him in touching the paffions, particularly the
tender paffion. There is generally fomething familiar,
and domeftie in the fable of his tragedies, and there is
amazing energy in his expreffion.- I he heart that
doth not melt at the diflrefles of his Orphan mud be
hard indeed ! But though Otway pofTefied in fo emi¬
nent a.degree the lare talent of writing to the hearty
yet he was not very favourably regarded by fome ci
his cctemporary poets, nor was he always fuccefsful in
his dramatic compofitions. After experiencing many
reverfes of fortune in regard to his circutmlances, but
generally changing for the worfe, he at bit died
wretchedly in a" public-houfe on Tower-hdl ; whither,
it is fuppofed, he. had retired, in order to avoid the
pitifure of his creditors. Some have faid, that down¬
right hunger csrapelling him to fail too eagerly on a
piece of bread, of which he.lrad been for fome time in
want, the firft mouthful ciioaked him, and inilantly
put a period to his days. Dr Johnfon gives this ac¬
count of the matter: “ He died in a manner which L
am unwilling to mention. Having been compelled by
his neceffities to contraft debts, and hunted, as is fup¬
pofed, by the terriers of the law, he retired to a pub¬
lic-houfe on Tower hill, where he died of want; or,,
as it is related by one of his biographers, bySwallow¬
ing, after a long fad, a piece of bread which charity
had fupplied. 'He went out, as is reported, almoit
Otway.
naa luppueu. n'- >vv„v , ~ -- -- -
OTTERY St Mary’s, a market town in Devon- naked, in the rage of hunger, and ndmg a ger.. cinau
wfed , (0 miks weft of London, and ,0 miles in a neighbouring coffee houfe, afkcd h,m foe a flu .
aft h Exeter, market is on Tuefdays, andit has ling. The gentleman gave hint a guinea; and Ot.
(a) “ Null). Hydr.—JER. Caput barb. 5c laurcat.-TAFONTiN^N-Tridens, cum duobue delphinibus.”
o U D f -
n ry/a ns *'?? ,W?1,‘ a r011’ M J w« choakea with
Oudenarde. iP1°ut^^lt^ AU this, I hope, is not true
58
• 1 . j ~ »o uutiiuc ; but
thit indigence, and its concomitants furrow and de-
ipon ency, brought him to the grave, has never been
denied.”
Johnfon ipeaks of him in nearly thefe terms: Ot-
way had not much cultivated verfification, nor much
replemlhed his nnnd with general knowledge. His
principal power was in moving the paffions, to which
iJryden in h!3 latter years left an illullrious teilimony.
lie appears, by fome of his verfes, to have been a zea¬
lous royahft ; and had what was in thofe times the
common reward of loyalty ; he lived and died ne-
giedied-—His dramatic writings are nine in number;
tne moft admired of which are, The Orphan and Ft-
m e Preferred. He had alfo made fome tranilations,
anu wrote fever,d mifcellaneous poems. His w^ole
worxs are printed in two pocket volumes. He wrote
lour afts ot a play which are loft.
oblon^ curvilinear figure, otherwife
called ellipfs. (See Ellipsis). However, the pro¬
per oval, or egg lhape, differs confiderably from that
or the ellipfis, being an irregular figure, narrower at
one end than at another: whereas the ellipfis, or ma¬
thematical oval, is equally broad at each end : though
it muff be owned, thefe two are commonly confounded
together; even geometricians calling the oval a falfe
e flip (Is J J
OVARY, in anatomy, that part of a female animal
wherein the ova or eggs are formed or lodged. See
Anatomy, n1" 108. p. 740.
OVARIUM, in botany, a name by which botanifis
wno are fond ot affimilating the animal and vegetable
Icmgdoms have diftinguifhed the germen or feed bud,
as containing the rudiments of the future feed.
OVATION, in the Roman an.iquity, a lefter tri¬
umph, allowed to commanders for victories won with¬
out the effufion of blood; or for deteating a mean and
inconfiderable enemy. The fhow generally began at
the Albanian mountain, whence the general with his
retinue made his entry into the city on foot, with
many flutes or pipes founding in concert as he pafled
along, and wearing a garland of myrtle as a token of
peace. The tetm ovation, according to Servius, is
derived from ovis, a “ fhetp;” becaufeon this occaiion
the conqueror facrificcd a fheep, as in triumph he fa-
enficed a bull. The fenate, knights, and principal
plebeians, affifted at the proceflion ; which concluded
at the Capitol, where rams were facrificed to Jupiter.
The firft ovation was granted to Publius Pofthumius
the conful for his vidory over the Sabines in the 2red
year of Rome. ^
OUDENARDE, a rich and ftrong town of the
Auftrian Netherlands, in the province of Flanders, in
Jl. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 30. 34. fifteen miles fouth of
Ghent, and eighteen from Tournay. It is a lar re
well fortified town, having a very confiderable fort in
the middle, of it, lituated on the river Scheldt, which
divide? it into two parts. It is almoft encompaffed by
meadows, only there is a hill which commands it on
the louth fide. 1 he buildings are pretty good, and
the ftreets wide and handfome. The market-place is
adorned wii^h a beautiful town-houfe, and a fine large
fountain. Phere are feveral good churches and mo*
iiafteries well worthy of the notice of travellers. The
4
1 O V E
tom has a very fl.mrlllimg trade m fine linen and ta- OuJri,
peitiy, and is the capital ot a caftellany, which contains °VCTalL
33 villages. ^ Fhe French laid fiege to it in 1738  
wnich brought on an obftinate engagement, wherein
t. ey were defeated by the allies under the command
or the dune of Marlborough. It was befieged by the
French again in 1744, and taken in a few days; but
tnej reftored it at the !aft general peace.
OL OR! (Jean Baptifte), a painter, was born at
Pans, and died tliere May 1. 1753, a -ed about 74.
He acquired the principles of his art under the c*ie*
brate.d Largiilieres ; and from th<s mafter he had thofe
lure principles of colouring which he communicated
at a meeting of the academy of painting, of which he
was a me inner, and one of the profeflbrs. Oudri’a
fup.;nor talent for painting animals is well known: his
compof,turns of this kind are full of truth, and are
admirably handled. The Fables of la Fontaine have
been engraved in 4 vols folio from his etchings; but
thofe who hn,fired them poffefled not equal abilities.
-lie painted feveral hunting-pieces for the king, which
acorn fome of the royal caftles, among others that of
l.a Meute. Oudn was fo well acquainted with the
magic of his art, that he frequently pleafed himfelf
with pamtipg white obje&s on white grounds; and
tnefe pidures have a good effed He would likewife
nave Succeeded in hiltory painting, as ue may cafily
infer from feveral pieces which do him honour. He
iupenntended the manufaftory of Beauvais, where
pieces of tapeftry were produced equally brilliant with
the pictures which had ferved for their model. The
mg gave him a penfion, and apartments in the
Eouvre. 1
OVERALL (John), a celebrated Englkh bifiiop,
was oorn in <559 ; and, after a proper foundation in
grammar learning, was fent to St John’s college, Cam-
bridge, and was eledted a fcholar of that fbciety : but
afterwards removing to Trinity, was chofen fellow of
that college. In 1596 he was made regius profefFor
of divinity, when he took the degree of D. D. and
about the fame time was eleikd mafler of Catherine,
hail. In 1601 he was raifed to the deanry of St
c- v n ^nd°!-V, by the reconuncndation of his oatron
Sir Fulk Greville, and Queen Elizabeth ; and "in the
beginning of Emg James’s reign, he was chofen pro.
locutor of the lower houfe of convocation, in 16x2
he was appointed one of the firft governors of the
Charter-houfe hofpital, then juft founded by Thomas
Sutton, Efq. In Apnl .614 he was made bifiiop of
-Litchfield and Coventry; and in i6>8 he was tranf-
Jateu to Norwich, uherc he died in May 1610, a^d.
as it is reported, 60 years. He was buried in thaj
catheural, where he lay unnoticed and forgotten till
lome time alter the refteration of Charles FI. when
Cofin, Lifhop of Durham, who had been his fecretary,
erected a monument in 1669, with a F.atin inferip-
tion, in which he is faid to be, “ Vir undequaque d«c-
tillimus, et onini encomio major.”
that^h^ the character of being
the belt fehoLftic divine m England ; and Cofin, who
pei.^ps may be thought to rival him in that fort of
learning, calls himfelf his fcholar, and abfolutely fays
that he derived all his knowledge from him. He
is aifo celebrated by Smith for his diftinguifhed wif-
com, erudition, and piety. In the controverfy which
in
f.-wai!
Oveibury
O V E r 559 1 O
in hi* t-.me tltvlded the refonred churches about pre- parted the king’s intentions
dtik.nation and erace, he ht-ld a middle opinion, in
- . . graceS
dining perhaps to A rminianifm. He fee ms indeed to
have paved the way for the reception of that dodrine
in England, where ic was generally embraced a few
years afterwards, chiefly by the authority and influ¬
ence of Archbifhop Laud. Overall cultivated a parti¬
cular fiiendfliip with Gerard Voflius and Grotius; and
was much grieved to fee the love of peace, and the
projeds of this lift great man to obtain it, fo ill repaid.
Pie laboured heartily himftlf to fettle the differences
iu Holland, upon what is known Ly the name of the
Quinquarticular contrcverfy ; as appears in part by his
letters to the two lerrned comfpondents juft mention¬
ed, fome of which are printed in the Ep'ijloUprajJan-
tlum Eirbrum, S:c.
The bifhop is known in England chiefly by his
Convocation Book, of which Bifhop Lumet gives the
following account: “This book was wrote on the
fubjed of government, the divine inftitution of which
was very pofkiveiy afferted. It was read in convoca¬
tion, and pafled by that body, in order to the publifh-
ing of it ; in oppcdition to the principles laid down in
the famous book of Parfons the Jefuit, publifhed un¬
der the name of Dolenmn. But Ki»J J .mes did not
like a convocation entering into fuch a theory of po¬
litics; fo be difeouraged the printing of it efpecially
fince, in order to jullify the owning of the United
Provinces, who had lately thrown off the Spanifh
yoke, to be a lawful government, it wras laid down,
that when a chan, e of government was brought to a
thorough fettlernent, it was then to he owned and fub-
tviitted to as a work of the providence of God. Here
it flept, till Archhifhop Sancrolt, who had got the
book into his own hands, and not obferving the laft
V E
to Sir ThomaiJ : but, OvcrUry.
ur.cier a treacherous fhow of fncndlhip, diffuaded him
from accepting of that emj’loyment, as it might
hinner him from a better way of advancement ; pro-
nnling that he would prevent his rr.ajefly from bein »•
difplerifed at Iris refufal. The vifeount then went to
the king, and artfully incenflnghis majtfly againfl Sir
Thomas for refuiing to obey his commands, that gen¬
tleman was committed to the I ower for his contempt,
on the 21ft of April 1613, where he continued till he
was difpatched by poifon on the 15th of September
following, and his body was interred in the Tower,
chapel the fame day. About two years after, the
whole contrivance of his death was clifcovered. On
this feveral perfons were condemned and executed ;
Int though Carr, earl of Somerfet, and the lady
Frances his countefs, were condemned to death for
contriving the murder, and hiring the perfons who
were concerned in it, the king only banifhed them
from court, and afterwards pardoned them. Sir Tho¬
mas Overbury wrote feveral poems, &c. and an account
of his travels..
Eis character is reprtfented by an hiflorian of thole
timet who, a:ter relating the occafion and circum-
fhnees of his death, proceeds in the following terms;
In this manner fell Sir I homes Overbury, worthy
of a longer life and a better fate ; and, if I may com¬
pare private men with princes, like Germanicus Cre-
far, both by poifon procured by the malice of a wo
man, both alout the 33d year of their age, and both
celebrated for their Ikili and jud merit in poetry, their
learning, and their wifdora. Overbury was a gentle¬
man of an ancient family, but had fume blemiflies
charged upon his character, either through a too great
ambition, or the infolence of a haughty temper. -
After the return from his travels, the vifeount Ro-
Over-haa'-*
i“K-
j —      —
mentioned pafTage in it, refolved to pubhfh it m the me ictuiu nom uis cravcis, me vneount ico-
beginning of King William’s reign, a* an authentic chefler embraced him with fo entire a friendfhip, that,
dcclaiation the church of England had made in the exercifrng by his majefty’s fpecial favour the office of
point of non iefifhtm e Accordingly it <>, as pubiifh-
ed in rjto, as well ?s lictnfed. by him, a very few days
before he was under fufoenflon for not taking the
•oaths
OVER BURY (Sir Thomas), a learned and worthy
Enghfh gentleman, was born in 1581 ; and ft tidied at
Qnetn s college, Ox.ord, after which he removed to
the Middle-temple, London. He afterwards travelled
for feme time, and returned a moll sccomplifhed per
fori; when he contiaifted an intimate acquaintance
with Sir Robert Carr, knight of the bath, who be¬
ing foon a'ttr tnken into his mnjefly’s favour, had Mr
■Overl ury knighted at Greenwich. Sir Thomas per¬
ceiving the familiarity which ful filled between his
patron Carr, row made vifeount Rochefter, and the
lady Frances, the wife cf Robert earl of Eflex, was fo
much difpleafed at it, that he endeavoured to diffirade
him from keeping her company, an l from proceeding
in toe Lafe dtfign he had formed of bavinc her tiril
divorced fiom her hulband, and then marrying her.
The vifeount, refenting this honeft advice, told what
.. .. ... - -  f
lecretary proviflonally, he not onl) communicated to
Sir Thomas the fecrets, but many times gave him the
packets and letters unopened, before they had been
perufed by the king himfelf: which, as it prevailed
too much upon his early years,- fo as to make him, in
the opinion of fome, thought high and ambitious ;
yet he was fo far from violating his trull and confi¬
dence, that he remains now ore example among others
who have !offered in their perfons or their fortunes for
a freedom of advice, which none but fincere friends
will give, and which many are fuch ill friends to them-
fclve. as not to receive.”
CVEN, a kind of domellic furnace, ufed for baking-
bread, pies, tarts, &c. of a circular Arudlure, with a
very low roof, well lined, both on the top, bottom,
and fide?, with flone ; it has a fmall entrance in the
front, which is exaftly ritted by a kind of door, which
being clapped to the mouth of the even confines the
heat, w-hile bread, pies, or puddings, are baking. Over
this, paftry-cooks, See. have another oven built, much
in the fame manner, which is ufed for fuch things as
. iir*i » vwiuu ixi tut italic fUtimjvi, wiiitii 10
ie had hud to the lady, who was as remarkable for require a lefs degree of heat. Ovens are heated by
her wickedness asfor be,r.beauty ? cn whbb ^*7 burning dry wood, faggots, &c. in them, till all the
mediatt.y re olved on his dellru6lion. About this parts are equally hot.
t.me, the king wanting to fend an^ambaffador abroad, OVER-hauling, the adl of opening and extending
tie \ifeeunt recommended Sir. Thomas Overbmy. the feveral parts of a tackle, or other aflemblage of
-.s n.ajcfty approving the choice, the vifeount im- roges, coraununicating with blocks or dead eyes. It is
ttied;
DUG [ 560 ] O V I
•O'/er-haul-ufed to remove thofe blocks to a fafficlent diftance
from each other, that they may be again placed in a
Onghtred. ^ate °f as to produce the effedl required.
1——y—— OrER-Hauling^ is alio vulgarly expreffed ot an exa¬
mination or infpcdlion into the condition of a perfon
or thing.
OrER-Rake, among feamen : When a fhip riding at
anchor fo overheats herfelf into an high fea, that fhe is
walked by the waves breaking in upon her, they lay
the waves over rake her.
Oi'ER-Reach) in Farriery. See there, § xl. 2.
OVERSMAN, in Scots law’, a perfon appointed
by arbiters, or by the parties fubmitters, to determine
the matter fubmitte'd, in cafe the parties difagree in
their opinion.
OVERT, the fame with Open : Thus an overt ach
dignifies an zt\ which, in law, muff lie clearly proved ;
and fuch is to be alleged in every indiftment for high
treafon.
OVERTURE, or Ouverture, opening or pre¬
luding : a term ufed for the folemnities at the begin¬
ning of a public aft or ceremony ; an opera, tragedy,
cemedy, concert of mufic, &c.-—The overture of the
theatre or fcene, is a piece of mufic ufually ending
with a fugue: the overture of a jubilee is a general
proceffion, See.
OVERYSSEL, fo named from Its fituation beyond
the river Yffel, one of the Seven United Provinces ;
bounded on the eaft by the bilhopric of Munfter, on
the north by Friefland and the territory of Gronin¬
gen, On the weft by the river Yffel, and on the fouth
by the county of Zutphen and the bift.opric of Mun-
ftcr. It is divided into three diftiflft parts; which are
the territories of Drenfe, Twente, and Salland. There
are many moraffes in this province, and but few inha¬
bitants, in coRiparifon of the reft. Its greateft riches
confift in turfs ; which are dug up here, and fent to
the neighbouring provinces, particularly Holland. It
extends near 60 miles in length from north to fouth,
and 40 in breadth from eaft to weft. The whole
country is low and marftiy; but it produces a tolerable
quantity of corn. It was formerly a dependence of
the bilhopric of Utrecht, before Henry of Bavaria,
bilhop of that fee, transferred the fovereignty of it to
the emperor Charles V.
OVIEDA, in botany : A genus of the angiofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 4Cth or¬
der, Perfonata. The calyx is quinqutfid; the tube of
the corolla almoft cylindrical above, and very long ;
the berry globofe and difpermous.
OVIEDO, a town of Spain, and capital of Aftu-
rias d’Oviedo, with a biihop’s fee, and an univerfity ;
feated at the confluence of the rivers Ove and Dcva,
which form the Alta, 50 miles north-weft of Leon, and
208 noith-weft of Madrid. W. Long. 5. 47. N. Eat.
43* A3-
OUGHTRED (William), an eminent mathemati¬
cian, was born at Eton in 1573, and educated in the
fchool there, whence he was elefted to King’s-college
in Can,bridge, of which he afterwards became fellow.
Being admitted to holy orders, he left the univerfity
about the year 1603, and was prefented tothereftory
of Aldbury, near Guildford in Surry ; and about the
year 1628 was appointed by the earl of Arundel to
N° 254.
inftruft his fon in the mathematics. He kept a corre- Onghtrtd,
fpondence by letters with fome of the moil eminent Ovid,
fcholars of his time, upon mathematical fubjefts; and 'r~*>
the moft celebrated mathematicians of that age owed
moft of their fkill to him, whofe houfe was full of
young gentlemen that came from all parts to receive
his inftruftion. It is faid, that, upon hearing the news
of the vote at Weftmintter for the refioration of King
Charles II. he expired in a fudden tranfport of joy,
aged 88 He wrote, 1. Clavis Mathematica; which
was afterwards publifhed in EngliOi. 2. A defeription
of the double horizontal dial. 3. Opufcula Mathema¬
tic a ; and feveral other works. He left alfo behind hirri
a great number of papers upon mathematical fubjefts,
which are now in the mufeum of William Tones, Elq:
F. R. S. .
David Lloyd, in his Memoirs, has given the follow¬
ing ftiort character of him: ‘‘That he was as facetious
in Greek and Latin, as folid in arithmetic, geometry,
and the fphere of all meafures, mufic, &c. exaft in his
ftyle as in his judgment; handling his tube and other
inftruments at 80 as fteadily as others did at 30; ow¬
ing this, as he faid, to temperance and archery ; prin-
cipling his people with plain and folid truths, as he
did the world with great and ufeful arts ; advancing
new inventions in all things but religion, which, in its
old order and decency, he maintained fecure in hia
privacy, prudence, meeknefs, fimpheity, refolution, pa¬
tience, and contentment ”—He had one fon, whom
he put an apprentice to a watchmaker, and wrote a
book of inftruftions in that art for his ufe.
OVID, or Publius Onmus Nafo) a celebrated La¬
tin poet of the Auguftan age, was a Roman knight,
born at Sulmo, in the 43d year before the Chriftiaa
era. He ftudied rhetoric under Aurelius Fufcus, and
for fome time frequented the bar. His progrefs in
the ftudy of eloquence was gfeat, but the father’s ex-
peftations were fruftrated ; his fon was born a poet,
and nothing could deter him from purfuing his natural
inclination to write poetry, though he was often re¬
minded that Homer lived and died in the greateft po¬
verty. Every thing he wrote was expreffed in poeti¬
cal numbers, as he himfelf fays, Et quod tentalam
feribere •verfus erat. A lively genius and a fertile ima¬
gination foon gained him admirers: the learned be¬
came his friends; Virgil, Propertius, Tibullus, and
Horace, honoured him with their correfpondenee,
and Auguftus patronized him with the moft unbound¬
ed liberality. Thefe favours, however, were but mo¬
mentary ; for after having obtained the tfteem of Au-
guftus, he incurred his difpleafure, and was banifhed
to Tomos, a city on the Pontus Euxinus, near the
mouth of the Danube, when he was 50 years of age.
The true caufe of this fudden exile is unknown. Some
attribute it to a (hameful amour with Livia the wife of
Auguftus, while others fuppofe that it arofe from the
knowledge which Ovid had of the unpardonable inceft
of the emperor with his daughter Julia. Thefe reafon»
are indeed merely conjectural; the caufe was of a very
private and very fecret nature, of which Ovid himfelf
is afraid to fpeak. It was, however, fomething im¬
proper in the family and court of Auguftus, as thefe
lines feem to indicate :
Cur aliquid •vidi ? Cur uoxia lumtna feci ?
Cur imprudenti cognita culpa mihi ejt ?
Jnfc'iutt
O V I [ 561 ] O V I
Infcius rfdrton vidit fine vef!e Dianam,
Pr.eda fuit cambus non minus tile /uis.
Again,
Infcia quod crimen viderunt lamina pleBor,
Peccatumque oculos eft haluijje meum.
And In another place,
Perdiderunt cum me duo crimina, carmen fc? errory
Alterius fafli culpa Jtlenda mihi ejl.
In his banifhment, Ovid betrayed his pufillanlmity
in a great degree ; and however afFefted and diftreffed
his fituation was, yet the flattery and impatience which
he (bowed in his writings are a difgrace to his pen, and
lay him more open to ridicule than to pity. Though
he proflituted his pen and his time to adulation, yet
the emperor proved deaf to all intreaties, and refufed
to liflen to his moll ardent friends at Home who wi(h-
ed for his return. Ovid, who really wifhed for a Brutus
to deliver Rome of her tyrannical Auguftus, ftill con¬
tinued his flattery even to meannefs;and when the em¬
peror died, he was fo mercenary as to confecrate a fmall
temple to the departed tyrant on the fliore of the
Euxine, where he regularly offered frankincenfe every
morning. Tiberius proved as regardlefs &s his pre-
deceffor fo the intreaties which were made for the
poet, and he died in the feventh or eighth year of his
banifhment, in the 57th year of his age. He was bu¬
ried at Tomos. In the year 1508 of the Chriftian era,
the following epitaph was difeovered at Stain, in the
modern kingdom of Aufiria.
Hie fitus ejl vates quern Divi Cafaris ira
Slugufii patria cedere jujjit humo.
Stepe mtfer voluit patriis oceumbere terris,
Sed frujlra. ! Hunc illi fata dedere locum.
This, however, is an impolition to render celebrated
an obfeure corner of the world, which never contain¬
ed the bones of Ovid. The greateft part of his poems
are remaining. His Metamorphofes, in 15 books, are
extremely curious, on account of the great variety of
mythological faffs and traditions which they relate, but
they can have no claim to epic honours, In compo-
fing this the poet was more indebted to the then exift-
ing traditions, and to the theogony of the ancients,
than the powers of his own imagination. His Fq/H
were divided into 12 books, like the conflellations in
the zodiac, but of thefe fi* are loft ; and the learned
world have rtafon to lament the lofs of a poem which
mull have thrown fo much light upon the religious
rites and ceremonies, feflivals and facrifices, of the an¬
cient Romans, as we may judge from the fix that have
furvived the ravages of time and barbarity. His Trift
tia, which are divided into five books, contain much
elegance and foftnefs of expreflion ; as alfo his Elegies
on different fubjefls. The Heroides are nervous, fpi-
rited, and diffufe ; the poetry is excellent, the lan¬
guage varied, but the expreflions are often too wan¬
ton and indelicate, a fault which is very common with
him. His three books Amorum, and the fame num¬
ber de Arte Amandiy with the other de Remedio Amoris,
are written with peculiar elegance, and contain many
flowery deferiptions ; but the doctrine which they hold
forth is dangerous, and they are to be read with cau¬
tion, as they feem to be calculated to corrupt the
heart, and to fap the very foundations of virtue and
Vol. XIII. Fart II.
morality. His Ibis, which is written in imitation of
a poem of Callimachus of the fame name, is a faty-
rical performance. Befides thefe, there are exant fome
fragments of other poems, and among thefe part of
a tragedy called Medea. The talents of Ovid as a dra¬
matic writer have been difputed, and fome have re¬
marked that he who is fo often void of fentiment was
not born to fhine as a tragedian. He has attempted,
perhaps, too many forts of poetry at once. On what¬
ever he has written, he has totally exhaufted the fub-
je£l. He everywhere paints nature with a mafterly
hand, and adds ftrength even to vulgar expreffions It
has been judicioufly obferved, that his poetry after his
banifhment from Rome was deflitute of^diat fpirit and
vivacity which we admire in thofe which were written
before. His Fajli are perhaps the beft written of all
his poems ; and after them we may fairly rank his
love verfes, his Heroides, and after all his Metamor-
phoftes, which were not totally finifhed whqn Auguftus
banifhed him. His Epijlles from Pontus are the lan¬
guage of a weak and fordid flatterer. However critics
may have caufe to cenfure the indelicacy and the inac¬
curacies of Ovid, it is to be acknowledged that his
poetry contains great fweetuefs and elegance, and, like
that of Tibullus, charms the ear and captivates the
mind.—Another perfon of the name of Ovid accom¬
panied his friend Casfonius, when banilhed from Rome
by Nero.
OVIEDO (John Gonfalvez de), born at Madrid
about the year 1478, was educated among the pages
of Ferdinand king of Arragon and Ifabella queen of
Caftile ; and happened to be at Barcelona in 1493,
when Chriflopher Columbus returned from his firft
voyage to the ifland Haiti, which he called Hifpaniola,
and which now goes by the name of St Domingo. He
formed an intimate acquaintance with Columbus and
his companions, and was at pains to inform himfelf of
every thing relating to the new difeoveries. He ren¬
dered fuch efiential fervice to Spain during the war of
Naples, that Ferdinand determined to fend him to the
ifland of Haiti, as intendant and infpe&or general of
the trade of the New World. The ravages which the
venereal difeafe had made during that war, induced
him to inquire into what were the moil efficacious re¬
medies for this malady, which was fuppofed to have
come from the Well Indies. His inquiries were ex¬
tended to every thing which regards the natural hiftory
of thefe regions ; and, on his return to Spain, he
publifhed Summano de la Hijloria general y natural de
las Indias Occidentalcs, which he dedicated to Charles V.
He afterwards made fome additions to this work,
which he publifhed under the title of La Hijloria ge'
neral y natural de las Indias Qccidentales ; Salamanca,
I535> folio. It was tranflated into Italian, and af¬
terwards into French; Paris, 1556, folio. In this
work, Oviedo fays that the French pox is endemical
in the ifland of Haiti, and that it has pafled from
thence into Europe. IT- greatly extols the ufe of the
■wood of guiacum for the cure of this difeafe; but
whether the difeafe is now become more obftinate, or
the remedy does not pofiefs that efficacy which is
aferibed to it, it is at prefent in little eftimation.
OVTLIA, or Sepia, in ancient Rome, a place in
the Campus Martins, at firft railed in like a ffieep-pea,
whence its name. Afterwards it was mounted with
4 B marble,
Ovki
!!
Ovika.
O V I [ 562 ] -O V I
Oviparous, marble, and beautified with walks and galleries, as allb
■ , with a tribunal, or feat of jtiftice. Within this pre-
cin& or inclofure, the people were called to give their
fuffrages for the eleAion of magiftrates. rl’he afeent
into the ovilia was not by ftairs, but by pontes, or nar¬
row boards, laid there for the occafion ; on which ac¬
count de ponte dejici, fignified “ to be deprived of the
privilege of voting and perfcns thus dealt with were
called detontani.
OVIPAROUS, a term applied to fuch animals as
bring forth their young from eggs; as birds, infefts, &e.
OVIS, the Sheep, in zoology, a germs of the mam¬
malia clafs, and of the order of Pecora ; the charac¬
ters of which are thefe : The horns are concave, turn¬
ed backwards, and full of wrinkles ; there are eight
fore teeth in the under-jaw, and no dog-teeth. The
wool of thefe animals is only a congeries of very long
and flender hairs, oddly twifted and contorted, and
variouily interwoven with one another. This, as far
as is yet known, is a clothing peculiar to the flieep
kind, no other animal having been feen to pofiefs it.
It is not, however, the clothing of all the fpecies of
fheep, feme that are found in diftant nations having
fhort hair like that of the goat.
Linnams enumerates three fpecies, which are perhaps
Plate only varieties, viz. 1. The oxns dries, or ram fheep, the
fCCLXX. horng 0f which are fhaped like a half moon, and com-
prefied. 2 The ovis Guinccnjis, or Guinea fheep}
which has pendulous ears, lax hairy dewlaps, and a
prominence on the hind part of the head. The wool
is fhort like that of a goat. It is, as its name imports,
a native of Guinea. And, 3. The ovis flrvfjiceros, or
Cretan fheep, which has ftrait cayiated horns, twifted
in a fpiral manner, and is a native of Mount lola.
According to Mr Pennant, the laft two are to be
reckoned only varieties.
The fheep, unqueftionably a mild and gentle crea¬
ture, is alfo reprefentec by Buffon as the inoft ftupid,
defencelefs, and timid of all quadrupeds ; infomuch
that, without the affiftance of man, it could never, he
thinks, have fubfifted or continued its ipecies in a wild
ftate.
-Stiff. Nat. “ The female is abfolutely devoid of every art and
liifl. vd. 0f every mean of defence. The arms of the ram are
m. p. 463. feeb|e jjnfj aukwnrd. His courage is only a kind of
petulance, which is ufelefs to himfelf, incommodious
to his neighbours, and is totally deftroyed by callra-
tion. The wedder is ftiil more timid than the ram.
It is fear alone that makes fheep fo frequently affemble
in troops : upon the fmalleft unufual noife, they run
elofe together; and thefe alarms are always accompa¬
nied with the greateft ftupidity. They know not how
to fly from danger, and feem not even to be confcious
of the hazard and inconvenience of their fituation.
Wherever they are, there they remain obftinately fix¬
ed ; and neither rain nor fnow can make them quit
their ftation. To force them to move or to change
their route, they muft he provided with a chief, who
is taught to begin the march : the motions of this
chief are followed, ftep by ftep, by the reft of the
flock. But the chief himfelf would alfo continue im¬
moveable, if he were not pufiied off by the ftiepherd,
or by his dog, an animal which perpetually watches
over thds fafety, which defends, directs, feparates, af-
fembles, and, in a word, communicates to them every ©vrs.
movement neceffary to their prefervation. y—
“ Of all quadrupeds, therefore, fheep are the moft
ftupid, and derive the fmalleft refoiirces from inftinft.
The goat, who fo greatly refembles the fheep in other
refpefts, is endowed with much more fagacity. He
knows how to conduft himfelf on every emergency ;
he avoids danger with dexterity, and is e.Tiiy recon¬
ciled to new objefts. But the fheep knows neither
how to fly nor to attack : however imminent her dan¬
ger, fhe comes not to man for affiftance fo willingly
as the goat; and, to complete the pifture of timidity
and want of ftntiment, fhe allows her lamb to be car¬
ried off, without attempting to defend it, or (hewing
any marks of refentment. Her grief is not even ex-
preffed by any cry different from that of ordinary
bleating.”
The annotator upon this article in the Edin¬
burgh tranflation of Buffon, denies the above to be the
natural charafter of the animal. “ All tame ani- 73,7/.
mals (he obferves) lofe a portion of that fagacity, note,.
dexterity, and courage, which they are obliged to em¬
ploy againft their enemies in a wild ftate ; becaufe
they have been long accuftomed to rely upon the pro-
teftion of man. Sheep, when enftaved by men, tremble
at the voice of the fhepherd or his dog. But, on thofe
extenfive mountains where they are allowed to range
without controul, and where they feldom depend on
the aid of the fhepherd, they affume a very different
mode of behaviour. In this fituation, a ram or a
wedder boldly attacks a fingle dog, and often comes
off viftorious. But when the danger is of a more
alarming nature, like man, they trull not to the
prowefs of individuals, but have recourfe to the col¬
lected ftrength of the whole flock. On fuch occafions,
they draw up into one compaft body ; they place the
young and the females in the centre ; and the ftrongefl
males take the foremoft ranks, keeping elofe by each
others fid.ev. Thus an am?ed front is prefented on all
quarters, which cannot be attacked without the greateft
hazard of deftrudlion. In this manner, they wait, with
firmnefs and intrepidity, the approach of the enemy.
Nor does their courage fail them in the moment of at¬
tack. For, if the aggreffor advances within a few
yards of the line, the ram darts upon him with fuch
impetuofity, as lays him dead at their feet, unlefs he
faves himfelf by flight. Againft the attacks of fingle
dogs, or foxes, they are, whin in this lituation, per-
fedlly fecure. Befides, a ram, regardlefs of danger,
often engages a bull, and never fails to conquer him ;
for the bull, by lowering his head, without being fen-
fible of his defencelefs condition, receives between his
horns the ftruke of the ram, which ufually brings him
to the ground.
“ In the feledlion of food, few animals difeover
greater fagacity than the fneep ; nor does any domeftic
animal fhow more dexterity and cunning in its attempts
to elude the vigilance of the fhepherd, and to ileal fuch
delicacies as are agreeable to its palate. When nerfeftly
tamed, and rendered domeftic, the fportive gambols
and troubiefome tricks of the animal, are too well
known to require any defeription.'’
As to the accufations contained in the latter part of
the character above quoted, every perfon, it is obfer-
vedj
O V I
Ovis. ved, who has attended to thofe animals, atleafl in this
country, muft know that they are not altogether juft.
//«V. p.466. “ Individuals, in a ftate of fubjection, feem to have no
ncitfj. idea of refilling the attacks of an enemy. But they
foon learn that their protedlion lies in the (hepherd or
his dog : for, when it becomes neceftary, in Britain,
to watch the folds, in orler to prevent a (Faults from
foxes or dogs, upon the firft alarm the whole flock
run with violence to the place where the watchmen are
ftationed ; fo that, when they chance to flcep, they
are often hurt by the fheep trampling upon them. On
other occafions, they never choofe to make a very clofe
approach either to men or dogs; but the fenfe of im¬
mediate danger makes them forget their ufual timidity,
and their fagacity teaches them where their fafety lies.
When the female is robbed of her lamb, the bleats in
a manner that ftrongly marks the anguifh fhe feels. In
the eagernefs of her fearch, her eye-balls feem to
ftart from their fockets ; and her irregular and di-
ftra&ed motions, joined to the violence and conftancy
of her bleatings, are evident indications of the moft
pungent grief.”
JUJ. p. 467. “ Thefe animals (continues the Count in the fame
&c. captious ftyle as before), fo fimple and dull in their
intellect, are likewife very feeble in their conftitution.
They cannot continue long in motion. Travelling
weakens and extenuates them. When they run, they
pant, and foon lofe their breath. The ardour of the
fun is equally incommodious to them as moifture, frotl,
and fnow. They are fubjeft to many difeafes, moft
of which are contagious. A redundancy of fat often
bills them, and always renders the ewes barren. They
bring forth with difficulty ; frequently mifcarry, and
require more care than *any other dotneftic animal.”
JliJ. p. 468. To which the annotator anfwers, “ This is unqueftion-
ably another exaggeration. The fheep, when nearly
in a wild Hate, is a rohuft, attive animal, and capable
of enduring much fatigue without injury. But, when,
immtrfed in luxury, and pampered in rich paftures,
like creatures of a higher nature, the fheep becomes
overleaded with fat, and contrads difeafes which are
not natural to him : befides, no tamed animal requires
or receives lefs affiftance in bringing forth its young,
for in thofe parts of Britain where the belt fheep are
bred, they are never houfed, nor, during the lamb¬
ing fealon, have any thing adminiftered to them but
their ordinary pafture. When in health, fheep have
no occafion for water : in our northern climates, it is
even injurious to them.”
On the whole, many of BufFon’s obfervations and
afiertions on this article appear to be hafty, and, we
prefume, very ill founded. Refpedfing fheep. the learn¬
ed Count feems to have been flrangely mifinformed,
or grofsly prejudiced. We efteem him as a great and
an ingenious man, but we do not think that the ce-
ebrity of a name can add flrength to weaknefs, or
make that be taken for granted on a bare afFcrtion
which wants proof, or which is contrary to expe¬
rience, the boafted guide of modem philofophers.
The oljedions and accufations of this great naturalift
F 563 ]
o v r
are well obviated by his learned tranflator. The great
error of Buffon feems to lie in his confidering fheep
in a domeftic ftate, and as they exiil among us, with¬
out any reference to them in a ftate of nature, and with¬
out fuppoling or allowing their exiftence in fuch a
ftate (a). That he was wrong in this refpedl, a very
little refledlion will convince us ; and indeed his tranf¬
lator has fliown it in a very ample manner, by recur¬
ring to fa£ts, which is the only legitimate way of
reafoning upon this or any fubjecl of this nature. To
fet thri matter in a ftill ftronger point'of view, however,
we fhall give the following account of the Siberian ar¬
gali, or wild Cheep, as it appeared in the 16th volume
of a periodical work intitled the Bee ; being extraded.
by a correfpondent from the works of the celebrated
naturalift Dr Pallas, who has paid particular attention
to this part of his profeffion.
This accurate obferver “ found the ovis fera,
or wild fheep, in all its native vigour, boldnefs,
and activity, inhabiting the va t chain of mountains
which run through the centre of Afia to the eaftern
fen, and the branches which it fends off to Great.
Tartary, China, and the Indies. This wil l animal,
which our learned naturalift declares to be the mufi-
mon of Pliny, and the ophion of the Greeks, is called
argali by the Siberians, which means wild fheep ; and
by the Ruffians kamennoi bar aim, or Cheep of the
rocks, from its ordinary place of abode. It delights
in the bare rocks of the Afiatic chain juft men¬
tioned, where it is conflantly found bafking in the
fun ; but it avoids the woods of the mountains, and
every other objed that would intercept the dired rays
of the glorious luminary. Its food is the Alpine
plants and fhrubs it finds amongft the rocks. The
argali prefers a temperate climate, although he does
not difdain that of Afiatic Siberia, as he there finds
his favourite bare rocks, •funfhine, and Alpine plants;
nay, he is even found in the cold eaftern extremity of
Siberia and Kamtfchatica, which plainly proves that
nature has given a moft extenfive range to the fheep
in a wild ftate, equal even to what fhe has given to
man, the lord of the creation ; a fad that ought to
make us flow in believing the afFertions not uncom¬
mon, which tend to prove the fheep a local animal ;
or at leaft that it mult be confined to certain latitudes,
to poffefs it in all its value.
“ The argali loves folitude, or poffibly perfed li¬
berty, and tnerefore flees the haunts of all-iubduing
man ; hence it gradually abandons a country in pro¬
portion as it becomes peopled, if no unfurmountahie
obftacle obftruds its flight ; infomuch that Dr Pallas
thinks that nothing but the furrbundiiig- fea ear
count for the wild iheep being found in an inh. 1
ifland, as is fometimes the caie. The ewe of e --
gali brings forth before the melting of the fiiow. 1 r
lamb reitmbles much a young kid ; except tine t
has a large flat protuberance in place of horns, and
that it is covered with a woolly hair, frizzled, and
of a dark grey. There is no-animal fo fhy as the ar¬
gali, which it is almoft impoffible to overtake on fuch-
4 B 2 ground
(a) In his account of fheep this is literally true, though, for the purpofe of fupporting a favourite hypo-
thnt it is the parent of all the domeftic va-
glace more unaccountable at lead, if not
\ AiJia Lunin, iiiccjj 11113 ib iiicrdi y 11 uc, LaOugrij loi Liie
thefis, he does mention the argali, or, r.s he calls it, movflon ; and aflerts that it is the parent of all the dorneftic va¬
rieties : but th is, in our opinion, only makes Iris obfervations in this plac
mconfiftent. See bel 0 w note (c).
O V I [ 564 } O V I
ground as It keeps to. When purfaed, it does not run
Itnijfht forward, but doubles and turns like a hare,
at the fame time that it fcrambles up and over the
rocks with won !er^ul agility. In the fame propor¬
tion that the adult argali is wild and untaraeable, the
lamb is eafily tamed when taken young, and fed firft
on milk, and afterwards on fodder, like the domeiiic
fheep, as has been found on numerous experiments
made in the Ruffi n fettleinents in thefe parts.
“ This animal formerly frequented the regions about
the uppt.r Lrtilh, and feme other parts of Siberia,
where it is no longer feen finee colonies have been
fettled in thefe countries. It is common in the Mon-
galian, Songarian, and Tartarian mountains, where
it enjoys its favourite folitude or 1 berty. The argali
is found likewife on the banks of the Lena, up as
high as 60 degrees of north latitude; and ic propa¬
gates its fpecies even in Kamtfehatka, as noticed be¬
fore. I he argali is alfo fou d in the mountains of Per-
fia, and is faid to obtain in the Ivuril iflands in great fize
and beauty. It purges itlelt in the fpring (1 ke all the
domdiic varieties ot the ffieep, wh^H leit at liberty to
follow their inltimSt) with acrid plants of the ane*
monoide kind, till milder plants fpnng up, and fhrubs
begin to fpront, which with etlpine plants conftitute
its ufual food. It likewife frequents the fait mar.hes
which abound everywhere in Siberia; and even licks
the fait cffiorcfccnce that rifes on the ground, a re¬
gimen that tatcens them up very quickly, and fully
reftores the health, vigour, and fLUi they had loll du¬
ring winter, and during the puigmg courfe, which, to
gether with the reiterative, is by the Almighty fo
wonder uily dictated to the iheep fpeeies, whether in 1
wil 1 or tame hate, if left to roam at large where the ne-
•efiary plants are to be found.” Here, then, we have
a variety of the iheep fpecies, which by lome indeed,
and by Dr Pallas among others, is thought to be the
parent of all our domeitic varieties, and which lives and
propagates without any aid from man, and which on all
©ccafions carefully Ihuns him. That ic is the patent
fheep we are not convinced ; that being an opinion
which requires proof, and better proot tnan we pre¬
fume the abettors ot it are able to produce.
Having given a figure of th s animal (fee Plate
CCCLXXI), we ihali a 'd the following defeription of
it, taken hjeevvife from the Bee. The argali is about the
height of a Irr.ali hart, but its make is much more robult
and nervous. Its form is lets elegant than that of
the deer, and its legs and neck fhorter. 1 he male
is larger than toe female, and every way Router. Its
head releml.les that of a ram, with long draggling
hairs about the mouth; but no beard dts ears are
rather fmaller than tnoie of a ram. i he horns are
exa&ly reprefented in the plate ; they weigh in an
adult fomeumts 16 pounds. I he tail is veiy ffiort.
1 he fumirer-coat confilts ot {h*rt hair, fleek, and re-
fembling that of a deer. The winter-coat connits of
wool like down, mixed with hair everywhere an inch
and an halt long at lead, concealing at its roots a
fine woolly down, generally of a wmte colour, The
colour of its coat was in general ot a dark greyilh
brown, with white tips to the longer hairs, and con-
fitted of haii mixed withwool, of a dark iron grey. By
account lately received from the flhudk , tue ar . all
is found of a white colour on the continent of A-
merica, oppofitc to their country. It is iikewtfe of
a whitifh colour at Kamtfehatka.
But independent of its manners or its mental qua¬
lities, tliis animal is of the molt ex ten five utility to
roan. We are clothed by its fleece, i’he flefh La de¬
licate and wholefome food. The fkin, d.relfed, forms
different parts of our apparel; and u ufed toi covers of
books. The entrails, propeily prepared and twitted,
feive for firings for various muiieal milrumcnts. The
bones calcined ^like other bones m general), form ma¬
terials lor tells for the refiner. The rank is thicker
th m that of cows, and confiqaently ykkis a greater
quantity of butter and cneeie , and in lome places is fo
rich, that it will not produce the eheete without a mix¬
ture of water'to make it pait from the w-iey. i he
dung is a remark ably rich manure ; iniumuch that the
folding ox fh. ep is become too ufcful a Tjranch of huf-
bandry for the farmer to neglect. Nature,, m fhort,
has civen this animal nothing that does not redound to
our benefit.
'1 he ram is capable of generation at the age of 18
months ; and the ewe can be impregn ited when a year
old. One ram is iufficient, according to Button, for
25 or 30 ewes; they have often been Known indeed
to beget loo lambs in a tingle teaibn. He ought
to be large and well pioportiontd; his head Ihould
be thick and itrong, his nont wide, his eyes black,
his note flat, his neck thick, his body long and
tall, hio telticies maffy, and nis tail long [ u). White
is the belt colour lor a ram. i ne ewes whole wool
is moft plenti;ui,-bufhy, long, foft, and white, arc
molt proper tor breeders, efptciauy when at the fame
time they are of a large nze, have a thick neck, and
move nimbly.
In this climate ewes fed in good paflures admit the
ram in July or Auguit; but Beptcmntr or October are
the monti.s when the greatelt part of our ewes, if left
to nature, take the ram. i ffiy go with young about
five months and generally bring forth but one at a
time, though frequently two : in warm climates, they
may bring fortn iwice in a year; but in Britain,
Fra:.ce, and molt parts of Europe, only once. They
give milk plentifully for fevtn or eight months They
live from 10 to 12 years: they are capable of bringing
forth as long as they live, when properly managed
but are generally old and ufeleis at the age ot fe-
ven or eight years The ram, though he lives 12 or 14.
ye^rs, becomes unfit for propagating when eight ye„r»
old.
When
(b) Buffon fays “ he fhould be garnifhed vith horns; for homlefs animals, of which there arc fome in
our climates, are lefs vigorous and kfs proper for propagating.” On this the annotator obferves, that “ there
are many breeds ot flieep in which bota males and females want horns ; yet they are as vigorous as any
of the fpee’es. i he largefl and fineft fheep in England have no horns. In fome counties, tne inhabitant®
are perfectly unacquainted with horned fheep; in other places, a fheep without horns rs as great a-rarity as
one with four or fix horns.”
O V I
[ 565 1
O V I
Ovi«.
/J;Va p. 481
iiC.
Whfn tlie male lam!is are not intended to be kept
for propagation, but fattened for food, they ought to
be cartrated at the age of five or fix months. 1 his
operation is performed t 'O ways r in the one, an mci-
fion is made, and the tefticles t ken out ; in the other,
a ligature is tied tight round the fc’Otum, above the
tefticle , which foon dertroys the veffels which nounih
them. After eaftration they are called nvedders.
’I be ram, ewe, and wedder, when one year old,
lofe the two fore-teeth of the under jaw ; fix months
afterwards, they lofe the two foreteeth next to theie j
and at the age of three years, the teeth are all re¬
placed. The age of a ram may likewife be difcover-
ed by his horns, whirh always appear the firit year,
and frequently a* foon as he is brought iorth. 1 heie
horns uniforrpiy acquire an additional ring eveiy
year, as long as the creature lives. I he ewes common¬
ly have no horns, but a kind of long protuberances in
place of them : however, feme of them have two and
feme four horns. .
“ It has been remarked by the ancients (fays tfut-
’ fon), that all ruminating animals have fuel: But this
remark, ftriftly fpeaking, holds only with regard to
the (beep and goat: The fuet of the wedder is more
copious, whiter, drier, firmer, and better, than that
of any other animal. Fat or greafe is very different
from fuet; the former being always foft, while the latter
hardens in cooling. The greateil quantity of fuet is
found about the kidneys ; *nd the left kidney furmfh-
es more than the right. There arc alio conhderable
quantities in the epiploon or web, and about the in
teffines; but it is not near fo firm or good as that of
the kidneys, the tail, and other parts of the body.
Weddeis have no other greafe but i'uet; and this mat¬
ter is fo prevalent 111 their bodies, that their whole
flefh is covered with it. Even the blood contains a
confiderable quantity of fuet ; and the frmen is fo
charged with it, as to give that liquor a different ap¬
pearance from that of other animals. i'he lemen of
men, of the dog, horfc, afs, and probably of every
animal which affords not fuet, diffolves with cold ; or,
when expofed to the air, heroines mure and more fluid
from the moment it e(capes from the body. _ But the
femen of the ram, and perhaps of every animal that
has fuet, hardens and lofes its fluidity with its heat.
1
“ In the (beep, the tafle of the flefh, the finenefs of
the wool, the quantity of fuet, aud even the hze
of the body, vary greatly in different countries. In
Fiance, the province oi Bein a1 ounds molt in fiieep.
"I hofe about Beauvais, and in fume other parts of
Noimandy, are fatter and more charged with iuet.
They are very good in Burgundy ; but the belt are
fed upon the faridy downs of our maritime provinces.
The Italian, Spaniflr, and even the Englifh wools, are
finer tiian the French wool. In Poitou, Provence,
the environs of Bayonne, and feveral other parts of
France, there is a race of iheep which have the appear¬
ance of being foreign. They are larger, it rone; er, and
better covered with wool than the common kind. They
aie likewife more prolific, producing frequently two
lambs at a time. The rains oi this race engender with
the common ewes, and produce an intermediate kind.
In Italy aud in Spain, there are a great variety of
races ; but they ought all to be regarde \ as oi the
fame fpecies with our common fheep, which, though
fo numerous and diveriified, extend not beyond Eu¬
rope. 1 hole animals with a long broad tail, lo com¬
mon in Alia and wdrica, and which are c.-diecl Bar-,
bary jhcep hy travellers, appear to be a fpecies different
from the ordinary kind, as well as from the Pacos
and Lama of America.
“ As white wool is mod valued, black or Lotted
lambs are generally Slaughtered. In fome places, how¬
ever, almolt all tire iheep are black ; and black lambs
are often pro luced by the commixture of white rams
with white ewes. In France, there are only white,
brown, black, and i'potted fheep; but in Spain,
there is a reddifh kind ; and in Scotland there are
fome of a yellowifh colour. But ail thefe varieties
of colour are more accidental than thofc produced by
diffeient races ; which, however, proceed from the in¬
fluence of climate, and the difference of nourilhment.”
Relpefting the vaiiecies, or, as fome will have it,
the different Ipecies of fheep, there has been a great
difference of opinion amongit tire learned. Buffon, we
find, in the above extract, if we underhand him right,
regards the variety of races in Italy and in Spain as
of the fame fpecies with our common iheep : but he
coniiders the Baroary fheep as a diftimff fpecies (c).
Dr Pallas, the learned naturaliit already quoted, in
very
Ovi*.
(c) How confident this opinion is with that which makes the argali the parent fheep, we fhall n°t FJ-
tend to determine. This hypothefis he brings forward in the end of the 7tn volume oi hrs natural hiitory , *Ed;n.
and as much of it as concent the prefent fubject we 11,all here infert. He concludes, irom a lira.n ot rea- edlt. I7g&
foning, ftrong and plaufible at kart, it not abfolutely convincing, that “ tire temperature o the c , ,
the quality of the food, and the evils produced by flavery, are tire three caufes of the changes aud dege¬
neration o5!- animals. The efkas of each merit a feparate examination; and their relations, when viewed in
detail, will exhibit a pidlure of Nature in her prefent condition, and ot what Ihe was before her d g
daV.°Let us now compare our pitiful fheep with the mouflon, from whom they derived their origin. The mouj
flon, which is the f me with the argali, is a large animal. He is fleet as a flag armed with horns and
thick hoofs, covered with coarfe hair, and dreads neither the inclemency of the fley nor the voracity of
the wolf. He not only efcapes from h.s enemies by the fwdtnefs of his courle, but he re lids them by the
ftrtneth of his body, an I the folidity of the arms with which his head and Let are fortified. Hovv ui e-
rent irom our U eep, who fubfiil with difficulty in flocks, who are unable to defend themfelves by their num¬
bers, who cannot endure the cold of our winters without flicker, and who would ail pernh, it man witndrtw
his protection ? In the warmeit climates oi Afia and Africa, the mouflon, who 15 the common paren 0^
Ovis.
° V I [
very extenfive travels in the Ruffian empire, more par¬
ticularly in Siberia- and amongft the pattoral nations
of great I artary, f und what he regards as only one
fpecies of ffieep fubdivided into four varieties, and
566 ] O v 1
diftinguifhed by their tails, the form of their heads,
their ears and fleece. So that he condemns as unfounded
and fanciful the erroneous idea of making/£ea,fc differen¬
ces of the accidental varieties, which, in his opinion,
education
Ovis,
?.ll the races of this fpecies, appears to be lefs degenerated than in any other region. i hough reduced to
a dom.-ftic ftate, he has prcferved his ftafure and h:s hair ; but the fize of his horns are diminiihed. Of all
domeAic fheep, thofe of Senegal and India are the largeff, and their nature has fuffereJ leaft degradation.
7 he fheep of Barbary, Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, Calmuck, &c. have undergone greater changes. In rela¬
tion to man, they are improved in fome articles, and vitiated in others : But, with regard to nature, im¬
provement and degeneration are the fame thing ; for they both imply an alteration of original conffitution.
1 neir coarfe hair is changed into fine wool. Their tail, loaded with a mafs of fat, has acquired a magni¬
tude fo incommodious, that the animals trail it with pain. While fwollen with fuperfluous matter, and
adorned with a beautiful fleece, their ftrength, agility, magnitude, and arms, are diminifhed: Thefe
long-tailed fheep are only half the fize of the mouflon. I hey can neither fly from danger, nor refiff the
enemy. To preferve and multiply the fpecies, they require the conflant cate and fupport of man.
4l The degeneration of the original fpecies is {fill greater in our climates. Of all the qualities of the mou*
flon, our ewes and rams have retained nothing but a fmall portion of vivacity, which yields to the
crook of the fhepherd. Timidity, weakncfs, refignation, and ftupidity, are the only melancholy remains
of their degraded nature. To reflore their original lize and ftrength, our Flanders fheep fhould fie united
with the mouflon, and prevented from propagating with inferior races; and, if we w'ould devote the fpecies
to the more uftful purpofes of affording us good mutton and wool, we fhould imitate fome neighbouring na¬
tions in propagating the Barbary race of fheep, which, after being tranfp»rted into Spain, and even into
Britain, have fucceeded very well. Strength and magnitude are male attributes ; plumpnefs and beauty of
fkm are female qualities. To obtain fine wool, therefore, our rams ihonld have Barbary ewes ; and to aug¬
ment the fize, our ewes fhould be ferved with the male mouflon.”
The learned Count feems to fpeak with more certainty upon this fubjedf than the circumflances of the cafe,
or the nature of the faffs (as yet far from being fully afeertained, or completely authenticated), will admit.
'The editor of the Bee, who is well known to have devoted much time and attention to this fubjeft,
thus ably expofes the futility of thofe arguments which are brought in fuppoit of an hypothefis, which
he thinks extremely abfurd, or at Jeaft premature. “ Buffon (fays he), who is the leaft fcrupulous of
all modem naturahfts, has been the moft forward to decide in this, as in many other cafes. He does
not fo much as eondefeend to admit that there can be a doubt in this cafe ; but on all occafions af-
fumes it as a certainty, that all the varieties of one fpecies have been derived from one parent; and
boldly raifes upon that fuppofition many practical inferences, which, if his theory fhould prove to be unfound-
ed, might lead to very important errors; fo that it is not a matter of idle curiofity to inveftigate this que-
ftion-” He then goes on to fliow by fome particular inftances the grols abfurdity of Buffon’s opinion.
“ Were (continues he) thefe diverfities only cafual, and apt to vary, it might be more eafy for us to give
faith to the hypothefis ; but this is not the cafe. Experience hath fully proved, that any one breed may
be kept perfedtly uncontaminated fer any length of time, with all its diftinctive peculiarities entire, merely
by preventing an intermixture by copulation. Nor is this all ; it is alfo known, that if fuch intermixture be
permitted, the defeendants will undonbtedly be a mixed breed, evidently participating of the qualities and
appearances of both their parents. Between a hound and a grehouml, a mongrel brew’d is obtained which
poffeffes the lenfe of fmelling, though in a lefs degree than the one, and the faculty of fleetnefs in a lefs
degree than the other, of its parents ; and its whole external appearance evidently indicates at firft fight
the compound of the flock whence it has defeended. But let a fmall lap dog and a large maftiff be
fed with the fame food and tended with the fame care, the one difeovers no 1'ymptoms of increafing in fize
or diinimfhing it more than the other. Let them be carried from one country to another, they equally pre-
fierve their original diftindftive qualities, without any farther change than the climate may perhaps produce j
which equally leems to affe& all the varieties of this animal. Never was there adopted an hypothefis more
truly abfurd than that of Buffon In this refpeet. Nor was there ever made fuch a barefaced attempt to try how
far the credulity of mankind could lead them affray in deference to a great name, in direct contradiction to fitCls
which fad immediately under the cogmlance of every man whopleafes but to open his eyes, and look right be¬
fore him, as in thofe bold and unfounded affertions which he has been pleafed to make, with regard to the tranf-
loimation ef dogs from one variety into another. Yet thefe opinions have been inadvertently tranferibed
many times by learned naturahfts, without one fymptom of doubt or hefitation. But can any thing be more
contrary to reafon, experience, and fads that every man has before his eyes every day in his life, than fuch
opinions: It is indeed humiliating for the pride of man, who plumes hinjfelf on the firperiorky of reafon, to re¬
mark this. And it is mortifying for modern philofophy, which affeds to be founded on experience and accurate
obfervation or tads alone, to point out fuch things ; but truth ou (ht in all cafes to be adhered to.'’ Though this
note nas already extended to an undue length, we cannot omit the following obfervations by the fame patriotic
writer : “ in regard to fheep, the varieties of this ufetul dafs of animals feetn tes be confiderable, and their natural
propenfitifs Jo diferiminated as to be admirably calculated for adapting them to different lituations on this
4lobe, 10 as to make them a very univeriH inhabitant of it: and thde are fo diverfified as to habits andrnflinds,
as
O V I
education or mode of life, climate, food, and croffing the
breed, have produced in iheep, as in other animals ; and,
in conformity to this opinion, he confiders not oply
thofe varieties found in Europe, but alfo thofe of other
quarters of the globe, as only accidental varieties of
the fame fpecies ; and his opinion is confirmed, by find¬
ing that they produce a prolific race though the
breed be ever fo much croffed ; which he thinks would
not be tire cafe were they different fpecies. The va¬
rieties which Dr Pallas examined, which, as we have
already laid5, are four, are as follow. The lirlt is
named both by the Tartars and Ruffians TfcherkeJJian
fiieep, and by Pallas dohchura or long-tailed : it is the
ovis longicauda of authors.
The fecond is called the Ruffian fheep bv the natives,
and by Pallas Irachiurs or {hurt tailed : it feems to be
the ovis IJlandicus of authors, with fmaller horns.
The third has no fixed trivial name, as its appella¬
tions are as various as the provinces where it is reared;
Pallas has called it Jleatopyga or fat-tailed : it is the
ovis laticaudata of authors.
The fourth has like-wife no fixed trivial name, but
Pallas has called it bvcharian, from finding it reared by
the Bucharian Tartars in immenfe flocks. The Tfcher-
keffian fheep, or firft variety, is a handfmne animal,
with a noble air, in its native country and the fouth of
Ruffia, refembling in its habits, horns, fleece, and length
of tail, the Spanifh, but more particularly the Eng-
lifli fheep. Its head is well proportioned, and of an
elegant form ; ears ftraight ; horns large, even, round¬
ed in the angles, tapering to a point, and bending in¬
wardly towards the back. The rams are feldom with¬
out horns, and the ewes have them often bent in a lu¬
nar form. The wool, though coarfe, is without ad¬
mixture of hair, which is perhaps but an accidental
diftindion, and promt fee to be much meliorated by
croffing the breed, and rearing the animal with more
care and fkill. It is even known to become much finer
without the affillance of art, merely from the influence
of a temperate climate, as on mount Caucafus. The
tail of the ram is covered with fine long wool, like the
Indian fheep deferibed by Buffon, which trails on the
ground,foas toeftace the prints made by the animal’sfeet
onfand, and it contains often 20 joints or vertebrae. In
palling from the ftate of nature to that of fervitude, it
feerns to have loft its native ferocity, together with its
coarfe fleece. Dr'P .lias fays it is a mild gentle animal,
and is lefs degenerated in form from the argali, which,
according to his fyilem, is the parent fpecies, than the
fteatopyga, which on the other hand has preferred
much more of its wildnefs than the Tftherkeffirn ; per¬
haps bee rule it is allowed to range with little reftraint
on the wi !e extended plains of Great Tartary, The
Tfcherkeffian is reared in all the European regions of
the Ruffian empire, fituated on this fide the river Occa,
in the nearer Poland, and by the paftoral people of
O V I
mount Caucafus 5 and they are commonly of a white
colour.
The fame variety, we are told by Ruffel, in his na¬
tural hiftory of Aleppo, is reared under the nam; of
Bedouin Jh'.ep by the Arabs, and in the weftern parts of
Mauritania, with a trifling difference in the length and
thicknefs of the tail. There are likewife fheep in Mo¬
rocco, which belong to this variety, on account of the
diHinguithing charattft of it, a long tail, although
otherwife different, in having an ugly look, head co¬
vered entirely with hair, little hanging ears, and re¬
markably long wool.
The Indian and Guinea fheep, fo well deferibed by
Buflon, refemble the Tfcherkeffian only in the length
of their tail, whilft in other refpedts they come nearer
the fteatopyga or fat-romped fneep of Pallas in li/e,
form, and fleece mixed with hair. The learned natu ¬
ral! ft is of opinion, that the arid burning defarts pro¬
duce this change on the wool ; but his reafoning on
this head is to us at leaft as little fatisfadlory as that by
which he endeavours to prove the argali to be the parent
fpecies. The inhabitants of Ukiaine and Padoli car¬
ry on an extenfive and valuable traffic with the fkins of
Tfcherktffian fheep, the beauty of which they heighten
in a very curious masiner.
The brachiura, fhort tailed, or fecond variety which
Dr Pallas examined in his travels, is reared through¬
out all the north of Ruffia, and refembles that of
Iceland in fixe, tail, and coarfenefs of fleece ; but
though this be the cafe in thefe few refpe&s, yet
it differs from it in a very effential character, that
of horns, which are ranch fmaller, and have nothing of
that exuberance which BufFon and others attribute to
the fheep of that liland. It refembles the Ticht-r-
keffian fheep in the form of its head, ftraight upright
ears, and in thicknefs of fleece ; but the quality of the
two fleeces aie very different, this variety having
wool almoft as coarfe as dog’s hair: but the great
diftinguiftnng charadler between them is the tail,
which is almoft a quarter of a yard Ihorter than that
of the Tfcherkeffian. The l rachiura, or fliort-tailed
fheep, is reared not only by the northern Ruffians, but
likewiie by the Fins and other neighbouring nations.
Some of this variety have been tranfported into Sibe¬
ria, where they have fupported themfelves on fume-
paftures, though in poor condition ; but through all
the fouthern countries they are in lefs eftimation than
the long-tailed and fat-tailed varieties, which are much
fuperior to them for fize, fat, and good eating. The
ewe of this fhort-tailed variety couples readily with
the ram of the fteatopyga or fat-tailed breed, and
produces an animal nobler and larger than its mother,
with a tail fwelkd at the bale with fat, but meagre
towards the end like that" of the mixed breed, which,
makes Dr Pallas’s fourth and laft variety of domeftic
fheep. The ewe alfo couples clandeftinely with the
2 domeftic
r 567 ]
as to preferve the principal breeds very diftinft, if left in a ftate of nature. The argali, ftrong, adfive,
nimble, delights to live among rocks and inacceffible places; while-the large iluggifh Treed of iheep, fuch
as thofe that have been taken into keeping by cur countrymah Bakewell, could never afeend thefe fteeps,
but are well calculated to confume the produce of the fertile plains ; there is therefore no chance that thefe
two breeds would ever intermingle, if left entirely to themfelves. The laft of thefe two varieties has indeed
been long domefticated by man, as being utterly incapable of withdrawing itfelf from his fway. though the
firft has been able to preferve its independence till the prefent hour in feme of the mountainous and leaft
inhabited diftridls on the globe.” He then goes on to mark the lifter diftin&kms, in which, however, we
cannot follow him.
O V I [ 568 ] O V I
domeft’c he-froat, and produces an animal much re-
fembling the mother, but with a fleece of wool and
hair. This latter is a fa£t of the truth of which we
have fome doubt. The Doctor may eafxly have been
milled, and may have adopted his opinion, merely from
the lhaggy appearance of the fleece of fome breeds of
Iheep, which much refembles the hair of a goat; but
tbefe are found as well in countries where no goats
exift, as in thofe where they abound, I he faft has
not then, we think, been fufficiently afcertaincd.
This variety fupports extremely well the feverity of a
northern climate ; and Dr Pallas doubts not but it
might pafs the winter in the plains of mountainous
northern countries where there is not much fnow ;
nay, he even thinks it might augment their hardinefs
and ftrength, if we are to judge from the habits
and treatment of the Iceland flocks, fo well defcribed
by Anderfon in his account of that ifland.
Dr Pallas remarked, that on mountainous pafturcs
expofed to the fun, fudh as on the acclivity of the
Ouralic chain, the Ruffian or Ihort-tailed Iheep were
larger, fatter, and had a finer fleece.
Croffing the breed with the Tfcherkeffian or long,
tailed Iheep likewife mends both the ftature and fleece
of the brachiura ; whereas, in its own natural ftate,
withont admixture of othef varieties of Iheep, it is
but fmall, lean, and produces, in the northern parts of
Ruffia, a wool fo extremely coarfe as only to be fit for
the cloth of peafants in a ftate of vaflalage.
Whether coarfenefs of wool and leannefs be indeed
chara&eriftical marks of this fpecies, is, we think, ex¬
tremely doubtful: we are rather inclined to confider
them as mere accidental differences.
The Do&or’s third variety, orJieatopyga, which has
a different name in almoft every country where it is
reared, is both the moft abundant and largeft breed of
{Keep in the world. It is reared throughout all the
temperate regions of Afia, from the frontiers of Eu¬
rope to thofe of China, in the vaft plains of Tartary.
All the Nomade hordes of Afia, the Turcomans, Kir-
guife, Calmucks, aad Mongal Tartars, rear it ; and
indeed it conftitutes their chief riches, the number
they poffefs being enormous. The Perfians alfo rear
it in abundance ; as likewife the Hottentots, as we are
informed by Kolbe in his Travels to the Cape of Good
Hope ; vrhilft Ofbeck, in his Journey to China, affcrts,
that the fat tailed fheep are reared through that whole
empire. We are told alfo by Shaw and the Abbe
Demanent, that the fame breed obtains in Syria,
Mauritania, and the other regions of Africa, under
fome modifications of form, from different caufes ; fo
that Dr Pallas thinks there is fufficient evidence that
the fteatopyga, or fat-rumped fheep, is the moft uni-
verfally reared and multiplied of any breed in the
world. The flocks of all the Tartar hordes refemble
one another by a large yellowifh muzzle, the upper
jaw often proje&ing beyond the lower ; by long hang¬
ing ears ; by the horns of the adult ram being large,
fpiral, wrinkled, angular, and bent in a lunar form.
The body of the ram, and fometimes of the ewe,
fwells gradually with fat towards the pofterior® ; where
a folid mafi of fat is formed on the rump, and falls
over the anus in place of a tail, divided into twohemi-
fpheres, which take the form of the hips, with a little
button of a tail in the middle, to be felt with the finger.
N» 255V
See A fig. 16. plate CCCLXXI. The uropyglum or
fat rump, which is made up of this oily fpecies of fat,
is fo very large as to incommode the animal in walk¬
ing ; but when the fame fheep are carried into the in¬
terior parts of Rnffia. the tail lofes half its fize and
weight, nay fometimes more, from a change in their
food and mode of life. 1 his variety, befides the
charafters mentioned above, have {lender legs in pro-
portion to their bodies, a high cheft, lartre hang¬
ing tefticles, a large prepuce, and tolerably fine wool
mixed with hair. Such are the great charadte-
rifttc marks by which the flocks of all the Tartar
hordes refemble one another ; but climate, foil, &c.
produce fome fmall difference on this variety, whether
reared by the Tartara or the Ruffians, in the weftern
deferts of Great Tartary, from the river Volga to the
Irtiffi, and the Altaic chain of mountains. In all that
trad* of country, the pafturage is moftly arid ; and it
abounds in acrid and liliaceous plants in fpring, whilft
in fummer it produces, at. lead in the open fpots where
fheep delight to feed, befides gramen, bitter and aro¬
matic plants, artemifia, camphorofna, and many fpeciea
of falfola, abounding in juices and faks. There is
likewife found everywhere an efflorefeenee of natron,
with fea or glaubers fait; nay, even the waters of
the defert contain in general the fame falls. Now it
is almoft unneceffary to inform European fhepherds,
thatjwch pafturage has the effedt of augmenting the
fize of fheep, if it produces no other change upon
them ; fo that we fee, in this infiance, how fome kind
of difference may arife amongft fheep of the fame
breed merely from accidental caufes, without the lead
admixture of heterogeneous blood. This variety
changes greatly in fize and in other incidental cir-
cumitances, according to the method of raifing or of
treating them in different places and by different
people.
The fourth variety, raifed by the Boucharian Tar¬
tars and Perfians in great numbers, Dr Pallas regards
as a mixed breed, arifing, as he fuppofes, from the
union of the firft and third varieties, i. e. of the long
and fat tailed fheep. The Dodlor does not think that
they ever attain to the fize of either of their parents ;
though, as he never faw any full grown, he does not
fpeak pofitively upon the fubjedb The head of this
variety is like that of the Kirguife j but the muzzde
is (harper, refembling the Indian of Buffon : the
body is rather fmaller than that of the Kirguife fheep:
the ears are large and pendant: they have a fmall
uropygium, like that of the Tartar fheep on the
Jenify, efpecially when begotten by a Kirguife ram ;
but in general they have a tall fat and broad at the
bafe, with a long narrow appendage, which refembles
the tail of the Tfcherkeffian fheep. The Boucharian
Tartars have a very valuable traffic with the furs of
the lambs of this variety, which are exquifitely fine
and beautiful. This fame variety is likewife raifed in
great numbers by the Perfians ; and it is more than
probable, if we are to give credit to authors ancient
and modern, that this very variety obtains in Syria,
Paleffine, and divers countries of Africa, known to
them by the name of ovls macrocereas. It differs in
all thofe countries from the fat-tailed, or fteatopyga of
Pallas, in having a long tail, fat and broad above,
with a long narrow appendage, which is exadtly the
great
o V I [5
CHi«. ^reat marked character of ilie Eoucharian breed.
—v 1 Piiny tells us, that the Syrian fheep have long fat
tails, and carry wool ; and by Ruffel’s account of
them, in bis Natural Hiflory of Aleppo, they refemble
the Kirguife iheep in the head, face, and ears hang¬
ing on the cheeks; but the tail is that of the
Boucharian, fat above, with a long lean append¬
age. He adds, that they are covered with a foft
wool, which is another trait of refemblance with our
prefent variety; and that they weigh fo'retimes 150
pounds, one-third of which Is the weight of the tail.
Gefner, in his work on quadrupeds, tells us, that the
Arab flieep of Kay have nearly the fame chara&eiiltic
marks, efpecially with regard to the tail.
Shaw relates in his Travels th*t fheep with fuch a
compound tail are common in Mauritania, and in all
the Eaft ; whilft Kolbe allures us, that the fheep
which are brought on board the (hips at the Cape of
Good Hope have tails weighing 25 or 30 pounds,
fat above, with a bony appendage hinging from it ;
and, laftly, the Abbe Demanent, in his new Hiitory
of Africa, fays,-that fheep ate found in Africa covered
with wool, and with fuch a tail as we have been de-
feribing ; whiift at Cape Guarda, in the fouth of
Africa, all the fheep are white, with rather fmall black
heads, otherwife a large handfome breed, with broad
fat t ils, fix or eight inches long.
The DoAor, however, does not entirely clofe his
proofs here ; for he quotes feveral paffages from
Mofes in confirmation of what he h >s advanced, Wz.
that the Boucharian fheep obtain in Syria, Pateftine,
and divers countries of Africa. The pnffages he
quotes are thefe : Leviticus viii. 2y. ix. 19. But
whether thefe verfss prove what the DoAor has quoted
them as proving, we will not determine.
Thefc are the four varieties which Dr Pallas faw
and examined in his extenfive travels. The account
is, we think, curious ; to naturalifts interefting ; and
to farmers it may be ufeful. If it only excite further
refearch and minuter inquiry, it will anfwer fome
purpofe. Indeed, the man ot fcience wall not refl
fatisfied with what our preferibed boun Is have per¬
mitted us to bring forward, but will recur to the ori¬
ginal work of the learned author to whom we are
primarily indebted for the above account. We refer
fuch readers, then, to his Spicileg'ia Zoologica^ fafciculus
ttndecimus, printed at Berlin in 1776.
It may not be improper to deferibe the figures of
thefe four varieties. They are all contained in Plate
CCCLXXI. fig 16. of which is the argali. Tig- 17-
is a fide and back view ; letters i\a of the ram of
the fteatopyga, or fat-rumped variety, in its greateft
purity of breed, as obtaining among the Kirguife Tar¬
tars in the vaft plains of Southern Tartary.' The po¬
rtion of the animal marked with a (hows the uropy-
gium or fat rump. Letter b is a reprefentation of the
bead of the fame animal, with a couple of noneola
hanging from the neck, called by the Ruffians ear¬
rings. Letter C is a drawing of another Kirguife
Vol. XIII. Part H.
69 ] o v I
ram with five horns, ffiowing at fame time the hanging 0''’ra'
polition of the ears of this variety. Fig. 18. is a •“-•y—
drawing of a degenerate breed of the fteatopyga
variety of fheep, reared on the banks of the Jenify
and Volga, without horns, and with the uropygium
or fat rump greatly diminifhed, and one noheola.
Letter b {fig. 19.) is a drawing of a ram of the fame
variety of iheep, from the flocks of the Jenify Kirguife,
with four horns fymraetricaUy arranged by nature, as
is frequently the cafe with this breed.
In a fupplement to his article Sheep, BufFon has
thefe words refpefting the ftrepficeros: “ I here give Buffir, as
figures,” fays the Count (fee Plate CCCLXXI. above,
fig. 14. and 15.) “ of a ram and ewe, of which draw-P’4^
ings were fent me by the late Mr Colinfon, fellow of
the Royal Society of London, under the names of
the Walachian ram and c<ice. As this learned natura*
lift died foon afterwards, I could not difeover whether
thefe fheep, whefe horns are extremely different from
thofe of the ordinary kind, be common in Walachia,
or whether they are only an accidental variety (d).
“ In the northern parts of Europe, as Denmark
and Norway, the fheep are not good ; but, to improve
the breed, rams are occaiionally imported from Eng¬
land. In the iflands adjacent to Norway, the fheep
remain in the fields during the whole year; and they
become larger and produce finer wool than thofe
which are under the care and direction of men. It is
alleged, that thofe fheep which enjoy perfect liberty
always fttep, during the night, on that fide of the
illand from whence the wind is to blow next day.
This natural indication of the weather is carefully at¬
tended to by the mariners * Ponto
“ The rams, ewes, and wedders of Iceland, differpiddan’s
chiefly from ours by having larger and thicker horns. Nat- Hijl.
Some of them have three, four, and even five horns.^ ^^'3'’’
But this peculiarity of having more horns than two,
muft not be confidered as common to the whole race
of Iceland fhetp ; for in a flock ©f four or five hun¬
dred, hardly three or four wedders can be found with
four or five horns, and thefe are fent to Copenhagen
as rarities. As a farther proof of their being fcarce,
they give a higher price in Iceland than the common
klnTd$-’' . . § H!J! Cen*
In Spam and the fouthern parts of Europe, theroyages,
flocks of fheep are kept in fhades or ftables during thctom- I^*
night : but in Britain, where there is now no danger*'’ I9"
from Wolves, they ate allowed to remain without, both
night and day; which makes the animals more healrhv,
and their flefli a more wholefome food. Dry and moun¬
tainous grounds, where thyme and fheep’s fefeue grafs
abound, are the beil for the pafturing fheep.
The fheep is lubjeft to many difeafes . fome arifinx
from infedls which depofit their eggs in different parts
of the animal: others are caufed by their being kept
in wet pa ft ores; for as the fhsep requires but little
drink, it is naturally fond of a dry foil. The dropfy,
vertigo (the p-endro of the Wclfh), the phthifis, j mn-
dice, and worms in the liver, annually make great ha-
4 C vock
(d) Dr P.illas thinks it very probable that the ftrepficeros variety of flreep were produced by propagating
■a particular configuration of horns. He alludes to the animal which Bdloniuu firft difeovered on Mount Ida
tn Crete; and which he fuppolea the ftrcpliceres of the ancients.
o U C 570 ] o u s
vock r.mong' our flocks : for the firft difeafe, the (hep-
herd finds a remedy by turning the infefted into fields
6f broom ; which plant has been alfo found to be very
efficacious in the fame diforder among the human fpe-
cies.—The fheep is alfo infelied by different forts of
infers: like the horfe, it has its peculiar oeflrus or gad¬
fly, which depofits its eggs above the nofe in the fron¬
tal finufcs (fee Oestrus): when thofe turn into mag¬
gots, they become exccffively painful, and caufe thofe
violent agitations that we fo often fee the animal in.
The French fhepherds make a common practice of
eafing the fheep, by trepanning and taking out the
maggot ; this pra&ice is fometimes ufed by the Eng-
lifh fhepherds, but not always with the fame fuccefs.
Befides thefe infeds, the fheep is troubled with a kind
of tick and loufe, which magpies and ftarlings contri¬
bute to eafe it of, by lighting on its back, and picking
the infeds off.
We had intended to have introduced into this article
fome obfervations from Pennant ; but it has already
extended beyond its juft limits, and we dare not ven¬
ture to extend it further. Under the article Wool,
which is intimately conneded with the prefent, we
may perhaps have an opportunity of introducing fome
additional remarks not without importance. At all
events, we truft by that time to be able to give a fa¬
vourable report of that truly patriotic fociety which
has been lately inftituted in this part of the united
kingdom for meliorating the breed of fheep, and in
confequence the nature and quality of the wool. From
the adive and indefatigable exertions of Sir John
Sinclair, baronet, the prefident of that fociety, we have
every thing to hope from well conduded experiments,
and nothing to fear from groundlefs hypothefes.
OUNCE, a little weight, the 16th part of a pound
avoirdupois, and the 12th part of a pound Troy. The
word is derived from the Latin, vnciay “ the twelfth
part of any whole,” called as ; particularly in geome¬
trical meafures, an inch, or the 12th part of a foot.
See Inch and As.
Ounce, in zoology. See Felis.
OVOLO, or Ovum, in architedure, a round mould-
ing, whofe profile or fweep, in the Tonic and Compo-
fite capitals, is ufually a quadrant of a circle : whence
it is alfo commonly called the quarter-round. It is
ufually cut with reprefentations of eggs and arrow-heads
or anchors placed alternately.
OU-POEY-TSE, a name, given by the Chinefe to a
kind of nefts made by certain infeds upon the leaves
and branches of the tree called Thefe nefts
are much ufed in dyeing, and the phyficians employ
them for curing many diftempers. Some of thefe
nefts were brought to Europe, and put into the hands
of the celebrated Mr Geoffroy. After having ex¬
amined them with the utmoft attention, this learned
academician thought he perceived fome conformity in
them to thofe excrefcences which grow on the leaves
of the elm, and which the vulgar call elm-bladders : he
found thefe nefts fo ffiarp and aftringent to the tafte,
that he confidered them as far fuperior to every other
fpecies of galls ufed by the dyers. According to him,
they are the ftrongeft aftringents exifting in the vege¬
table kingdom.
It is certain that there is a great affinity between
the ou-poey-tfe and the elm-bladders. The form of
both is unequal and irregular; they are covered on Ou
the outfide with a (hort down, which renders them '
foft to the touch : within they are full of a whitifh- f'
grey duft, in which may be obferved the dried remains
of (mall infedls, without difcovering any aperture thro*
which they might have paffed. Thefe nefts or blad¬
ders harden as they grow old ; and their fubftance,
which appears refinous, becomes brittle and tranfpa-
rent; however, .the Chinefe do not confider the ou-
poey-tfe, notwithftanding their refemblance to elm-
bladders, as excrefcences of the tree yen-fou-tfe, upon
which they are found. They are perfuaded, that in¬
fers produce a kind of wax, and conftruct for them-
felves on the branches and leaves of this tree (the fap
of which is proper for their nourifhrnent) little re¬
treats, where they may wait for the time of their me-
tamorphofi#, or at leaft depofit in fafety their eggs,
which compofe that fine duft with which the ou-poey-
tfe are filled. Some of the ou-poey-tfe are as lar^-e as
one’s fill ; but thefe are rare, and are generally pro¬
duced by a worm of extraordinary ftrength, or which
has afibciated with another, as two filk-worms are
fometimes feen flint up in the fame ball. The fmalleft
ou-poey-tfe are of the fize of a chefnut; the greater
part of them are round and oblong ; but they feldom
referable one another entirely in their exterior confi¬
guration. At firft, they are of a dark green colour,
which afterwards changes to yellow; and the hufka
though pretty firm, becomes then very brittle.
The Chinefe peafants colleft thefe ou-poey-tfe be¬
fore the firft hoar-frofts. They take care to kill the
worm inclofed in the huflcs, and to expofe them for
fome time to the fteam of boiling water. Without
this precaution, the worm might foon break through
its weak prifon, which would immediately burft and
be ufelefs. The ou-poey-tfe are ufed at Pekin for •
giving paper a durable and deep-black colour ; in the
provinces ef Kiang-nan and Tche-kiang, where a great
deal of beautiful lattin is made, they are employed for
dyeing the filk before it is put on the loom. The
Chinefe literati alfo blacken their beards with them,
when they become white.
The medicinal properties of the ou-poey-tfe are very
numerous. The Chinefe phyficians introduce them
into the compolition of many of their remedies. They
recommend them for flopping bloodings of every kind;
they confider them as an -excellent fpecific for curing
inflammations and ulcers, and for counteracting the
effeCts of poifon ; and they employ them with fuc¬
cefs in the dropfy, phthifis, epilepfy, catarrhs, fick-
nefs, fluxions of the eyes and ears, and in many other
diforders.
Greater OUSE, a river which rifes near Fitwell in
Oxfordfhire, and proceeds to Buckingham, Stony. Strat¬
ford, and Newport-Pagnel, in Buckinghamffiire; from
thence it proceeds to Bedford, and turning north-eaft it
paffes on to Huntingdon and Ely, till at length it ar¬
rives at Lynn-Regis in Norfolk, and falls into the fea.
It is navigable to fome diftance above Downham, where
there is a good harbour for barges; and a confiderable
trade is carried on by it to Lynn and other towns.
Smaller Ouse, rifes in Suffolk, and, feparating that
county from Norfolk on the fouth-weft, difcharges
itfelf into the Great Oufe near Downham. There is
Hill another of the fame name which rifes in the weft-
t aoxtb»
'Wonmnto
'Krui'
W&fwe/t/iSsr/Z’s/y/Actj//
>/*t
mon /A>si m--.
OVIS
^ Plate CCCLXX
OV1S.
riate CCCT^XL
"a /ft
v/'tr//
'/e r./t art
v ft/t/f/r/t r ///rtyt
tt/at/t/t
't ///.//sr //
^y/./j,-//.6/)ytn /'■/<//>/<>}•/?<•{/■
s
\
\
t
\
1
\
*
OUT
Outlawry,
Oufter notth-weft fide of York (hire j and chiefly running to
the fouth-eaft, at length falls into the Humber.
OUSTER, or Dispossession, in law, an injury
which carries with it the amotion of pofieffion; for
by means of it the wrong doer gets into the aftual
pofieffion of the land or hereditament, and obliges him
that hath a right to feek a legal remedy, in order to
gain pofieffion, together with damages. This oufter
may either be of the freehold by abatement, intru-
fion, difieifin, difcontinuance, and deforcement; or of
chattels real, as an efiate by ftatuie-merchant, ftatute-
flaple or elegir, or an eftate for vears.
Ouster le Main, amovere manum,\t\ law, denotes a li¬
very of lands out of the king’s hands ; or a judgment
given for him that traverfed, or fued, a monjlrans le
droit. When it appeared, upon the matter being dif-
cufied, that the king had no right or title to the land
feized, judgment was given in chancery, that the king’s
hand be amoved ; and oujler le main, or amoveas manum,
was therefore awarded to the efcheator, to reftore the
land, &c. All wardfhips, liveries, oujler le mains, &c.
are now taken away and difcharged by flatute 12.
Car. II.
OUSTIOUG, a town of the Ruffian empire, and
capital of a province of the fame name, with an arch-
bilhop’s fee and a caftle ; feated on the river Suchan,
over-againft the mouth of the Jug, in E. Long. 43. 25.
N. Lat. 61.48.
Oustioug, a province of the Ruffian empire, bound¬
ed on the north by Dwina, on the call by the foreil
of Zirani, on the fouth by Wologda, and on the weft
by Cargapol and Waga. It is divided into two parts
by the river Suchana; is full of forefts; and the rivers
yield plenty of fifh, which the inhabitants dry in the
fun, and which make their principal nouriihment.
OUT-fosts, in a military fenfe, a body of men
polled beyond the grand guard; called out-pojls, as be¬
ing the rounds or limits of the camp.
OUT LAW, fignifies one that is deprived of the be¬
nefit of the law, and therefore held to be out of the
king’s proteftion.
Brafton alferts, that an outlaw forfeits all he has;
and that, from the time of his outlawry, he wears a
wolf’s head ; and any body may kill him with impu¬
nity, efpecially if he defend himfelf or fly. But in
Edward III.’s time it was refolved by the judges, that
it fhould not be lawful for any man, but the fiieriff
alone (having fufficient warrant for it), to put to death
a man that was outlawed.
OUTLAWRY, the punifhment of a perfon who,
being called into law, and lawfully, according to the
tifual forms, fought, does contemptuoufly refufe to ap¬
pear.
The effeft of being outlawed at the fuit of another,
in a civil caufe, is the forfeiture of all the perfon’s
goods and chattels to the king, and the profits of
his land, while the outlawry remains in force. If in
treafon or felony, all the lands and tenements which
he has in fee, or for life, and all his goods and chattels,
are alfo forfeited : and befides, the law interprets his
abfence as a fufficient evidence of guilt; and without
requiring farther proof, accounts the perfon guilty of
the -fadt, on which enfues corruption of blood, &c.
And then, according to Brafton, he may perifh with¬
out law, &c. However, to avoid inhumanity, no man
rs intitled to kill him wantonly or wilfully; but in fo
[ J71 1
OWE
doing he is guilty of murder, unlefs it happens in en¬
deavouring to apprehend him : for any body may ar-
reft an outlaw, either of his own head, or by writ ori
warrant of capias utlagatum, in order to bring him to
execution.
If after outlawry, in civil cafes, the defendant pub¬
licly appear, he is to be arrefted by a writ of capias
utlagatum, and committed till the outlawry be rever-
fed : which reverfal may be had by the defendant’s
appearing in court (and in the king’s-bench, by fend¬
ing an attorney, according to ftatute 4 and 5 W. and
M. cap. 18.), and any plaufible circumftance, how¬
ever trifling, is in general fufficient to reverfe it ; it
being confidered only as a procefs to force appear¬
ance. The defendant muft, however, pay full cofts,
and muft put the plaintiff in the fame condition as if
he Lad appeared before the writ of exigi facias was
awarded. It is appointed by magna charta, that no
freeman {hall be outlawed, but according to the law of
the land. A minor or a woman cannot be outlawed.
In Scotland outlawry anciently took place in the
cafe of refufal to fulfil a civil obligation, as well as in
criminal cafes. At prefent, however, it only takes
place in the two cafes of flying from a criminal pro-
fecution, and of appearing in court attended by too
great a number of followers. But the defender, upon
appearing at any diftance of time and offering to Hand
trial, is intitled dejure to have the outlawry reverfed,
and to be admitted to trial accordingly, and even to
bail if the offence be bailable. See Waive.
OVUM anguinum. See Anguinum.
OUTWORKS, in fortification, all thofe works
made without-iide the ditch of a fortified place, to co¬
ver and defend it. See Fortification.
OUZEL, in ornithology; a fpecks of Motacil-
la.
OWEN (Thomas), a judge of the common-
pleas, fon ot Richard Owen, Efq; of Condover in
Shropftiire, was educated at Oxford, and, as is ge- ■
nerally fuppofed, at Chrift-church college. Having
taken a degree in arts, he left the univerfity, and
entered himfelf of Lincoln’s inn in London, where
in procefs of time he became an eminent counfellor.
In 1583 he was elefted Lent-reader to that fociety. In
1590 he was made ferjeant at law, and queen’s ferjeant
foon after. He arrived at length at the dignity of
judge of the common-pleas; which office he is faid
have executed, during five years, with great abilities
and integrity. He died in 1 ^98 ; and was buried on
the louth fide of the choir in Weftminfter abbey, where
a monument was erebted to his memory. He had the
reputation of a learned man, and a patron of literature.
He was the author of “ Reports in the common pleas,
wherein are many choice cafes, moft of them thorough¬
ly argued by the learned ferjeants, and after argued
and refolved by the grave judges of thofe times, with
many cafes wherein the difference of the year-books
are reconciled and explained.” Lond. 1656, folio.
Owen (Dr John), an eminent and learned diffent-
ing minifttr, was born in 1616, at Hadham, in Ox-
fordfhire, of which place his father was vicar. He
made fuch furprafing proficiency in learning, that at
twelve years of age he was admitted into Queen’s-
coliege, Oxford, and in 1635 was raade mafter of arts:
but loon after, difapproving the new regulations made
by Archbifhop Laud their chancellor, with which he
4 C 3 refufed
Ovum
Owen.
OWE I 57
refufed to comply, he was obliged, in 1637, to k-aye
the univerfity; when, taking otders, he became chaplain
to Sir Robert Dormer of Afoot in Oxford (hire, and
was at the fame time tutor to his eldeft fon. He was
afterwards chaplain to John Lord Lovelace of Hurley-
in Berklhire ; when the civil war broke out, he
openly avowed the caufe of the parliament ; which
was fo refen ted by an uncle, who had intended ta
leave him his edate, that he difearded him, and left
it to another. Yet though Lord Lovelace fided with
the king, he treated ius chaplain with great civility :
but on his going to join the royal army, Mr Owen,
went to London, and foon after joined the nomcon-
formifts In 1643 he publifeed his book, intitled, vi
D'lfplcn of sirmlnlm'fm> winch laid the foundation of
hia future advancement: for the committee for purging
the church of fcandalous minifters were fo pleaded with
it, that Mr White their chairman fent him a prefen-
tation of the living of 1‘ovdham in Eftex : but when
he had been there about a year and a half, the patron
hearing that the fcqueilered incumbent was dead, pre-
fented another to the living ; upon which the earl of
Warwick gave Mr Owen the living ot Coggeilnu. He
had not, however, been long at that town before he
left the Prefbyterians ; and, joining the Independents,
formed a church there. He was now fent for fevcral
times to preach before the parliament; and among the
reft on the 28th of February 1648-9, the day of hu-
inili.ition for the intended expedition to Ireland. Crom¬
well, who was prefent at this laft difeourfe, and had
never heard him before, was extremely pieafed with it,
and dtfired his company into Ireland, and that he would
vtfide in the college of Dublin. This he did; but re¬
turned in about half a year. Soon alter Cromwell fsnt
liim into Scotland ; but he alfo returned from thence
after about half a year’s flay at Edinburgh. He was
then promoted to the deanery of Chrtft-church, Ox¬
ford,. whither he went in 1651 ; and Cromwell, being
now chancellor of the univerfity, nominated him his
vice-chancellor. Ehe next year he was created doctor
of divinity by diploma. Dr Owen enjoyed the poft
of vice chancellor five years; during which he behaved
with the greateft moderation : for, though often fcli-
cited, he never molefted the meeting of the royahlls
at the houfe of Dr Willis the phyficiaa, where divine
ferv ice was performed according to the liturgy of toe
church of England ; and though he was a commifiion-
er for ejecting fcandalous minilters, he frequently over¬
ruled his brethren in favour of thofe royalifts who were
diftinguiflied by their merit. At the death of Crom¬
well, he was removed from the vice-chanicedorllup ;
and at the Reftoration was ejeffed from his deanery of
Cnrift-church. But he had provided himfeif a com¬
fortable retreat at an ettate he had purchafed at Had-
ham. He now employed himfeif in preaching as oft-
as he had an opportunity, and in writing books;
one of which, int tled Fiat Lux, falling into the hands
of Lord Clarendon, he was fo pieafed with it, or (as
is faid) from policy pretended to. be fo, that he fent
for Dr Owen, and acknowledging the fervice he had
done by it to the Proteftant religion, offered to prefer
him in the church if he would contorm ; but he de-
ftred to be excufed.—His moderation drew him refpebt
from perfons of oppofke principles ; and in the num¬
ber of his friends were Dr Wilkins biilmp of Chelier,
2 1 O W H
and Dr Bavlcw bifhop of London. He died at Eal- OwKyhee.
ing in 1683. His works are printed in feven volumes ——~v——J
folio.
Wood, after cenfuring him in many refpeifts, fays
neverthekfs, that, “ to fpeak impartially, he was a
perfon well flailed in the tongues, Rabbinical learning,
and Jewifh rites and cuftoms; that he had a great
command of his Englifh pen, and was one of the gen-
teeleft and faireft -miters who have appeared again ft
the church of England.”
OWHYHEE, the e flernmoft, and by far the lar¬
ged, of the Sandwich iflands. Its greateft length from
north to fouth is 285 leagues, its breadth 24, and
its circumference-nearly 300 Englifh miles. It is di¬
vided into fix large didrnfts; two of which @n the north-
call fide are feparated by a mountain, that rifes in
three peaks, which is perpetually covered with fnow,
and may be feen clearly at 40 leagues diftance. To
the north of this mountain, the coad confids of high
and deep cliffs, down which fall many beautiful caf-
caeies of water. The whole country is covered with
cocoa-nut and bread-fruit-trees. i he peaks of the
mountain on the noith-ead fide appear to be about
half a mile in height, and entirely covered with fnow.
To the fouth of this mountain, the ccail prefents a
pvofpedf of the mod dreary kind, the whole country-
appearing to have undergone a total change by means
ot fome dreadful convulfion. The ground is every¬
where covered with cinders, and interfered in many
places with black breaks, which ieem to mark the
courfe of a lava that has flowed not many ages fince
from the mountain to the fhore. The fouthern pro¬
montory looks like the mere dregs of a volcano. The
projecting headland is compofed of broken and craggy
rocks, piled irregularly upon one another, and termi¬
nating in {harp points ; yet, amidfl thefe ruins, there
are many pieces of rich foil, which are carefully laid
out in plantations, and the neighbouring fea affords a
vail variety of excellent fifh : fo that this quarter is
much better inhabited than thofe which are more ver¬
dant. The fields are inclofed with done fences, and
are interfperied with groves of cocoa nut trees. We
are told indeed by fome of Cook’s people who walked
through a confiderable part of it, that they did not
obferve a fpot of ground that was fufceptible of im¬
provement left unpLnted ; and indeed the country,
from their account, could fcarcely be cultivated to
greater advantage tor the purpofes of the natives.
They were furprifed at feeing feveral fields of hay;
and upon their inquiry, to what particular ufe it was
applied, they were informed, that it was intended to
cover the grounds where the young taro grew, in or¬
der to preferve them from being fcorched by the rays
of the fun. They obferved among the plantations a
few huts fcattered about which afforded occafionai
flicker to the labourers ; but they did not fee any vil¬
lages at a greater didaoee from the fea than four or
five miles. Near one of them, which was fitu.ted
about four miles from the bay, they difeovered a cave,
forty fathoms in length, three in breadth, and of the
fame height It was open at each end ^ its iides were
fluted, as if wrought with a chiftl; and the furtace
was glazed over, perhaps by theadfion of fire. 1 here
are fuppofed to be on this ifland about 150, co inha¬
bitants. So long as the name of Captain Cook fhall
ts
a w h
[ 573 ]
O W H
Cw’-ylies* be rfmcmbereti, this 'Hand will not be forgotten ; for
he here fell a viaim to a ftrange concatenation of
events. See Cook.
We have the following account of the inhabitants
of this iftand in Ellis’s Authentic Narrative, &c.
*< g he xntn are above the middle fize, ftout, well
made, and flefhy, but not fat. Corpulency is not al¬
together fo great a m rk of dillinftion in thefe as m
the Society iflea ; and tallnefs, for which the Otahei-
teans have great partiality, is rdfo overlooked. ' heir
colour is in general brown olive. The women are in
general mafculine, though there are tome delicately
made, and the voice of them all is foft and feminine.
rI be hair both of the head and beard is black ; that
of the head the men wear in the foim of a helmet,
that is, a long frizzled lidge from the forehead to the
neck, the iides being much fhorter. This tafhion leems
to prevail only among the principal people, that of the
inferior fort being of an equal length in eveiy p?i t.
Mott of them were very defirous of parting with their
beards, which, they faid, were difagreeable and trou-
blefome, and were fond of being fhaved by our people.
Some of the priells wore their beards long, and would
not on any account part with them. I he women w ear
their hair long before, but very fhort behind, which is
not the mod becoming mode ; and, Lke thoie of the
Friendly liles, they have a way of rendering it of dif¬
ferent colours red, yellow, and brown. The features
of both fexes are good, and we faw fome of the fe¬
males who might really be called fine women. Then
teet i ate even and perfectly white. In general, they
feem to be veiy healthy, and we obferved ieveial who
appeared to be of great age. As to difeafes, we faw
none who laboured under any during our ftay except
the venereal complaint; coughs and colds indeed were
pretty general, and one man died. From what we
could le irn of his diforder from the natives, it was a
violent griping or colic.
“ Both men and women appeared to be of a good
difpofition, and behaved to each other with the ten¬
dered regard : when they did fall out, which fome-
times was the cafe, occafioned by the upfettrng of a
canoe, or fome fueh trifling accident, they only fcobl-
ed a little, and this was fpon over and forgotten. We
never faw them ftr'ke each other upon any occafion.
They are all thieves, Irom the aree to the towtow,
but not quite fo expert at it as our Otaheitce friends.
The cuftona of tattowing prevails gieatly among
thefe people, but the men have a much larger fhare of
it than the women: many (particularly fome of the
natives of Mow'w hee) have one half their body, from
head to loot, marked in this manner, which gives them
a molt ftriking appearance, it is done with great re¬
gularity and looks remarkably neat : fome have only
an arm marked in this manner, others a leg ; fome
again have both arm and leg, and others only the hand.
'The women are the molt part maiked upon the hand,
and fome upon the tip of their tongue ; but of thefe
we favv but few. Both fexes have a particular mark
according to the diltridt in which they live ; or it is
rather the mark of the aree, or principal man, under
whofe juriididion they more immediately are. We
never iaw the operation of tattowing performed, nor
ceuld we procure a fight of the inftruments ufed upon
this occafion ; but it is likely they are much the fame Ovyhy!;^
as thofe of the Friendly and Society Ifles. _ t v T
“ Both men and women are very cleanly in their
perfons; the latter wafh their whole bodies in frefn
w.iter twice end fometimes three times a-day ; but the
women of Otaheitee have the advantage of them in one
point of cleanlinefs, which is eradicating the hairs
from under the arm-pits. This is a cuftom we ol>-
ferved nowhere but at the Society Ifies.
“ There are no people in the world who indulge
themfelve# more in their fenfual appetite than thefe :
in fad, they carry it to a molt icandalous and fhame-
ful degree, and in a manner not proper to be men¬
tioned. The ladies are very lavifh of their favours ;
but are far from being fo mercenary ns thofe of the
Friendly or Society liles, and fome of their attach¬
ments feemed purely the effed of affedion. They are
initiated into this way of life at a very early period;
we faw fome who could not be more than ten years
old. _ t ^
“ Their clothing confifts of cloth of different kinds:
that worn by the men, which is called rnarro, is about
half a yard wide, and four yards long; that of the wo¬
men, three quarters of a yard wide, and of the fame
length as the mens : this they call pah-douiva; they
both wear it round their middle, but the men pafs it
between their legs. This is the general drefs of both-
fexes ; but the better fort fometimes throw a large
piece looffly over their fbouklers. Befides the marro*
they have feveral other kinds of cloth, whica derive
their names either from the different ufes they are ap¬
plied to, or their different texture and pattern ; all,
however, as far as we could learn, are made from the
Chincfe paper mulberry tree. The principal of thefe
is the cappa, which is about i© or 12 feet long, and
nearly as many wide, and is thick and warm ; they
wrap themfelves up in this when they retire to deep-
They have another kind, which is white, and much
thinner ; this, as has been before ofcferved, they throw
loofely over their fhouldevs -r it is fometimes 20 or 30
yards long, and wide in proportion. The marro and
pah-o ouwa are ctnioufly painted of various patterns,
but the others are generally white, or dyed red, black,
and yellow.
“ The principal ornaments of the men are the
feather-caps and cloaks; fome of the latter reach down,
to their heels, and have a molt magnificent appear¬
ance. They are made for the mod part of red and
yellow feathers, which are tied upon fine net-work.
The caps arc compofed of the fame kind of feathers,
which are fometimes intermixed with black ; they are
fecured upon a kind of baiket-work, made in the form
of a helmet. Both caps and cloaks are made of va¬
rious patterns and fiz.es. The cloaks are not all co:#>
pofed of the fame kind of feathers, but are fometimes
varied with the long tail-feathers of the cock, with a
border of yellow or red, and fometimes with thofe of
the tropic bird. Both caps and cloaks, however, are
only t© be feen in the poffeilion of the principal people.
They have alfo a kmd ot fly-flap, made of a bunch of
feathers fixed to the end of a thin piece of fmooth.
and polifhed wood : they are generally made of the
tail-feathers of the cock, but the better fort of people
h?,ve them of the tropic birds feathers, or thofe belong-
iag
OWL [ 574 1
Owhyhec ing to a black an-.l yellow bird called mabo'. The Geo. II,
Owllng' handle Is very ^quently made of one of the bones of
< the arm or leg °f tbofe whom they .have killed in
battle, curioufly inlaid with tortoife-lhell: thefe they
deem very valuable, and will not part with them un¬
der a great price. 1 hia ornament is common to the
fuperiors of both fexes.
“ The women too have their (hare in the ornamen¬
tal way : that which they value moil is the orai. This
is a kind of ruff'or necklace, made of red, green, black,
and yellow feathers, curioufly put together, and in
mod elegant patterns, which really do honour to the
fancy of the ladies, whofe bufinefs it is to make them.
They never think themfelves drefied without one or
two of thefe round their necks, and thofe who can
afford it wear many. Others again are compofed of
fmall variegated (hells,difpofed in a very neat manner;
and fome conflff of feveral rows of twifted hair, with
a piece of carved wood or bone, highly poliflied, the
bottom part forming a curve. The higher the qua¬
lity of the wearer, the greater is the fize of the wood
or bone, and the quantity of the twifted hair. The
next thing is the poo-remah or bracelet; the mod va¬
luable are made of boar’s tulks fattened together fide
by fide with a piece of firing, by means of a' hole drill¬
ed through the middle; the larger the tuflcs, the great¬
er the value. Sometimes two (hells tied round the
wrifts with twifted or braided hair, ferve the purpofe of
bracelets; but even in this cafe they (how great nice¬
ty, being particularly careful to match them as near as
poflible. They were prodigioufly fond of thofe we
gave them, which were only a few beads, fecured by
thread upon a drip of fcarlet cloth, aad made to but¬
ton round the wrift. So much did they at firft value
them, that a fmall hatchet and one of thefe would pur-
ehafe a hog, which without it could not have been
bought for three large hatchets. The women were
perpetually teazing the men to difpofe of their various
articles for thefe bracelets ; at lead one of them was
always to make apart of the price.” W. Long. 136. o.
S. Lat. 19 28.
OWL, in ornithology. See Strix.
OWLING, fo called from its being ufually carried
on in the night, is the offence of tranfpoiting wool or
(beep out of this kingdom, to the detriment of its ftaple
iranufafture. This was forbidden at common law,
and more particularly by ftatute 11 Edw. III. c. 1.
when the importance of our woollen manufacture was
firtt attended to ; and there are now many later ita-
tutes relating to this offence, the mod ufeful and prin¬
cipal of which are thofe enaded in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, and fince. The ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 3. makes
the tranfportation of live (heep, or embarking them on
l o rd any drip, for the firft offence forfeiture of goods,
and imprifonment for a year, and that at the end of
the year the left hand (hall be cut off in fome public
market, and ‘(hall be there nailed up in the opened
place ; and the fecond offence is felony. The ftatutes
O X
19 Geo. IE.
F
12 Car. II. c. 32. and 7 & 8 Will. 111. c. 28. make
the exportation of wool, (heep, or fuller’s earth, liable
to pecuniary penalties, and the forfeiture of the inte-
rell of the (hip and cargo by the owners, if privy ; and
eonfifeation of goods, and three years imprifonment to
’the mailer and all the mariners. And the ftatute 4
Geo. I. c. 11. (amended and farther enforced by 12
t r . C' 3 r 19 Ge°' ir' c' 34-)» makes it Oscatf*
uanfportation for feven years, if the penalties be not °xfor4
paid.
OXALIS, woodsorrei,: A genua of the penta-
gyina order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and m the natural method ranking under the 14th or¬
der, Gruma/es. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the petals
connected at the heels ; the capfule pentagonal, and
opening' at the angles. There are feven fpecies; of
which the only remarkable is the acetofella, or common
woodforrel. This grows naturally in moift Ihady woods,
and at the fides of hedges in many parts of Britain, and
is out feldom admitted into gardens. The roots are
compofed of many (ca.ly joints, which propagate in
great plenty. I he leaves arile immediately from the
roots upon fingle long foot-llalks, and are compofed
of three heart-draped lobes. They are gratefully
acid, and of ufe in the fcurvy and other putrid dif-
orders.
. GaI ORA, the capital of a county of the fame name
in England, celebrated for its univerfity, and pleafant-
ly fituated in a-plain, with a fine fruitful country all
around, ffhe cornpofition of the name is obvious. In
the Britiffr times itfeems to have been a place ofiludy.
“ Thf wifdom of our anceftors (fays Camden), as ap¬
pears in our hiftory, confecrated even in the Britiih
times this city to the mufes, tranflating them from
Greeklade (now a fmall town in Wilts) hither, as to
a more fruitful nurfery. For Alexander Necham * * De Ara~
writes, ‘ Italy claims fuperior knowledge of civil law ;tura Rerum,
but the fhrdy of divinity and the liberal arts prove,
that the univerfity of Paris defervcs the preference of
all others. Agreeable alfo to Merlin’s prophecy, Wif¬
dom has flourilhed at the Ford of Oxen, and will in its
due time pals over alfo into Ireland.’ But in the fol¬
lowing Saxon age, when fo many critics were deftroy-
ed, it underwent the common fate, and for a long
while was famous only for the relicks of Fridefwide,
who was ranked among the faints for her holy life*
merely becaufe (he had folemnjy devoted herfelf to
God ; and prince Algar, foliciting her in marriage,
was imraculoufly, as they fay, deprived of his eve-
fight.”
Perhaps the followingadditional extradl from Cam-
den. will be more to the purpofe in developing the
ancient (late of learning in this city, than any thing
which we could bring forward of our own. “ When
tiie dorm of the Danffh war was over, the mod reli¬
gious pi ince Alfred* reftored their retreats to the long-*A. D. 88J.
exiled mules, by founding three colleges, one for
grammarians, another for philofophy, and a third for
divinity. 1 his will be more fully explained by the fol¬
lowing paffage in the old annals of the New Monaftery
at Winchefter. ‘ In the year of our Lord 806, the
fecond year of the arrival of St Grimbald in England,
the univerfity of Oxford was begun ; the firtt3 who "
prefided and read divinity ledlures in it being St Neoth,
an abbot and able divine ; and St Grimbald, a moil
eminent proftffor of the incomparable fweetnefs of the
(acred pages; After the monk, an excellent fcholar,
profefling grammar and rhetoric ; John monk of the
church of St David giving lectures in logic, mafic,
and arithmetic ; and John the monk, colleague of St
Grimbald, a man of great parts, and a univerfal fcho-
lar, teaching geometry and altronomy before the mod
glo-
o X F t 1 o X F
Oxford, glorious ami invincible King Alfred, wbofe memoiry
will dwell like honey in the months of al!.” Soon a*-
ter, as we find in an excellent MS. of the faid Afier,
who was at that time profelfor here, ‘ broke out a
fiiarp and fatal quan-el between Grymbold and thofe
very learned men whom he had brought thither with
him, and the old fcliolars whom he found there ; who,
on his coming, unanimoufiy refufed to receive the
rules, methods, and forms of lefturing, that Grymbold
introduced. Three years had puffed without any great
difference between them; but the fecret averfion after¬
wards broke out with the utmoft violence. In order
to quell it, the invincible King Alfred, as foon as he
heard of it by the meffages and complaints from Grym¬
bold, went in perfon to Oxford to put an end to the
difpute, and he took the greateft pains to hear the
caufes and complaints on both fides. The foundation
of the difference was this: The old fcholars maintain¬
ed, that before Grymbold came to Oxford learning
had flourifhed there, though the fcholars at that time
were fewer than in more ancient times, the greater
part being driven out by the cruelty and oppreffion of
the Pagans. They alfo proved and fliowed, and that
by the undoubted ceftimony of ancient chronicles, that
the ordinances and regulations of the place were efla-
blifhed by certain religious and learned men, fuch as
Gildas, Melkinus, Ninnius, Kentigern, and others,
wha had all lived to a good old age in thefe fludies,
having fettled matters there in peace and harmony ;
and alfo that St Germanus came to Oxford, and flaid
there half a year in his journey over Britain to preach
againft the Pelagian herefies, and wonderfully approved
their plan and intUtution. The king, with unheard-
of condefcenfion, gave both parties attentive hearing,
and repeated his pious and feafonable advice to main¬
tain mutual union and concord, and left them with the
profpedl that both parties would follow his advice and
embrace his inflitutions. But Grymbold, offended at
this proceeding, immediately retired to the monaftery
at Winchefter lately founded by King Alfred. He
alfo caufed his tomb to be removed to Winchefter, in
which he had intended to lay his bones when hia
courfe of life was ended, in the vault under the chan-
eel of St Peter’s church at Oxford, which church him-
lelf had built from the ground of ftone polilhed in the
moil coftly manner.’
“ This happy reftoration of learning was followed
-in a few years by various calamities. The Danes in
the reign of Edward plundered and burnt the place ;
and loon after Harold Harefoot pradfifed the moft in¬
human barbarities here in revenge for fome of his men
who were killed in an affray ; fo that the moft melan¬
choly remove of the Undents enfued, and the univer-
fity remained almoft extindf, a lamentable fpedtacle till
the time of William the Norman. Some have falfely
fuppofed this prince took the city, milled by a wrong
reading in fome copies of Oxonia for Exonia. At that
time, however, it was the feat of an univerfity, as we
learn from thefe words of Ingulphus, who lived at that
time. ‘ 1 Ingulphus fettled firft at Weftminfter, v>as
afterwards lent to ftudy at Oxford, having made great¬
er proficiency than many of my own age in Ariftotle,
&c.’ What we call an univttrfity, they in that age
called aJhuiy.” Many are of opinion that it was de-
Krted till about the year 1129, and that this defertion
was in confequence of its having been befieged and Oxford,
taken by William the Conqueror. About this year,‘
however, Robert Pulen began to read le&ures in divi¬
nity, or (as it is exprefied in the chronicle of Ofeney
abbey) the Ploly Scriptures, which had fallen into ne-
gleft in England ; and fuch was the refort of Undents
to it, that in the reign of King John there were not
fewer than 3000. R®bert d’Oily, a Norman, to whom
William the Conqueroi had given the greateft part of
it, built a caftle on the weft fide in foyi ; and he is
alfo fuppofed to have furrounded it with walls. In a
palace built by Henry 1. was born Richard I. com¬
monly called Cccur de Lion. About the tenth of King
John, there happened a quarrel between the citizens
and ftudents; in confequence of which many of tha
latter quitted it, but returned again a few years after¬
wards. Here Henry III. held a parliament to fettle
the differences betwixt him and his barons ; when he
confirmed the privileges granted to the univerfity by
his predeceffors, and added others of his own. In this
reign the ftudents are faid to have been 30,000, who
were all excommunicated by the pope for fome rude-
nefs to his legate. In the time of Duns Scotus, we
are told that 30,000 fchelars attended his lectures.
Matthew Paris ftyles the univerfity of Oxford, ‘ the
fecond fchool of the church after Paris, and the very,
foundation of the church.’ The popes had before
this honoured it with the title of Univerjity, which
they had conferred by their decrees on no other but
that of Paris, this of Oxford, and thofe of Bologna
and Salamanca. It was decreed in the council of Vi¬
enne, that ‘ fchools for the ftudy of the Hebrew, A-
rabic, and Chaldee languages, ihould be ere&ed in the
ftudies of Paris, Oxford, Bologna, and Salamanca (as
the moft confiderable), that the knowledge of thefe
languages might prevail by their being thus taught;
and that Catholic perfons be chofen, fufficiently verfed
therein, two in each language. For thofe in Oxford,,
the bilhops, monafteries, chapters, convents, colleges,
exempt and not exempt; and the re&ors of churches
throughout England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, were
to provide a competent maintenance.” In Edw. IJI.’s
time, the fcholars were fplit into two faftions, call¬
ed the northern and fouthern men; a divifion which was
attended with many diforders and much violence*, but in
a ftrort time concord and harmony again prevailed.
As colleges began about this time to be founded
and endowed, we ftiall here prefent our readers with
a lift ol them, together with the time when, and the
perfons by whom, they were founded.
Colleges.
Univerfi y.
Baiiol.
Merton.
Oriel.
Exeter.
g)ueen«.
New College.
Lincoln.
All-Souls.
Magdalen.
Brazen-Nofe.
Kinsr Alfred.
Founders.
Kings reigns.
Alfred.
^ Henry
III.
^ Sir p hn Balioi, father to the king
\ of Scots.
S Walter Merton, lord chancellor?-,, ..
I and b iff op uf Rochefter. $ Edward L
Edward II. Edw. IT.
Walter Stapleton, biffop. Edw. II.
x Robert, Eglesfield, li. Edw. Ilf.
< William of Wickham, hifhop of?
I Winchefter, lord chancellor. ^
f Richard Fleming, bifliop of Lin ? „ ...
I coin. 5 Henry VL
C Hugh Chicheley, archbifhop of> rJ
£ Canterbury. ^ Henry ^ L
5 William Wainfieet, bifiiop of Win-? TT
1 chefter, lord chancellor. 5 Henry
V William Smith, bifhop of Lincoln.
I and Richard Sutton, E%
Edw. 111.
’ VL
Hen.VlIL
l
o X F [57
f>x?ot'3. Colhget. founders. Kinys reigns.
 ^ ' Corpus-Chrifti. 5 ^ ^ °/ f^nche-J Hetl.vm.
^ iter, an 1 lord (Hiyy leal. >
Chrift.Church. |He^7 VIIL *nd CardinalWol-|Hen.VIII.
Trinity. Sir, Thomas Pope. Mary.
St John Baptift.5Sir^;a$Wilile> nicrchant cf| Mary.
Tcfus. Queen Elizabetli Elizabeth.
Wadh.ni. Nicho'as and fJorothy Wadham. James 1.
•,> 1 , CThomas Tiflale, Rfq; and Dr7 rnr„.c 1
Tembrnke. J Richard Whitwick. 5 James L
Wrrceiler was called Ghuccfler-hall till lately, that it was en¬
dowed by Sir Thomas Coke, and made collegiate.
Hartford was H.irt-htdl till 1740, that it was erected into a col
lege by Dr Richard Newton.
All thefe are richly endowed, and have fine gardens,
libraries, chapels, &c. The halls in which the {In¬
dents maintain themfelves, except a few that have ex¬
hibitions,are thefe: StEdmnnd’s,belonging to Queen’s
college ; Magdalen, to Magdalen college; St Al¬
ban’s to Merton ; St Mary’s, to Oriel; New-lnn, to
New-college. Several perfons have been great bene¬
factors to particular colleges, as Dr Ratcliffe to Uni-
verfity college ; Colonel Codrington and Dr Clarke,
to All-fouls ; Queen Caroline, to Queen’s ; the before-
mentioned Dr Clarke and Mrs Eaton, to Worcefter;
Dr Wake, archbifhop of Canterbury, to Chrift-chuch.
The mof): confiderable of thefe colleges are Magdalen’s
and Chrift church, which are as noble foundations as
any in the world. The church of the latter is the ca¬
thedral, and has a dean, eight canons, eight chaplains,
eight finging men, eight chorifters, a teacher of ma¬
fic, and an organift Each of the colleges has its vi-
ftor appointed by its ftatutes, except Chrift-church,
which is fubjeft to the vifitation of the Sovereign alone.
The other remarkable buildings belonging to the uni-
verfity are, firft, the public f hocls; fecondly, the Bod¬
leian or public library ; thirdly, Ratciiffe’s library, a
moll elegant ilruflure, for building and furnifiling
which, Dr Ratcliffe left 40 oool ; fourthly, the theatre,
built by Sheldon, archbifhop of Canterbury ; fifthly,
the” mufeum in which is an elav oratory and a repofi-
tory for natural and artificial rarities and antiquities ;
fxthiy, the Clarendon printing-houfe, fo called, be-
caufe it was built partly with the money arifing to
the univerfity by the fale of Lord C larendon’s hiitory.
To the fouth of Magdalen college lies the phyfic gar¬
den, tnflituted by the Earl of Dauby, and much im¬
proved by Dr Sherrard. It contains five acres, in
' which is a complete feries of fuch plants as grow natu¬
rally, difpofed in their refpcfiive claffes ; together with
two neat and convenient green-houfes, flocked with a
valuable colle&ion of exotics, and a hot-houfe, where
various plants 1 rought from the warmer climates are
raifed. The whole body of the univerfity, including
profeffors, fellows, and fludents of all forts, exceeds
3000. Each college has its particular ftatutes and
rules for goyernment. There are four terms in the
year for public exercifes, &c. and particular days and
hours for public lectures by the feveral profeffors The
r.niverfity is governed by a chancellor, high fteward,
vice-chancellor, two proctors, a public orator (fee Pu¬
blic Orator) ; a keeper of the archives, a regifter,
three efquire-beadles, and three yeomen-beadles. As
to the city, it has had the fame privileges granted to
it as London, particularly an exemption horn toll all
over England. It was made an epifcopal fee in 1541,
N° 255.
6 ] O X U
when Robert King, the la ft abbot of Ofeney, was
eledted Bifhop. It is governed by a mayor, high-ftew-
ard, recorder, four aldermen, eight afliftants, two
bailiff?, a town-clerk, two chamberlains, all that  
have borne the office of bailiff' and chamberlain, and
twenty-four common-council men : but thefe are fub-
je<St to the chancellor or vice-chancellor of the uni¬
verfity in all affairs of moment; and not only the may¬
or, but the principal citizens, and fheriff of the coun¬
ty, take an oath to maintain the privileges of the uni¬
verfity. The city, including the colleges, is a place of
confiderable magnitude, having 13 parifh-churches,
befides the cathedral, well built, dean, and regular.
At the entrance of the town from the Woodflock and
Banbury roads, a neat hofpital hath been lately eredl-
ed by the truftees of Dr Ratcliffe’s benefadlion, out
of the furplus money remaining after defraying the
expence of his library. The male line of the family of
Vere, to whom the city had given the title of earl for
too years, failing in Aubrey de Vere, who was twen¬
tieth earl. Queen Anne conferred the title upon Robert
Harley, a defcendaat of the Veres, in whofe family it
flill coatinues. The chief tra 'e of the city is in malt,
conveyed in barges to London It is impcflible, in the
narrow bounds necefLrily preferibed to this article, to'
give fo particular an account of this celebrated place
as its importance demands : but we fhall refer our
leaders to the article Universitv, when this femi-
nary, amongft other*, fhali be more particularly de-
feribed.
OXFORDSHIRE, which made part of the teni-
tory of the ancient Dobunl, a county of England,
bounded on the weft by Glouceflerfhire ; cn the fouth,
where it is broadeft, the river Ifis divides it from Berk-
ftr re ; on the eaft, it is bounded by Buckinghamfhire 5
and on the north, where it terminates in a narrow
point, it lias on the one fi le Northamptonfhire, and
on the other Warwickfhire. It extends 50 miles from
north to fouth, and 35 from eaft to weft, making
about 130 in circumference: within which are con¬
tained one city, 15 market-towns, 280 parifhes, 14
hundreds, 534,000 acres, and about 120,000 fouls.
The air is fweet and pleafant, and the foil rich and
fertile. The lower parts confift of meadows and corn¬
fields, and the higher were covered with woods till the
civil wars; in which they were fo entirely deftroyed,
that wood is now extremely fcarce and dear, except in
what is called the chiltern, and fo is coal; of confe-
quence fuel bears an exorbitant price. The county is
extremely well watered ; for befides the Ifis, Tame,
Cherwell, Evenlode, and Windrufh, there is a great
number of leffer rivers and brooks. One of the four
great Roman ways paffes quite thro’ this county, enter¬
ing at the parifh of Chinner, and going out at that of
Goring. There is another Idler one, that extends be¬
tween Colnhrook and Wallinford, called Gremtfdike. The
county fends nine members to parliament, viz. two for
the fhire, two for the city, two for the univerfity, two
for new Woodflock, and one for Banbury.
OXGANG, or Oxgate, is generally taken, in our
old law-books, for 15 acres, or as much ground as a
fingle ox can plough in a year.
OXUCLJE, in natural hiftory, the name of a ge¬
nus of foffils of the clafs of Elen fa:, but of the colum¬
nar, not the rhomboidal, kind. Of this genus there are
8 only
Oxfurd.
fbi e
11 ;
OxtlC :F,
<5 xus
Qxyd.
O X Y r 577 1 O X Y
only two known fpedep: t. A fine k*nd w'th tHn
fl keg and trMnfvfrfe fi'aments> to nd in the clayey
banks of the river Nen, near Peterborough in North-
amptc (hire and, 2. A dull kiti ! with thick pl tes
and longitudinal filaments. Th’s is not uncommon in
Yorkfhire, and IPs fometitnes in a yellow and fome-
time« in a blue (lay.
OXUS, or Jhiun, a larpe river of Afn, much
taken notice of n ncient hiftories, but does not rife
in the north of India, as moil writers affirm ; for,
according to the bcft and Pteft maps made by thofe
who h ve been upon the fpot, it ran a coutfe of about
26c miles jftom the Cafpian Sea to the lake Aral,
whofe dimenfions have lately been difcovered, and
is ' ut ven lately known to the Europtans : but, as
it paffes through a defert country abounding with
fi nds, the inha' itants fo diverted its courfe, that the
•Id channel can hardly be difcoVered.
OXyCR VPE, in pharmacy, a mixture of vinegar
and water, proper to affiia. e, cool, and refreffi. The
ufual proportion is one fpoonful of vinegar to five or
fix fp' onb ls of w ter.
OXYD, is the term ufed in the new chemical no¬
menclature to exprefs a very numerous clafs of bodies
formed by the union of certain bafcs with a fmalltr
proportion of oxygene than what is neceffary for their
Convcrfion into acids. (S>.e Oxygene). The moft re-
imarkal le of thefe bo lies are what were formerly call¬
ed metallic calces, and have for their bafe fome me¬
tallic fubftaw e. It is in this ftate that metals are con¬
tained in their ores, froi. which they are extradled,
and converted into the reguline or metallic form, by
tbe procefs called redutt'ion. Metals are converted in¬
to oxy ’s ' y com1 utlion, and by folution in acids ; and
many' of them affume this form from tht aftion of the
atn cfohere alone, but more readily when'this is af-
fiftedl y moiflure During their converfion into oxyds,
metak lofe their fplendor, and, acquiring a confider-
able increafe of 5)1 fo lute weight, put on an earthy,
pulverulent rrppearance. It has of late been fuppofed
that all earths are metallic oxy’s, and that all of them
would be capable of red 116!ion, were we pofiefled of
any body for which oxygene had a ftronger eledlive
attradHon than that by which it is kept in conjunc-
tion with the bafes of thefe fuppofed oxyds. But this
opinion, he:ng perfedtly unfupported by experiment,
cannot be admitted in a fcience which, like the die
inifiry of the piefent day, afpires to demonftration.
The term oxyd, however, is not confined to the
combinations of metals with oxygene, hut exprefles
that firlt degree of oxygenation in all bodies which,
without converting them into acids, caufes them to
approach to the nature of falts ; and of thefe there is a
prodigious variety ; as the cxyd of phcfphorus, which
is the white concrete fubftance into which that body
is converted by coiiibuftion; the oxyd of azote, or
nitious air of Dr Prielfley ; and a great many others.
Mott of the oxyds from the vegetable and animal king¬
doms have bafes compounded of different furple corn-
bull ible bodies. Thus fugar, all the gums, mucus,
and ftarch, are vegetable oxy ds ; the bafes of which
are hydro^ ene and carbonne. combined in various pro¬
portions. We find accordingly, that all thefe bodies
ate, by farther additions of oxygene, convertible into
acids; and k is probable that thefe acids differ from
VeuXlU. PartII.
each other only in the proportion of the hydrogene Oxydatios,
and carbonne in their bafes. The bafes of the animal i<->x),‘4eiie,1
oxyds are ttili more complicated ; all, or moft of them,
con fitting of various combinations of azote, phof-
phorus, hydrogene, car1 onne, and fulphur. See
Calx, Ch emistr-v, and Table of Chemical no-
MENC L -> TORE.
OXYD \TION, is a term employed by the 1 ter
chemi s to exprefs the procefs by which bodies are
converted into oxyds ; and it is allowed on ad hands
to be exactly firrular to combuftion. The nature of
this procefs h s been much deputed; and the queftion
on this fubjedf involves in itfelt great part of the con-
troverfy between tbe followers of the immortal Stahl
and the juftly celebrated L^voifier, the foufiders of
tlve phlogittic and antiphlogittic theories, which have
for fome years divided the chemical world. A view
of thk queftion, fufficiently diftin£l, may be taken
from the cafe of metals and their oxyds. Metallic
calces (oxyds fay the phlogiftians) are fimple bodies,
which, when united with phlogillon, form metals.
The prr cels of reduction confitts in expofing the ores
of metals to an intenfe heat in contact with fome
inflammable bo y, moll commonly charcoal. Du¬
ring this operation, fay they, the charcoal being in¬
flamed, parts with rtsphlogitton, which is immediately
abforbed by the calx, and a met.l is formed. La-
voifierand his followers, on the contrary', contend that
metals are fimple bodies ; but that in the ftate of
oxyds, that is, as they commonly exift in the’r ores,
they are combined with oxy'gene. But as oxygene at
a high temperature is more ftrongly attra&ed by char¬
coal than by moft met ds, during the procefs of re-
duftion the oxyd is decompounded, and the oxygene
unites with the charcoal to form carbonic acid, leaving
the regulus or metal free. On this point hinges the
preat queftion,'the decifion of which mult materially
affeft almoft every part of chemical theory. With¬
out prefuming to decide between thefe two opinions,
the former of which is (till fupported by one or two
chemifts ot the firft rank, we agree with Dr Black
in thinking that, though there ftill remain a few tafts
which have not been thoroughly explained on anti-
phlogiftic principles^ this theory is much more fimple,
and better fupported 1 y fa6ts, than any that preceded
it. It has this great advantage ever the doftrine of
Stahl, that it requires not the fup;iofition of an ar¬
bitrary body, which does not affedl our fenfes, and
of the exiftence of which we have not even a fhadow of
proof. Perhaps we may farther venture to aflert, that
though it may be extremely difficult, or even impof-
fible, to refute the phlogiftic theory, influenced as we
have all been by a ftrong prejudice in its favour; yet
had it been brought forward for the firft time, when
our knowledge had arrived at the point which it now
holds ic never would have been generally received.
See Calcination, Chemistry, Combustion, In¬
flammation.
OXYGENE, a terra adopted in the new chemical
nomenclature to exprefs the acidifying principle; from
“ acid,” and 4‘ to generate.” It is not
fe u^d naturally in a feparate ft&te, but always combined
or mixed with fome other fubftance. In its aeriform
or elaftic ftate, it is called by tbe French chemifts oxy-
venous sets) and is the fame as the di-phiodjl tea ted air of
4 D ' prieftley
•xygcne
Oyher.
o Y S [ 578
Prieflley anj Cavendifh, the empyreal air of Seheele,
the vital air and pure air of other modern chemifts.
It was called dephlogifticated by the followers of Scahl’s
dodtrine, who imagined it to be air deprived of phlo-
gifton; the epithet of empyreal was given to it by Mr
Scheele,who firll difcovered it to be the onlyconftituent
part of the atmofphere which contributes to fupport
inflammation or combuftion. He made many curious
experiments on inflammation, and was the firit who
completely analifed common air, Ihowing it to confift
of 27 parts of empyreal, 72 of foul, and 1 of fixed
air. He found, that thefe 27 parts only were con-
fumed by a burning body ; and that thefe, during the
of combuftion, were united and combined with
the inflammable body burnt in them, fo as to form a
compound no-longer combuftible. Lavoifier extend¬
ing tbefe experiments, found that the body, thus pro¬
duced by empyreal air, being combined with the mat¬
ter of the inflammable body burnt in it, was, in many
cafes, an acid ; in confequence of which property, he
gave this air the name of oxygenet i. e. “ the ge¬
nerator of acidity.** He was perhaps too hafty
in adopting this name ; for the fame air is found in
combination with inflammable matter, farming com¬
pounds that are by no means acid,of which we (hall con¬
tent ourfelves with producing only one example, namely
•watery which is the compound refulting from the com¬
bination of this air with inflamrable air. See Water.
Common atmofpheric air was found by Scheele to
promote animal life in a manner fomewhat fimilar to
its promoting combuftion. He extended his experi¬
ments to this fubjefl alfo ; and he concludes, that this
empyreal air is the only part of the atmofphere which
is capable of fupporting animal life, and that no ani¬
mal can exift a minute without it. In confcquence
of this property it has been called vital air. Since,
however, it is abfolutely neceflary for the fupport both
of combuftion and of animal life, and fince neither of
thefe can exift without it, both the terms empyreal and
vital are deficient, cxpreffing only certain properties of
this elaftic fluid (which may be alfo find of the word
cxygene) ; and hence fome later chemifts have fuggeft-
ed the propriety of defigning it by the name of pure
air. See Combustion, Inflammation, Chemistry,
Air, Water.
OXYGLYCU, a fpecies of drink, prepared of the
fweeteft honey-combs maceratedand boiled. Thecombs,
from which all the honey has been exprefltd, are put
into a pot with pure water, and boiled till they feem
to have depofited all their contained honey in the wa¬
ter. This liquor is to be kept ; and, when diluted
with cold water, is to be drank in the fummer-time,
in order to remove thirft.
OXYMEL, in pharmacy, a compofition of vinegar
and honey. See Pharmacy.
OYER, in law-books, feems to. have been anciently
tifed for what is now called ajjifei. See Assise.
O YES, a corruption of the French Oyez, Hear
ye; a term or formula frequently ufed by the criers
in our courts on making proclamations, or to enjoin
fdence.
OYSTER, in zoology. See Ostrea,
OrsTfR-Catcher. See Hamatopus.
OrsTER Fi/hcry. See OyJler-FisHt.Rr and OsTREA.
QxsvEhSy Fojjile.. The largeft bed that is known of
6
3 O Y s
foffile pyfter* is that near Reading in Berkfti're. They Oyfler,
are entirely ftiaped, and have the fame fubftance with
the recent oyfter-fhdls; and yet fmce the oldeft hi-
ftories that mention the place give an account of
them, we muft fuppofe they have lain there for a
Lmg time. They extend over no lefs than fix acres
of ground ; and juft above them is a large ftratum of
a greenifti loam, which fome writers call a green earth,
and others a green fanJ. It is compofed of a crumbly PbU. Tratuy
marie, and a large portion ot fand. Under them i8n0i6t.
a thick ftratum of chalk. They all lie in a level bed ;!’•
and the ftrata above the (hells ate natural, and appear
never to have been dug through till the time of find¬
ing the (hells.
The oyfter-fliells and green earth united make a.
ftratum oi about two feet thick ; and over this there
is a much thicker ftratum of a bluifti and very brittle
clay ; but neither has this ever been dug through, ex¬
cept where the (hells are fourid. This "is vulgarly de¬
nominated piercyclay, and is efteemed ufelcis. This
clay-bed is about a yard deep, and above it is a ftra¬
tum of fuller’s earth, about two feet and a half deep*
it is extremely good, and is ufed by the clothiers.
Over this there lies a ftratum of a fine white fand,
unmixed either with the clay or fuller’s eaith : this
is near feven feet deep, and above it is a ftratum of
a (tiff red clay, of which tiles are made. This is
again covered with a little vegetable mould; the deptE
however of this ftratum of tile-clay cannot be afeer-
tained, on account of the unevennefs of the hill.
Thefe oyfters are occafionally found whole, but moft
frequently in fingle (hells. When they are in pairs,
there is generally fome of the green fand found with¬
in them : they feldom flick very faft together; fo
that unlefs very carefully taken up, it is not eafy to
preferve them in pairs.
OrsTER-Shells, an alkali far more powerful than is
generally allowed, and are in all probability much
better medicines than many of the more coftly and
pompous alkalis of the fame clafs. The proof of al< Mtm. /W,
kalis is in their folution by acid fpirits; and Mr Hom-^ar. 1700.,
berg found, that they dilfolved far eafier in acids of
nitre and fea-falt than either pearls or coral, or in¬
deed than any of the reft. This he fuppofes to be
owing to their containing in the body of the (hell a
large portion of fal-falfus, which is eafily perceived
upon the tongue, and which keeps the whole fub¬
ftance of the (hell in a fort of half diffolved ftate.
Thefe (hells are found to produce very fenfible effecls
on the (tomach, when it is injured by acid humours ;
and Mr Homberg thinks, that this eafinefs of folu¬
tion is a great argument for their good effects, and
that the quantity of fal-falfus which it contains, con¬
tributes not a little towards it ; for we are not to look
upon that as a fait merely, but as a fait of a pecu¬
liar nature, formed of fea-falt by the organs of the
animal, and the feveral fermentations it undergoes in
the body of it, in the fame manner as the nitrous and
other falls of the earth ceafe to be nitrous, &c. when¬
ever they become blended with the juices of plants^
and form with them a fait peculiar to that plant 5
which is evidently the cafe as far as refpe&s this fait,
it being plainly of a more penetrating tafte, and of
a different fmell, from the f ilt 1 ft by the fca-water
between the fcveral external feales or flakes of the
fttflL
Otias*
O Z E r 579 1 O Z O
Ozell.
Or«fl» Hiell. Oyfter-^ells being thus found by Mr Hom-
berg to be a very valuable medicine, and as one of
, the common methods of preparing them is by calci¬
nation, which, he obferves, confiderably impairs their
virtues, he gives the following method of preparing
them for taking inwardly, which he .Jiimfelf always
ufcd. Take the hollow fhells of the oyfters, throw¬
ing away the flat ones, as not fufficiently good ; make
them perfe&ly clean, and then dry them in the fun ;
when they appear dry, beat them to pieces in a marble
mortar : they will ftill be found to contain a large quan¬
tity of moifture ; lay them therefore again in the fun
till perfe&ly dried, and then finifh the powdering
them, and lift the powder through a fine fieve. Give
20 or 30 grains of this powder every morning, and
continue it three weeks or a month. See Chemi¬
stry, n° 1087.
OZvENA, a foul and malignant ulcer of the nofe,
diftinguifhed by its foctor, and often accompanied with
a caries of the bones of the nofe.
OZANAM (James), an eminent French mathe¬
matician, born at Boligneux in Brefle, in 1640, of a
wealthy family. His father gave him a good educa¬
tion, and defigned him for the church : but fome ma¬
thematical books falling into his hands, infpired him
with a love for that fcience ; and though he had no
mafler to inftruA him, he made fuch progrefs in it,
that, at 15 years of age, he wrote a piece in mathe¬
matics, which he thought proper to infert in the works
he afterwards publifhed. He at length taught that
fcience at Lyons; and his mathematical leflbns brought
him in a confulerable revenue, till the year 1701 : at
which period, a war breaking out on the fucceflion to
the crown of Spain, he loft almoft all his fcholars, and
was reduced to a very melancholy fituntion ; and his
wife dying the fame year, he was fo affli&ed, that he
never perfe&ly recovered it. In 1702 he was admit¬
ted into the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and died
of an apoplexy in 1717.—He was of a mild and fe-
rene temper, of Angular generofity, and of a cheerful
difpolition.— He would not allow himfelf to know
more of religion than the common people. He ufed
to fay, that “it was the bufinefs of the doctors of the
Sorbonne to difpute, of the pope to decide, and of a
mathematician to go to heaven in a perpendicular line.”
His works are very numerous, and have met with the
approbation of the learned. The principal are, 1. Prac¬
tical geometry, i2mo. 2. A mathematical diftionary.
3. A oourfe of mathematics, 5 vols, 8vo. 4. Mathe¬
matical and philofophical recreations,the moft complete
edition of which is that of 1724, in 4 vols, 8vo. 5. An
eafy method of furveying. 6. New elements of alge¬
bra, a work much commended by Monf. Leibnitz.
7. Theoretical and practical perfpeftive, &c.
OZELL (John), a well-known tranflator, edu¬
cated in Chrift’s Hofpital, was poflefled of a com¬
petent fortune, and always enjoyed good places, be¬
ing auditor-general of the city and bridge accounts,
of St Paul’s cathedral, and of St Thomas’s hofpital.
Nbtwithftanding his attention to bufinefs, he ftill re¬
tained a love for polite literature : and though he did
not appear as an original author, yet having made
himfelf mafter of moft of the living languages, he fa¬
voured the world with many tranfiations from thefe, as
well as from the Latin and Greek; which, if they are
not the moft elegant, are generally faithful and true
to the originals. He died in the year 1743.
OZIAS, in famed hiftory, the fon of Micha, of
the tribe of Simeon, one of the governors of Bethu-
lia when it was befieged by Holofemes. He vigo-
roufly fupported the fiege ^gainft this general, and
received Achior into his houfe, when he had been
driven from the Aflyrian camp. Finding however at
length that the city was reduced to great neceflity
for water, and that the people mutinied againft him,
he promifed to furrender the place in five days, if ift
that time God did not fend them relief. Judith (vi.
vii. viii. ix. and x.) being informed of this refolution,
fent to fpeak with Ozias and the other leading meii
of the city ; made a prudent remonftrance upon their
feeming to preferibe a time to the Lord, in which hd
muft fnecour them ; encouraged them to patience i
and without difeovering her defign, told them that
(he would go out in the night. Ozias being at the
gate of the city when Judith departed, opened it t®
her, and waited in the city for the fuccefs of her un¬
dertaking, praying with her people to God that he
would be pleafed to deliver them. See the article
Judith.
OZLEWORTH, in England, in Gloucefterlhire,
about 18 miles from Gloucefter. It is remarkable for
nothing but that in one year, during the reign of
Queen Elifabeth, there were no lefs than 231 foxea
killed at it.
OZOLiE, or Ozoli, a people who inhabited the
eaftern parts of iEtolia which were called Oxo/ea. This
tra<ft of territory lay at the north of the bay of Co¬
rinth, and extended about 12 miles. They received
their name from the bad ftench (',?>0 of their bo¬
dies and clothes, which were the raw hides of wild
beafts. Some derive it from the ftench of the ftag-
nated water in the neighbouring lakes and marihes.
According to a fabulous tradition, they received their
name from a very different circumftance : During the
reign of a fon of Deucalion, a bitch brought into
the world a ftick itiftead of whelps. The (tick
was planted into the ground by the king, and it grew
up to a large vine, and produced grapes, from which
the inhabitants of the country were called Oxo/a, not
from ofnv, “ to fmell bad,” but from “ a branch
or fprout.” The name OxoLx^ on account of its in¬
delicate fignification, was highly difagreeable to the
inhabitants; they therefore exchanged it foon for that
of jEtolians.
OZolue.
the
4 D 2
r 580 j
gsaaajgglEEBg—i
p.
? A C
R
Pace.
P A C
T> the 15th letter and nth confonant of the al-
* phabtt; the found of whu h is formed by ex-
preffin^ the breath fomewhat more fud«Jenly than in
forming- the found of b ; in other refpcfts thtfe two
founds are pretty much alike, and are often coniound-
ed one with another. When p hands before t 01/,
its found is loft; as in the words pfalms, pfychology, pto-
Icma'iCy ptfan, &c. When placed before h, they
both togethet have the found/; as in philofopby, pby-
Jtc, &.C
P and B are fo like each other, that Quintilian de¬
clares, that in the word ebtinuit, his re. fon required
him to put a b, but that his ears could hear nothing but
a p, optinuit: hence in ancient inferiptions and old
gloflaries, it appears that thefe two letters have often
been confounded. Several nations ftill pronounce one
for the other, the Welch and Germans particularly,
who fay, ponum vinum, for bonum vinum. Plutarch
©bferves, it was ufualfor thofe of Delphi to fay ■a.'im
for a-a^uv, /3ixfov for Tixpo* j anJ among the Latins, as
often as an s followed, the b was changed into a^>, as
feriboyferipji.
As an abbreviation, P Hands forPondo, See.
P. A. DIG. for Patricia Dignilas; P. C. for Patrts
Confcripti ; P F for Publii Fi/ius ; P. P. for Propojt-
tumy or Propojttum publiee; P. R. for Populus Romanus;
P. R. S. for Prator'u fententia, P. R. S. P. for Prafrs
provincice
P. M among aftronomers, is frequently ufed for
meridiem, or “ afternoon and fometimes for
prjl mane, ‘‘ after the morning* i. e. after midnight.”
P was alfo ufed among the ancients as a numeral let¬
ter, ft nifying the fame with the G, viz. a hundred;
according to the verfe of Ugutio,
P Jimilem cum G numerum monjiratur habere.
Though Baronius thinks it rather flood for feven.
When a dafti was added a top of IT, it flood for
four hundred thouftmd.
St Jerome obferves, on Daniel, that the Hebrews
had no P ; but that the ph ferved them inlfead there¬
of: adding that there is but one word in the whole
Bible read with a P, viz. apadno. 1 he Gmk fig
nified 80 On the French coins, P denotes thofe
that were ftruck at Dijon.
In the Italian mufic, P Hands for piano, or “ foft-
ly and P. P. P forpianiffimo, or “ very fottly ”
Among phyficians, P Hands for pugil, or the eighth
part of an handful ; P. JSL. pattes aquales, or equal
parts of the ingredients; P. P. fignifies puivis pair um,
or Jefuit^ bark in powder , asd ppt. preparatus or
prepared.
PABULUM, among natural philofophers, the fame
with Fun,.
Faca, fee Mcs, p.465:.
PACE* a raeai'ure taken from the fpace between
the two feet of a man in walking ; ufually reckoned
two feet and a half, and in fotne men a yard or three
feet The geometrical paee is five feet ; and 60,000
fuch paces make one degree on the equator.
Pace, in the manege, is of three kinds, viz. walk,
trot, and g Hop ; to which may be added an amule,
bevaufe fome Kories have it naturally,.
Horfes which go ftiufiling, or with mixed paces be¬
tween the walk and amole, are for the molt part of no
value ; which commonly proceeds from their fiery tem¬
per, but fometimes from a weakntfs in their reins or
legs.
Pac« (Richard), a learned Englishman, born about
the year 14S2. He was educated at the charge of
Thomas Langton bifhop of Winchefter, whom he
ferved as au amanuenfis, and afterwards entered into
the fervice of cardinal Bainbridge. His accomplifh-
ments rendered him fo acceptable to Henry VI IT that
he made him fecretary of Hate; and, entering into or¬
ders, he was admitted prebendary in the church of
York, archdeacon of Dorfet, and dean of St Paul’s,
&e. which preferments were conferred on him during
his abfence on foreign embafiies. In 1524 he was
fent to Rome on the death of Pope Leo X. to folieit
the pupal chair for cardinal Wolfey ; but a new pope
was eiefted before his arrival, a circumftanee that pro¬
ved the epocha of his troubles. He fell under the dif*
pleafure of the difappointed cardinal; and being foon
after employed as ambaflador at Venice, he wa> fo ne-
glefted and hardly ufed, that he was feized with a
frenzy ; upon which the king ordered him home ^
and being carefully attended by the phyficians at the
king’s command, he was in a Ihort time reftored to the
ufe of his reafon, and then applied himfelf to the ftu-
dy of the Hebrew tongue. Being now introduced to
his Majeily, he remonftrated agamft. the cardinal’s
cruelty : who being ordered to clear himfeit, fummoned
Pace before him, fitting in judgment with the duke
of Norfolk and others; who condemned Pa e, and fent
him to the Tower; where he remained two years, till
he was difeharged by the king's command.— When he
was enlarged, he refigned nis,> deaneries, and died in
retirement at Stepney in 1532; after having wrote fe-
veral works There is an e’egant and jult character
of him by Leland, written upon his return from Ve¬
nice. He was much efteemed by the learned men of
his time, efpeciaily Sir Thomas More and Erafmus.
The latter had a great opinion of Pace on account of
his candour and fweetnefs of temper ; fo that he was
much afflidfled at his misfortunes, and could never
forgive the man that caufed them. Stow gives him
the char after of a right worthy man, and one that
gave in council faithful advice : learned he was alfo,
fays that ancrquaiy, and endowed with many excel¬
lent parts and gifts of nature ; courteous, pleaiant,
and delighting in mufic ; highly in the king’s favour,
5 and
Pact,
Paco?.
P A C
FacTiarriac ant? well heard in matters of weirrht. There is ex¬
it t ine a remarkV.k letter of his to the king, written
in 15 >7, wherein he very honeftly gives his opiniori
concerning the divorce ; and Fiddes o' fevves, that
he always ufed a faithful libertv to the cardinal,
which brought him at lait to confinement ami diltrac-
tion.
P VCH A.MAC, a valley of Peru, in South Ame¬
rica, ten miles fouth of Lima ; celebrated ior its plea-
fantnefs an 1 fertility, hut more on account of a mag-
nifi-.ert temple built by the Incas o' Peru, to the ho¬
nour of their god. When the Spaniards conquered
Peru, they found immerde riches therein
PACHODECARHOMBIS, in natural hiftory,
the name of a genus of foffils, of the cl.ifs of felenita.
The word is derived from the Greek. T£Jt rue ihick, ^•r<t
ten, and po^'c a r]jombusy and exoreffes a thick rho n-
boidal body compofed of ten planes. Tne char-fters
of this genus are, that the felemtie of it confiff c*f ten
planes ; but as the top and bocto+i in the leptodeca-
rhombes, or moft common kind o‘ the feletuta?., are
broader and. larger p!anes than any of the reit, the
great thicknefs of this genus, on the contrary, ma/tes
1 /->r,/vv v^lar>#>e in all fVlP VvfV .IPS Of it-.
its four longer plenes in all the botlies of it, meeting
in an o! tufe angle from its fides, its Lugeft planes.
There are four fpecies of it.
PACHSU, a fmrll ifl md in the Mediterranean fea;
near the coaft of Epirus, and in European urkey. It
lies fouth of Corfu, and is fubjefl to Venice.
P CiFIC ocean, that v ft ocer.n which feparates
Afia from America. It is called Pacific> hxoxn the mo¬
derate weather the firft mariners who failed in it met
with between the tropics : and it was called i>ou h Sedy
becaufe the Spaniards crofted the ifthmus of Darien
from north to fouth when they firft difeovered it; tho
it is properly the Wettern ocean with regard to Ame-
rica.
Geographers c?U the South Sea Mare Pacijicum,
“ the Pacifi Ocean,” as being lefs infefted with ftorms
than the Atlantic ; but M. I’rezier affirms it does not
deferve that appellation, an ! that he has feen as vio¬
lent iforms therein as in any other fea : but Magellan
happening to have a very favourable wind, and not
meeting with any thing to ruffle him when he firft;
traveried this vaft ocean in I >2.0, gave it the name
which it has retained ever fince. Maty, however,
adds, that the wind is fo regular there, that the veflels
would trequently go from Acapulco to the Philippine
Iflands without ftufting a fail.
P.ACK, in commerce, denotes a quantity of goods
made up in loads or bales for carriage. A pack of
wool is i 7 ftone and 2 pounds, or a horfe s load.
PAb KAGE, is a (mail duty of one penny in the
pound, paid for ad goods not particularly rated.
PACKE r, or Packet Boat, a veffcl appointed by
the government to carry the m;dl or letters, packets,
and exprtffts from one kingdom to another by fea
in the moft expeditious manner. Lhus, the packet-
boats, under the diredion of the poft mafter-genetal
of Great Britain, carry the mails from Dover to Ca¬
lais, from Falmouth to Lilbon, from Harwich to
Helvoetfluys, and from Parkgate to Dublin. See
Post. . . . f
PACOS, in zoology, a name given to a fpecies of
1 PAD
camel, commonly though improperly reckoned a fpe- PaAolu*
cies of ffletp; and known among many by th^namp p^Wn.
of the Indian Jheep, or Peruvian Jheep. See Came-,—-af
tus. p. 6o. , .
i his creature has been accounted a fheep, becauie
its h ir is fo long as to refemble wool, and it ts prodi-
gioufly thick, its head and neck alone having more
wool on them than the whole body of our largeft
fhtep. Its body is c’othed in the fame proportion
with a woolly hair equally fine.
P ACTOLUS (anc. geog), a river of Lydia, call¬
ed Cbnfor rheas, from its rolling down golden fand,
according to Herodotus, Plutarch, Pliny, an 1 Stiabo;
rifing in mount fmolus (Strabo). From this river
Croslus is thought to hive had all his riches. In Stra¬
bo's time it ceafed to roll down any. It ran through
Sardes ; after which it fell into the Hermus, and both
together into the AEge n fea at Pho ’sea in Ionia. A
rivA celebrated by Virgil, Ovid, Lucon, Lycophron*.
Horace, Apollonius. .
PACUVIUS (Marcus^, of Brun lufium m Cala¬
bria, a tragic poet in high reputation about the year
of Rome 6oo. He was nephevv of Ennius; publifhed
feveral theatrical pieces, tho’ we Have only fome frags
ments of his poetry remaining; and died at iarentum
at above yo years of age
P \DAN-ARAM Bible), literally the ptains op
Aram, or Syria; tranflated by the Seventy fimply
Mefopotamia or Mefopotam a of Syria ; by the Vul.rate,
Syria', the Syiians on this and on the other fide of
the Euphrates, not differing remarkably from each
other in language and manners, as Jofephus allows.
FADDOC, or PADDOC-CourJe, a piece of ground
encompuffed with pales or a wall, and taken out of a
park, for exhibiting races with greyhounds, for plates, .=
wagers, or the like.-
A paddoc is generally a mile long, and a quarter
of a mile broad : at the pne end is a little houfe where
the dogs are to be entered, and whence th.y are flip¬
ped ; near which are pens to inclofc two or three deer
for the fport. Along the courfe are feveral polls, viz.
the low poft, whiih is 160 yards from the dog-houfe
and pens ; the quarter of a mile poft, half-mile poll,
and pinching poft ; befidcs the ditch, which is a place
made to receive the deer, and preferve them from far¬
ther purfuit. And near this place are feats lor the
judges chofen to decide the wager.
The keepers, in order to flip the dogs fairly, put a
falling collar upon each, flipped round a ring ; and the
deer being turned loofe, and put forward by a teazer,
as foon a.> he is arrived at the low-poft, the dog-houfe
door is thrown open, and the dogs flipped. If now the
deer fwerve fo much, as that his head is judged nearer
the do^-houfe than the ditch before he arrive at the
pinching-poft, it is no match, and mull be run over
again three days aiter: but if the deer tuns ftra-ght
beyond the pinching-poft, then that dog winch is
nearell when be f.verves, or is Man hed by any acci¬
dent wins the match ; but if no fuch fwerve happens,
then’ the match is won by the dog who firft leaps
the ditch. . , . ,
PADERBORN, a duchy of Germany in tbe circle
of Weftphalia, has the county of Lippe on the north
and weft; Heffe-Caffd and Waldeck, on the fouth ;
PAD f 53
f^erbora. anJ Munflcr, with the duchy of Weftphalia, on the
v weft. Its greateft length from eaft to weft is about 40
miles, and its breadth where wideft 33. Some parts
ol it yield good pafture, and breed abundance of
czttle ; but it is not very fruitful in corn. There is
a heath called the Senne or Senae, of great extent, but
very Darren and defolate. I’here are, however, good
iron mines in the country, with fait and medicinal
fprings, plenty of deer and other game ; and it is wa¬
tered with feveral rivers abounding with filh, as the
"Wefer, the Dimer, the Bever, the Nette, the great
Emmer, the Lippe, the Alme, and the Pader. It
contains 54 parifhes,, in which are 25 market-towns and
16 monnfteries. The Romm Catholic is the predo¬
minant religion of the country, yet there are alfo many
I roteftants in it. The bifhopric was erebled by
Chailcmagne, towards the clofe of the eighth century j
and the cathedral was confecrated by pope Leo in
perfon, anno J96. The bifhop is fovereign of the
country, a prince of the empire, and fuffragan of the
archbilhop of Mentz. His revenue is about 30,000
pounds a-year, and he is able to raife 3000 men. In
the matrieula, his afTelfinent is 18 horfe and 34 foot,
or 3 32 florins monthly in lieu of them. Towards the
charges of the fovereign courts of the empire, he pays
for each term 162 rix-doilars and 29 kruitzers. The
chapter confifts of 24 capitular canons, who muft prove
their noble extra&ion by four defeents. The arms of
the bifhopric are a crofs or, in a field gules. For
the government of it, and theadminiftration of juftice,
there are feveral councils and colleges under the bifhop.
Here are alfo a hereditary marfhal, fewer, cup-bearer,
chamberlain, fteward, and purveyor. It was in this
bifhopric that Quintilius Varus, with the Roman army
under his command, was routed by the Germans under
Arminius.
Paderborn, the capital of the above bifhopric.
It {lands 40 miles north-weft of Caffe!, 50 fouth-eaft
of Munfter, and 60 fouth-weft of Hanover; being a
large, populous, well-built, and well-fortified city. Its
name is compounded of f>aJer, a rivulet, which rifes
juft under the high altar of the cathedral, and lorn,
4. e. a fpring. . It was one of the Hanfe-towns ; and,
till 1604, an imperial city. The cathedral is a grand
fabric, inferior to few in the empire. There is a gold
crucifix in it of 60 pounds weight, prefented by
Otho II. The univerfity, of which the Jefuits have
the direction, was founded in 1592, and the walls
were built in the beginning of the 11th century. In
133° an attempt was made to introduce Lutheranifm;
but 16 of the principal citizens who had eml raced it
were executed, and the reft obliged to abjure it. Duke
Chriftian of Brunfwick carried off from hence, in
3692, the filver images of the twelve apoftles, and the
filver coffin of St Lotharius ; and had them coined
into money, with this infeription, God’s Friend, the
Priejls Enemy.. The trade of this town, though for¬
merly great, is row inconfiderable ; and the inhabi¬
tants fubfift moftly by agriculture and breeding of
cattle. ^ I hough the bifhop has a palace in the city,
he re fide s (when he vouchfafes to vifit this country,
which is feldom, having other and more valuable
benefices) at Neuhaus, feven miles off, where he has
a magnificent caftle. Charlemagne and other em-
2 ] PAD
perors fometimes refided here, and held diets of the
empire.
PADOGI, a puniffiment ufed in Ruffia. The
body of the criminal is ftripped to the wailf, and then
laid upon the ground ; one have holds the head of the
perfon to be puniftied between his knees, and another
the lower part of the body ; then rods are applied to
the back till fome perfon gives notice to defirt, by-
crying out, enough. This puniffiment is cenfidered
in Ruffia merely as a corre&ion of the police, exercifed
on the foldier by military difeipline, by the nobility
on their fervants, and by perfons in authority over all
fuch as are under their command- After the acceffion
of Elizabeth to the throne of Ruffia, the puniffiments
were reduced to two kinds, viz. the padogi and
Knout.
PADUA, an ancient, large, and celebrated city of
Italy, with an univerfity and a biffiop’s fee. It is alfo
capital of the Paduano ; but is much lefs confiderable
than it was formerly: for it now contains no more than
30,000 inhabitants, whereas it formerly had 100,000,
and many of the houfes are gone to ruin : however,
the hall where juftice is adminiltered is a fuperb ftruc-
ture. The cathedral church, and the college of the
univerfity, are in that part called the Old Town ; ami
there are piazzas under all the houfes, where perfons
may walk without beingexpofed to the weather. The
garden of the univerfity is curious, on account of the
number of plants. Here a ftudent may take his de¬
grees, let him be of what fe£I of Chriftianity he will ;
nay, though he ffiould be a Jew or a Turk. The pa.
tron of this city is St Anthony, who lies in the ca¬
thedral ; they have fuch a veneration for him, that the
beggars do not afk charity in the name of God, but
for the love of St Anthony. The Jews live in a di-
ftindt part ©f the city ; and the neighbouring moun¬
tains produce excellent wine and oil, with delicious
fruit. It was taken by the Venetians in 1706. It is
feated on the rivers Brentac and Bachiglione, in a
fine plane ; and is about feven miles in circumference.
E. Long. 11. 55. N. Lat. 45. 24.
PADUAN, among the medalifts, a modern medal
{truck in imitation of the antique, or a new medal
firuck. with all the marks and characters of antiquity.
This name is properly applicable to thofe medals only
that were flruck in the feventh century by an Italian
painter born at Padua } who fucceeded fo well in
the impofture,-that the heft judges are at a lofs to
diftinguiffi his medals from the genuine ones. Though
it is frequently ufed in general for all medals of this
kind.
PADUANO, a fmall province of Italy, in the'ter-
ritory of Venice, bounded on the eaft by the Dogado,
on the fouth by the Polefino di Rovigo, on the weft
by the Veronefe, and on the north bv the Vicentino.
Its foil is well watered ; and is ©ne of the moft fertile
in Italy. The province is about 40 miles in length,
and 35 in breadth. Padua is the capital town.
PAD US, anciently called Eridanus, efpecially by
the Greeks; a river famous for the fable of Phaeton,
(Ovid). It rifes in mount Vefulus, in the Alpes Co-
thiaj, from three fprings, dividing the Cifalpine Gaul
into the Tranfpadana and Cifpadana, (Strabo) ; and,
fwelled by other rivers falling into it on each fide from
,th&
p a c r
Padia the Alps and Apennines, It ditcharges itfelf with a
II courfe from weft, to ead, at feven mouths, into the A-
^>agan , driatlc (Mela). The lake thro’ which it difcharges it-
fdf into the fea, is called by the natives the Seven Seas.
Now the Po.
PADUS, in botany. See Prunus.
PiEAN, among the ancient pagans, was a fong of
rejoicing fungin honour of Apollo, chiefly ufed on oc»
cafions of vi£tory and triumph. See Apollo.
P;ean, in the ancient poetry, a foot eonfifting of four
fyilables; of which there are four kinds, the paean pri¬
mus, fecundus, See.
The paean primus confifls of one long fyllable and
three fhort ones, or a trochaeus and pyrrhichius, as
temporibus ; the paean fecundus confifts of a fliort fyl-
lable, a Iqng, and two fhort, or an iambus and a pyr-
rhichius, as petentia; the paean tertius confifts of two
fhort fyllables, a Ung and a fliort one, or a pyrrhichius
and a trochaeus, as animatus; the paean quartus confifts
of three fhort fyllables and a longone, or a pyrrhichius
and iambus, as celeritas.
PA1DERO 1'A, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
30th order, Contort*. The berry is empty, brittle,
and difpermous; the flyle bifid.
P^EDO baptism; infant-baptifm, or that conferred
on children ; from infant, and £«*•'-.baptifm.
This has been the fubjeft of great controverfy in the
church. See Anabaptists, Baptists, &c.
PiEONIA, Piony : A genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 26th order, Mul-
tifiliquee. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; the petals five ;
there are no ftyles ; the capfules are polyfpermous.
There are two fpecics, both of them very hardy, and
will flourifti in any common foil. They are large her¬
baceous flowery perennials, with tuberous roots, fend¬
ing up ftrong annual ftalks from one to three feet in
height; terminated by very large flowers of a beauti¬
ful red colour, and much larger than any rofe. The
common officinal, or male piony, aifo is remarkable for
its capfules turning backward, opening and difplaying
their red infide, together with the numerous feeds, in
a Angularly agreeable order, appearing very ornamental
after the flower is paft. The plants may be propagated
either by parting the roots or by feed. This plant was
formerly celebrated in nervous diftempers, but the
prefent practice pays very little regard to it.
PiESTUM, called P of don 1 a by the Greeks, a town
of Lucania, on the Sinus Paeftinus; an ancient colony
prior to the firft Punic war, according to Livy ; but
later, according to Velleius. Pafan* rofee were in
great efteem, and produced twice a-year (Virgil,
Ovid).
PAGAN (B1 aife Francois Compte de), an eminent
French mathematician, was born at Avignon in Pro¬
vence, March 3. ; and took to the profeffion of
a foldicr st fourteen, having been bred to it with the
greateft care. In 1620 he was engaged at the frege
of Caen, in the battle of Pont de Ce, and the reduftion
of the Navareins, and the reft of Bearn ; where he
fign dized himfelf, and acquired a reputation far fur-
pafling his years. He was prefent, in 1621, at the
Sege of St John d’Angtli, as alfo that of Clarac and
5Zi ^ PAG
Montauban, where he loft his left eye by a muflfet-
fhot. At this fiege he had another lofs, which equally '
aiHi£led him, viz. that of the conftable of Luyr.es,
who died there of a fcarlet fever. The conftable was
a near relation, and had been his patron at court. He
did not, however, fink under the misfortune, but on
the contraiy took frefh fpirits from the neceffity he
was now in of trailing folely to himfelf. Accordingly
there happened after this time neither fiege, battle,
nor any other occafion, in which he did not fignalize
himfelf by forr.e effort of courage and conduit. At
the pnffage of the Alps, and the barricade of Suzarhe
put himfelf at the head of the forlorn hope, confifting
of the braveft youths among the guards ; and under¬
took to arrive the firft at the attack, by a private way
which was extremely dangerous j when, having gained
the top of a very fteep mountain, he cried out to hia<
followers, “ See the way to glory !” He flipt along
this mountain ; and, his companions following him,
they came firft to the attack, as they wifhed to do.
They immediately began a furious affault ; and, tht'
army coming to affift, they forced the barricades. He
had afterwards the pleafure of ftanding on the left
hand of the king, when his majefty related this heroic
ailion to the duke of Savoy with the deferved com¬
mendations, in the prefence of a very full court. When
the king laid liege to Nancy in 1633, our hero had
the honour to attend his fovereign, in drawing the
lines and forts of circumvallation. In 1642 his ma¬
jefty fent him to the fervice in Portugal, in the poll of
field marfhal. In this fame year he unfortunately loft
his eye fight by a diftemper. But though he was thus
difabled from ferving his country with his condudl and
courage, he reaffumed, with greater vigour than ever,
the ftudy of the mathematics and fortification ; and, in
1645, gave the public a treatife on this latter fubjedL
It was allowed by all who underftood the fcience, that
nothing had then appeared that was preferable to it
and indeed, whatever improvements have been made
fince, they have perhaps been derived chiefly from
this treatife, as conclufions from their principles. In
1651 he publiftied his Geometrical Theorems, whidv
fhow a perfeA knowledge of all the parts of the ma¬
thematics. In 1655 he printed A Paraphrafe, in-
French, of the Account, in Spanilh, of the River of
the Amazons, by Father de Rennes, a Jefuit ; and*
we are affured, that, though blind, he drew the chart’
of that river and the parts adjacent which is feen in
this work. In 1637 he publiihed The Theory of
the Planets, cleared from that multiplicity of eccentric
circles and epicycles, which the aitronomers had in¬
vented to explain their motions. This work diftin-
guifhed him among aftronomers as much as that of
fortification did among engineers ; and he printed, in
i6j8, his Aftronomkal Tables, which are very fuc-
cindl and plain. Few great men are without feme
foible : Pagan’s wa# that of a prejudice in favour of
judicial aftrology ; and though he is more referved than-
moft others, yet we cannot put what he did on that
fubjedl among thofe produdlions which do honour to
his underftanding. He was beloved- and refpetled by
all perfons illuftrious for rank as well as fcience ; and
his houfe was the rendezvous of all the polite and
worthy both in city and court. He died at Paris
Nov. 18. 1665 ; and was never naanied. The king
ordered
PaEraiT.
TAG ' [ 5S4 ] PAG
ordered In’s firft phyfician to attend him in his il'nef?,
and gave ftvcral marks of the extraordinary erteern
which he had for his merit.
He had an univerfal genius ; and, having turned
himfelf entirely to the art of war, and particularly to
the br .nch of fort fixation, he made extraordinary pro-
grtfs in it. He underftood mathematics not only 1 et-
ter than is ufual for a gentleman vvhofe view is to
pufh his fortune in the army, but even to a decree of
perfe&ion fuperior to that of the ordinary mafiers who
teach that fcience. He had fo particular a genius
for this kind o( le rn;ng, that he obtained it more
readily ! y meditaMon than by reading authors upon
it; and accordingly fpenc tefs time in fuch books than
he did in thofe of hillory and geography. He had
alfo made morality and politics his particular ftudy ;
fo that he may bv Taid to have drawn his o n char dter
in his Homme Hero'iquey and to have been one of the
completed: gentlemen of his time. Louis XI11.
was heard to fay feveral times, that the Count de
Paean was one of the mod worthy, bed turned, mod
adroit, and mod valiant men, in his kingdom.—That
branch of his family, which removed from Naples to
France in 1552, bee .me extindd in his perfon
Pagan, a heathen, gentile, or idolater ; one who
adores faTe po Is. See Mythology.
PAG a NALIA, certain fcd'vals obferved by the
ancient Romans in the month of January They were
indituted by Servius ’'ulhus, ho appointed a certain
number of villages (pagi), in each of which an altar
was to Ise rnifed for annual facrifices to their tutel r
gods ; at which all the inhabitants were to • did,
and give prefents in money, according to their fex
an 1 age, by which means the number of < ountry-
people was known. 1 he fervants upon this occafion
offered cakes to Ceres and Tellus to obtain plentiful
barveds.
PAG NELLUS, in ichthyology. See G OBIUS.
PAG NISM, the religious worihip and difcrpline
©f jagans; or, the adoration of idols and Life goes.
See Idolatry, Mythology, no Polytheism.
PAGEANT, a triumphal e r, ch riot, arch or
other like pompous decoration, varioufly adorned with
colours, flags, &c. carried about in pul lie fhows, pro-
ceffions, &c.
PAG I (Antony), a very famous Cordelier, and one
of the ahltft crlticsof his time, was born at Rogne in
Provence in 162-.. He took the habit in the convent
at A rles in 164 , and was at length four times pro-
vinci: 1 of his order ; but his religious duties did not
prevent his vigorous a( p'ication to the lludy of chro¬
nology and ecclefiadical hidcry, in which he excelled.
JrLs mod conlulerable work is, A Critique upon the
Annals of Baronius ; where, following the It rned car¬
dinal year by year, he has rtdified an infinite number
of miliakes both in chronology and in the reprefenta-
tion of fadts. He pubhfhed the fird volume in ifbtp,
dedicated to the clergy of France, who alb wed him a
penfion : the whole was printed after his death, in
4 vols folio, at Geneva, in 1705, by the care of his
nephew Francis Pagi, of the feme order. He wrote
feme other things beiore his death, which happened in
-1699;' and had the char: dter of an able hiHorian as
well as of a learned and candid . ntic. His mphew
.Francis, above-mentioned, wrote A Chronological-
xAb’IdTment of the Hidorv of the Popes, in Litm,
3 vols 410. Francis had alfo a nephew nr ony P ^i,
who added three more volumes to the Hdlory of the
Popes; of which two more were intended, if not exe¬
cuted
PAGNINUS (Sanftes),an itdiin Dominican, emi¬
nent for his flcill in Oriental languages and biblical
learning, was born at Lucca in 1466, and became af¬
terwards an ecclcfiafiic of th order of St Dominic.
Fie was deeply and iccurately flcillcd in Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic ; but he was par'i^rti-
htly excellent in the Hebrew. FIc applied himfelf to
examine the vulgar tranflation of the Scriptures ; -md
believing it to be either not of Jerome or "greatly v-or-
rupted, he undertook to m ike a new one from the
prefent Hebrew text : in which he meant to instate
St Jerome, who fet about making a new tranflation
at a time wdien the church would admit no other ' ut
the Septuagint. T his defign of Pagninus, fo early
after the reftoraFon of letters, feemed a bol \ one ; yet
fuch was the reputation of the man, that k was ao-
proved by Pope Leo X. who promifed to furnifh him
w'ith all neceffary expences for carrying on the wo’k :
and, befides, we find at the beginning of this tranfla¬
tion, which was printed at Lyons in 1527, two letters
of the fucceediitg popes, Hadrian VI. and Clement
VII which licenfed the printing of it. Pagninus, in
his Letters to Pope Clement, for the printing of this
tranflation, openly declares, that the Vulgar edition,
as it is at prefect, is not St Jerome s ; yet adds, that
he has retained in his tranfl .lion as much of it as he
could. It appears by a letter of Pious Mirandula to
Pagninus, that ue had fpent zy years upon this tr uf-
1 :tion. It is the firft modern tranflation of the Bible
from the Hebrew text ; and the Jeus who read it af¬
firmed, that it agreed exactly with the Hebrew, and
was in fome refpeft^ fuperior to the anc-'ent tranfla-
tions. The great fault of Pagninus was, that he ad¬
hered with too great fervjlity to the original text; and
this fcrupulous attachment made his tranlLtion fays
Father Simon, “ obfeure, bar arous, and full of fole-
cilms. He imagined, that to make a faithful tranfla¬
tion of the Scriptures, it was neccffary to follow tx-
adtly the 1 tier according to the llridlnefs of grammar.
T his, however is quite conttary to his prete ded ex¬
act nefs, becaufe two languages feldom agree in their
ways of ipeaking ; and t rertf ore, inbead of expreffing
the original in its proper purity, he defaces and robs
it of all its ornaments ” Father Simon n- verthelcfa
allows the great abilities and learning of Pagninus ;
and all the later commentators and tranflators of the
Scriptures have agreed in giving him hi juft pr; ife.
Huetius, though he thinks Father bimon’s cnticifm of
him juft and well grounded, yet propofes his m anner as
a n odel for ali tranflators of the iacred 1 ooks; Scrtf.iura’
inltrpritaruice ratior u utue noth exemplar propofuit Sauffus
Ptif ninui Fie alio tranflated the New Te -ament from
the Greek as he had done the Old from the Hebrew,
Lying the Vulgar all the while before him-; and dedi¬
cated it to pope Clement VII. He was author cl n
Hebrew Lexicon, and an Hebrew Gran-mar: which
Buxtorf, who calls him vir hnguarum Orientaliitm peri-
tjfrn,us. made great ufe of in compiling his. He died
in 1 C36, aged 70. Luther Ipcke of him and hi*
tranflationa in terms of the hi^hclt applaule.
PaGO,
Paprurift,
Pafr<j
/
^ I'rani l.<
into Dal¬
matia.
PAG [ 58c ] PAG
PAGO, r.n if] md in the gulph of Venice, fcpara-
ted from the continent of Morlachia by a narrow
channel. The ancient geographers have left us no
defcription of it 5 “though (as Poitis obferves) its
form (a), extent, and rich produce, unqueftionably
deferved it.” And this is the more unaccountable,
as we know the Romans were well acquainted with
it ; and on the other iflands adjoining to it are many
vefliges of buildings, infcriptions, tiles, and hewn
Hones, all fare figns of Roman habitations. Its ancient
name was in all probability Portunata. “ This iTiand
(fays Mr Fort is*) is extended from north to fouth over
againft maritime Croatia, or the mountain Morlacca,
It is about 50 miles long; its breadth is unequal.
One particular circumftance diftinguiihes it from all
the other iflands of the Adriatic, and is a large inter¬
nal fait water lake 15 miles long from fouth to north,
into \vhich the fea enters by a canal not above a quar¬
ter of a mile broad in fome places. This lake is fre¬
quented by the tunny fifh, which, when once in, can¬
not return again to the fea. There are alfo two
fmaller lakes on the ifland ; one near Vlaffich, abound-*
ing in fifh, particularly eeb ; and one near the hamlet
of Slabine.
“ In this ifland the winter is dreadfully cold, and
the fummer fcorchingly hot-. Thofe who have been
there in the winter time fpeak of it as a Siberia quite
covered with fnow and ice, and always expofed to
the cold north vund ; I, who was there in the hot
feafon, thought it equal to the moft fcorching parts
of the*world. The naked rocks, which not only form
the organization, but alfo the fuperfieies of almoft ail
the ifiand ; the narrownefs of the valleys ; the rever¬
beration of the water of the lake, generally quite calm
in fummer 5 multiply the heat fo prodigioufly among
thofe ftones, that the vines, which are planted all
’round the lake, ripen the grapes by the beginning of
Augull : and the few other products that grow there
anticipate the ufual time of maturity in the fame man¬
ner. The meteors are exceedingly irregular in the
fummer time ; fudden whirlwinds are frequent, and
heavy fhowers of rain : the laft are hurtful to the in¬
habitants of one part of the ifland, and favourable to
the cultivation of the oppofite end.
“ They cultivate neither corn nor oil on this ifland ;
1 ut it produces plenty of wine, and an immenfe quan¬
tity of fait. The other produ&s are wool, honey, and
n little fait fifh. The quantity of wine amounts an-
aually, on a medium, to 40,000 Venetian barrels;
Von. XIII. Part II.
and from the hufks they diftil 2000 barrels of raha
or brandy. The fait, in 1663, amounted to 800,000
Venetian flare. The falt-works are well contrived
and well kept : they extend along a fliallow pool,
which forms the caflem extremity of the lake within
For four miles in length and about half a mile in
breadth. On the fide* of this fen the belt part of the
vines He ; but the upper part of the hills on each fide
is altogether naked and barren ; there is not even a
fufficiency of fire-wood, and the inhabitants are ob¬
liged to provide themfelves elfewhere. The foil at
the foot of the hills, where the vines are planted, is
full of gravel and fmall ftones; and hence the wine is
of good quality. The air is not unbealthful, nc-i wit li¬
ft an] ing the vicinity of the falt-pits ; but the frequent
high winds carry oft'the noxious exhalations. The moft.
confiderable produtft of the ifland is the fait. The great--
eft part of the people of Pago live by working in the
fait pits, and have a comfortable fubfiftence regularly
paid by the government : it is therefore a very im¬
portant circumftance for the inhabitants of the city to
have a dry fummer; and hence the ignorant vulgar
look upon rain as a mifehief brought upon the coun¬
try by the force of witchcraft. In confequence of
this idea, they eledi a friar to exorcife the meteors,
and keep the rain off the ifland. If, notwithftanding
the poor friar’s endeavours, the fummer happens to
be rainy, he lofcs his reputation and his bread; but
if two or three dry feafons follow fueceffively, he
meets with great reverence and advantage. Part of
the falt-works belongs to the government, and the
reft to private proprietors ; they are meliorated every
year ; and for that end the public lends money to
thofe proprietors who want it, and who without that
afiiftance could not make the requifite improvements.
“ Many veftigea of ancient habitations ftill remain
on the ifland of Pago, as well as of walled places,
which either have been deftroyed by the incurfions of
enemies or by time. Hiftorians fay, that the ifland
was often abandoned by its inhabitants; and indeed
it is rather to be wondered at how men ever could
refolve to fettle in fo wretched a country. The fmal!
number of inhabitants, after fo many years of peace
and tranquillity under the Venetian government, evi¬
dently proves b.ow little the ifiand is really habitable.
The town of Pago was built by the Venetians about
300 years ago ; and contains upwards of 2000 inhabi¬
tants, and all the reft of the ifland fcarcely 900. The
difficulty of accefs to the city of Pago, and the ill ac«
4 E commodatioR
(a) its figure is indeed remarkably irregular, its breadth being in no proportion to its length ; for one of
the extremities, called Punta it Loni, is above ten miles long, and lefs than one broad. Almoft all the circum¬
ference is difmal, without trees or any kind of vifible plants or grafs, fteep, craggy*, and uninhabited. On
entering the lake through the channel that communicates with the fea, nothing is to be feen either on the riVht
or left but bare banging rocks, fo disfigured on the outfide by the violent percuffion of the waves, that die
Gratification is hardly diftinguifhable. In general, the ftone of the ifland is of the fame kind as the Iftrian
•or 'reccia ; and, befides, there are large ftrata of blue and yellowifh fand-ftone. The channel, or inward bay
of Pago, is not a harbour; on the contrary, it is a very dangerous ftation, and even inacceffible in winter,
\yhen the boreal wind blows with fuch fury, that the inhabitants of the town dare not ftir out of their houfes,
and much lefs the few that are fcattered over the country. The fky appears always cloudy in that feafon, by
the thick mill that rifes from the repercuffion of the waves on that long 'chain of rough and hollow
PAG [ 586 j PAG
PaKn> commodation that ftrangers meet with, make it very
^>a°0^' little frequented. Hence the inhabitants are as wild
and unpolifhed as if they lay at the greateft diftance
from the fea and the commerce of polite people. The
gentry, who pretend to Ihow their manners different
from thofe of the vulgar, are truly grotefque figures,
both in their drefs, behaviour, and infolent pretenfions.
The ignorance of their clergy is'incredible ; a pried
of the greateft confequence there, and who was thought
a man of learning, did not know how Pago was called
in Latin. There are two convents of friars in Pago
and one of nuns ; and feveral churches, all in very bad
( order, and ill ferved. At Terra Vecchia alto there is
a convent of Francifcan monks ; a race of men who,
under various names and difguifes, xnfeft every place
where credulous ignorance can be perfuaded to main¬
tain the idle and fuperftitious. One fuperftitious cuitom,
amongft a variety of others, exifts among their women,
and particularly among thofe who have been married but
a fhort time, if their hufband happens to die, they tear
their hair out in good earneft, and fcatter it on the
coffin ; and this ceremony is fo much confecrated by
cuftom, that no woman, even though fhe had notori-
oufly hated her hufband, would fail in performing it.”
PAGOP, or Pagoda, a name given by the Eafl:
Indians to the temples where they worfhip their gods.
We fhail not in this place enter*mto a full detail of
the feveral pagodas of different nations, and their pe¬
culiar circumftances. Thefe matters feem to come in
more properly under the religion^ or, as others will
call it, the fuperjlition, of the people to whom they be¬
long. We fhall therefore content ourfelves in the pre-
fent article with an account of a paper in the Ajialic
jRefearches, concerning the fculptures, &c. at Mavali-
puram, a few miles north of Sadras, and known to fea-
men by the name of the /even pagodas.
The monuments which Mr Chambers (who com¬
municated the paper) defcribes, appear, he fays, to be
the ruins of forne great city decayed many centuries
ago. “ They are fituated clofe to the fea, between
Covelong and Sadras, fomewhat remote from the high
road that leads to the different European fettlemeats.
And when vifited in 1776, there was ftiil a native vil¬
lage adjoining to them which retained the ancient name,
and in which a number of bram'ms refided that feemed
perfe&iy well acquainted with the fubjedls of moft of
the fculptures to be feen there.— S he rock, or rather
hill of ftone, on which great part of thefe works are
executed, is one of the principal marks for mariners as
they approach the coaft, and to them the place is
known by the name of the Seven Pagodas, poffilly be-
caufe the fummits of the rock have prefented them
with that idea as they paffed : but it muft be coir-
feffed, that no afpedt which the hill affumes as viewed
on the Shore, feems at all to authorife this notion ; and
there are circumftances, which will be mentioned in
the fequel, that would lead one to fufpedf, that this name
has arifen from fome fuch number of pagodas that for¬
merly flood here, and in time have been burred in the
waves.” The rock here mentioned, as it rrfes abrupt¬
ly out of a level plain of great extent, naturally en- Pagoda
groffes the attention of the eye. It confrfts chiefly *
of a fingle ftone; and in its fhape (which is fingular
and romantic), in a diftant view, it has the appear¬
ance of an antique and lofty edifice. Works of image¬
ry and fculpture crowd thicker upon the eye on a
nearer approach, and at firft fight at lead favours the
idea of a petrified town, which, through the creduli¬
ty of travellers*, has been believed to exitl in vanous * See
parts of the world. “ Proceeding on by the foot of Shaw’s
the hill on the fide facing the fta, there is a pagoda
riling out of the ground of one folid ftone, about ib1^’ c>
or t8 feet high, which feems to have been cut upon
the fpot out of a detached rock that has been found
of a proper fize for that purpofe. The cop is arched,
and the ftyle of architecture according to which it is
formed, different from any now ufed in thofe parts.”
Beyond this a numerous group of human figures in
bafs relief, confiderably larger than life, attract atten¬
tion. They reprefent confiderable perfons, and their
exploits, many of which are now very indiftinct thro*
the injuries of time, affifted by the corroding nature
of the ft-a air; others, while protected from that ele¬
ment, are as freftr as when recently finilhed.
The hill, which is at firft of eafy afeent, “ is in
other parts rendered more fo, by very excellent fteps
cut out in feveral places, where the communication
would be difficult or impracticable without them. A
winding ftatr of this fort leads to a kind of temple
cut out of the folid rock, with fome figures of idols
in high relief upon its walls, very well finilhed, and
perfectly frefh, as it faces the weft, and is therefore
Iheltered from the fea air.” This temple our author
conjectures to have been a place of worlhip appertain¬
ing to a palace ; fome remains of which ftill exift, and
to which there is a paffage from the temple by an¬
other flight of fteps. This conjecture (for it is brought
forward as merely fuch) is in fome meafure favoured
by feveral ruins ftill remaining, and by the tradition
of the bramins who inhabit the place. This finilhes
the objects “ on that part of the upper furface of the
hill, the afeent to which is on the north ; but on de¬
fending from thence, you are led round the hill to
the oppofite fide, in which there are fteps cut from
the bottom to a place near the fummrt, where is an
excavation that feems to have been intended for a place
of worfhip, and contains various fculptures of Hindoo
deities. The moft remarkable of thefe is a gigantic
figure of ViJhnou^.K), afleep on a kind of bed, with a
huge fnake wound about in many coils by way of pil¬
low for his head ; and thefe figures, according to the
manner of this place, are all of one piece hewn from
the body of the rock.” Thefe works, however, al¬
though they are unqucftionably ftupendous, are, in our
author’s opinion, fuipaffed by others about a mile and
a half to the fouthward of the hill. “ They confift of
two pagodas of about 30 feet long by 20 feet wide,
and about as many in height, cut out of the folid
rock, and each confiding ortginally of one fingle ftone.
Near thefe alfo Hand an elephant full as big as life.
(a) See a figure of Vjfhwu in the Plate of Indian gods, with its deferiptron, under the article Polity
THEISM.
PAG [ 5^7 3 PAG
■Pagod. pnJ a lion much larger than the natural fize, but very
^11 executed, each hewn nlfo out of one (tone. None
of the pieces that have fallen off in cutting thefe ex¬
traordinary fculptures are now to be found near or
anywhere in the neighbourhood of them, fo that there
is no means of afcertaining the degree of labour and
time that has been fpent upon them, nor the fize of
the rock or rocks from which they have been hewn ;
a circumftance which renders their appearance the
more ftriking and Angular. And. though their fitua-
tion is very near the fea-beach, they have not fuffered
at all by the corrofive air of that element, which has
provided them with a defence againft itfeIf, by throw-
ing up before them a high bank that completely 1 bel¬
ters them. There is alfo great fymmetry in their form,
though that of the pagodas is different from the ftyle
of architefture according to which idol temples are
now built in that country. The 1 itter refembles the
Egyptian ; tor the towers are always pyramidical, and
the gates and roofs flat and without arches ; but thefe
fculptures approach nearer to the Gothic tafte, being
furmounted by arched roofs or domes that are not fe-
micircular, but compofed of two fegments of circles
meeting in a point at top.” Our author obferves, that
the lion in this group, as well as one on a flone couch
in what he took to he a royal palace, are perfe&ly
juft reprefentations of the true lion, and the natives there
give them the name which is always underftood to
mean alien in the Hindoo language, to wit,_y?«g,* but
the figure which they have made to reprefent that ani¬
mal in their idol temples for centuries paft, though it
be us the fame appellation, is a diftorted monfter to¬
tally unlike the original; infomuch that it has from
hence been fnppofeJ, that the lion was not anciently
known in this country, and that Jing was a name given
to a monfter that exiftej only in Hindoo romance.
But it is plain that that animal was well known to
the authors of thefe works, who in manners as well as
arts feem to have differed much from the modern
Hindoos.
“ There are two circumftances attending thefe mo¬
numents which cannot but excite great curioiity, and
on which future inquiries may poffibly throw fome
light. One is, that on one of the pagodas laft men¬
tioned, there is an infeription of a fingle line, in a cha¬
racter at prefurt unknown to the Hindoos. It refem-
bles neither the Deyva-nagre, nor any of the various
charadfters connected with or derived from it, which
have come to the writer’s knowledge from any part
of Hindoftan. Nor did it, at the time he viewed it,
appear to correfpond with any' character, Afiatic or
European, that is commonly known. He had not
then, however, feen the alphabet of the Balic, the
learned language of die Siamefe, a fight of which has
fince raifed in his mind a fufpicion that there is a near
affinity between them, if the character be not identi¬
cally the fame. But as thefe conjeilures, after fuch a
lapfe of time, are fomewhat vague, and the fubjecl of
them is perhaps yet within the reach of our refearches,
it is to be hoped that fome method may be fallen upon
of procuring an exaft copy of this infeription.
“ The other circumitance is, that though the out
•w; rd form of the pagodas is complete, the ultimate
defign of them has manifeftiy not been accomplifhed,
•but feems to have been defeated by fome extraordi¬
nary convulfion of nature. For the weftern fide of the Paenc?,
moil northerly one is excavated to the depth of four v—»
or five feet, and a row of pillars left on the outfide to
fupport the roof; but here the work has been flop¬
ped, and an uniform rent of about four inches breadth
has been made throughout the folid rock, and appears
to extend to its foundations, which are,probably at a
prodigious depth below the furface of the ground.
That this rent has happened fince the work began, or
while it was carrying on, cannot be doubted ; for the
marks of the mafon’s tools are perfectly vifible in the
excavated part on both fides of the rent, in fuch a
manner as to fhow plainly that they have been divided
by it. Nor is it reafonable to fuppofe, that fuch a
work would ever have been defigned or begun upon a
rock that had previoufly been rent in two. Nothing
lefs than an earthquake, and that a violent one, could
apparently have produced fuch a fiffure in the folid
roc k ; and that this has been the cafe in point of fail,
may be gathered from other circumftances, which it is
neceffary to mention in an account of this curious
place. 'The great rock above deferibed is at fome fmall
diftance from the fea, perhaps 50 or 100 yard-, and
in that fpace the Hindoo village before mentioned
flood in 1776. But elofe to the fea are the remains
of a pagoda built of brick, and dedicated to Sib, the
greateft part of which has evidently been fwallowed up
by that element; for the door of the innermoft apart¬
ment, in which the idol is placed, and before which
there are always two or three fpacious courts fur-
rounded with walls, is now walked by the waves, and
the pillar ufed to difeover the meridian at the time
of founding the pagoda is feen Handing at fome di-
flanee in the fea. In the neighbourhood of this build¬
ing there are fome detached rocks, wafhed alfo by the
waves, on which there appear fculptures, though now
smuch worn and defaced. And the natives of the place
declared to the writer of this account, that the more
aged people among them remembered to have feen the
tops of feveral pagodas far out in the fea, which being
covered with copper (probably gilt) were particularly
vifible at fun-rife, as their fhining furface ufed then to
refle£l the fun’s rays, but that now that effedl was no
longer produced, as the copper had fince become in-
crufted with mould and verdegreafe.”
From thefe circumftances our author conje&ures,
and we think reafonably, that the magnificent city
of which thefe appear to be part of the ruins, has
been deltroyed partly by an earthquake by which,
the rock was rent, and partly by a fudden inunda¬
tion of the fea occafiorted by this commotion of the
earth. The bramins give an account of this matter
peculiar to themfelves, filled with extravagance, fable,
and folly; from which, however, with the afiiftance
of ancient monuments, coins, and inferiptions, fome
probable conje£tures at leaft, if not important dif-
coveries, may, it is hoped, be made on thefe fubjects,
which are far from being uninterefting to us either as
men, philofophers, or Chriftians. Our author thinks,
therefore, that the infeription on the pagoda men¬
tioned above is an objed which merits confiderable
attention ; and he defends, by very reputable autho¬
rities, the conjedure which places it among the lan- ,
guages of Slam; but which it is unneceftary for us either
to abridge or to tranferibe. In the courfe of this
4 E 2 , inquiry,
■pawn?.
t Vi/!. ,f
Ccjien.
PAG f 588 ] P A I
inquiry, onr author remarks a v’ry near refembhnce
btf.veen Sommonacocbm, the idol of the Siamefet and
the great idol Buddoti, held fa:red by the C/in-
gelays; and this refemblance extends alfo to their
priefts. But from the detail of citcumdances which
our author brings forward, and to which we refer,
he thinks this a fyftem of religion different from that
©f the Feck, and fome of them totally inconfiftent
with the principles and praftice of the bramins ; none
of whom, as far as we can colleef from Mr Knoxf,
exift among the Chingelays, whofe religion is totally
different from that of the prefent HinJoos. The only
part in which there feems to be any agreement is in
the worfhip of the Debtahs, which has probably crept
in among them from their Tamulian neighbours, but
that is carried on in a manner very different from
the braminical fytfem, and appears to be held by the
nation at. large in very great contempt, if not abhor¬
rence. Knox’s account of it is this: “ Their temples
(/. c. thofe of the Debtahs) are called covels”
which is the Tamulic word for pagoda. He then
goes on to fay, “ a man pioufly difpofed builds a
fmall houfe at his own charge, which is the temple,
and himfelf becomes prielt thereof. This houfe is
feldom called God's Houfe, but moft ufually Jacco the
Devils.” But of the prevailing religion he fpeaks
in very different terms, and defcribes it as carried on
with much parade and fplendour, and attended with
marks of great antiquity. “ The pagodas or temples
of their gods (fays he) are fo many, that I cannot
nund'er them. Many of them are of rare and ex-
tjuifite work built of hewn done, engraven with images
and figures, but by whom and when I could Rot at¬
tain to know, the inhabitants themfelves being ig¬
norant therein. But fure I am they were built by
far more ingenious artificers than the Chingelays that
now are on the land. For the Portuguefe in their in-
vafions have defaced fome of them, which there is
none found that hath /kill enough to repair to this
day.” In another place, he fays, “ here are fome an¬
cient writings engraven uponrocks which puzzle all that
fee them. There are divers great rocks in clivers parts in
Cande Uda, and in the northern parts. Thefe rocks
are cut deep with great letters for the fpace of fome
yards, fo deep that they may laft to the world’s end.
Nobody can read them, or make any thing of them.
I have afked Malabars and Gentoos, as well as Chin-,
gelays and Moors, but none of them underftood them.
There is an ancient temple, Goddiladenni in Yatta-
nour, ftands by a place where there are of thefe let¬
ters.” From all which the antiquity of the nation
and their religion is fufficiently evident, and from
other paffages it is plain, that the worfhip of Bud-
dou, in particular, has been from remote times a very
eminent part of their religion ; for the fame author,
fpeaking of the tree at Anurodgburro, in the north¬
ern part of the ifland, which is facred to Buddou,
fays, “ the due performance of this worfhip they rec¬
kon not a little meritorious : infomuch that, as they
report, 90 kings have reigned there fucceffively, where,
by the ruins that ftill remain, it appears they fpared
not for pains and labour, to build temples and high
monuments to the honour of this god, as if they had
been born to hew rocks and great itones, and lay them
iyp ig heaps. Thefe kings are now happy fpirit
having merited it by tbefe labours.” And again he
fays, ‘‘ For this god, above all other, they feem to
have an high refpeft and devotion,” &c.
Such is the nature of Mr Chambers’s communica¬
tion, as far as it refpefts pagodas"; a fubjeT to which
the AJialic Society will doubtlefs again dire£t their at¬
tention ; and from the penetration and affiluity of its
members we have much to expect. Other parts of
this paper {hall be brought forward under other ar¬
ticles, to which we refer. Few refearches are of more
fervice to true religion, than thofe which give us a-
correct view of the falfe and fuperftitious modes of
worfhip pradtifed by men who have had no light but
reafon, or weak and corrupted traditions. They are
ufeful likewife to the phiioiopher, as they always tend
to give us a minuter view of the real nature of man
as he is in himfelf, and (how with fufficient tfrength
the imbecillity of the human inteiledf without fome
fupernatural aid. The external pomp of all Pagan
religions feems to have been their effence ; a circum-
llance which alone fhows the neceffity of that, the in¬
tention of which is to reform the heart. See Siam,
SoMMONACODON, TcMPLE, &C.
Pagod, or Pagoda, is alfo the name of a gold and
filver coin, current in fevetal parts of the Fail Indies.
PAIN, an uneafy fenfation, arifing from a bidden
and violent folution of continuity, or other accident
in the nerves, membranes, veffels, mufcles, &c. of the
body. Pain, according to fome, confifb in a motion
of the organs of fenfe ; and, according to others, it
is au emotion of the foul occafioned by thofe organs.
As the brain is the feat of fenfation, fo it is of pain.
Boerhaave, ar 1 moll other authors on this fubjedl, affign
a llretchmg of the nerves as the only immediate caufe
of pain : but as the nerves do not appear to confiil of
fibres, this caufe of pain does not feem to be well-
founded ; nor indeed will it be eafy to treat this fubje6l
clearly, but in proportion as the means of fenfatron are
underflood.
Many kinds of pain are met with in authors: fuch as,
A gravitative pain; in which there is a fenfe of weight
on the part affedled, which is always fome flefhy one,
as the liver, &c. A puifative pain; which, Galen fays,
always fueceeds fome remarkable inflammation in the
containing parts, and is obferved in abfeeffes while fup-
purating. A tenfive pain, which is alfo called a dijlenJ-
ing pain ; it is excited by the diftenfion of fome ner¬
vous, mnfcular, or membranous part, either from foine
humour, or from flatulence. An acute pain is, when
great pain is attended with quick and lively fenfations:
A dull pain is, when a kind of numbnefs is as much com¬
plained of as the pain is.
The mediate and more remote caufes of pain are ge¬
nerally obvious ; and when fo, the cure will confill for
the moft part in removing them : for though in many
inftances the chief complaint is very dillant from the
feat of thefe caufes, yet their removal is the proper me¬
thod of relief. See Medicine, pajjim.
Perhaps all pains may be included, with irritation, in
thofe that have fpafm or inflammation for their fource.
When pain is owing to inflammation, the pulfe is
quicker than in a natural ftate; it is alfo generally full,
hard, and tenfe; the pain is equal, throbbing, and un¬
remitting. If a fpafm i* the caufe, the pulfe is rarely
affedted ; at intervals the pain abates, and then returns
a with
Pagad,
Pain.
#
p a i r 589 i p a 1 *
Pain, with fome degree of aggravation; gentle motion feme- property, and generally more abundantly after the eef-
U—v  times abates, or even cures, in fome instances : but in fation of each fit; thus does not happen in colicky corn-
inflammatory cafes no fuch eMs are ever experienced, plaints, nor is the belly fo free from tumefaction when
See Dr Lobb’s Treat Je on Pawful DIJhmpers. the puerperal fever is attendant
The pain fo frequentk attendant on women in child- As thtfe pains are of the fpafmodic kind, anodynes
bed, called after-pains (from their happening only and gentle opiates, with frequent draughts of warm
after being delivered of a child), are often occafioned caudle, camomile tea, &c. are all ihat are requirea m
by fcoopinc1' to fetch away coagulated blood, which is erder to their relief. . .
a needlefs "endeavour. When no improper treatment Among the various caufes of pain, a Angular one is
in delivering the fecundines can be fufpe&ed, the irri- related in the third vol. of the Land. Med. Obf and Inq.
lability of the uterus alone is to be confidered as the p- 241, &c. Some* perfons who had taken cold during
caufe. Care fhould be taken not to confound thefe their being falivated, were afflifted with pains whicn
after-pains with, or miftake the pains attending puer- refilled all the ufual methods of relief. At length the
peral fevers for, the colic. After-pains come by fits, and author of the narrative referred to fuggefled the cank ;
foon gooff; but return at different intervals, which are and by exciting a frefh falivation the pains aoated :
longer each day, and after two or three days are ufu- the fpitting was kept up a little while, and permuted
ally at an end, though fometimes they continue feven to abate with fome caution ; and thus the cures were
or eight: notwithHanding thefe pains, the lochia flow completed.
PAINTING.
PAINTING is the art of reprefenting to the eyes, It is in forming this great idea of his art that the
by means of figures and colours, every object in painter becomes himfelf great,
nature that is difcernible by the fight; and of fome- But il he feek only to pleafe or aflonilh by the iN
times exprefling, according to the principles of phyli- lufion of colours, he muft. reft contented with tne. -t*
ognomy, and by the attitudes of the body, the various condary merit of flattering the eye with the variety
emotions of the mind. A fmooth furface, by means and oppofition ot tints, or of miking an inJuftrious.
of lines and colours, reprefents objedls in, a Hate of affemblage of a great multiplicity or objecls. it is
projedlion ; and may reprefent them in the moft plea- in painting as it is in poetry. T. he man who clothes
fant drefs, and in a manner moft capable of enchanting trivial or common ideas in veife, cxercifes the j ioieiTion
the fenfes. Still farther, the objefts which delight us of twilling fyllables into a curtain meafure. The poet
by their animation and lively colours, fpeak to the who clothes in good verfe ideas and fentiments, that
foul, by giving us the image of what we hold moft are merely agreeable, piofefles an agreeable art. Luc
dear, or by indicating an action which infpires us he who, by the magic of verfe, ol ideas, ol imagery,,
rivith a tafte for innocent pleafures, with courage, and or of colours, adds fublimity to the lubhme objecls
with elevated fentiments. Such is the definition, and of nature, is a great poet and a great painter. He
fuch are the cffedls of painting. deferves the crown which the nations have decreed to
By an admirable effort of human genius, painting Homer, Virgil, Milton, Raphael, and the llatuary
offers to our eyes every thing which is moft valuable who modelled the ancient Apollo. It is ,reafonable
in the iiniverfc. Its empire extends over every age to place in the fame clafs thofe who have expreffed the
and country. It prefents to us the heroic deeds of fame ideas, whether it be in verfe or in colours, on
ancient times as well as the fa£ts in which we a e brafs or on marble. 1 he painter and llatuary, who
more converfant, and diftant objects as well as thofe excel in their proteffions, deferve all the refpedt due
which we daily fee. In this refpedl it may be conft- to genius : they are of the number ot thofe men
dered as a fupplement to nature, which gives us only whom nature, fparing of her bell gifts, grants but oc-
a view ol piefent objedls. calionally to the inhabitants of the earth. 11 they aie
The art of painting is extremely difficult in the fublime, they elevate the human race; if they are
execution ; and its merit can only be appreciated by agreeable only, they excite thofe fweet fenfations ne-
tbofe who profefs the art. ceffary to our happinefs.
The painter who invents, compofes, and colours In laying before our readers a fuccimR account ot
conceptions which are only agreeable, and which fpeak this noble art, we lhall, firft, give the hiftory of paint-
merely to the eye of the fpedtator, may be reckoned ing, including its rife, progrefs, and decline, in ancient
to poffefs the firft merit in the flyle of embellilhment and modern times ; an account of the fchools, and
and decoration. of the different merits of painters ; and a comparifon
The painter who is diilinguifhed for noble and pro- between the ancient and modern painting Secondly,
found conceptions; who, by means of a perfedl deli- we Ihall lay down the principles of the art, and the
ueation, and colours more capable of fixing the atten- order in which the artift conducts his ftudies. I hird-
tion than dazzling the eye, conveys to the fpe&ators ty, we fhall enumerate the different dalles of painting,
the fentiments with which he himlelf was infpired ; with obfervations on each. And, Fourthly, we lhall
who animates them with his genius, and makes a laft- treat of ccftonomical or houfe-painting.
ing imprefiion on their minds ; this artift is a -peet, >
sad worthy to ffiare even in the glories of Homer.
HISTORY’
£<53
Rife, T*rn.
g.-ti's, anj
Dedint
PAIN
H I S T O R Y.
*—  ''Sect. I. Jhfs, Progrefs, and Decline of Paint¬
ing in /Indent and Modern Times.
It is to be imagined that men mail naturally,
2nd very early, have conceived an idea of the firil
principles of the art of painting; the fhadow of each
plant and animal, and of every ohjeft in nature, muff
have afforded them the means of conceiving, and
pointed out the pofTihility of imitating, the figures of
all bodies. Thus the lavage nations, an emblem of
ryhat men were in the infancy of fociety, pofTefs the
-firft rudiments of this art, even before thofe which
are ufeful and almoft nectflary to exilhmee ; their na¬
ked bodies are covered with pundf ures of various forms,
" into which they infufe indelible colours. The next
demand for this art, is to prefervethe memory of war¬
like exploits. It is more natural to form fome repre-
fentation of an adfion, than to give an account of it
by means -of arbitrary charafters. Hence the picture-
writ! ng cf the Mexicans, and the more artful hiero¬
glyphics of Egypt.
Painting confifted of fimple outlines long before the
expreflion of relievo or the application of colour.
It was Amply drawing ; and the matter-pieces of paint¬
ing in that rude period were not fuperior to the fports
o? children. Although occupied about a Angle point, it
was not brought to perfection ; for conftant expe¬
rience inllrudts us that men never excel in the inferior
parts of an art till they are capable of carrying the
whole to perfedtion.
After employing for a long time thofe Ample out¬
lines, the next ftep in the art of painting was to make
the imitation more complete, by applying colours :
this was Aril accompli died by covering the different
parts of the figure with different colours in the fame
way that we colour maps ; and feveral nations, as the
Egyptians, the Chinefe, and the different nations of
India, have never painted in a better manner. Other
nations, more ingenious and more attentive to the arts,
■obferving that the objedts of nature have relievo, have
invented what is ca\\c& c/aro-obfcuro. The Greeks, the
moil ingenious, penetrating, and delicate of all, in¬
dented this part antecedent to colours; than which there
cannot be a greater proof of their exquifite tafte, as
the glare of colours witliout judgment excites more ad¬
miration in-the minds of the vulgar and ignorant, than
the camaieu or drawings of one colour executed by the
moft fkilful arcifl.
Thefe general obfervations concerning the gradual
improvement of this art, will be beft illuftrated by a
more particular attention to the ancient nations in
which it flourifhed.
Plato, who lived 400 years before the Chriftian era,
p • J informs us that painting had been pradtifed in Egypt
•among the ^or ten. thoufand years ; that fome of the predudlions of
Egyptians. t-^at fi'Sh antiquity were in exiftence ; and that they
bore an exadf refemblance to thofe which the Egyp¬
tians executed in his time. Y7ithout regarding the
period of ten thoufand years mentioned by Plato,
it is reafonable to confider it as an indeterminate pe¬
riod, which carries us back to very remote antiquity.
T ,1 N G. Hiftory,
The figures either in the painting or fculpture of Rife, Pro.
Egypt were extremely ftiff; the legs were drawn to-?re% ancl
gether, and their arms were pafted to their fides. ltDecll"e~ ^
appears that their only model was their mummies,
and that their Hull in anatomy was derived from em¬
balming them. They were extremely incorredt in
every part of the head ; they placed the ears much
higher than the nofe. Befides, they gave the face the
form of a circle inftead of an oval; the chin was fhort
and rounded; the cheeks excefiively fo ; and they
turned upwards the corners of the mouth and eyes.
Many of thefe faults may be aferibed to the for¬
mation of the human face in Egypt; but the placing
Oi the ears could only be founded in caprice or igno¬
rance.
The Cxadlnefs of the Egyptian proportion is much
celebrated ; but although we grant that they obferved
the proper length of the different parts of the human
body, they were ftill defective artifts, fince they did
not obferve the breadth, and were moreover ignorant
altogether of the lhape and Aze of the mufeies.
Works converted to religious purpofes chiefly occu¬
pied tire Egyptian painters. They had figures for imi¬
tation from which they would not depart, and thole
figures were monftrous ; the bodies of animals with
the heads of men ; the bodies of men with the heads
of animals : or, if the figure was more agreeable to
nature in its parts, yet it was fo deformed ancl ima¬
ginary, as to have nothing limilar to it as a whole in
the creation of God.
The monuments of Egyptian painting with which
we are beff acquainted (fays Winklemann) are the
chefts of mummies. Thefe works have refilled the in¬
juries of time, and are Hill fubmitted to the exami¬
nation of the curious. The white, made of white
lead, is fpread over the ground of the piece; the out¬
lines of the figure are traced with black Itrokes, and the
colours are four in number ; namely, blue, red, yef-
low, and green, laid ou withaut any mixture or flu-
ding. The red and blue prevail molt; and thofe co¬
lours feem to have been prepared in the coarfeft manner.
The light is formed by leaving thofe parts of the
ground where it is neceffary, covered with the white
lead, as it is formed by the white paper in fome of our
drawings. This defeription is fufficient to convince us
that the whole art of painting in Egypt confifted in
colouring ; but every perfon kno s, that without tints
and the mixture of colours painting can never arrive
at great perfe&ion.
In Upper Egypt there feems to have exifted a kind
of coloffian painting, which has never been examined
except by travellers who were no great critics in the
art. Winklemann had fome reafon to exprefs a de¬
fire that thofe remains of antiquity, with regard to the
manner of working, the ftyle, and the character, had
been accurately explored. Walls of 24 feet in height,
and pillars of 32 feet in circumference, are wholly cove¬
red with thofe coloffian figures. According to Norden
they are coloured in the fame manner with the mum¬
mies : the colours are applied to a ground prepared
in manner of frefco ; and they have retained their
frefimefs for many thouf nd years. Winklemann adds,
that all the efforts of human ikill and induftry could
make
j;refs, and
peclme.
In Perfia.
Hiftory. _ P A . 1 . N
Rife, Pro- make as little impreflion on them as the injuries of
time. His enthufiafm for antiquity has perhaps led
him into this extravagant exaggeration.
It appears that the great employment of the Egyp¬
tian painters was on earthen veflels, on drinking cups,
in ornamenting barges, and in covering with figures
the chefts of mummies. They painted alfo on cloth ;
but painting, as an induftrious occupation, fuppofes a
workman, not an artift : the decoration ot temples,
houfe-painting, and that of the figures relative to re¬
ligion, are to be confidered only in this point of view.
The workmen in Rufiia who paint our Saviour holding
the globe in one hand, and bleffing the people with
the other, are not members of the imperial academy
of fine arts.
Pliny informs us that the Egyptian artitls painted
alfo the precious metals ; that! is to fay, they varndh-
ed or enamelled them. It is doubtful what this art
was, hut moll probably it confitted in covering gold
or filver with a fingle colour.
The Egyptians are fuppofed to have continued this
coarfe flyle till the reign of the Ptolemies.
The Perfians were fo far from excelling in the arts,
that the paintings of Egypt were highly efteemed
among them after they had conquered that country.
The carpets of Perfia were of great value in Greece,
even in the time of Alexander the Great, and thefe
were adorned with various figures ; but this is no proof
that they were well executed, any more than a demand
for feveral of the Chinefe productions is at prefent a
proof of the tafte of that people in the arts. It was
the fabrication of the filk, and not the truth of the
reprefentation, which made the Greeks admire the
carpets of Perfia.
The Perfians, as well as the Arabians, had fome
knowledge of Mofaic work. This is only valuable
vdien it copies, in a manner that cannot be deftroy-
ed, the works of a great mafter ; but if the Perfians
had no good piftures to copy into Mofaic, it was of
no confequence to be able to arrange, in a folid
manner, pieces of flint one befide another.
There is only one Perfian painter whofe name has
defcended to pofterity ; and he is preferved, not be-
caufe he was a painter, but becaufe he accommodated
the ancient dodtrine of the two principles to the
Ghriftian religion. Eefides, it is doubted whether
Manes was a Perfian or a Greek, and it is ftill lefs
•known whether he was a painter. He is praifed in
Afia for drawing ftraight lines without a ruler.
The modern Perfians have made no kind of progrefs
in the arts. The emperor Schah-abbas, wifhing from
caprice to be inftrufted in drawing, was obliged to
have recourfe to a Dutch painter who happened to be
in his dominions.
The modern Perfians paint on cloth, and the ar-
tifls in India are their rivals in this branch of indu-
ftry ; but their paintings are purely capricious. They
reprefent plants and flowers which have no exiftence
in nature,; and their only merit coniifts in the bright-
nefs and the ftrength of their colours.
Befides this, the art in India, as it was in the mod:
remote antiquity, is. confined to monftrous figures con-
nedted with their religion, animal- not to be found in
the world, and idols with a multitude of arms ^d
3
In India
and Thi¬
bet.
TING. 591
heads, which have neither exadtnefs in their forms nor Rife, Pro-
proportions. See Polytheism. Decline11^
The paintings of Thibet difcover great patience in t'c_^ ’*. ,i
the artift, and are remarkable for the finenefs of their
ftrokes. Their painters might difpute wich Apelles
and Protogenes for extreme tenuity of pencil ; but it
is in this alone, without any regard to the art, in
which their merit confifts.
Some of the idols m Thibet are executed in a cer¬
tain flyle of relievo ; but thofe produdtions are not
only imperfect, they are alfo fo deititute of beauty
as to forbid every hope of excellence in the art. The
fame thing may lie obfervtd with regard to many of
the eaftern nations; they feem to have that want of
flyle which would fqr ever condemn them to medio¬
crity, even if they fhould happen to arrive at it.
An obfeure It rlian painter, named Giuvani Ghirar- jn Chinsi.
din:^ who travelled into China, whofe judgment is
more to be depended on in an art which he praclifed
than that of other travellers, declares that the Chinefe
have not the lead, idea of the fine arts; and this opi¬
nion is confirmed by every thing which we know of
that people.
The Chinefe feem not to have the fmalleft concep¬
tion of perfpedtive. Their landfeapes have no plan,
no variety in the appearance of the clouds, and no di-
minifhing of the objects in proportion to their di-
ftanee.
The great objeeft of their painting feems to con-
fift in making their figures as unlike nature as pof-
fiide : it is a ferious caricature of the human figure.
To make the art flouriflr, it is neceflary that the
artift be efteemed and rewarded. In China, there is
no artift fo poorly paid as the painter.
The ignorant admire the brightnefs and purity of
their colours; but Ample colours appear always bright
and pure : The difficulty of the art coniifts in melt¬
ing them into one another in fuch a manner that the
mixture ftrall not be perceived. It muft at the fame
time be confefled, that their natural colours are more
brilliant than ours; but if there be any merit in this,
it is to be aferibed to their climate, not to their ability.
A Jefuit miffionary, who in his youth had been a
grinder of colours, was raifed to the greateft emi¬
nence as a painter in the Imperial court of China,
and Raphael himfelf was never fo much refpebted.
'l ire Chinefe battles fent from that country to Paris
to be engraved, are the works of the Jefuits ; and ex¬
cept they were done by the Chinefe themfelves, it is im-
poffible to conceive that they could be worfe executed.
1 he Chinefe, like other eaftern nations, have a
few fimple ftrokes which they repeat in all their va¬
riety of figures. In the figures on the earthen ware,
they difcover no knowledge of forms, no expreffion
of the moft confpicuous mufcles, and no idea of pro¬
portion. And in all the paintings of China, anatomy
feems to bear no relation to the art. Some heads done
by a Chinefe painter have a fort of refemblanee to na¬
ture, but they are in a low and vicious tafte : The
fulnefs of the drapery conceals the parts in fuch a
manner that they do not feem to exifl: under it.
Sculpture in China is in a ftate of no great perfe&ion,
but at the fame time it is better executed than their
paintings.
The--
tjTjV PAIN
Rlfef’ rr^‘ Tlie ancient inhabitants of Etruria, now called
Dechne111* ^ufcany-> were the firft who connefted the arts with
■ -v — ' the ftudy of nature. In fome of their rnonumtnts
5 which ftill remain, there is to be obferved a firft ftyle,
•In Etruria, which fhows the art in its infancy ; and a fecond,
which, like the works of the Florentine artifts, fiiows
more of greatnefs and exaggeration in the character
than precifion or beauty.
Piiny fays that painting was carried to great per¬
fection in Italy before the foundation of Rome; per¬
haps he means in comparifon with the infancy of the
art in Greece at that period ; but it appears that even
in his time the painters of Etruria were held in
great reputation.
The only Etrurian paintings which remain, have
been found in the tombs of the Tarquins. They con-
fift of long painted frizes, and pilatlers adorned with
huge figures, which occupied the whole fpace fyom
the bafe to the cornice. Thefe paintings are executed
on a ground of thick mortar, and many of them are
5 in a (late of high prefeivztioti.
Ibi "Campa- Winklemann is of opinion that the Greek colo-
*Eiia. nJes eflabliftied at Naples and Nola, had at a very early
period cultivated the imitative arts, and taught them
to the Campanians eftablifhed in the middle of the
country. This learned antiquarian confiders as works
purely Campanian, certain medals of Capua and Tea*
rum, cities of Campania into which the Greek colo¬
nies never penetrated. rI he head of a young Hercules,
and the head of a Jupiter, according to Winklemann,
are executed in the fineil manner. It is if ill a qne-
ition, however, in the learned world, whether thefe
medals owe their exiftence to Carthage or to Cam¬
pania.
“ But there have been difeovered (adds Winkie-
mann) a great number of Campanian vafes cover¬
ed with painting. The defign of the greateft part
of thefe vafes (fays he} is fuch, that the figures
might occupy a diftinguifhed place in a work of
Raphael. Thofe vafes, when we confider that this
kind of work admits of no correftion, and* that the
ftroke which forms the outline mufl remain as it is
originally traced, are wonderful proofs of the perfec¬
tion of the ait among the ancients.” Winklemann
iiad an opportunity of examining a very fine Campa¬
nian vafe, on which was painted a burlefque reprelen-
tation of the loves of Jupiter and Alcmene. But
as this muft have been derived from fome fragment of
a Grecian comedy, the Count de Caylus is perfuaded
that the Campanian vafes are of Greek origin.
Amnnrr the Although the hiftory of Greek- painting be mdre
Greeks. fully known than that of the fame art among the bar¬
barous nations, it is neverthelefs involved in much
obfeurity. Pliny is almoft the only author who has
preferved the materials of its hiifory; and he complains,
that on this occafion the Greek writers have not dif¬
eovered their ufual exadlnefs. They place, fays he,
the firft painter of whom they fpeak in the 90th Olym¬
piad, 420 years before the Chriftian era. It is cer¬
tain that painting in dry colonrs exifted at the time of
the fiege of Troy, or at leaft when Homer wrote the
account of it. The buckler of Achilles is a fuffi-
cient proof that the Greeks were then acquainted with
the baflb-relitvo, a kind of fculpture which bears a
Bear affinity to painting.
. N° 255.
TING. Hiftofy
In the Iliad, Helen is reprefented as working at a Rife, Pro.
ta^eftry, whereon ftie figured the nuftterous combats an!
of which file was the caufe. When Andromache 1,Cv f
was informed of her hufband’s death, fhe was occu¬
pied in reprefenting on tapeftry flowers of various co¬
lours. From thefe faffs, ic is certain that painting
was not confined to fimple ftrokes, nor even to the
camaieu; and hence it is reafonable to conclude,
that what is cnlied lineary painting was praclifed long
before the time of Homer. Polygnote of Thafos, who
lived about 420 years before the Chriftian era, was
the firft painter of any eminence in Greece. Piiny
informs us that he was the firft who clothed his female
figures,?who varied the colours of the different parts of
their drefs, or who opened their mouths in fuch a man¬
ner as to fhow their teeth. Aiiftotle, who flourifhed
in a fubfequent period, allows this painter to have ex¬
celled in expreffion. But the art of painting may be
ftill confidered in its infancy in Greece, till about 400
years before the Chriftian era, when Zeuxis and Par*
rhafius flourifhed. In the conteft between thefe emi¬
nent painters, Zeuxis declared himfelf to be over¬
come, beeaufe in a clufter of grapes which he painted
he had deceived the birds; whereas Parrhafius in a
curtain which he executed deceived his rival. The
principal works of Zeuxis are his Penelope, in which,
according to Pliny, he appears to have exprefted the
manners of that princefs; a Jupiter furrounded by
the gods ; a Hercules ftrangling the ferpents in the
prefenre of Amphitrion and Alcmene ; an Helen and
a Marfyas bound. From this enumeration of thefe
works, and from the fame which they have acquired,
it is evident that the difficult parts of the art, and
thofe which in the execution render it eftimable, were
now begun to be ftudied. By Appelles, Protogenes,
and Euphranor, it was carried to the greateft height
of perfedfion. Grace, and fyrametry, and propor¬
tion, and illufion, were now added by the greateft
mafters to the nobleft objedfs of nature. 8
Wc have already feen, that before the foundation-A-mon£ ft*
of Rome the arts were cultivated in Etruria. They R-ornans*
were alfo early introduced into Latium ; hut whether
that country employed its own artifts or ihofe of E-
truria, remains altogether uncertain. One need not
be aftonifhed, that at a period when the arts were in
their infancy in Greece, they were raifing ftatues to
their kings in Rome: but at that period all their ar¬
tifts were Etrurians or Latins ; and when they con¬
quered Italy, they made all the nations of it as bar¬
barous as they were themfelves.
In the year 259 from the building of the city of
Rome, and 494 years before the Chriftian era, Ap-
pius Claudius confecrated a number of fhields in the
temple of Bellona, which contained in baflo relievo
tjfie portraits of his family. This example was fol¬
lowed ; and in procefs of time it was common among
the Romans to place thofe images in private houfes.
The execution in baffo-relievo is a proof that they
had an idea of painting, at leaft with one colour. As
long as the Romans employed artifts of other nations,
they had little defire to cultivate the arts; but to¬
wards the year of Rome 450, and 303 years before
Chrift, one of the Eabii thought it no diferedit to a
noble family to employ himfelf in paintmg. He
painted the temple of Safety ; and his works remain¬
ed
i)tc!ine.
Hiftory. PAIN
Rife, Pf»- ed till tliat temple was deftroyed by fire, in the reign
grefs, and cf Qlau<3JH8. It is worthy of remark, that the fame
man was the firft painter and the firft hiftorian in his
country.
The example of Fabius, furnamed PlBor from his
profefiion, did not excite his fellow-citizens to imita¬
tion. A century and a half elapfed before the tra¬
gic poet Pacuvius, nephew of Ennius, painted the
temple of Hercules in the forum boarium. The
glory which he had acquired by his dramatic
works fhed fome luftre on the art, which he conde-
feended to exerdfe 5 but did not confer on it that re-
fpe& which could recommend it to general practice.
The paintings of Fabius were the works or rather the
recreations of his youth ; thofe of Pacuvius, the a-
mufements of his old age : but painting is a difficult
art, which requires the whole attention, and which
can never be profecuted with fuccefs, except thofe
who love it are folely devoted to the performance.
It appears that there were no eminent painters at
Rome till the time of the emperors ; but as the na¬
tional fpirit was changed, the profeffion of the fine
arts acquired more refpe&ability. The Romans, du¬
ring the time of the republic, were animated with
the fpirit of liberty and the defire for conqueft. When
thefe two paffions were weakened, the love of the
arts obtained among them. As a proof of this it is
fufficient to fay, that Nero himfelf gloried in being
an artift. A Coloffian picture of 120 feet was painted
at Rome by the command of this emperor, which was
afterward deftroyed by lightning. The name of the
painter is not recorded, and there are various opinions
concerning the merit of the performance; but the
thing chiefly worthy of obfervation is, that this is the
only painting on cloth mentioned by ancient authors.
The paintings of the ancient artifts were either
moveable or on the ceilings or compartments of build-
amon >■ the ,n^S‘ •^cccr{^,ng to Phny> the mod eminent were
ancients ^ thofe who painted moveable pi&ures. The latter were
either on fir-wood, larch, boxwood, or canvas, as in the
coloffian pi&ure mentioned above, and fometimes on
marble. When they employed wood, they laid on in
the firft inftance a white ground. Among the anti¬
quities of the Herculaneum are four paintings on
white marble.
Their immoveable paintings on walls were either in
frefco or on the dry ftucco in diftemper. Indeed
all the ancient paintings may be reduced fref¬
co painting; fecondly, water-colour or diftemper-paint-
ingon a dry ground ; and, thirdly, encauftic painting.
The ancient frefco-paintings appear to have been
always on a white ftnceo-ground, the colours inlaid
very deep, and the drawing much more bold and free
than any fimilar performance of modern art. The
outlines of the ancient paintings on frefeo were pro¬
bably done at once, as appears from the depth of the
incifion and the boldnefs and freedom of the defign,
equal to the care and fpirit of a pencilled outline.
In general the ancients painted on a dry ground,
even in their buildings, as appears from the Hercu-
lanean antiquities, moll of which are executed in
this manner. At Rome and Naples, the firft (deepeft)
coat is of true Puzzolana, of the fame nature with
the terras now ufed in mortar, required to keep out
wet, about one finger thick j the next of ground
Vol.XIII. Part 11.
9
Of the
modes of
painring
TING. 503
marble or alabafter, and fometimes of pure lime or Rife, Pro-
ftucco, in thicknefs about one third of the former.an<^
Upon this they appear to have laid a coat of black,, t'L ^ _ f
and then another of red paint; on which laft the fub-
jeftitfelf was executed. Such feems to have been their
method of painting on walls ; but in their moveable
pictures, and in the performance of their firft artifts,
and where effedt of fhade and light were neceffary,
they doubtlefs ufed white.
The colours employed they feem to have mixed up
with fize, of which they preferred that made by boil¬
ing the ears and genitals of bulls. This appears to
have made the colours fo durable and adhefive, that
the ancient paintings lately found bear wafhing with
a foft cloth and water ; and ferretimes even diluted
aquafortis is employed to clean their paintings on fref"
co. Pliny fays that glue diflblved in vinegar and then
dried, is not again foluble.
What the encanftic painting of the ancients was,
has been much difputed. From tfie works of Vitru¬
vius and Pliny, it appears evidently that it was of three
kinds.
Firjl, where a pifture painted in the common way,
w'as covered with a varnifli of wax melted, diluted
with a little oil, and laid on warm with a bruflr.
Secondly, where the colours themfelves were mixed
up with melted wax, and the mixture ufed while
warm. And,
Thirdly, where a painting was executed on ivory by
means of the cejlrum or vinculum.
Some experiments on this laft method by Mr Cole-
brook may be found in the Phil.Tranf. vol. 51. and
more particular directions in Muntz’s Treacife on En¬
cauftic Painting.
It appears from ancient writings of the beft autho¬
rity, that in the earlieft and pureft times of this art,
the painters ufed few colours, perhaps not more than
four. “ The paintings of the ancients (fays Diony-
fius Halicarnafleus) were fimple and unvaried in their
colouring, but correft in their drawing, and diftin-
guifhed by their elegance. Thofe /which fucceeded,
lefs correft in their drawing, w’ere more finiflred,
more varied in their light and,ffiadcs, trufting'their
effedf to the multitude of their colours.” But no.
certain conclufion can be drawn, that the more early
among the great painters of the ancients, fuch as A-
pollodorus, Zeuxis, Timanthes, &c. had no more co¬
lours than four to ufe, merely becaufe they did not
ufe them. On the contrary, it may be conje&ured
with fome degree of probability, from their chaftenefs in
defign, and from the complaints Pliny makes of the
gaudy tafte of the Roman painters, that the Greeks
in general were defignedly chafte in their colouring, and
not fo merely from neceffity, at leail about the time of
Zeuxis and Apelles; for the former could not have
painted grapes fo' naturally as he is faid to have done
with four colours only : and the rebuke given by the
latter to one of his fcholars who had painted an He-
len very guadily, is a confirmation of thefe obferva-
tions. “ Young man (fays Apelles), not being able to
make her beautiful, you have made her rich.”
Of white colouring fubftanccs, the ancients had The co¬
white lead varioufly prepared, a white from calcined lours ufed
egg-fhells, and preparations from cretaceous and ar-^7 thean‘
gillaceous earths. The moderns in addition have ma-clcnts*
4 F giftery
594 PAIN
Rife, Pro- glftery of bifmiith, little ufeJ : and ought to have the
!>" u»e «lc'6 «f »i» »»d nine.
a, — ^ - Of blacks, the ancients had preparations fitnilar to
lamp, ivory, blue, and Franckfort black ; alfo to In¬
dian ink and common writing ink ; and they ufed,
what we do not, the precipitate of the black dyer#
vats.
The ancients pofTefled a fpecies of vermilion or fine
cinnabar, a coarfer cinnabar, red-lead, various earths
burnt and unburnt, apparently fimilar t® our red ochre;
Venetian red, Indian red, Spanifh brown, burnt ter¬
ra de Sienna, and fcarlet ochre ; they had alfo a fub-
ftance alike in colour and in name to our dragon’s
blood.
The yellow pigments of the ancients were generi-
cally the fame with our orpiments, king’s-yellow,
Naples-yellow, &c. They did not poffefs turbeth-
mineral, mineral-yellow, or gamboge; nor do they
appear to have known of gall-ftone as a pigment.
Of blue paints they had preparations from the lapis
fyanus and lapis armenus. Indigo they had, and per¬
haps bice and fmelt; for they made blue glafs, but
whether from fome ore of cobalt or of wolfram muft be
uncertain : they had not Pruffian blue, verditer, nor
Ktmus, which we have. We do not ufe the blue pre¬
cipitate of the dyers vats, nor mountain blue, which
they cettainly employed.
Of green colours, they had verdegrife, terra vert,
and malalhite or mountain green. The latter is
not in ufe among us. Sap green, green verditer, and
Scheele’s green, appear to have been unknown to them:
like us, they procured as many tints as they pleafed
from blues and yellow vegetables.
We have no original purple in ufe : that from gold
by means of tin, though very good when well pre¬
pared, is too dear perhaps, and unneceflary. Their
purple was a tinged earth. Their orange or fandarac
(red orpiment) we alfo poflefs. Hence there does
not appear to have been any great want of pigments,
or any very material difference between the colours
they ufed and fuch as we generally employ. Perhaps
the full effe& of colouring may be obtained without
the ufe of the exceeding brilliant pigments, depending
llr chiefly on the proportion and oppofrtion of tints.
■Whether The ancients could not know any thing about the
the ancientsfp;rjt varni{hes, diilillation being a modern invention ;
painted in ^ wcre undoubtedly acquainted with the ufe
of the better oil varnifhes, that is, with the ufe and
effedl of refinous gums difiblved in boiling infpiffated
oils.
One of the heft preferred mummies in the Britifla
mufeum has an altonilhing brightnefs of colours on
the outfrde of the coffin. Thoufands of years have
not impaired them ; they are as frelh as if they had
been laid on yefterday.
The chalk ground, and the excellency of the co¬
lours, fome of which imply a good deal of chemical
and metallurgical knowledge, do not fufliciently ac¬
count for their fplendour and frefhnefs : it muft be
swing to other circumftances ; either to the mixture
e>f ftiining colours, or to a hard gloffy flein which vifi-
fely covers them all over.
From an accurate examination of one of thofe mum¬
mies belonging to the univerfity of Cambridge, it ap-
pearsdr that the varnifh which covered the colours
TING* Hiftory,
could not be diffolved, or in the le&ft aflfe&ed by com- Pro-
mon water; and that it equally refifted the diflolving
power of the ftrongeft fpirits : hence it is reafonable 0c('mc’ .
to conclude, that the coffins of the mummies were not
covered with fize, whites of eggs, Ample gums, or any
preparation of wax, but with a fine tranfparent oil
varniflt. It was difeovered at the fame time, that the
colours themfelves were not prepared or mixed with
oil; for where the external glofly Ikin was damaged,
broken, or rubbed off, even common water would walh
the colours away, and affedf the chalk ground under
them.
Pliny has deferibed the general and particular effedls
of the varnifh of Apelles, under the name of atrament, fo
diftindfly, that no body can miftake the thing or the
mixture he is fpeakingof. He has mentioned the fhining
gloffy fkin of the varnifh which excites the brightnefs
of the colours, and preferves them againil duft ; he
obferved, that this fkin was laid on fo thin, that it
could not be difeerned at any diftances nor was he lefs
accurate in reporting the particular effeifts of that mix¬
ture which Apelles made ufe of; it harmonized and
lowered the tone of the brightell florid colours in an
imperceptible manner, and the whole appeared as if it
had been feen through ifinglaik The chemifts and
connoiffeurs are fully of opinion, that no liquid fub-
ftance or mixture of any kind is fit to produce thde
effedls befides the oil varnifhes : and if there are not,
Apelles and the Greeks were certainly acquainted with
thofe varnifhes ; a faft which might be itrongly urged
in behalf of their knowledge of oil colours.
The black outlines of the figures on the moft an¬
cient Greek paintings yet extant, that is, on Etrufcaa
vafes, are fa fharp, fo thick, and drawn in fo eafy and
mafterly a manner, that one cannot help looking upoa
them as having been drawn in oil colours. Had they
been in, diftemper or water colours oh the red clay
ground on which they are applied, they would have
been imbibed and foaked into it. Our china and ena¬
mel painters prepare and apply their colours with
fpike or other liquid oils; and the Greek mailers feem
to have done the fame, unlefs they fhould appear to
have burnt their vafes before they painted them, or to
have ufed a mixture of diffolved wax or gum for gi¬
ving a body to their colours, which might have an-
fwered the fame end as oils. And this is the more
probable, as there is fome reafon to believe that thefe
vafes went through two diffcient fires, that of baking
them, and that of fmelting or burning in their co¬
lours.
The Greek and Roman paintings that have been
preferved or difeovered at Rome and Herculaneum do
not countenance the fuppofition of oil colours; at leaft
Turnbull and the academifts at Naples, who have de-
fetibed the royal colleftion at Portici, Cochin, and
many other authors who have ften and deferibed them,
do not hint any thing of that nature. On the other
hand, Vitruvius, who has left us lo many valuable no¬
tices of the ancient arts, acquaints us, that there was
a kind of painting which abfolutely required a mixture
of oil: And Pliny, to the fame purpofe, exprefsly
fays, “ Sun and moon fliine are inimical and obnoxious
to red lead. The remedy is to apply the red wax
when hot and melted tuilh fome oil on the well-dried
walls, which is to be done with bruftits.”
From
Hlftory,
Rife, Pro-
jrrefu, and
jjec!inc
PAIN
From thefe oVfcrvafclons, the evidence which the an¬
cients have given ue in lehalf of themfelves, and of their
. knowledge of oil painting, may be fommed up in few
words
'■ heir having been acquainted with the white chalk
ground, which many modern mafters have ufed for oil
painting on boards, proves no more than that the an¬
cients might have done the fame.
The oil varnifhes ufed by the Egyptians and by A-
pelles might have brought them to the difcovery of
oil painting ; but as it appears both from mummies
and from the works of Pliny, that their colours were
not prepared and mixed with that varnilh, and as it
is plain rather that this varnilh was externally laid over
the finifhed piftures; no other conclufion can be drawn,
except that they were within fight of the difoovery,
and that it is a matter of wonder that they Ihould not
have laid hold of it.
The outlines of the old Greek or Etrufcan vafes are
merely fallacious appearances.
The old Greek and Roman paintings on walls and
ftones are either painted in diftemper and frefco, or
they have not been fufficlently examined.
The oil ufed in the eoarfer wax and wall paintings,
proves at moft that experiments had been tried with
oils ; but we have no direft proofs of oil painting ha¬
ving been underftood or ufed by the Egyptians,
Greeks, or Romans ; and that, however great their
Ikill or ingenuity, they might very well have beeti
within fight and reach of the difcovery, and neverthe-
lefs have milieu it.
tfrds, and art °f painting was revived in Europe about
decline, sf en^ °f the 13th or beginning of the 14th century,
modern The human mind, however, plunged in profound it^-
norance, was deftitute of every principle of found phi-
lofophy which might enable it t® determine on the
objefts of the arts; and of confequence the painters
contented themfelves with works adapted to the gene¬
ral tafte, without beauty and without proportion. In
Italy, where the firft attempts were made, they were
employed in reprefenting the mylleries of the paJJiony
and fuhje&s of a fimilar nature, on the walls of chapels
and churches. Their labours were directed to a vail
number of figures, rather than to the beauty and per-
feftion of each ; and the art in more modern times has
always preferved fomewhat of this abfurd fault which
it contrafted at that early period. The artiil in our
times is not, like thofe in Greece, at liberty to devote
his talents only to men of knowledge and difeernment;
he is conftrained to pleafe thofe who are rich, and
very frequently thofe wdio are ignorant. Initead of
propofing to him fell the perfection of the art as the
great obje& of his purfuit, he mull reft his fuccefs and
chara&er on the facility of his operation and the abun¬
dance of his works.
Painting did not long continue in the imperfeft con¬
dition in which it was left by thofe who firft cultiva¬
ted it among the moderns. It was natural that their
fucceflbrs Ihould endeavour to furpafs them by joining
fome degree of theory to the barbarous praftice they
had adopted. The firft thing which they difeovered,
or rather which they revived after the manner of the
ancients, was perfpe&ive. This made the artifts ca¬
pable of exprefling whut is called forejhortemng, and of
giving more effeft and more truth to their works.
ia
Rife, j<ro-
tfrefs, and
fainting.
T 1. N G. m
Dominique Ghirlandaios, a Flofcntiiie, \t»s the firft RHe, Pro-
who enriched the ftyle of his compofition by grouping £refs.’and
his figures, and who gave depth to his pictures, hv D<;c!l"e f
diftinguilhing, by exaft gradations, the fpaces which ^
his figures occupied ; but his fuccefTprs have far fur-
pafled him in boldncfs of compofition..
Leonard da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Giorrion, Ti¬
tian, Bartholemew de St Marc, and Raphael^flourifh-
ed about the end of the 14th century. Leonard da
Vinci was the inventor of a great many details in the
art: Michael Angelo, by ftudying the ancients, and
by his knowledge of anatomy, arrived at great ele¬
gance in drawing the outlines of his figures: Gior-
gion enriched the art in general, and gave greater
brilliancy to his colours than his predeceflors: Titian,
by a careful imitation of nature, made great proficiency
in the truth and perfection of his tones: Bartholemev/
de St Marc ftudied particularly the part of drapery,
and difeovered the claro obfcuro, the bell manner of
giving drapery to his figures, and of making the naked
to be felt even where they were covered : Raphael,
endowed with a fuperior genius, began with ftudying
carefully all his predeceflbrs and all his contemporaries.
He united in himfelf all the excellencies which they
poflefled ; and formed a ftyle more perfect and more
univerfal than any painter who went before or who has
fucceeded him. But while he excelled in every part
of the art, he was chiefly fuperior in thofe of invention
and of compofition. It is piobable that the Greeks
themfelves would have been filled with admiration if
they had beheld his chief pieces in the Vatican, where
to the greateft abundance of paintings is joined fo
much perfection, and purity, and eafe.
After painting had arrived at the greateft perfection
among the Greeks by the exertions of Zeuxis and
Parrhafius, Apelles found nothing to add to the art
except grace; in the fame manner among the moderns,
after Raphael had appeared, grace-; was the only thing
wanting to the art, and Corregio became the Apelles
of Europe. Painting was by him earned to the hiah-
eft degree among the moderns ; the tafte of the belt;
critics and the eye of the vulgar were equally grati-
^ After thefe great mafters a confiderable interval
el a p fed till the time of the Caracci. Thofe artifts, bom
at Bologna, by ftudying the works of their predecef-
fors with great care, and particularly thofe of Corregio,
became the firft and the moft celebrated of their imi¬
tators. Hannibal pofiefted a very correct deiign, and
united fomewhat of the ancient ftyle to that ©f Lewis
his brother ; but he neglecfted to inquire into the in¬
tricate principles and philofophy of the art. The pu¬
pils of the Caracci formed a fchool after their manner-
but Guido, a painter of an eafy and happy talent,
formed a ftyle altogether graceful, and rich, and eafy.
Gutrihen formed after Caravaggio, or invented him-*
fclf a particular ftyle of the claro-obfeuro, compofed of
ftrong fhades and vivid oppofitions.
Peter de Cortone fucceeded thofe great imitators of
their predeceflbrs and of nature ; who finding it diffi¬
cult to fucceed in that kind of painting, and having be-
fides great natural abilities, applied himfelf chiefly to
compofttion or arrangement, and to what the artifts
call .tafte He diftingmfheJ invention from corn poll-'
tion } appeared not to have attended to the former,
4 F 2 bat
59^
Rife, Pro-
gi ds, and
i'ccline.
P A I N T I N G.
but chiefly to thofe paits which are moft prominent in figures are altogether French
the pidture, and to the eontrailing of groups. It was
then that the pradtice was introduced of loading pic¬
tures with a great number of figures, without examining
whether or not they agreed to the fubjedt of the hi-
ftory. The ancient Greeks employed a very fmall
number of figures in their works, in order to make the
perfection of thofe which they admitted more evident.
The difciples or imitators of Cortona, on the other
hand, have fought to conceal their imperfections by
multiplying their figures. This fchool of Cortona is
divided into many branches, and has changed the cha¬
racter of the art. The multiplication of figures, with¬
out a judicious and proper choice, carried back the. art their genius for their fupport, carried every part of
of painting to that point where the firfl: refiorers of it the art to the great-eft height of perfection, d hole
among the moderns had left it; while at the fame time
Hlftorp
there is no reafon to Rde, Pro-
believe that the French painters have imitated Ru ,
bens, whofe works are marked much more ftrongly f
than thofe of his mafter kEneus with the Fkmifh cha¬
racter. The truth is* that their painters, like Cor¬
tona and Maratti, have crowded their pictures with a
great number of figures ; have grouped them in a
manner moft calculated to ftrike the fenfes; have
been more intent on agreeable artifices than expreffion
and beauty ; and, finally, that they have borrowed
the manners of the court and theatre.
d he fir ft mafters of the great fchools of painting,
with the ancients and nature for their guides, and
the difciples of Cortona were enabled to give to this
firft condition of the art a greater degree of perfeClion
than the firft artifts.
About the middle of the 17th century flourifhed at
Rome Carlo Maratti, who, aiming at the greateft
perfection, carefully ftudied the works of the firft
painters, and particularly thofe of the fchool of the
Caracci. Although he had already ftudied nature, he
difeovered by the works of thefe artifts that it is not
always proper to Imitate her with a fcrupulous txaCt-
nefs. This principle, which he extended to every part
of the art, gave to his fchool a certain ftyle of care-
fulnefs, which however is conftderably degenerated.
France has alio produced great mafters, particularly
in the part of compofition ; in which Pouffin, after
Raphael, is the belt imitator of the ftyle of the ancient
Greeks. Charles le Brun and many others diftin-
guilbed themfelves for great fertility of genius ; and
■as long as the French fchool departed not from the
principles of the Italian fchool, it produced mafters of
great merit in the different branches of the art.
Mengs, from whom this account is taken, is not-
decei/ed when he declares the art of painting to have
.degenerated in France after Le Brun ; but he feems
to be miftaken in giving the imitation of the works
of Rubens found at Paris as the caufe of this decay.
It appears from this opinion, that the recent French
fchool was not well known, to him. The French, in¬
deed, if we may believe their own authors, were never
who followed them, and who had the example of
their predeceffors in addition to the firft fources of
truth and beauty, did by no means arrive at the fame
excellence. The Caraccis in their fchool, Paul Vero-
nefe, and all the painters of his time, Vandyke, and
all thofe who exerctfed the art in Italy, in Flanders,
and in France, fupported it with great brilliancy,.
But foon after the number of artifts was multiplied
and flaviihly copying men of inferior talents, they
produced works of an inferior nature, Some wanting
to be colourifts, their pieces were exaggerated ; others
affecting fimplicity, became cold and infipid. At
this period of the art, men of real abilities, and co¬
vetous of fame, who wifhed to rife fuperior to the
mediocrity of the times, feem not to have taken the
road of truth and nature. They affe.fted a ftyle of
pompous preparation, and annexed a kind of merit
to the expert management ©f the pencil. The affe&ed
forms of Cortona and of his pupils, the fantaftical at¬
titudes and the poignant effe&s of Piazetta, and in fliort
the ingenious contrivances of the laft mafters of the
French fchool, are decided proofs of this increafing
bad tafte.
It appears, that for fome time paft greater pains
has been taken to form men for the art than to en¬
courage thofe who poffefs the talent. In confequence
of this ruinous praftice, fchools for drawing, very dif¬
ferent from thofe formed by able painters,- have been
exceedingly multiplied ; and thefe give the elements
according to an uniform fyftem, by which the mind is.
much occupied in the imitation of Rubens; and they laid under a regular reftraint at the very threlhold of
have for a long time defpifed him. But the perfeftion the profeffion. < This evil is produ&ive of two incon-
‘ —    veniences ; it gives middling painters, and it multiplies
them to that degree, as to haften the downfal and
bring into contempt the art itfelf.
The particular reputation of the Italian painters
furnifties another reafon for the decline of the art.
The firft painters of that country were few in number;
they were honoured, and they deferved to be honour¬
ed. Their diftinguiflied reputation has conferred a
value on the general paintings of their countrymen.
The defire of poffeffing tafte, or of being thought to
poffefs it, has led the rich and the ignorant of all na¬
tions to give a preference to the Italian market. Ne-
ceffity, in this cafe, would multiply the painters ; and
their abilities muft bear a pretty exaft proportion to
the diferiminatien of thofe who give the price.
The decline of painting has alfo ariien from the
defpotifm which for fome time reigned in the acade¬
mic focieties. In faft, thefe have often been ruled by
men
of the dramatie art in France, the drefs of their adlors,
the magnificence and manners of the court, have con¬
tributed very much to the decay of painting. Inftead
of forming their tafte on the beautiful fimplicity of
nature, their painters ftudied the geftures and the at-
titudes of comedians, the fopperies of women of
faftiion, the affeaed airs of courtiers, the pageantry of
Verfailles, and the magnificence of the opera. Mengs
lays, “ that the French have formed a national ftyle,
of which ingenuity and what they call efprit are the
diferiminating qualities ; that they have ceafed to in¬
troduce Greek, Egyptian, Roman, or barbarian per-
fonages into their paintings; and that, after the ex¬
ample of Pouffin, they content themfelves with figures
altogether French, as if it were their intention to
hand down to pofterity that fuch a nation once
c.xl^led.’,
Since, according to the confeffion of Mesg’, their
Hifto y.- PAIN
Sch /ol' men who would force every exertion of genius into
*—-Y  their peculiar trad of operation. If they required
fuch or fuch merit of execution, the firft principles of
the art were neglefted for that peculiar excellency.
In this m nner the fchools were abfolute in behalf of
defign as long as ilatuary was held in chief eftimation.
The ait ill, whole a1 ilities and inclination led him to
colouring, was obliged to abandon a purfuit which
coukl be of no fervice to him, and devote himfelf to
that for which he was not qualified by nature. On
the other hand, if the inftrudfions of the fchools be
confined to colouring, a mind difpofed to the choice
and exatlncfs of forms will find no encouragement,
and be for ever loft to the art. In this manner the
ignorance of thofe who wifh to be connoifleuis, and
the narrow views of thofe who pretend to diredf the
general tafte, have equally contributed to the decline
©f the arts.
Sect. II. Of the Schools.
A School, in the fine arts, denominates a clafs of
artifts who have learned their art from a certain mafter,
either by receiving his inftruftiens, or by ftudying his
works ; and who of confequence difeover more or lefs^
©f his manner, from the defire of imitation, or from
the habic of adopting his principles'.
All the painters which Europe has produced fince
the renovation of the arts are claffed under the fol¬
lowing fchools : the fchool of Florence, the fchool of
Rome, the fchool of Venice, the Lombard fchool,
the French fchool, the German fchool, the Flemifh
fchool, the Dutch fchool, and the Engliih fchool.
S hool < f This fchool is remarkable for greatnefs; for attitudes
Florence, feemingly in motion ; for a certain dark feverity ; for
an expreflion of fbength, by which grace perhaps is
excluded ; and for a charadler of defign approaching
to the gigantic. The productions of this fchool may
be confidered as overcharged ; but it cannot be denied
that they poffefs an ideal majefty, which elevates hu¬
man nature above mortality. The Tufcan artifts,
fatisfied with commanding the admiration, feem to
have confidered the art of pleafing as beneath their
notice.
This fchool has an indifputable title to the venera¬
tion of all the lovers of the arts, as the fiift; in Italy
which cultivated them.
Painting, which had languifhed from the deftru&ion
@f the Roman empire, was revived by Cimabue, born
of a noble family in Florence in the year 1240. This
painter tranlhted the poor remains of the art from a
Greek artift or two into his own country. His works,
as may eafily be imagined, were in a very ordinary
flyle, but they received the applaufe and admiration
of his fellow citizens; and if Cimabue had not found
admirers, Florence in all probability would not have
been honoured with Michael Angelo. The number
of painters became foou fo confiderable in Florence,
riiat in the year 1350 they eitablifhed a fociety under
the prote&ion of St Luke.
Maflblino, towards the beginning of the 15th cen-
tury, gave more grandeur to his figures, adjufted their
drefs better, and Ihed over them a kind of life and
expreffion. He was furpaffed by Mafiacio his pupil ;
who firft gave force, aaimatioo, and relievo to his
works.
TING. 597
Andrew Caftagna was the firil: Florentine who Schools,
painted in oil. But Leonardo da Vinci and Michael
Angelo, contemporary painters, were the glory of the
fchool of Florence. Michael Angelo was fuperior to
Leonardo in grandeur, in boldneL of conception, and
in knowledge of defign ; but Leonardo was fuperior
to him in all the amiable parts of the art. Leonardo,
pofleffed of a fine imagination, and full of fenfibility,
devoted hirafelf in painting to exprefs the aiTedHons of
the foul ; and if, in this fublime branch of the art, he
was afterwards furpaffed by Raphael, he had at lead
the glory not only of exceeding ail the painters who
went before him, but of purfuing a path which nonce
of them had attempted. His defign was pure and
neat, and not wholly deftitute of greatnefs. He never
went beyond nature, and he made a good choice of
objefts for imitation.
Michael Angelo, lefs formed to experience fweet
affections than vehement paffions, fought in nature
what the ftrength of man might accomplifh, not that
which conftitutes beauty. He- delighted in being
great and terrible, more than in graceful and pleafant
attitudes. Well acquainted with anatomy, he knew
more exaflly than any other artift in what manner to •
exprefs the joining of the bones of the body, and the
office and infertion of the mufcles; but too eager to
difplay his knowledge of anatomy, he feems to have
forgotten that the mufcles are foftened by the fidn
which covers them ; and that they are lefs vifible in
children, in women, and in young men, than in con¬
firmed and vigorous manhood. “ In his figures (fays
Mengs) the articulations of the mufcles are fo eafy
and free, that they appear to be made for the attitude
in which he reprefents them. The fleffiy parts are too
much rounded, and the mufcles are in general too
large and of too equal ftrength. You never perceive
in his figures a mufcle at reft ; and although he knew ■
admirably well how to place them, their adlion is
very frequently iuconfiftent with their fituation.”
“ He did not poffefs (fays Sir Joffiua Reynolds)
fo many delightful parts of the art as Raphael; but
thofe which he had acquired were of a more fublime
nature. He faw in painting little more than what
might be attained in fculpture; and he confined it to
exadtnefs of form and the expreffion of paffion3.,,
He informs us, in one of his letters, that he model¬
led in earth or wax all the figures which he intended
to paint. This method was familiar to the great
painters of his time, and ought never to be abandoned.
It appears, that in reprefenting them in this manner-
in relievo, the painter can imitate them much more
exa&ly than when they are drawn with a erayon or
pencil on a plain furface-
“ Michael Angelo (continues Sir Joffiua Reynolds)
never attempted the Icffcc elegancies and graces in
the art. Vafari fays, he never painted but onepidture
in oil; and refolved never to paint another, faying it
was an employment only fit for women and children.
“ If any man had a right to look down upon the
lower accompliffiments as beneath his attention, it was
certainly Michael Angelo ; nor can it be thought
ftrange, that fuch a mind ffiould have flighted, or
have been with held from paying, due attention to
all thofe graces and emhelliffiments of art which have
diffufed fuch luftre over the works of other painters.”
Ancient
J93
Schol«.
f4
Roman
fchooi.
PAIN
, Ancient Rome, rich with the works brought from
Greece, or fimfhed in its ownbofom by Grecian artirts,
handed down in its ruins the remains of that glory
to which it had been elevated. 1c was by the fludy
of thefe remains that the modern artills were formed:
they derived from them the knowledge of defign,
the beauty of exquifite forms, greatnefs of ftyle, and
juifnefj of expreffion, carried to that length only
which did nftt affe6b the beauty of the figure. From
them alfo they derived the principles of the art of
drapery; and they followed thefe principles even while
tney made the drapery of modern paintings more large
and flowing than what was piadtifed by the ancient
fculptors. i he Roman fchooi was altogether devoted
to the principal parts of the art, to thofe which re
quire genius and vail conceptions ; and was no farther
occupied with colours than what was neceffary to
eftablifh a difference between painting and fculpture,
or ratner between painting varied with colours and in
claro-obfeuro.
Raphael Sanxio, born at Urbino in 1483, and
fcholar to Pietro Perugtno, was the undoubted foun¬
der of this fchooi. H’s firlt manner was that of Pe-
rugeno his mailer ; but he travelled twice to Florence
to liudy the gTeat artifls who flourifhed in that city.
It was fortunate for Raphael, fays Mengs, that he
wa-s born in what he terms the infancy of the art,
and that he formed himfelt by copying nature before
he had accefs to fee the works of any great mailer.
He began by iludying, with great exadlnefs, the
fnnple truth in his figures. He was then ignorant
that any choice was necefhry ; but he faw the works
of Leonardo da Vinci, of Maflacio, and of Michael
Angelo, which gave his genius a new diredlion. Af¬
ter this he perceived that there was fomething more
in the art of painting than a fimple imitation of truth.
But the works of thofe mailers were not fufficiently
perfect to point out the bell choice to make ; and he
continued in uncertainty till he faw at Rome the
works of the ancients. Then he perceived that he
had found the true models which he wanted ; and in
imitatiag them he had only to follow the natural im-
pulfe of his genius.
Habituated by his firll manner to imitate nature
with precifion, it was not difficult to carry the fame
exaftnefs into the imitation ol the ancients ; and it
was a gre^t advantage to him that he flourilhed in an
age wherein the artills were net arrived at facility of
execution at the expence of jigorous exadlnefs. He
never loll fight of nature; but he was inllrufted by
the ancients in what manner Ihe fhould be lludied.
He perceived, that the Greeks had not entered into
minute details, that they had felefted what was great
or beautiful, and that one of the chief caufes of the
beauty of their works was the regularity of their pro¬
portions : he began, therefore, by carefully Iludying
this part of the art. He law alfo that the joinings
of the bones, and the free play of their articula¬
tions, are the caufes of all graceful movement : he
therefore, aiter the example of the ancients, gave the
greateft attention to this part, and was led by thefe
obfervations not to be contented with the fimple imi-
tation of nature.
His defign is excellent, but neither fo perfeft nor
fo finilhed as that of the Greeks. He excelled in re-
6
TING. Hiflory,
prefenting the charaCler of pbilofophers, apofiles, and Schools.
other figures of that kind 5 but he did not equal the
Greeks in ideal figures, which ought to carry the im-
preflion of divinity. His talle for defiirn was more
Roman than Greek, becaufe he formed it chiefly on
the l aflb-relievos which he found at Rome. On thia
account he had the habit of marking llrongly the bone*
and the aiticulations, and labouring the fleihy parts
lets ; but as thefe balfo-ielievos are very exs£l with
regard to the reciprocal proportions of every member,
he excelled in this part, while at the fame time he did
not give to his figures all the elegance of the Greek
artifls, nor the flexibilitjr of articulation which is ad¬
mired in the Laocoon, in the Apollo of Belvidere, and
in the Gladiator.
The manners and fpirit of his age, and the fubjeft*
which he moil commonly treated, prevented him from
reaching the ideal of the ancients. Having feldom oc-
cafion to reprefent figures altogether ideak he devoted
himfelf to purity of expreffion. He knew that the
expreffion of the paffions of the foul is abfolutely ne-
eeflary in an art which represents the adlions of men,
fince from thofe affections the aCtions may be faid
truly to originate. To make figures a£l, and yet ne-
gledl the interior fprings of aCtion, is nothing more
than a reprefentation of automata. The attitudes and
aClion are evident; but they appear not to aft of
themfelves, becaufe they are void of thole principles
from which alone men are fuppofed to aft. An artifl:
who neglects expreffion, gives no jull reprefentation of
charafter, even though he Ihould take nature for his
model.
Raphael’s firft care, when he wanted to compofe a
piece, was to weigh the expreffion ; that is to fay, to
eftablifh, according to the nature of the fubjeft, the
p illions which were to animate the charafters. AU
the figures, all the acceffories, all the parts of the com-
petition, were moulded to the general expreffion.
As he had not found examples in the ancient fta-
tues of the claro-obfcuro, he was comparatively weak
in this part ; and if there was any thing lemarkable ia
his diftribution of light and fliade, he owed it to the
works of the Florentine painters. It cannot be faid,
however, even with regard to the claro-obfcuro, that
he imitated nature without tafle. He delighted in
what are called mafes of light; and difpofed the great
lights in the moft confpicuous places of his figures,
whether naked or in drapery. If this method did not
produce effefts highly illufive, it gives his works that
diftinftnefs which makes his figures confpicuous at a
diftance ; and this mutt be allowed to be an effential
part of the art of painting. He did not proceed be¬
yond this ; and content with that kind of claro-ob-
feuio which comprehends imitation, he never attempt¬
ed that which is ideal.
The compofnion and the of his figures were
the chief excellences of Raphael. His philofophical
mind could not be affefted with objtfts which bad not
expreffion. He had too high an idea of painting to
confider it as a mute art; he made it fpeak to the
heart and foul ; and he c ould only do this in fubjefts
which required expreffion If Raphael did not reach
the Greek excellence, if he did not poffefs the art of
embellifhing nature in the fame high degree, he faw at
leall, ami imitated her in whatever was expreffivt and
bean-
Hiftory. PAIN
Schools, beautiful. The Greeks failed with itia’efty (fays
* Mengs) between earth and heaven ; Raphael walked
with propriety on the earth.”
“ Compofition is in general (fays the fame author)
of two kinds: Raphael’s is the exprefiive kind ; the
other is the theatrical or pi&urcfque, which confifls of
an agreeable difpolition of the figures. Lanfranc was
the inventor of this laft, and after him Pietro de Cor¬
tona. 1 give the preference to Raphael; becaufe rea-
fon prefides over all his works, or at lead the greateft
part of them. He never allowed himfelf in common
ideas, and was never allured to give any thing in his
acceffory figures which ^night turn the attention from
the principle objeft of the piece.”
A hiftory of the fchools is nothing more than a hi-
ftory of the painters who founded them. In thofe
two which we have already given, Michael Angelo and
Raphael come readily forward to claim our attention ;
and therefore we cannot do better than conclude the
account by the mafterly contrail of thefe eminent
painters given by Sir Jolhua Reynolds. “ If we put
thofe great artifts (fays he) in a light of comparifon
with each other, Raphael had more tafte and fancy,
Michael Angelo more genius and imagination. The
one excelled in beauty, the other in energy. Michael
Angelo has more of the poetical in operation ; his
ideas are vail and fubhme ; his people are a fuperior
order of beings; there is nothing about them, no¬
thing in the air of their adlions, or their attitudes, or
the ftyle and call of their limbs or features, that puts
one in mind of their belonging to our fpecies. Ra¬
phael’s imagination is not fo elevated ; his figures are
not fo much disjointed from our own diminutive race
of beings, though his ideas are challe, noble, and of
great conformity to their fubjeds. Michael Angelo’s
works have a ftrong, peculiar, and marked chara&er;
they fcem to proceed from his own mind entirely; and
that mind fo rich and abundant, that he never needed,
or feemed to difdain, to look abroad for foreign help.
Raphael’s materials are generally borrowed, though
the noble llrufture is his own. The excellency of this
extraordinary man lay in the propriety, beauty, and
majetly of his charafifers ; his judicious contrivance of
compofition, corrednefs of drawing, purity of tade,
and the Ikilful accommodation of other mens concep¬
tions to his own purpofe.”
I his fchool ib the child of nature. The Venetian
painters, not having under their eyes like the Roman
the remains of antiquity, were dettitute of the means
of forming a jud idea of the beauty of forms and of
exprtftion. They copied without choice the forms of
nature; but they were chiefly delighted with the
beauties which prefented themfelves in the mixture
and the variety of natural colours. Their attention
not being detached from this part by any thing of
greater importance, colouring was their chief objed,
and they fucceeded in it. They did not reft content¬
ed with charaderizing the objeds by comparifon, in
making the colour proper for one of more value by the
colour more proper for another ; but they endeavoured
itill farther, by the agreement and oppofition of the
coloured objeds, and by the contrail of light and
fiiade, to produce a vigorous effed, to demand and fix
the attention. Dominic, who was laid to have r>e-
riihvd at Florence by the jealoufy of Andi6 Caftagna,
t?
"Venetian
fchool.
T I N G. 599
and who was the fecond Italian artifl who painted in Schools,
oil, had educated, before he quitted Venice, his native —
country, Jacques Beilin, who was remarkable for no.
thing but the pidurefque education which he gave to
Gentel and John his two Tons.
Gentel, who was the eldell, painted chiefly in water
colours. John contributed much to the progrefs of his
art in painting conflantly in oil, and after nature. Al¬
though he always retained great fliffnefs in his manner,
he had lefs than his father or brother. Great neatnefs
of colouring, and an approach to harmony, are evi¬
dent in his works. His tafle in defign is Gothic, the
air of his heads is fufficiently noble, his attitudes are
without judgment, and his figures without expreffion.
He had for fcholars Giorgion and Titian, who de¬
fence to be coniidered as the founders of the Venetian
fchool.
Giorgion diflinguifhed himfelf by a defign of a bet¬
ter tafle than that of his mailer; but he chiefly fur-
puffed him in colouring. He died in his 33d year;
and excited the emulation of Titian, who foon greatly
excelled him.
Tiziano Vecelli, known bed by the name of Titian^
was inllrudled to copy nature in the mofl fervile man¬
ner in the fchool of John Beilin ; but when he had
feen the works of Giorgion, he began to fludy the
ideal in colouring.
The truth of hiflory is not to be expefted in his
hiftorical paintings, or in thofe of the artifls of the
fame fchool. He feems to have paid little attention
to the confiftence of feene, to the coflume, to ex-
prefiion adapted to the fubjeft, or, finally, to the ac¬
commodation of parts which chai a&erife the works of
thofe who have fludied the ancients. He was in fhort
a great painter, and nothing more.
But although he deferves not to be placed among
the mofl diflinguifhed arcifls in point of judgment,
yet he is by no means deflitute of great and noble
conceptions. There is often to be found among his
male figures a confiderable degree of grandeur : but if
he has fometimes, like Michael Angelo, overcharged
his defign, it was more difeovered in the fwelling of
the foft and flefhy parts, than in vigour and mufcula#
flrengthv
Almofl entirely devoted to fimple imitation, he had
fcarcely greater choice in the claro obfeuro than in dr-
fign. He cannot be jufliy reproached at the fame
time for weaknefs in this particular; becaufe in en¬
deavouring to imitate the colours of nature, he was
obliged to obferve the degrees of light. And in pro¬
portion as he fuccecded in the imitation of natural co¬
lours, he muff be lefs deft ftive in the claro obfeuro ;
but it is not in the knowledge of this part of the art
that we are to feek for the beauties of his works..
Thefe are to le found in the happy difpofitions ©f co.
lours both proper and local, and he carries this to the
highefl point of perfection.
The artifts in the Florentine and Roman fchools
painted moft commonly in water colours or in frefco 1
and in the exercife of their profeffion, inftead of na¬
ture, they finifhed their works from their firft /ketches.
Titian painted in oil, and fini/hed from the objrdls in
nature ; and this praflice, joined to his exquifite ta¬
lents, gave the greateft truth to his colours. His be¬
ing a portrait-painter was alfo of advantage to him as
i6
ILombard
ichool.
PAIN
a colourift. In this department he was accuftomed
to the colours of nature in carnations and draperies.
He was a landfcape-painter; and here alfo he took the
colours from nature.
“ As Titian perceived (fays Mengs) that the ob-
jefts which are beautiful in nature have often a bad ef.
fe£t in painting, he found it necelfary to make a choice
in the objects of imitation ; and he obferved, that
thefe were objefts of which the local colours were ex¬
tremely beautiful, which neverthelefs were in a great
meafure deftroyed by the refledtion of light, by the
porofity of the body, and by different luminous tints,
&c. He perceived alfo, that in every objeft there
was an infinite number of half tints, which conducted
to the knowledge of harmony. In fhort, he obferved
in the objedts of nature a particular agreement of
tranfparency, of opacity, of rudenefs, and of poliih, and
that all objedfs differed in the degrees of their tints
and their (hades. It was in this diverfity he fought
the perfection of his art; and in the execution he mo¬
derated the effedf of natural colours. For example, in
a carnation which had many demi tints, he confined
himfelf to one ; and he employed even lefs than a
demi-tint, where there were few in the natural object.
By this means he obtained a colouring exquifitely fine;
and in this part he was a great mailer, and deferves
to be carefully ftudied.”
Titian has in general little expreffion in his pictures,
and he fometimes introduces figures which augment
the coldnefs of the piece ; for if it be true that the
heads, even in hiflorical painting, ought to be ftudied
after nature, it is true alfo that an individual nature
ought not to be prefented, but ©ne general and ideal.
It is neceflary th^t they ihould be men, while they
refemble not men we are accuftomed to fee. The
painter fails in the effedt which he ought to produce,
if, when he reprefents Achilles, Heftor, and Caefar,
his perfonages are familiar to our obfervation.
The colours of his paintings are fo mingled toge¬
ther, as to give no idea of the colours on his pallet;
which diflinguifhes him from Rubens, who placed his
colours one at the fide of another. It is impoffible to
fay, on the narrov/eft infpe&ion, with what colours
he produced his tints. This pra&ice, which enabled
him to imitate fo exadlly the colours of nature, gives
a marked diflinclion to his manner of painting. In
the examination of his works, the critics lofe an ordi¬
nary fource of pleafure which arifes from marking
the freedom of hand; but they may confole them-
felves with the natural and exquifite touches of this
artift.
He is of hiftorical painters one of thofe who have
fucceeded in landfcape. His fituations are well cho-
fen; his trees are varied in their forms, and their fo¬
liage well conceived. He had a cuftom of reprefent-
ing fome remarkable appearance in his landfcapes to
render them more ftriking.
The diftinguifhing charafteriftics of this fchool are,
grace, an agreeable tafte for defign, without great cor-
re&ion, a mellownef* of pencil, and a beautiful mix¬
ture of colours.
Antonio Allegri, called Corregit, was the father
and greateft ornament of this fchool. He began like
the painters of his time to imitate nature alone ; but,
3s he was chiefly delighted with the graceful, he was
N° 255-
TING. Hiflory,
careful to purify his defign from all fhort turnings and Schools,
unneceffary angles. He perceived that largenefs contri-v"—-
buted to prace ; and therefore he not only rejected
all fmall figures, but enlarged as much as poflible the
outlines, avoided acute angles and flraight lines, and
by thefe means gave an eafy grandeur to his defign.
He made his figures elegant and large ; he varied the
outlines by frequent undulatipns ; but he was not al¬
ways pure and corredl.
Corregio painted in oil, a kind of painting fufeep-
tible of the greatefl delicacy and fweetnefs; and as
his charadler ltd him to cultivate the agreeable, he
gave a plealing captivating tone to all his pictures.
He fought tranfparent colours to reprefent (hades con¬
formable to nature, and adopted a manner of glazing
which aftually rendered his (hadows more obfeure.
Obfcurity in painting cannot be fully obtained without
tranfparent colours ; for thefe abforb the rays of light,
and of confequence give lefs reflection. He laid his co¬
lours very thick on the brighteft parts of his pidures, to
make them capable of receiving, by a proper touch, the
greatefl degree of light. He perceived, that the reflec¬
tions of light correfpond with the colour of the body
from which they are reflected ; and on thefe principles
he founded his theory of colours with refpect to light
and fliade and reflexion. But it is chiefly in the co¬
lour of his fhades that he deferves to be Imitated; for
his lights are too clear, and fomewhat heavy ; and his
flefhy parts are not fufficiently tranfparent.
Harmony and grace are connected together; and
on this account Corregio excelled alfo in harmony.
As the delicacy of his tafte fuffered him not to em¬
ploy ftrong oppofitions, he naturally became a great
mafler in this part, which chiefly confifls of eafy gra¬
dations from one extreme to another. He was har¬
monious in his defign, by making the lines which
formed the angles of the contour arched and undula¬
ted. Both in the lights and fhades, he placed always
between the two extremes a fpace which ferved to
unite them, and to form a paflage from the one to
the other. The delicacy of his organs made him per¬
ceive, better than any other artift, what relief was
necefiary to the eye after a violent exertion ; and he
was therefore careful to follow a bold and prevailing
colour with a demi-tint, and to condudl the eye of
the fpe&ator, by an invifible gradation, to its ordi¬
nary ftate of tenfion. In the fame manner (fays
Mengs) does agreeable and melting mufic pull one fo
gently out of deep, that the awaking refembles in-
chantment more than the difturbing of repofe. A de¬
licate tafte in colours, a perfeCl knowledge of the claro
obfeuro, the art of uniting light to light, and (hade
to fhade, together with that of detaching the objeCts
from the gtound, inimitable, grave, and perfect har¬
mony, were the qualities which diflinguifhed Corre¬
gio from all the painters, and placed him near the head
of his profeflion.
The Carracci, Lewis, Auguflin, and Hannibal, form¬
ed what is called the fecond Lombard fchool, which is
frequently diftinguiihed by the name ©f the fchool of
Bologna.
Lewis was the mafter of the other two ; he had
ftudied the works of Titian and Paul Veronefe at Ve¬
nice, thofe of Andre del Sarte at Florence, thofe of
Corregio at Parma, and thofe of Jules Romaen at
5 Mantua,
Hiftory. PAIN
Schoi h. Mantua; but he chiefly endeavoured to imitate the
-y  manner ofCorregio. Hannibal fluftnafed between Cor-
regio and Tit an. Auguftin their rival in painting
had his mind cultivated by learning, and devoted pait
of his time to poetry and mufic, to dancing and to ether
manly exercilcs. Thefe three painters often employ¬
ed their talents on the fame piece ; and it was admi¬
rable that their united labours feemed to be animated
with the fame fpirit.
They eftabliflted an academy at Bologna, which
their zeal for the advancement of their art made them
call P/leatkmia degli Defidernfi ; but it was afterward
called the Academy of the Carracci, 1 eeaufe the reputa¬
tion which thefe artifts acquired, permitted not a
more ilhiftrious name to be given to an eftablifhment of
which they were the founders. In this fchoo] were
taueht the art of con ft railing models, perfpeftive,
and anatomy ; leffons were given on the beautiful
proportions of nature, on the belt manner of ufing
colours, and on the principles of light and ftrade.
They held frequent cenferences, in which not only
nrtifis, but men of general knowledge, were permit¬
ted to elucidate points relative to the art of painting :
but they were feparated upon Hannibal’s going to
Rome to adorn the gallery of the cardinal Farnefe.
The works of the Carracci are often, from the re¬
ft ml lance of their manner, confounded together;
efpecially thofe which were flnifhed previous to the
refidence of Hannibal at Rome. Meanwhile each of
them has a decided character difiindt from the other
two. Lewis had lefs fire, but more of gracefulnefs
and grandeur : Auguftin had more fpirit in his con¬
ception, and mere pleafantnefs in bis execution : Han-
nibnl is characterized by boldnefs, by a defign more
profound, hy an expreffion more lucky, and by an
execution more folid.
Sit Jcflrua Reynolds, who faw the wmrks of Lewis
at Bologna, holds him out in his difeouries as the bt ft
modtl for what is calledin painting ; which is the
faculty of difpofing colours in fuch a manner as to ex-
ptefs our fentiments and ideas. ‘‘ Lodovico Carracci,”
fays he, “(I mean in his heft works) appears to me to
approach the neareft to perfection. His unafteCted
breadth of light and fhadow,the fimplicity of colouring,
which, holding its proper rank, does not draw afide
the kail part of the attention from the fubjeft, and
the folerrn efieft of that twilight which feems diffufed
ovei his pictures, appears to me to comfpond with
grave and di. nified fubjefts better than the more ar¬
tificial brilliancy of funfhine which enlightens the pic¬
tures of Titian.”
Hannibal is efteemed by the beft judges as a model
for beauty and defign. Thofe who blame him for be
coming lefs a oolourift at Rome than he was at Bo¬
logna, ought to recoiled that it is his performances
at Rome which have chiefly Retired his reputation.
Severe critics have maintained that his defign is too
little varied in his fi tires ; that he excels only in male
1 eauty : that in imitating ancient flatties, he excites
fome referrblance, but without arriving at the fubbrni-
tv of ideas and of ftyle w'hich chart derize the ancients ;
or, in other words, that he l ath fucceftfuliy imitated
the exterior of their manner, but that he was kcapa! le
of reaching the interior and profound leafonings which
determined thofe admirable artifts.
The fuccels of Hannibal, and the reputation which he
Vol. XIII. Part II.
T t N G. do I
.acquired, have been pernicious to the art. His fuecef- Schools,
fors, deluded by thefe coniiderations, have made him
the objed of their imitation, without aftending to the
fources from which he derived his knowledge, and
which he never could equal. The refult has been,
that, inftead of becoming equal to Hannibal, they have
often copied his imperfedions. *7
This fchool has been fo different under different The French
mallei s, that it is difficult to characterize it. Some of
its artifts have been formed on the Florentine and Lom¬
bard manner, others on the Roman, others on the
Venetian, and a few of them have diftinguiflied them-
felves by a manner which may be called their own.
In fpeaking in general terms of this fchool, it ap¬
pears to have no peculiar charrder ; and it can only
be diftinguifhed by its aptitude to imitate ealily any
impreffion ; and It may be added, fpeaking flill in
general terms, that it unites, in a moderate degree,
the different parts of the art, without excelling in any
one of them.
It is equally difficult to determine the progrefs of
painting in France. Miniature painting, and paint¬
ing on glafs, were early cultivated in that country; and
in thefe two kinds, the Italians had often recourfe
to the French artifts. When Francis I. encouraged
Roffo a Florentine, and Primatice a Bologniaft, the
painters in Fiance were not remarkable for any fupe-
rioir talent ; but they were capable of working under
thefe foreign artifts.
Coufin, a painter on glafs and portrait-painter, was
the ftril who eftaplifhed any kind of reputation in
France. He was corredl, but poffefled very little ele¬
gance of defign.
Painting, for fome time encouraged by Francis I.
fell into a ftate of languor, from which it was not re¬
covered till the reign of Louis XIII. Jacques Blan¬
chard, formed at the Venetian Lhool, and called the
French Titian, flourifhed about this period. But as
he died young, and without educating any pupils to
perpetuate his manner, he muft be regarded as afingle
good artift, and not as a founder of the French
fchool.
In the fame manner Pouffin, one of the greateft:
French painters, and whom they call the Raphael of
France, educated no yupib, nor formed any fchool.
His ftyle and charaTer of painting rre deferibed by
Sir Joffiua Reynolds as fimple, careful,’ pure, and.
correct. No works of any modern (adds the fame,
author) have fo much of the air of antique painting
as thofe of Pouffin. His beft performances have a re¬
markable drynefs of manner, whi h, though by no
means to be recommended for imitation, yet feems
perfedtly correfpondent to that ancient fimplicity which
diftinguifhes his ftyle
In the latter part of his life he changed, from this
manner to one much fofter and richer ; wfficre there
is a greater union between the figures and the ground.
Plis favourite fuejects wt re ancient fables; and no paint¬
er was ever better qualified to paint fuch fuhjedts, not
only from his being e minently {killed in the knowledge
of the ceremonies, e-uftoms, and hubits of the ancients,
but from his being fo well acquainted with the diffe¬
rent chaiadltrs which thofe who invented them gave
their allegorical figures.
If Pouffin, in the imitation of the ancients, repre-
ftnts Apolio driving his chariot out of the fea by way
4 G of
602
PAIN
Schrc!9‘ , of representing the fun rifing, if he perfonffies lakes
v “ and rivers, it is no way offenfive in him, hut feems
perfeftly of a piece with the general air of the pi&ure.
On the contrary, if the figures which people his pic¬
tures had a modern air or countenance, if they appear¬
ed like our countrymen, if the draperies were like
cleth or filk of our manufa&ure, if the landfcape had
the appearance of a modern view, how ridiculous
would Apollo appear ? inftead of the fun, an old man ;
or a nymph with an urn, inftead of a river or a lake.
Poufiin, however, more admired than imitated,
had no manner of influence in forming the French
School. Simon Vouet, his enemy and perfecutor, had
this honour, becaufe his pupils, in the happy age of
the arts in France, conferred on it the greateft fplen-
dor. Vouet was a man of diftinguiftied abilities ;
but the fchool which he erefted would have had no
continuance if his fcholars had purfued his manner of
pamting. He had a kind of grandeur and facility ;
but his defign was falfe with regard to Colours, and
without any idea of exprefiion. It was faid of him,
that he only needed to take the pencil in his hand to
finiHi with one ftroke the fubjecl which he had con¬
ceived ; and on this account one is tempted to be
pleafed, becaufe he is aflonifhed. He had the merit
of deftroying the infipid manner which reigned in
France and of pointing the way to a better tafte.
If Vouet laid the foundation of the French fchool,
LeBrun finifhed the edifice. WhenLeBrun was placed
under the tuition of Vouet, he aftoniflaed his mafter
and the reft of his pupils with the rapidity of his prg-
ffrefs. At the age of 26 he finifhed his piece called
the horfes of Diomede, which gained a place in the pa¬
lace royal (a), befide thofe of the moft eminent pain¬
ters. He was afterwards recommended to Pouffin; but
the young artift was more difpofed by his natural in¬
clinations to that modern part of the art which is
called the great machine, than to the profound and ftu-
died manner of the Greek artifts. Pouflin at the fame
time was of great fervice to him, in recommending to
his ftudy the monuments, the cuttoms, the drefs of
the ancients; their srchite&ure, their rites,, their ipec-
tades, their exereifes, their combats, and their tri¬
umphs.
Le Brun had a noble conception and a fruitful
imagination. He was on no occafion inferior to the
vaft compofitions which he undertook, and he chiefly
excelled in rigorous coflume and exact likrnefles.
Few painters have united fo great a number of ef-
fential qualities and acceflbries of the art; and if he
had fuperiors, it confifted in this, that they poflefied
fome particular quality in a more eminent degree.—
He was a good drawer, but his defign w.as far from
being fo elegant as that of Raphael, or fo pure as that
of Domenique, and it was lefs lively than that of Han-
tihal Carracci, whom he had taken for a model.
In drapery he followed the Roman fchool: the clothes
which he gave to his figures were not like thofe of
the Venetian fchool, of fuch and fuch a fluff; they
were draperies and nothing more, and this manner
agreed with the heroic flyle of his works ; but in this
part he was not equal to the painter of Urbino.—
He had ftudied the expreffion of the affedions of the
TING, Hiftory,
foul, as is evident from his treatife on the chara&er of Schools."
the paffions: but after obferving the general charac- y ■
ters, and eftablifhing the principal ftrokes of expref¬
fion, he thought he reached the whole extent of this
fubjed, which is fo infinitely extended. He always
employed the few charaders which he had @nce found
out, and neglcded to ftudy the prodigious variety of
gradations by which the interior affedions are mani-
fefted in the exterior appearance. He fell then into
the manner of repeating always; and pofiefled neither
the delicacy, nor the depth, nor the extreme juftnefs,
of Raphael's expreffion. He loved and poflefTed in a
high degree the grand machine of the art; he was de¬
lighted with great compofitions ; and ht gave them
life, and animation, and variety ; but he wanted the
vigour and infpiration of Raphael. His compofitions
are formed on philofophical principles, but thofe of
Raphael are created. Le Bran thought well; Ra¬
phael, Pouffin, le Sueur, thought moft profoundly. 
Le Brun had elevation, but he was not elevated like
Raphael, to the fuhlime.
In colouring, Le Brun did not imitate the painters
of the Venetian fchool. The fweet attradions and
ftrong and folia colours of the fchools of Rome and
Lombardy feem rather to have been the objed of his
imitation ; and from them alfo he learned an cafy,
agreeable, and bold management of the pencil.
As Le Brun poflefled a great fhare oflively imagi¬
nation, he delighted in allegory, which gives the
greateft fcope for ingenious invention. The fecun¬
dity and refources of his imagination appeared ftill far¬
ther, in his inventing fymbols for his allegorical fi¬
gures, without rafting contented with thofe employed
by the ancients. But fanciful reprefentations of this
kind are diftant from the operations of true genius.
Spirit and thought in the arts are very different from
fpirit and thought in literary produdions. A paint¬
er of moderate abilities may introduce into his works
a great deal of the invention which belongs to poetry
without enriching his peculiar art. The true fpirit
of painting confifts in making the figures appear in
the very circurrdtances and attitudes in which they
are fuppofed to ad, and penetrated with the fenti-
ments v/ith which they ought to be affeded. By.
thefe means the fpedator is more certainly interefted
than if the adions and thoughts were reprefented bv
allegorical fymbols. Poulfin appears to have lefs
wafte of fpidt and imagination than Le Brun, while
at the fame time he gives more delight to people of
fpirit and imagination.
Euftach 1c Sueur was the contemporary and rival of
Le Brun ; and no painter approached nearer to Ra¬
phael in the art of drapery, and in difpoling the folds
in the moft artful and the nobleft manner. His de¬
fign was in general more {lender than that c*f Raphael,
but, like his, it was formed on the model of the an¬
cients. Like P.aphacl he reprefented with art and
precifion the affedions of the foul ; like him, he va¬
ried the air of the head, according to the condition,
the age, and the character of his perfona jes; and, like
him, he made the different parts of every figure con¬
tribute to the general effeft. His intention in corn-
pofing was to exprefs his fubjed, not to make Alining
contrafta
(a) Where 11 m3y be is uncertain. Perhaps it has perifhed in the wreck, of tafte, art, fcience, and
elegance, againft which French democracy has waged a ruinous war.
Hiftory. PAIN
Schools, contrafts of beautiful groups of figures, not to afto-
nifh and bewitch the fpeftator by the deceitful pomp
of a theatrical fcene, or the fplendor of the great ma¬
chine. His tones are delicate, his tints harmonious,
and his colours, though not fo attractive as thofe of
the fchools of Venice and Flanders, are yet engaging.
They fteal peaceably on the foul, and fix it without
diftraCtion on the parts of the art, fuperior to that of
colouring.
His preaching of St Paul, and the picture which
he painted at St Gervais, which the critics compare
with the bell productions of the Roman fchool, and
the 22 pictures which he painted for the Carthufian
monaftery at Paris, and which were lately in pofleffion
of the king, are efteemed his heft pieces. His contem¬
poraries affirm, that he confidered as Iketches merely
thofe excellent performances which are the glory of
the French fchool.
If Le Sueur had lived longer, or if, like Le Brim,
he had been employed under a court, fond of the arts
and of learning, to execute the great works of the
age, the French fchool would have adopted a different
and a better manner. The noble beauty of his heads,
the Ample majefty of his draperies, the lightnefs of his
defign, the propriety of his expreffion and attitudes,
and the fimplicity of his general difpofition, would
have formed the character of this fchool. T.b deceit¬
ful pomp of theatrical decoration would have been
more lately introduced, or perhaps would never have
appeared, and Paris might have been the counter¬
part to Rome, But as Le Brun, by an accidental
concurrence of favourable circumftaRces, was the fa-
fhionable painter, to be employed or rewarded it was
neceffary to imitate his manner; and as his imitators
pofTefied not his genius, his faults became not only
current but more deformed.
The FYeneh fchool not long ago changed its prin¬
ciples ; and if, when peace fhall be reftored to this un¬
happy nation, they continue to follow the road which,
while the arts flourifhed among them, they marked out
for themfelves, they have the chance of becoming the
moft rigid obfervers of the laws impofed on the Greek
artifts. The Count de Ceyles, pupil of Bouchardion,
who by his rank and fortune had the means of encou¬
raging the imitators of the ancients, and of the ma¬
tters of the 15th century, firft formed the defign of
reftoring a pure tafte to the art of painting. He was
feconded by the talents of M. Vien, an artift who had
only occafion to have his leffons and his example laid
before him.—In this manner commenced a revolution,
fo ranch the more wonderful, as it was fcareely ever
known that any nation fubftitnted a fyltem of fimple
and rigid excellence in place of a falfe and glittering
tafte. The hiftory of all nations, on the contrary,
difeovers a gradual progrefs from a rude beginning to
perfefticn, and afterwards to irremediable decay. The
French had the profpefh of flopping fhort in this or¬
dinary courfe. They began in a manner which pro-
iiiifed fuccefs ; and the beft confequences may he ex¬
pected, if the internal commotions of France do not
deftroy the tafte for the arts, the exercife of which
l8 they have fufpended.
The Ger- In Germany there can hardly be faid to be a
man fcheol. fchool, as it is a continuation of Angle artifts, who.de¬
rived their manner from different fources of origina-
litj and imitation. There were fome German pain-
TING. 60
ters of eminence, when the art, emerging from its bar- Schools ^
barons ftate, firft began to be cultivated with fuccefs
in Europe. As they were totally unacquainted with
the ancients, and had fcarcely accefs to the works of
their contemporaries in Italy, they copied nature alone,
with the exception of fomewhat of that ftiffnefs which
forms the Gothic manner. It is this manner, if we
fpeak of the early German painters, which characte¬
rizes their fchool. But this is by no means the cafe
with their fucceffors, part of whom were educated in.
Flanders and part in Italy : For if Mengs or Die¬
trich were comprehended in this fchool, there would
be nothing peculiar to its manner difeovered in their
works. And it is therefore neceffary to confine our
obfervations to the more ancient German painters, in
whom the Gothic ftyle is confpicuous.
Albert Durer was the firft German who corre&ed
the bal tafte of his countrymen. He excelled in en-
graving as well as painting. His genius was fertile,
his compofitions varied, his thoughts ingenious, and
his colours brilliant His works, though numerous,
were finifhed with great exaCfcnefs ; but as he owed
every thing to his genius, and as works of inferior
merit were by the falfe tafte of the times preferred t->
his, it was rmpoffiblt for him altogether to avoid the
faults of his predeceffors. He is blamed for ftiffnefs
and aridity in his outlines, for little tafte or grandeur
in his expreffion, for ignorance of the coftume of aerial
perfpeCiive and of gradation of colours : but he had
carefully ftudied lineal perfpe&ive, archite&ure, and
fortification.
John Holbeen or Holbein, nearly contemporary
with Albert Durer, painted in oil and water colours.
He excelled chiefly in hiftory and in portrait painting.
His colours are frelh and brilliant, and his works
are highly finiftied ; but in his hiftorical fuhjeCls, his
draperies are not in fo good a tafte as thofe of Albert
Durer. T
The Flemifh fchool is recommended to the lovers pj'j,.
of the art by the difeovery, or at leaft the firft pric-nnfli
tice, of oil painting. Van Mander gives us the ac-fchool.'
count of this wonderful difeovery in the following
words : “ John Van Eyck was fo excellent a che-
mift, that he difeovered a method of varniftiing his
diftemper colours with a varnilh, which was made of
fome oils, and was very pleafing on account of the
glofs and luftre it gave them. Many artifts in Italy
had vainly attempted to find out that fecret; they
never hit on the true method. It happened once that
John, in his ufual manner, having highly finifhed one
of his pidlurcs on boards, and having varniihed it with,
his new invented varnifh, expofed it to dry in the fun ;
but whether the boards were not well joined, or whe¬
ther the heat of the fun was too violent, the boards
fplit afunder and opened in the jun&ures. John faw
with concern that his work was fpoiled, and refolved
to contrive fomething againft future accidents of the
fame kind. Being difgufted at diftemper painting
and varmlhing, he thought of a varnifh that might
dry without fur.fhine ; and having tried many oils and
fubftances, he found that Jintfeed and nut oil dried
better than any other. He boiled them with fotne
other drugs, and produced the beft varnifh in the
world. Ever bent on improvement, he found, after
much inquiry, that colours mixed with thefe oils work¬
ed and dried extremely well, and when dried would
4 G 2 be/
6oi PAIN
f>e water-proof. He o!)ferved likewife, that thefe
oils would animate and give them a glofs and luftre
without any farther varnifliing.” The truth, however,
of this account is now very much queftioned ; and it
is even proved by the manuferipts of rheophilps Pref-
byter, and alfo by fome old oil paintings in England,
that this method of painting was difcovered long be¬
fore the time of John Van Eyck. At the fame time
we admit, that John and his brother Hubert may
have been the lirit who brought oil painting into ge¬
neral practice, not only by fhowing the excellence of
which it was fufceptible, but alfo by making feveral
improvements on the art. And this is the more pro¬
bable, from the great reputation which their pictures
acquired over all Europe by the foftnefs and delicacy
of their colours. The attention of the Italian paint¬
ers was chi fly excited, infomuch that Antoine de
Meffina performed a journey into Flanders for the ex-
prefs purpofe of acquiring the confidence of John Van
Eyck, and of difesvering the fecret.
John de. Bruges was the founder of painting as a
profeffion- in Flanders ; Peter Paul Rubens was the
founder of the art. This extraordinary perfon pro¬
duced an immenfe number of works. He excelled
equally in hiftoncal, portrait, and landfcape painting;
in fruits, flowers, and in animals Fie both invented
and executed with the greatefl facility ; and to fhow
the extent of his powers, he frequently made a great
number of fketches of the fame fubjsft altogether dif-
, ferent, without allowing any time to elapfe between
them. The works of Rubens were deftitute of that
foft infpiration, productive of fweet and pleafant ef-
fedfs, fo confpicuous in the works of Raphael; but he
poifeifed that fprightlinefs of genius and ftrength of
mind which is ever ready to burft forth in wonderful
and afionifhing effects. His figures appear to be the
exadt counter-part of his conceptions, and their crea¬
tion nothing more than a fiaspic act of the will.
His talent for delign is unjuftly cenfured, for on
every occafion his defign is noble and eafy. He had
great knowledge of anatomy, but he was hurried away
by the impetuofity of his imagination and the ardour
for execution ; he preferred fplendor to the beauty
of forms, and facrificed corredtnefs of defign too often
to the magic of colours. In fhort, his qualities fup-
poie a mind full of fire and vigour, rather than accu¬
racy or profound thought. His drapery may be con-
fidered rather as fine than properly adapted to his fi¬
gures : for, in the language of the art, to c’othe and to
give drapery are not lynonymous terms. A portrait
painter may excel in clothing his perfonages, while
he is totally incapable of giving good drapery to an
hiftorical painting. His chief merit coniifts in co¬
louring ; though in this branch of the art he has not
equalled Titian. He is the firll among painters emi¬
nent fpr pomp and majefty ; the firft among thofe who
fpeak to the eye, and the power of the art is oftea
carried by him almolt to enchantment.
It is evident from the works of Rubens, that his
method of painting was to lay the colours in their
place, one at the fide of another, and mix them after¬
wards by a flight touch of the pencil. Titian mingled
his tints as they are in nature, in fueh a manner as to
make it impefTible to difeover where they began or
terminated ; the effeft is evident, the labour is con¬
cealed. Thus Rubens is more dazzling, and Titian
^ I ^ G* HiHory,
more harmonious. In this part, the firft excites the Schools,
attention, the fecond fixes it. The carnations oje Ti- v——^
tian referable the blufh ot nature; thofe of Rubens are
brilliant and polifhed like fatin, and fometimes his
tints aie fo firong and feparated as to appear like
fj*)ts.
‘‘ Rubens (fays Sir JoHmaReynolds) is a remarkable
in 'ance of the fame mind being feen in all the various
perts of the art. The whole is fo much of a piece,
that one can fcarce be brought to believe but that if
any one of them had been more corred and per fed,
his works would not be fo compete as they appear.
If we fhould allow a greater purity and eorredntfs
of drawing, his want 01 fimplieity in compofition,
colouring, and drapery, would appear more grofs."
In his compofitiofi his art is too apparent. His fi¬
gures have expreffion, and ad with energy, but with¬
out fimplicity or dignity. His colouring, in which
he is eminently {killed, is notwitbftanding too much
o‘ what we call tinted. Throughout the whole of
his works there is a proportionable want of that nice¬
ty of diftindion and elegance ot mind, which is re¬
quired in the higher walks of painting; and to this
want it may be in fome degree aferined, that thafe
qualities which make the excellency of this iubordi-
nate flyle appear in him with their greatelt luitre.—
Indeed die facility with which he invented, the rich-
nefs of his compofition, the luxuriant harmony and
brilliancy of his colouring, fo dazzle the eye, that
whilst his works continue before us, we cannot help
thinking that ail his deficiencies are fully fupphed.
The Fiemiih fchool, of which Rubens is the greatell
malter, is remarkable for great brilliancy of colours
and the magic of the claro olfcuro. To thefe may be
joined a profound defign, which is yet not founded on
the mod beautiful forms ; a compofition poffefied of
grandeur, a certain air of noblenefs in the figures,
ftrong and natural expreflions; in fhort, a kind of na¬
tional beauty, which is neither copied from the an¬
cients nor from the Roman nor Lombard fchools, but
which deferves to pleafe, and is capable of pleaiing.
To fpeak in general terms, and without regarding Thc Dutcfe
a great number of exceptions, the Dutch fchool fchool.
arcries none of the above qualities to great perfe&ion,
except that of colouring. Far from excelling in the
beauty of heads and forms, they feem chiefly to de¬
light In the exact imitation of the lowed and mod ig¬
noble. Their fubjects are derived from the tavern,
the fmith’s fliop, and from the vulgar amuiements of
the ruded peafants. The expreflions are fufficiently
marked ; but it is the expreflion of paffions which de¬
bate. indead of ennobling human nature. One would
think that they pra&ifcd the art of degrading the bo¬
dies and fouls of men.
It mud be acknowledged, at the fame time, that
the Dutch painters have fucceeded in feveral branches
of the art. if they have chofen low objects of imita¬
tion, they have reprefented them with great exadtnefs;
and truth mud always pleafe. If they have not fuc¬
ceeded in the molt difficult parts of the claro-obfcuro,
they at lead excel in the molt driking, fuch as in light
confined in a narrow fpace, night illuminated by the
moon or by torches, and the light of a fmith’s forge.
The Dutch underdand the gradations of colours ; and
by their knowledge of contrail they have arrived at
the art of painting light itfelf. They have no rivals
in
Hlftory. v p A | N
Schools, in landfcape painting’, confidered as the faithful repre-
'-y ^ fentati<«n ov pifturc of a particular fcone ; but they
are far from equalling Titian, Pouffio, Claude Xjorrain,
&c. who have ettried to the greatHl perfedtion the
ideal landfcape, and whofe pidlures, infteaU of being
the topographical reprefentation of certain places, are
the combined refult of every thing beautiful in their
imagination or in nature. The Dutch, however, di-
ftinguifh themfelves by their perfpeftive, by their
clouds, fea-feenes, animals, fruits, flowers, and infedls;
and they excel in miniature painting. Infhort, every
thing which requires a faithful imitation, colour, and
a nice pencil, is well executed by the Dutch painters.
Holland has alfo produced hiftory painters, as Oc¬
tavius Van Been, and Vander Hilft the rival of Van¬
dyke, and perhaps his fuperior : but it is not in the
works of thofe artills that we find the charafter of
the Dutch fchool.
Neither is the origin of their flyle to be derived
from the works of Lucas of Leyden, though, from the
time he flourilhed, viz. about the end of the 15th
century, he may be confidered as the patriarch 01 trie
Dutch fchool. Lucas painted in oil, in. water co¬
lours, and on glafs; and the kinds of his painting
were hiflory, landfcape, and portrait. His picture of
the Laft Judgment is preferved in .the Hotel-de-ville
of Leyden ; it pofiefles vaft merit in point of compo-
fition, and a great variety of figures.
If miniature painting be conlidered as a charac-
teriftic of the Dutch fchool,' Cornelius Polembourg
may be regarded as the father of it. He poflcfied
the colour, delicacy of touch, and dTpofition of the
claro-obfcuro, which chiefly diftinguifh this fchool ;
and if any thing is to be added, it is want of corre&nefs
in his defign.
But if the choice of low figures is its chief cha-
ra&eriftic, this is to be found in the greateft perfe&ion
in the works of the celebrated Rembrandt Vanryn ;
and it is the more offenfive in this avtift, as hia compo-
fitions frequently required an oppofite choice of figures.
As his father was a miller near Leyden, his education
muft altogether have depended on the exertion of
great talents and the fludy of nature. Hefludied the
grotefquc figure of a Dutch peafant or the fervaut of
an inn with as much application as the greateft ma¬
ilers of Italy would have ftudied the Apollo of Belvi-
dere or the Venus de Medicis This was not the man¬
ner of elevating himfelf to the noble conceptions of
Raphael; but it was acquiring the imitation of truth
in vulgar painting.
“ Rembrandt (fays M. Defcamps) may be com¬
pared to the great artifts for colour and delicacy of
touch and claro-obfcuro. It appears that he would
have diiovered the art, though he had been the firlt
perfon that ever attempted it.. He formed to himfelf
rules and a method of colouring, together with the
mixture of colours and the effedt of the different
tones. He delighted in the great oppofitions of light
and fhade ; and he feems to have been chiefly atten¬
tive to this branch of the art. His workfhop was
occafionally made dark, and he received the light by
a hole, which fell as he chofe to dire£l it on the place
which he defired to be enlightened. On particular
occafions he palled behind his model a piece of cloth
of the fame colour with the ground he wanted ; and
this piece of cloth receiving the fame ray which en^
TING.
lightened the head, marked the difference^in a fenfible
manner, and allowed the painter the power of aug¬
menting it according to his principles.
“ Rembrandt’s manner of painting is a kind of
magic. No artift knew better the effedls of different
colours mingled together, nor ceuld better diftinguifh
thofe which did n«t agree from thofe which did.
He placed every tone in its place with fo much ex-
adtnefs and harmony, that he needed not to mix them,
and fo deftroy what may be called the flower and
frefhnefs of the colours. He made the firft draught
of his pictures with greatTprecifion, and with a mix¬
ture of colours altogether particular: he proceeded on
his firft fketch with a vigorous application, and fome-
times loaded his lights with fo great a quantity of co¬
lour, that he feemed to model rather than to paint.
One of his heads is Lid to have a noie nearly as much
projedted as the natural nofe which he copied.”
Such is the power of genius, that Rembrandt, with
all his faults, and they are enormous, is placed among
the greateft artifts by M. Defcamps, who faw his
works, and was himfelf an artift. It is neceffary to ol).*
ferve, that if Rembrandt was ignorant of the eflential
parts of his art, or negle&ed them, he was yet acquainted
with expreffion, which alone was capable of givinganima-
tion to his works. Hisexpreffions are not noble, butthey
are juft, lively, and executed with great judgment.
John de Laer, a miniature painter, and who made
choice of his fubjefts from common life, deferves a
diftinguifhed place in the Dutch fchool. He painted
hunting-feenes, the attacks of robbers, public feftivals,
landfcapes, and fea views; and he ornamented his pic¬
tures with old ruins, and enriched them with figures
of men and animals. He had a corredt defign, and-
employed vigorous and lively colouring.
Van-Oftade, although born at Lubeck, Gerard
Dow, Metzu, Miris, Wouwermans, Berghem, and the
celebrated painter of flowers Van-Huyfum, belong to
the Dutch fchool
The greater part of the fchools of which we have
treated have no longer any exiftence. Laly alone
had four fchools, and there only remain at prelent a
very few Italian artifts known to foreigners. The
fchool of Rubens is in vain fought for in Flanders.
If the Dutch fchool ftili exifts, it is not known be¬
yond the precindls of Holland. Mengs a German ar¬
tift has male himfelf famous in our days; but it was
in Italy that he chiefly improved his talents and exer-
cifed his art. M. Dietrich, another German, has made
himfelf known to ftrangers; but two folitary artifts
do not form a fchool. ^
A new fchool is formed in our times and in our £ngir
own counrty, called the Englijh fchool. It is connedled lifli fchool.
with the academy in London inllituted in 1766 by
leUers patent from the king, and formed only in 1769,
Sir Jolhua Reynolds is the undoubted founder of it.
His works give him a diftinguifhed rank among the
artifts of the prefent age, and exhibit a genius in their
author which has feldom been furpaffed : but the
effedts which he has contrived to give to them by the
formation of a new fchool, and by the good prin¬
ciples which his difeourfes to academicians, and his
example as a painter, have diffeminated, will fecure his
reputation as long as England (hall efteem the ad¬
vantages and the worth of great abilities. The Eng-
lilh taile appears to be formed on the great mailers
PAIN
of the Italian and the Flemilh fchools. Sir Jofliua was a
great admirer of Michael Angelo, and particularly re-
commends him to the attention of the academicians.
“I feel (fays Sir Jofhua) a felf-congratulation in
knowing myfelf capable of fuoh fenfations as he in¬
tended to excite. I reflect, not without vanity, that
tnefe difcourfes bear teftimony of my admiration of
that truly divine man ; and I fliould defire that thelaft
words which I (hould pronounce in this academy,
and from this place, might be the name of-—Michael
Angelo. But though he thus enthufiaflically admired
this very great man,yet he allows, what cannot indeed be
denied, that he was capricious in his inventions y “ and
this (fays he) may make fome circumfpedtion neeeflary
in ftudying his works ; for though they appear to be¬
come him, an imitation of them is always dangerous,
and will prove fometimes ridiculous. ‘ In that dread
circle none durll tread but tied Tome, I confefs,his ca¬
price does not lower the eftimation of his genius, even
though it is fomttimes, I acknowledge, carried to the
extreme : and however thofe eccentric excurfions are
confidered, we mull at the fame time recoil eft, that
thofe faults, if they are faults, are fuch as never could
occur to a mean and vulgar mind ; that they flowed
from the fame fource which produced his greateft beau¬
ties ; and were therefore fuch as none but himfelf was
capable of committing ; they were the powerful im¬
putes of a mind unufed to fubjeftion of any kind, and
too high to be controuled by cold criticifm.”
I he effeft. of Sir Jofhua’s difcourfes is vifible in the
pifturesof this fchool. The Death of General Wolf, the
Departureof RegulusforCarthage,the Arrivalof Agrip¬
pina, and fome other fubjefts, are decided proofs that the
■Englilh fchool is acquainted with greatnefs of ftyle,
boldnefs of exprefiion, and the art of managing a
great number of figures. It will be fortunate for the
painters of this fchool, if, more rigid with regard to
their forms than ambitious of poignant and aftonifhing
efFefts, they fupport the chatafter which they have
-already acquired. _ But although England had not
enjoyed this brilliant fuccefs in painting, {he would
have immortalized herfelf by the excellency of her en¬
gravings.
It is eafy to perceive in all thofe fchools the caufe
of the charafter which diflinguifhes them. In the Ro¬
man fchool, it is the excellent education of its firft
mailers, together with tbe precious remains of an¬
tiquity found in the ruins of ancient Rome. In the
Venetian fchool, the magnificence derived from the
commerce of the eafl, the frequency of feafts and
mafquerades, and the neceflity of painting to the rich
and luxurious, who were accuftemed to behold thefe
magnificent objefts, were the caufes of its gaudy taiie.
In the Dutch fchool, the peculiarity of its grovelling
-manner may be accounted for from the habits of the
artifls. Accuftomed to vifit taverns and workfhops,
and having moft commonly expofed to their view
low and grotefque figures, they reprefent in their pic¬
tures the objefts which were moll familiar to them in
life.
* Encyrfop. “ Beauty (fays a French writer*) ought to be
*s.,uX Aris, the charafteviftic of the Engliih fchooi, becaufe the
’ 14 hav« often expofed to their view. If this
beauty is nut precifely fimilar to Jliat among the an¬
cients, it is not inferior to it. The Enghfin fchool
fhould sifo diftinguilh itjfelf for truth of expreffion j
T 1 N G- Hiflory.
becaufe the liberty enjoyed in lhat country gives to Compari-
every pafiion its natural and unbiaffed operation. Itfon be'
will probably long preferve its fxmplicity unpolluted by^e^n thc
the pomp of theatrical talle and the conceit of falfe and^Mo-
graces, becaufe the Englifli manners will long preferve dcm.
their fimplicity". °  t—j
“ Examine the pifture of a Frenchwoman (con¬
tinues he) painted by an artill of that nation, and you
will generally find, in place of exprefiion, a forced grin,
in which the eyes and the Forehead does nnt partake
and which indicates no affeftion of the foul. Exa¬
mine the pifture of an Englifliwoman dene by one
of their painters, and you obferve an elegant and
fimple expreflion, which makes you at once acquainted
with the charafter of the perfan reprefented.,,
Sect. III. Comparifon between the Anc'unt and
Modern Painting.
No perfon of judgment or tafte hefitates to give the
uperiority to the ancient fculpture ; but the moderns
comfort themfelves with refufing the fame fuperiority
to the Greek artifts in the art of painting. The fmall
number of their produftions which remain, and the
probable conjeftures which may be formed concern¬
ing thofe which have perifhed, go the length to prove
that the Greek painters condufted themfelves on
other principles than thofe which have received the
fan ft ion of cuflom and the force of laws in our fchools.
But this cenfure might be applied with equal juftice to
Homer as an epic poet, and to Sophocles and Euri¬
pides as writers of tragedy.
Flie principal difference between the ancient and
modern manner of painting conlitls in the complica¬
tion of figures and the pompous decoration of feenery
which prevails in the modern, when compared with
the. unity and fimplicity of the ancient painters^
i his fimplicity, however, does not feem to arife from
the want of capacity, but from a choice, as Polyg.
notus, one of their mofl ancient painters, reprefents in
one of his pieces the fiege of Troy, and in an¬
other the defeent of Ulyffes into hell; but they foon
decided in favour of fimplicity, and their pieces ge¬
nerally contain one or two figures, and very rarely
more than three or four. 1
Poetry in this particular is condufted on very dif¬
ferent principles. A poet may with great propriety
multiply his charafters, and enter into details of a
variety pf aftions, becaufe the whole of his charafters
and aftions do not occupy the mind of his reader at
the fame time. The whole of his art conlifts in ma¬
king one naturally fuccecd another; but. every part
of the poem which contains a feparate tranfaftfon
would make a pifture capable of fixing the attention.
In painting,.the eye takes in the whole ; and it is hy¬
po means fatisfied if 20 or 30 figures are prefented to
it, which it cannot pofiibiy comprehend. It is in
vain to group the figures, or to call the attention to
the principal objeft by a greater degree of light; the
fpeftator is anxious to examine every objeft which is
prefenced to him ; and if they are not to be examined,
for what reafon are they painted ? An excellent piece,
at the fame time, confifling of a great number of fi¬
gures, will give pleafure ; but it is accompanied with
that fatigue which one experiences when he runs over
a.gallery furnifhed with a great variety of excellent
pictures.
Thafe •
Hiftory. PAIN
Compiri- Thofe ohfervations on the attention of the’fpedlator
fw«en the t^1C ^ree^s t0 ma^e fitrilar ones on the attention
Ancient t^e art'ft- They perhaps thought that the painter
and Mo who had to execute a great variety of figures in the
deni. fame work, could not ftudy each of them with equal
accuracy and care ; and of confequence that he might
produce fomething aftonifhing in the extent, and yet
difgufting in the detail.
This difference, however, between ancient and mo¬
dern painting, cannot give any decided principle to
determine pn their comparative merit. We are ac-
cuftomed to behold aflemblages in nature ; and it is a
faft, that even in affe&ing feenea a great number of
figures may not only be brought together, but that
they may heighten the diftrefs. It is fuppofing a
pi&ure to have little effeft, to imagine that we can
coolly, and with the fame kind of attention, examine
the pri«cipal and the aecelTory figures. If it is highly
finifhed, our whole foul mufl be abforbed in that ob-
jeft which the artifl intended to be moft confpicuous;
and if we give any attention to the furrounding figures,
we fhall confider them as fpettators of the fame feent,
and derive from them un addition of fympathy and of
feeling. The whole queftion in this particular point
of view amounts to this, that the moderns have chofen
a more difficult part ; and if they have executed it with
fuccefs, their merit is greater. And this obfervation
will hold good, unlefs it can be proved that it is ut¬
terly ircpoffible to make an afiemblage of figures lead
to one general and common effe&.
The proper manner of deciding the comparative
merit ®f the ancients nnd moderns, is to confider, as
far as we have fufficient data to go upon, to what degree
the ancients excelled in the particular departments of
th is art. There are two fources from which we can
derive information; namely, from the morfels of anti¬
quity which yet remain, and from what the ancient
writers have faid on the fubje£V of painting,bothof which
are extremely defe<fdi^r. It. is allowed,however, by every
fkilfiil perfon who has viewed the remains of ancient
paintings, that none of them appear to be the perform¬
ances of fuperior artifis, notwitftanding much merit in
the defign and accuracy in the drawing, which indeed
fee ms to have been habitual to almoft every ancient ar-
tilt. The belt among thefe paintings (according to
Sir Jofluia Reynolds), “ the fuppofed marriage in the
Aldrobandine palace,” is evidently far fhort of that
degree of excellence undoubtedly implied in the de-
feriptions of ancient authors, anil which fiom them we
are fairly led to expert.
Still more defective, if pofiible, is this laft fpecies
of evidence : for we have no diteft treatife remaining
on the fubjeef by any of the ancients, although many
were compofed by their artifts. The paffages from
which we are to decide are, either the curfory remarks
of writers not exprcfsly treating on the fuhjedt of
painting, or the dt feriptions rtf thofe who at fceft can
rank but as amateurs of a fafhlonable art. From thefe
indeed we may pretty fafely affert the degree of ex¬
cellence which the palTages imply ; but we fhould rea-
fon very inconclufively, were we to deny them any
higher or any other merit than appears to be ftrictly
contained in thefe fcattered obfervations. Let any
one for a moment place the modern painters in his
mind in the fame fituation as the ancients, and he will
quickly decide on the truth of thefe remarks.
TING.. 607
Neverthelefs, it is neceflary on this fubjeft to derive Compari-
fome conclufions from the information which is occa-^on '3e
fionally given in ancient authors. That the ancients indent16
paid a particular attention to defign, would be evident and Mo-
from the manner in which they fpeak of this depart-dern.
ment of the graphic art, even though the moderns were v , f
not in pofieflion of fuch remaining proofs of their ex¬
cellence herein (though by artifts of an inferior dais;,
as to place this point beyond the reach of doubt.
Indeed, when it is confidered that, with refped to
freedom and corredlnefs of outline, painting and fculp-
ture are very nearly conne&ed ; that Phidias and A-
pelles were nearly contemporaries ; that many of the
ancient painters, fuch as Zeuxis, Protogenes, Apelles,
&c. were accuftomed to modelling for the purpofe of
fculpture or of calling ; that the extreme, elegance of
defign in the ancient ftatues is fo notorious as to be
the acknowledged model even for modern artifts ; and
that thefe ornaments of fculpture were well known and
nniverfally admired among the ancients—we firall have
little hefitation in admitting their equality with the
moderns fo far as defign is concerned. But fhould
any doubt remain on this point, the drawings from the.
antiquities of Herculaneum will be ftriking- proofs that
truth, elegance, and fpirit, in a degree rarely to be
met with among the moderns, were habitual even to
the common run of artifts in the declining age of an¬
cient painting.
The ancients excelled moreover not merely in the
common and obvious parts of defign; but they appear
to have had no ineonfiderable degree of fall in the art
offorejhortening. The performance of Paulias is a proof
ol this : Fecit autem grandes tabular Jicut fpsSatam in
Pompeii porticibus bourn immolationem. Earn enim p:Su-
ram primus invenit. qnam pojlea imitati funt multi, cquavit
nemo. Ante omnia, cum longiludinem lovls ojletuiere -vel¬
dt , adverfum eum pinxit, non tranfverfum, et abunde inlel-
ligitur amplitudo. Dein cum omnes qui vo/unt eminentia vi-
deri, candicantia faciant, coloremque condant, hie totum bo-
vem atri co/oris fecit ; umbreeque corpus ex ipfo dedit ; mag¬
net prorfus arte in ecquo extantia ojlendens et in confratio fo-
lida omnia.
Nor will it be difficult to (how, that the ancient
painters were not inferior to the moderns in exprejfion.
The ftate of fculpture alone among the ancients would
almoft furniih a decifive proof that the filter art of paint¬
ing could not be deiicienc. Among the ancient fta¬
tues which yet remain, expreffion is carried to a won¬
derful height; not merely the features of the face,
hut almoft every mufcle of the body, combining to en¬
force the idea intended to be conveyed.
Mr Webb* very properly obferves, th at “the ancients * On Taint-
thought charafters ani manners fo efiential to paint-andP°e~
ing, that they exprefsly term piSure an art deferiptive
of manners. Ariftotle in his Poetics fays of Pelygno-
tus, that he was a painter of the manners; and objefts
to Zeuxis, his weaknefs in this part.” We have in
Philoftratus the following defeription of a pifture ;
“ We may inftantly (fays he) diftinguifh Uiyfles by
his feverity and vigilance; Menelaus by ids mildnefs ;
and Agamemnon by a kind of divine majefty. in the
fon of Tydeus is exprdled an air of freedom ; Ajax is
known by his fujlen fiercenefs ; and Antilochus by his
alertnefs. To give to thefe fuch fentiments and adiions
as are confcqucntial from their peculiar chara&ers, is
the ethic of painting.”
Another- r
6o8
Ci.mpari-
fori be¬
tween the
Ancient
and Mo¬
dern.
: ( .
PAIN
Another Inflance of excellence in expreflion among
the ancient paintings was the Medea of Timomnchus
She was painted about to kill her infants. Aufonias
fpeaks with admiration of the mingled expreffion of
, anger and maternal fondnefs in her face and man-
^ ner.
Immar.em exh unfit rerum in diver fa lalorem
Fingeret affeBum matris ut ambiguum,
Ira fub ejl lachrymis, mif?ratio non caret ira,
Altere utrum videos ut Jit in altere ulro.
It may not be amifs, however, at this period of our
inquiry, to make fome obfervations on the teftimonies
of ancient authors refpefting this fubjecl.
It is certainly true, that when the works of an an-
cknt artlft are praifed for any real or fuppofed merit,
the commendations will be relative to the degree of
perfection to which the art had arifen at the time, and
to the opportunities of information, the tafte, and judge¬
ment of the perfon who bellows them. Excellence
will always be aferibed to him who leaves his cotem-
poraries far behind; and thofe performances will often
be confidered as fupremely beautiful which exceed in
beauty all that have gone before.
In like manner, a perfon of natural fenfibility, but
who has been rccuftomed all his life to performances
of ?.n inferior llamp, will be in raptures at any which
much exceed the beft he has heretofore been taught to
admire ; and whatever opportunities of information he
may have, his evidence will not be of much weight, if
lie do not poffefs a fufficient degree of tafte and judge¬
ment to ufe them properly.
In afeertaining therefore the degree of credit due to
the praifes be ft owed on any performance in a branch
of the fine arts, we mull take into confideration the
general Hate of the art at the time, and the compe¬
tence of the perfon who bellows the praife.
No flight degree of probability, however, may be
attained on both thefe poincs, by attending to a cir-
cumftance not generally noticed, viz. that in an ad¬
vanced ftate of the art, and when the obferver is ac¬
quainted with his fubjecl, the praife will feldom be
given in loofe, general, and comprehenfive expreffions;
but the terms in which it is conveyed will be charafte-
riftic and determinate, and olten technical; they will
frequently {how the ftate of the art, by marking the
fubdivifions and the flcill of the obferver by-judicious
diferimination. When, added to thefe, the latter can
refort for comparifon to any exiftent ftandard of per-
ftdlion, his praife may fairly be adopted in its full ex¬
tent,andregardedas evidence upon the point in queftion.
To apply thefe obfervations to painting, it is clear,
with refpedl to the moft difficult, the moft fundamen¬
tal, and the higheft in rank among the departments of
the art, viz. defign and expieffien, that the ancients
were fully equal to the moderns ; and their expreffions
of praife rnuft be allowed to imply an equal degree of
abfolute {kill, with fimilar exprdlion.s, if applied to the
great mailers of modern art. It is alfo clear that
painting w is extremely cultivated among the ancients,
and that their good painters were more efteemed than
arfills of equal merit in modern times ; that what we
ffiould term gentlemen artifts were frequent-with
them, / a pud Romanos quoque honos mature huic arti con-
tig'f); and that the expreffion of the ancient connoifleurs
N° 256 .
TING. HirWT.
evince much theoretical and technical knowledge ofCompari-
the art, and difplay a diftribution of its parts almoft as*°n
minute, complete, and fcientilic, as the prefent ftatertl<:
of it can boaft.
With regard to colouring, the praifes of the ancient dern.
authors chiefly relate to the ftyle of it as exerted upon -v—**
Angle figures or particular tints. It may therefore be
doubted whether the ancients were poflefled of the art
of diftributing their colours through the whole of a
pidlure, fo as to produce an harmony and general tone
of colouring fimilar to that which we admire in the
Lombard and Flemiih fchools. The prefent remains
of ancient paintings do not appear to warrant any
fuch conclufions ; but being undoubtedly the works of
inferior hands, their authority is very fmali when al¬
leged againlt the general or particular merit of the an¬
cient artifts. The following extradls will be fufficient
to evince, that the ancients did attend to this technical
branch of colouring.
Indeed the modern technical expreffions appear bor¬
rowed from the following paflage of Pliny, which may
be regarded as decifive on the fubjedl. Tandem feft
ars ipfa diftinxit, et invenit lumen atque umbras, diffe¬
rentia colorum alterna vice fefe excitante. Dein adjedus ejl
fplendor ; alius hie quam lumen ; quern quia inter hoc et
umbram ejfet, appefaverunt tonon. Comm'furas vero colo¬
rum et tranfitus, harmogen. The lumen atque umbras
o{ this paflage might have been regarded as merely de-
feriptive of the light and ffiade neceffary to relieve
Angle figures, if it were not for the fubfequent defini¬
tion of tone. The harmogen of Pliny means the hand¬
ling or fkilful blending and foftening colours into one
another, rather than what we now call harmony.
Lucian f, in his fine defcription of thatfpirited paint- f in his
ing by Zeuxis of the male and female centaurs, after Zeuxis*
relating the treatment of the fubjedl itfelf, proceeds
to notice the technical execution of the pidlure ; and
he praifes particularly the- truth and delicacy of the
drawing, the perfect blending of the colours, the fkil-
ful (hat ing, the fcientific prefervation of fize and mag-
n:tud-, and the equality and harmony of the propor¬
tions throughout the whole piece.
Painters, fays Plutarch, increafe the effiefl of the
light and fplendid parts of a piclure by the neighbour¬
hood of dark tints and (hades. And Maximus Tyrius
obferves, that bright and vivid colours are always plea-
fant to the eye ; bht this pleafure is always leffened if
you omit to accompany them with fomewhat dark and
gloomy. Thefe paflages feem to imply a knowledge
of the ufe of cold and dark tints even where a bril¬
liancy of tone is required. The beft among the an¬
cient painters, however, feem to have preferred a chafte
and fober ftyle of colouring to the gaudinefs and flut¬
ter of the later artifta.
LTpon the whole, therefore, with refpeA to colour¬
ing as employed upon Angle figures, as the ancients
were fully as competent to judge ©f excellence herein
as the moderns ; as the expreffions of the ancient con¬
noifleurs are very warm in praife of the colouring of
many of their painters; as they appear alfo to have
attended very much to the art of colouring ; and,
moreover, as pi obable evidence can be adduced that
they attended to miniature painting—a confiderable
degree of merit may be allowed them in the ufe of"
the colours they poflefled.
Chiaro-
Hi (lory.
PAINTING.
6og
Compan-
fon be¬
tween the
Ancie»t
ami Mo-
tlern.
Clnaro-fcuro, or the art of placing and proportioning
light and fhade in fuch a manner as to produce a pleafing
effeft, independently of any other circumtlance conneft-
ed with the picture, has been commonly deemed a cha-
rafteriftic difference between the knowledge of ancient
and modern painters. On this fubjeft the works of the
ancients now remaining give little or no information ;
hen-'e Sir Jolhua Reynolds obferves, “ that this, which
makes fo confiderable a part of the modern art, was
to them totally unknown. If the great painters had
pofTeffed this excellence, fome portion of it would
have infallibly been diffufed, and have been difeovered,
in the works of the inferior rank of artifts which have
come down to ws, and which may be confidered as on
the fame rank with the paintings that ornament our
public gardens.” But the accounts of the places
where thefe paintings have been found, make it evident
that they were thus ornamented at a very inconfufer-
able expence. The generality of them confifl of fingle
figures ; forne of them of two or three figures, gene¬
rally relieved by an uniform ground ; and, except in
a few inftanoes, evidently defigned as mere reliefs to
a compartment, and anfwering, as near as may be,
the ftuccoed ornaments in our modern rooms; nor do
any of them feem the works of artifts equal in their
day to thofe at prefewt employed on the painted ciel-
ings of private houfes.
The Abbe du Bos maintains, on the other hand,
that what Pliny and other ancient writers fay con¬
cerning the claro-obfcuro, and the delightful diftribu-
tion of light and (hade, is altogether decifive ; and
that their writings are full of fo many probable cir-
cnmftances, that it cannot be denied that the ancients
at leaft equalled the moft celebrated of the moderns in
this part of the art.
On the examination of the greater part of the paf-
fages from antiquity, it is evident that they may re¬
late to the light and (bade of tingle figures, without
involving what is now called the fcience of the
claro obfcuro. The paffage of Pliny, however, al-
i^ady quoted, and feveral others, go very near to
prove that this branch of painting was underftood
among the ancients. The dark, the light, and mezzo¬
tint are evidently and accurately deferibed in that
paflage.
Equally ftrong is that expreffion in Quintilian :
Zeuxis luminum umbrnrumque rationem inveniJJ'e traditur.
This cannot well be otherwife tranflsted than by the
fcienct of light and (hade.
That fome technical knowledge of the effeft pro¬
ducible by maJJ'es of light and (hade was poflefled by
the ancients, appears indubitable from the paffages
adduced : to what extent it was carried cannot now
be afeertained. In all probability they were much
inferior in this refpeft to the moderns; otherwife, al¬
though much fcience of this kind could hardly be
expefted from the trifling performances that remain,
much more would have occurred on the fubjeft, it
would have been more largely dwelt on, and more pre-
cifely exprefled among the obfervations of ancient au¬
thors on the bell paintings of the ancient readers.
Neither is there fufficient evidence that the ancients
were eminent in that important branch of the compo-
fition of a piclure, which confifts in diftributing the
iigures and objects in groups or made*. There are few
Vot. XIII. Part II.
examples of this difficult branch of the art among the9nmFari’*
remaining antiquities ; and indeed, from the paucity
of the figures introduced in the generality o( thefe ^nc;ent
ancient paintings, there is little room to expeft them, and Mo-
But what makes it dill more doubtful whether thedern*
ancients attained any degree of eminence in grouping
is, that among the many paintings of thefe great
mafters enumerated by Pliny, Lucian, or Philoftratus,
there is none of them praifed for this fpecies of excel¬
lence. This, however, it muft be confefled, may as
well arife fiom want of knowledge in the writer as of
(kill in the artift ; for in a pidlure found in Hercula¬
neum, which reprefents in all probability the education
of Achilles, the figure of an old min holding a child
on his knees, together with that of a woman behind
him, form a very agreeable group. A work of ths
fame colledlion, painted in one colour on marble, con¬
fifts of five figures grouped very much after the mo¬
dern idea, if it were not that three of the heads are at
the fame height. It is extremely probable, that this
morfcl had been the copy of a piclure finifhed in the
pureft times of the art. But although it were proved
that the ancients did not attempt grouping their fi¬
gures, it is ftdl uncertain whether this might not arife
from their peculiar and perhaps excellent tafte in the
arts. Wifiiing to enjoy in the fulled manner their
painted figures as they enjoyed the afpedl of a ftatue,
they took care that every figure (hould be detached
from another in the fame pi£lure, which permitted
them to give their objedls more relief, and to render
them more diftinft to the eye of a diftant fpedlator.
We are not therefore to conclude, that they were
entirely ignorant of grouping, on the one hand ; or that
they declined the execution of it from want of (kill, on
the other. Indeed it adtually appears to have been tech¬
nically attended to by them, whatever might be their
comparative excellence in it; for Apelles is exprefsly
aflerted by Pliny to have been inferior to Melanthius
in compofition (de difpojltinne); and one of their paint¬
ings, mentioned by the fame author, is faid to have
contained one hundred figures ; but this unwieldy
number muft have been offenfive, if they were not
grouped with fome (kill.
From the connexion between the fifter arts of
poetry, painting, and fculpture, and the admirable
performances of the ancients in the other two depart¬
ments of the fine arts, it is reafonable to conclude,
that the ancient painters were not (deficient in inven¬
tion. Many inilances, were it neceftary, might be
colleTed in fupport of their well-founded claim to this
branch of the art; but it will !e fufficient to obferve,
that as invention is rather a natural endowment than
an acquired talent, and as the ancients univerfally feem
to be at leaft equal to the moderns in the gifts of
genius and good fenfe, we cannot but admit, on their
part, an equality with ourfelves fo far as invention is
concerned.
Very nearly conne&ed with the fubjeft of invention
is chat of the cqflume; by which is meant an attention
to probability with refpeft to times, places, objefls,
perfons, and circuraftances in the tranfaflion repre-
prefented.
The ancient paintings now remaining, fo far from
exhibiting any proofs of attention to this important
branch of the art, are full of grofs violations of pro-
4 H bability.
6io
Compari-
fon be¬
tween the
Ancient
and Mo¬
dern.
PAIN
babllity, and reprefentatioris of Impoffible connexion.
Rut very little ftrefs is to be laid on thefe inftances ;
firft, becaufe they are evidently the performances of
artiils of no reputation ; fecondly, bscaufe none of
them to which this objection can be made are regular
reprefentations of any perfon or tranfaftion ; °and
thirdly, becaufe, as they were (for the mold part) ma-
nifeftly intended as ornaments to apartments, the tafte
of the owner, and not of the artift, would of courfe
be chiefly confulted. Nothing, however, can be more
clear than that the ancients required an attention to
probability in the works of their artifts ; and from the
manner in which their writers exprefs themfelves on
the fubjedf (not fo much recommending the practice of
it as taking it for granted), we may reafonably con¬
clude, that their belt painters were feldom guilty of
any grcfs violation of the coftume. , Sint ficta fimitlima
'veris was an apophthegm generally known, and when
known muft have been univerfally admitted.
The principles of the coftume are well expreffed and
illuftrated by Horace in the firft lines of his Art of
Poetry ; and Vitruvius, lib. vii. chap. 5. fays, that no
pictures can be approved of which have not a refem-
blance to truth and nature. Whether the ancient
painters put in pra&ice a greater {hare of good fenfe
with refpect to the coftume than the moderns, cannot
now be accurately determined ; the advantage feems
to be in favour of the former: for, as we fhall have
cccafion more particularly to obferve afterwards, the
molt celebrated of modern painters from Raphael to
Sir Jofhua Reynolds have been guilty of fuch flagrant
breaches of probability, as would appear aftoniflu'ng to
thofe who are not in the habit of expedting them.
It has been doubted whether the ancients were ac¬
quainted with the fcience o£perjpeclive : and if the re¬
mains of ancient painting were alone to decide the
queftion, it muft be determined againft them ; for the
works of the ancient painters now in poflefiion of the
moderns afford no proof of attention to the rules of
perfpeflive equal to. the performance of a modern
fign-painter. I he pifture of the facrifice among the
Herculanean antiquities, and the fourth of the prints
which Bellori has publifhed and deferibed, taken from
the paintings in the fepulchre of the Nafonii, are barely
tolerable; but the other landfcapes (almoft the only
remaining antique paintings which admit of perfpec-
tive) are grofsly defeaive in this particular ; fo much
fo indeed, chat confidering the late period when land-
fcape-painting was introduced among the ancients,
together with this manifeft imperfedtion in point of
perfpedfive of fuch as are yet extant, we cannot help
fufpedting the inferiority of the ancients in this re-
ipedf. In perfpe&ive, as in the chiaro-fcuro, had
good pradtice been common, fome traces would have
been difeovered in the works of their loweft artifts.
And yet fome general knowledge of the principles,
and fome degree of attention to the pradtice, of per-
fpedtive, cannot well be denied to the ancients. They
were good mathematicians, they were excellent archi-
tedts, and fome of them are celebrated for their /kill
in feene-painting. Geminus the Rhodian, contempo¬
rary with Cicero, was the author of an exprefs treatife
on perfpedtive ; and Euclid, Heliodorus, Lariffeus,
Agatharcus, wrote alfo on the fame fubjeft. It is
well known, befides, that the ancients oradtifed the
T 1 N G- Hiflory
art of painting m perfpeaive on walls in the fameCompari-
way that it is now done by the moderns ; and Pliny fonI,e"
(Nat. Hift. lib. xxxv. c. 4.) fays, that one of thet,ween the
^ Ancient
walls of the theatre of Claudius Pulcher, reprefenting^Mo-
a roof covered with tiles, was finifhed in fo mafterly dern.
a manner, that the rooks, birds of no fmall fapacity, 1 T—
takmg it for a real roof, attempted to light upon it.
We are hkewife told, that a dog was deceived to Cuch
a degree, by certain fteps in a perfpedlive of Dantos
that expe&ing to find a free paffage, he made up to*
them m full fpeed, and daflied out his brains. But
what is ftill more, Vitruvius tells us in exprefs term*
by whom and at what time this art was invented. It
was firft pradhfed by Agatharcus, a contemporary of
-/Efchylus, in the theatre of Athens ; and afterwards
reduced to certain principles, and treated as a fcience
by Anaxagoras and Democritus; thus faring like otheJ
theo WhlCh exifted in Pra<ftIce before tbe7 appeared in
Portrait-painting feems to have been a principal
employment of the firft artift whom the ancients have
to boaft of, finee Alexander is faid to have permitted
no painter but Apelles, and no feuiptor but Phidias,
to take his likenefs. Pliny particularizes feveral in-
ftances of Apelles as a portrait painter.
In the drawing and colouring of Angle figures, to
which the ancients paid peculiar attention, they muft
be allowed to be equal, if not fuperior, to the mo¬
derns. That fpirit and animation, cafe and dignity,
were common to the performances of ancient artifts, the
ancient ftatues and paintings ftill remainin*- mofl evi¬
dently evince; and as they poffeffed, therefore, all the
reqmfites to excel in portrait-painting, a branch of
the art at all times much in requeft among them, there
is good reafon to infer, in favour ©f the"ancients, a£
leaft an equality with the moderns in this refpciSL
On the whole, ail the principal parts of the art, as
purity of defign, and beauty and expreflion in the forms,
were not only to be found in the ancient ftatues, but
were .actually the foundation of excellence in modem
painting; and hence we may conclude, that their
painters, formed on the fame models, and very often
the fame men who excelled in fculpture, were not in¬
ferior in thofe branches of the art. But with regard
to the inferior parts, the allurement of colouring, the
ingenuity of the claro-obfcuro, the fplendor ofcom-
pofitton, the art of grouping figures, and the nice
handling of the pencil, the moderns are fuperior to
thofe ancient painters who have moft deferved the no¬
tice of their contemporary writers. It is ftill to be
obferved, however, that the progrefs of the arts
among the ancients, from the principal parts to the
more fplendid, was fomewhat fimdar to that among
the moderns ; and as the painters of the firft rank
were more immediately the objefts of criticifm and
delight to authors of genius, it is impoffible at this
diftance of time to ftate any accurate comparifcu
between the ancients and moderns in what may be
termed the decay of the art. This is particularly the
cafe with regard to colours, there being in ancient as
well as in modern times two epochs ; the one compre¬
hending Polygnotus and his immediate fucceffors, and
the other the painters both of Greece and Rome after
the art began to decay. The colouring of Polygno¬
tus was hard, and his manner had fomething of wild-
uefs j
Part T,
Anatomy- nef*; but bts defign wbs m the higheft ftyle of per-
feftion. In tlie fucceeding ages the colouring was
more varied, more brilliant, more harmonious, and the
handling more agreeable ; but the defign was lefs ele¬
gant and exadi. And the true connoifi'eurs continued
to prefer the works of the ancient fchool, in the fame
manner that the bell writers in our times prefer the
works of the Roman and Venetian matters to the
611
more brilliant pictures of their fueeefiers. From this Anatomy
ttatement of factts it is abundantly evident, that from
the ancient authors we can form fome comparifon be¬
tween the bell ancient and modern painters in thofe
things which are moll excellent in the art ; while in
the inferior parts, from the filence of authors, and the
lofs of paintings, we have no grounds upon which a
comparifon can be accurately made.
PAINTING.
PAR r I. Principles of the Art, and the Order of the Artift’s Studies.
WE have joined thefe together, becaufe they are
like caufe and effedt; and comprehend both on
what parts in the execution of the art the painter is
to employ his chief attention, and alfo the manner in
which he is to employ it. We lhall not theiefore be
confined to the dry and abttradf, and as it were unem¬
bodied principles, but connedi them wdth the ufeful
and agreeable branches of the art, in that order in
which it appears to us they Ihould be ttudied.
Sect. I. Of Anatomy.
rI o alk if the ftudy of anatomy is requifite to a
painter, is the fame thing as to alk if, in order to learn
any Icience, a man mull hrtt make himfelf acquainted
witn the principles of it. It would be an ufelefs watte
of time to cite, in confirmation of this truth, the au¬
thorities of the ancient mailers, and the molt celebrated
fchools. A man, who is unacquainted with the form
and conftrudlion oi the feveral bones which fupport and
govern the human frame, and does not know in what
manner tne muicles moving t’nefe bones are fixed to
the m, can make nothing of what appears of them thro’
the ifiteguments with which they are covered ; and
which appearance is, however, the nobleft objecl of the
pencil. It is impoflible for a painter to copy faithfully
what he fees, unlefs he thoroughly underftand it. Let
him employ ever fo much time and ftudy in the at¬
tempt, it cannot hut he attended with many and great
millakes: jult as it mutt happen to a man, who under¬
takes to copy fomething in a language which he does
not underlland ; or to tranllate into his own, what has
been written in another, upon a fubjedt with which he
is not acquainted.
It fcldom happens, that nothing more is required
cl a painte r than to copy exadfly an objedt which he
has 1 eiore him In Hill and very languid attitudes, in
which every member is to appear motionlds and dead,
a living model may, no doubt, yield for a long time a
faithful image, and prove an ufeful pattern to him.
But in regard to gettures any way fudden, motions any
way violent, or thofe momentary Attitudes which it is
more frequently the painter’s bulinefs to exprefs, the
cafe is quite different. In thefe a living model can hold
but an inftant or two; it foon grows languid, and fettles
into a fixed attitude, which is produced by an inllan-
taneous concourfe of the animal fpirits. If, therefore,
a painter polfefs net fo thoroughly all the principles
of anatomy , as to be at all times able to have imme¬
diate recourie to them ; if he know not the various
manners in which the feveral parts of the human body
play, according to their various pofitions ; living mo¬
dels, lar hom proving an ufeful pattern to him, will
rather tend to lead him affray, and make him lofe fight
of truth and nature, by exhibiting the very reverfe of
what is required, or at lead exhibiting it in a very faint
and imperfedl manner. In living models, we often be¬
hold thofe parts flow, which fhould be very quick; thofe
cold and torpid, which fhould have the greatell fhare
of life and fpirit in them.
Nor is it, as fome may be apt to imagine, merely
to reprefent athletic and vigorous bodies, in w-hich
the parts are moft hold and determined, that anatomy
is requifite: it fhould be underftood, to reprefent
perfons of the moft delicate frame and condition, even
women and children, whofe members are fmootheft and
roundel!, though the parts made known by it are not
to be ftrengly expreffed in fuch objefts ; juft as logic
is equally requifite under the polifhed infmuutions
of the orator and the rough arguments of the phi-
lofopher.
But it is needlefs to fpend much time in proving,
that a painter fhould be acquainted with anatomy ; or
in {bowing, how far his acquaintance with it fhould
extend. For inftance, it is unneceffary for him to
enter into the different fyftems of the nerves, blood-
veflels, bowels, and the like; parts which are re¬
moved from the fight, and w'hieh therefore may be
left to the furgeon and the phyfician, as being a
guide in the operations of the former and in the pre-
feriptions of the latter. It is enough for the painter,
to be acquainted with the fkeleton ; in other words,
with the figure and connexion of the bones, which
are, in a manner, the pillars an,! props of the human
body ; the origin, progrefs, and fhape, of the mufcles,
which cover thefe bones ; as alfo the different degrees
in which nature has clothed the mufcles wfith fat,
for this fubftance lies thicker upon them in fome
places than in others. Above all, he fhould know-
in what manner the mufcles effeef the various mo¬
tions and geftures of the body. A mufcle is compofed
of two tendinous and flender parts, one called the /jeaJ,
the other the fai/, both terminating at the bones; and
of an intermediate part, called the A?//y. The ailion
of a mufcle confifts in an extraordinary fw'dling of
this intermediate part, while the head remains at reft,
fo as to bring the tail nearer the head, and coinfe-
quentiy the part, to which the tail of the mufcle is
fixed, nearer to that part into which the head is in¬
fer ted.
There are many motions, to effeft which feveral of
the mufcles (for this reafon called co-operating mufcles)
muff fvveli and operate together, while thofe calculated
to effeft a contrary motion (and therefore called anta-
gonif} mufcles) appear foft and flaccid. Thus, for ex¬
ample, the biceps and the brachiaeus interims labour
4 H 2 when
612 PAIN
.Ana-ol?1^ whe» the arm Is to be bent, and become more promi¬
nent than ufual ; while the gemellus, the brachiaeus
externus, and the anconasus, whofe office is to extend
the arm, continue, as it were, flat and idle. The
fame happens refpectively in all the other motions of
the body. When the antagonifl mufcles of any part
operate at one and the fame time, fuch part becomes
rigid and motionlefs. This adion of the mufcle is
called tonic.
Michael Angelo intended to give the public a
complete treatife upon this fubjeft ; and it is no
fmall misfortune, that he never accomplilhed fo ufeful
a defign. This great man, having obferved, as we
are told in his life byCondivi, that Albert Durer was
deficient on the fubjedt, as treating only of the various
meafures and forms of bodies, without faying a word
of their attitudes and geftures, though things°of much
greater’importance, refolved to compofe a theory,
founded upon his long practice, for the fervice of all
future painters and flatuaries. And, certainly, no
©ne could be better qualified to give anatomical pre¬
cepts fci that purpofe, than he who, in competition
with Da Vinci, defigned that famous cartoon of na¬
ked bodies, which was fludied by Raphael himfelf,
and afterwards obtained the approbation of the Va¬
tican, the greatefl fchool of the art we are now treat¬
ing of.
I he want of Michael Angelo’s precepts may, in
fome meafure, be ftipplied by other books written on
the lame fubjedt by Moro, Cefio, an 1 Tortebat ; and
lately by Boucherdon, one of the mofl famous flatu-
aties in fiance. But nothing can be of equal fervice
to a young painter, with the leffons of fome able diffec-
tor; under whom, in a few months, he may make
himfelf mafter of every branch of anatomy which he
need to be acquainted with. A courfe of ofteology is
of no great length ; and of the infinite number of
inufcles difcovered by curious myologifts, there are not
above 80 or qo, with which nature fenfibly operates
all thofe motions which he can ever have occallon to
imitate or exprefs. Thefe, indeed, he flrould clofely
ftudy, thefe he fhould carefully ftore up in his memory,
fo as never to be at the leaft lofs for their proper figure,
fitu*tion, office, and motion.
But there is another thing, befides the difte&ion of
dead bodies, by which a young painter may profit
greatly ; and that is anatomical cafts. Of thefe we
have numbers by feveral authors ; nay fome which
pafs under the name of Buonarroti himfelf. But there
is one in which, above all the reft, the parts aie moft
i!iftinctly and lively expreffed. This is the perfor¬
mance of Hercules Lelli, who has perhaps gone
greater lengths in this kind of ftudy than any other
mafter. We have, befide?, by the fame able hand,
fome cafts of particular parts of the human body, fo
curioufty coloured for the ufe of young painters, as to
reprefent thefe parts exaftly as they appear on re¬
moving the integuments j and thus, by the difference
is their colour as well as configuration, render the
tendinous and the fleftiy parts, the belly and the ex¬
tremities, of every mufcle furprifingly diftinft ; at the
fame time that, by the various diredtion of the fibres,
the motion and play of thefe mufclcs become very
obvious ; a work of thegreateft ufe, and never enough
to be commended ! Perhaps, indeed, it would be an.
ting. PartI>
improvement,^to give the mufcles various ticfs; thofe Anatomy
mufcles efpecially which the pupil might be apt to' v—
miftake for others. Fcr example, though the mafloi-
dts, the deltoides, the fartorius, the fafcia lata, the
gafterocnemii, are, of themfelves, fufficiently diitin-
guifhable, it is not fo with regard to the mufcles of
the arm and of the back, the right mufcles of the
belly, and fome others, which, either on account of
the many parts into which they branch, or of their
being interwoven one with another, do not fo clearly
and fairly prefent themfelves to the eye. But let the
caufe of confufion to young beginners be what it will,
it may be effeftually removed, by giving, as already
hinted,^ different colours to the different mufcles, and
illumining anatomical figures; in the fame manner that
maps are coloured, in order to enable us readily to di-
ftmguiffi the feveral provinees of every kingdom, and
the feveral dominions of every prince.
The better to underftand the general effeft, and
remember the number, fituation, and play of the
mufcles, it will be proper to compare, now and then,,
the anatomical cafts, and even the dead body itfelf,
with the living body covered with its fat and {kin ;
and above all things, with the Greek ftatues ftill in
being. It was the peculiar happinefs of the Greeks,
to be able to charadterize and exprefs the feveral parts-
of the human body much better than we can pretend
to do ; and this, on account of their particular appli¬
cation to the ftudy of naked figures, efpecially the-
fine living ones which they had continually before
their eyes. It is well known, that the mufcles moil
ufed are likewife the moft protuberant and confpi-
cuous; fuch as, in thofe who dance much, the muf¬
cles of the legs ; and in boatmen, the mufcles of the
back and arms. But the bodies of the Grecian youth,.,
by means of their conftant exertion of them in all the
gymnaftic fports, were fo thoroughly exercifed, as to
fupply the ftatuary with much more perfedl models
than ours can pretend to be.
There are a great many exercifes, which a young-
painter ftiould go through while engaged in the ftudy
of anatomy, in order to make himfelf more thoroughly
mafler of that fcience. For example : The thighs of
any figure, a Laocoon for inftance, being given, he
fhould add to them legs fuitable to that iiate in which
the mufcles of the thighs are reprefented, that is, the
mufcles which ferve to bend and extend the legs, and
to effeftuate in them fuch a precife poiitiou and no
other. To the iimple contour of an anatome, or a
ftatue, he ffiould add the parts included by it, and
give it a fyftem of mufcles conformable to the quality
of that particular contour ; for every contour denotes
fome one certain attitude, motion, exertion, and no.
other. Exercifes of this kind would foon eftablifli
him in the moft fundamental principles of painting,
efpecially if he had an opportunity of comparing his
drawings with the ftatue or call from which the parts
given him to work upon were taken, and thereby dif-
covering and corre&ing his mirtakes. This method is
very like that ufed by thofe who teach the Latin
tongue ; when, having given their fcholars a paffage
of Livy or Csefar already tranflated into their mother-
tongue, to tranflate back into Latin, they make them
compare their work with the. original text.
SfiCTS
PAIN
Sect. II. Of Perfpeftive.
The ftudy of perfpeftive fhoDld go hand in hand
with that of anatomy, as not leis fundamental and
neceffary. In fad, the contour of an objed drawn
upon paper or canvas, reprefents nothing more than
fuch an interfedion of the vifual rays fent from the
extremities of it to the eye, as would arife on a glafs
put in the place of the paper or canvas. Now, the
lituation of an objed at the other fide of a glafs being
given, the delineation of it on the glafs itfelf depends
entirely on the fituation of the eyre on this fide of the
gh is ; that is to 'fay, on the rules of perfpedive : a
fcience which, contrary to the opinion of moft people,
extends much farther than the painting of fcenes,
floors, and what generally goes under the name of
quadratura. Perfpedive, according to that great
mailer da Vinci, is to be confidered as the reins and
rudder of painting. It teaches in what proportion
the parts fly from, and leflen upon, the eye ; how fi¬
gures are to be marfhalled upon a plain furface, and
forc-fhoT tened. It contains, in fliort, the whole ra¬
tionale of defign.
Such are the terms which the maflers heft ground¬
ed in their profefiion have employed to define and
commend perfpedive : fo far were they from calling
it a fallacious art, and an infdious guide; as feme
amongft che moderns have not blufhed to do, infilling
that it is to be followed no longer than it keeps the
high road, or leads by eafy and pleafant paths. But
thefe writers plainly fliow, that they are equally ig¬
norant of the nature of perfpedive, which, founded as
it is on geometrical principles, can never le’ad its vo¬
taries a fir ay; and of the nature of their ait, which,
without the affillance of perfpedive, cannot, in rigour,
exped to make any progrefs, nay, not fo much as
to delineate a fimple contour.
When a painter has formed a feene in his mind,
and fuppofed, as it is cullomary, that the capital fi
gures of this feene he clofe, or almoft. clofe, to the back
of his canvas, he is, in the next place, to fix upon fome
point on this fide of the canvas, from which lie would
choofe his piece fhould be feen. But in choofing this
point, which is called the point of fight, regard fhould
be had to ics fituation to the right or left of the middle
of the canvas : but, above all things, to its diflance
and its height with refped to the lower edge of the
canvas; which edge is called the hafe line, and is pa¬
rallel with the horizontal line that paffes through the
Cye. For by afluming the point of fight, and confe-
quently the horizontal line, too low, the planes upon
which the figures ftand will appear a great deal too
fhallow ; as, by afluming it too high, they will appear
too fteep, fo as to render the piece far lefs light and
airy than it ought to be. In like manner, if the point
of fight is taken at too great a diftance from the can¬
vas, the figures will not admit of degradation enough
to be fecn with fufficient difiin&nefs; and if taken too
near it, the degradation will be too quick and precipi¬
tate to have an agreeable elfeft. Thus, then, it ap¬
pears, that no fmall attention is reqnifite in the choice
of this point.
When a picture is to be placed on high, the point
©f fight fhould be affumed low, and vice verfa > in or-
TING. 6*3
der that the horizontal line of the piaure may be, as
near as poflible, in the fame horizontal plane with that, —,
of the fpeftator ; for this difpofition has an amazing
effedt. When a pidture is to be placed very high, as,
amongft many others, that of the Purification by Pao¬
lo Veronefe, engraved by le Fevre, it will be proper
to affume the point of fight fo low, that it may he
quite under the pidture, no part of whofe ground is, in
that cafe, to be vifible; for, were the point of fight to
be taken above the pidture, the horizontal ground
of it would appear floping to the eye, and both fi¬
gures and buildings as ready to tumble head foretnoft.
It is true, indeed, that there is feldom any neceflity
for fuch extraordinary exadtnefs; and that, unlefs in
fome particular cafes, the point of fight had better be
rather high than low : the reafon of which is, that, as
we are more accuftomed to behold people on the fame
plane with ourfelves, than either higher or lower, the
figures of a piece mult ftrike us moft when fhnding
on a plane nearly level with that upon which we our¬
felves ftand. To this it may be added, that by pla¬
cing the eye low, and greatly fhortening the plane, the
heels of the back figures will feem to bear again ft the i
heads of the foremoft, fo as to render the diftance
between them far lefs perceptible than other wife it
would be.
The point of fight being fixed upon, according to
the fituation in which the -pidfure is to be placed, the
point of diftance is next to be determined. In doing
this, a painter fhould carefully attend to three things:
firft, that the fpedlator may be able to take in, at one
glance, the whole and every part of the compofidon ;
fecondly, that he may fee it diftin&ly ; and thirdly,
that the degradation of the figures and other objects
of the pidture be fufficiently fenfible. It would take
up too much time to lay down certain and precife
rules for doing, all this, confidering the great varie¬
ty in the fizes and fhapes of pictures ; for which rea¬
fon we muft leave a great deal to the diferetion of the
painter.
But there is a point ftill remaining, which will not
admit of the leaft latitude. This is, the delineation of
the pidture, when once the point of fight Ins been fix¬
ed upon. The figures of a pidture are to be confider¬
ed as fo many columns eredted on different fpots of
the fame plane ; and the painter muft not think of de-
figning any thing, till he has laid down, in perfpec-
tive, all thofe columns which are to enter his compo*
fition, with the moft fcrupulous exadtnefs. By pro¬
ceeding in this manner, he may not only be fare of
not committing any miftake in the diminution of his
figures according to their diflerent diftnnees, but may
flatter himfelf with the thoughts of treading in the
fteps of the greateft mailers. It is to the punctual ob-
fervance of thefelaws, that we are to attribute the grand
effect of fome paintings by Carpazio and Mantegna,
fo carelefs in other refpedts; whereas a Angle fault
againft them is often fufficient entirely to fpoil the
w orks of a Guido, in fpite of the fublimity and beauty
of his fuperior ftyle.
Now, as the demon ftration of the rules of perfpec-
tive depends on the dodtrine of proportions, on the
properties of fimilar triangles, and on the interfedtion
of planes, it will be proper to put an abridgement of
Euclid into the hands of the young painter, that he
may
Part T.
6iq,
tive.
pain
underflund tl,rf« rules firndamentnlly, mid not
~ confined to a blind praftice of them ; but, then,
there is nothing in thi&author relativetothe art of paint¬
ing, which may not be eafily acquired in a few months,
i'or. as it would be of no ufe to a painter to launch
out into the anatomical depths of a Monro or an Al¬
bums, it would t>e equally fuperfluous to perplex him-
lelr with the intricacies of the higher geometry
witn a Taylor, who has handled peifpedive with that
ncn pro.oundnefs, which we cannot help thinking-
does a great deal more honour to a mathemati-
cian, than it can poffibly bring advantage to a Ample
But though a much longer time were requifite to
become a perfedf matter of perfpeftive, a painter, fure-
y, ougnt not to grudge it; as no time can be too
iong to acquire that knowledge, without which he
cannot poffi^ly exped to fucceed. Nay, we may
boldly affirm, that the fliorteft road in every art is
taat winch leads through theory to pradice. From
theory anfes that great facility, by means of which
a man advances the quicker, in proportion as he is
Hirer ot not taking a wrong Hep : whilft thofe, who
are not grounded in the fcience, labour on in perpe¬
tual doubt; obliged, as a certain author exprefles it, to
ieel out their way with a pencil, juft as the blind, with
them ftic-ks, feel for the ftreets and turnings, with
which they are not acquainted.
As pradice, therefore, ought in every thing to be
built upon principle, the ftudy of Optics, as far as it
is requifite to determine the degree in which objeds
are to be illuminated or fhaded, fhould proceed hand
in hand with that of perfpedivc : And this, in order
tiiat the fhades, caft by figures upon the planes on
which they Hand, may fall properly, and be neither
too ftrong nor too light; in a word, that thofe moft
beautiful tffeds of the chiaro-feuro may run no rifle
of ever receiving the lie from truth, which fooner or
later difcovers icfelf to every eye.
^ 1 N O. P«rtI,
Praxiteles was not more famous than her Cupid, on
vvliofe account alone people flocked to Thefpia: §. ’ To § Ch. in
children, fay they, the ancients knew not how to im- j,
part that foftnefs and effeminacy which Fiammingo^'*
has fmee contrived to give them, by reprefenting
checks, hands, and fee,, f,veiled, thelr heads large, A iv'J
and with fcarce any belly. But fuch critics feem to ^ lib. 1
forget, that thefe firft fetches of nature very feldomXXjlVl' c-5»
come in the painter’s way, and that this puny and de-
licate ft ate has not in its form even the leaft glimmer¬
ing of perfedion. The ancients never undertook to
repiefent children lefs than four or live years old ; at
which age the fuperfluous humours of the body’be
mg in fome meafure digefled, their members Le-
Sect. III. Of Symmetry.
The ftudy of fymmetry, it is obvious, fhould im-
meaiately follow that of anatomy : for it would avail
us little to be acquainted with the different parts of the
human body, and their feveral offices, were we at the
lame time ignorant of the order and proportion of
thofe parts in regard to the whole in general, and to
each other in particular. The Greek flatuaries diftin-
guiflied themfelves above all others, as much by the
juft fymmetry of their members, as by their fkill in
Plln;i anatomy; but Polycletes furpaffed them all by a flatue,
JSiat. Hijl. caiied the Rule, from which, as from a moft accurate
lib xxxiv. pattern, other at tilts might take meafures for every part
of the human body. Thefe meafures, to fay nothing
of the l ooks which treat profefiedly of them, may now
be derived from the Apolio of Belvedere, the Lao-
coon, the Venus of Mechcis, the Faunus, and parti¬
cularly the Antinous, which laft was the rule of the
learned Pouffin.
. 18 ^ie general opinion of painters, that the an-
cients were not as happy in reprefenting the bodies of
children, as they are allowed to have been in repre-
lenting thofe of women and men ; efpecially thofe of
it ti) ; ir* which they excelled to fuch a degree^
- — — > mvii wtuiucis
gin to aiTume fuch a contour and proportion as may
erve to point out what they are afterwards likely to
f c.. this obfervation is confirmed by the children
winch we meet with in ancient baftb-relievos and paint¬
ings : for they are all doing one thing or another; like
thole moft beautiful little Cupids in a pidure at Ve¬
nice, who are playing with the arms of Mars, and lift¬
ing up the ponderous fword of that deity ; or that
little urchin in the Dande of Caracci, who empties a
quiver of its arrows in order co fill it with the golden
mower. Now, what can be a greater blunder in point
o_ coliume, than to attribute actions, which require
fem e degree of ftrength and judgment, to infancy, to
taat raw and tender age fo totally unable to govern
and fupport itfelf ?
Let a young painter confider the Greek ftatues ever
fo often, of whatever charader or age they maybe re-
prefented, it is impoffible he ihould ever confider them
without difeovering new beauties in them. It is there¬
fore impoffible he fhould copy them too often, accor¬
ding to that judicious motto placed byMaratti on hiS
print called Thefthool This truth was acknowledged
by Rubens himfelf; for though, like one bred, as he
was, in the foggy climate of the Low Countries, he
generally pamted from the life ; in feme of his works
he copied the ancients: nay, he wrote a treatife on the
excellency of the ancient ftatues, and on the duty of a
painter to ftudy and imitate them. As to the fatirical
print, cr rather pafquinade, of the great Titian, in
which he has reprefented a parcel of young monkeys
aping the group of Laocoon and his Ions; he intend-
ed nothing more by it than to lafli the dulnefs and po-
,verty of thofe artifts, who cannot fo much as draw a
figure without having a ftatue bclorc them as a mo¬
del.
In fad, reafon requires, that an artift fhould be fo
much mailer of his art, as feldoni to ftand in need of
a pattern. To what other purpofe is he to fueat and
toil from his infancy, and fpend fo many days and
nights in ftudying and copying the belt models; efpe-
cially the fineft faces of antiquity, which we are flill
pofleffid of; fuch as the two Niches, mother and
daughter ; trie Ariadne, the Alexander, the young
Nero, the Silenus, the Nile : and likewife the fineft
figures ; for in fiance, the A.polio, the Gladiator, the
onus, and others ; all which (as was faid of Pietro
Fefia), he fhould have, as it were, perfedfly by heart t
With a flock of excellencies like theft, treafured up in
his memory, he may one day hope to produce foine-
tlilllg
Part I. • PAIN
Symmetry, thing ofhis own without a model; form a right judge-
ment of thofe natural beauties which fall in hij way;
and, when occailon offers, avail hiinfelt properly of
them.
It is very injudicious to fend boys to an academy to
draw after naked figures, before they have imbibed a
proper relifh for beautiful proportions, and have been
well-grounded in the true principles of fymmetry.
They fhould firft learn, by ftuclying the precious re¬
mains of antiquity, to improve upon life ; and difeern
where a natural figure is faulty through Itiffnefsin the
members, or clumfinefs in the trunk, or in any other
refperft ; fo as to be able to correct the faulty part,
and reduce it to its proper bounds. Painting, in this
branch, is, like medicine, the art of taking away and
adding.
It mud not, however, be difiembled, that the me¬
thods hitherto laid down are attended with fome dan¬
ger ; for by too flnvifh an attention to ftatues, the
young painter may contraft a hard and dry manner;
and by Itudying anatomies too fervilely, a habit of re-
prefenting living bodies as flripped of their fit in : for,
after all, there is nothing but what is natural, that,
befides a certain peculiar grace and livelinefs, polTeffes
that fimplicity, eafe, and foftnefs, which is not to he
expedfed in the works of art, or even in thofe of nature
when deprived of life. Pouffin himfelf has now and
then given into one of thefe extremes, and Michael
Angelo very often into the other: but from this
we can only infer, that even the greateft men are
not infallible. It is, in fhort, to be confidered as
one inftance, among a thoufand, of the ill ufe thofe
are wont to make of the bell things, who do not know
how to temper and qualify them properly with their
contraries.
But no fuch danger can arife to a young painter
from confining himfelf for a long time to mere defign,
Bfo as not to attempt colouring till he has made him¬
felf matter of that branch. If, according to a great
* Prmflin, matter *, colours in painting are in regard to the eye
sn his Life what numbers in poetry are in regard to the ear, fo
by Belloii. many charms to allure and captivate that fenfe ; may
we not affirm, that defign is in the fame art what pro¬
priety of language is in writing, and a juft utterance
of founds in mufic? Whatever fome people may think,
a pi&ure defigned according to the rules of peri'pedbve
and the principles of anatomy, will ever be held in
higher etteem by good judges, than a pidture ill de¬
figned, let it be ever fo well coloured. Hannibal
Caracci fet fo great a value upon the art of con¬
tour, that, according to fome exprefiions of his which
have reached us, he confidered almoft every thing elfe
as nothing in comparifon with it. And this hisjudge-
Iment may be juftified, by confidering, that nature,
though fhe forms men of various colours and complec-
tions, never operates in the motions contrary to the
mechanical principles of anatomy, nor, in exhibiting
thefe motions to the eye, againit the geometrical laws
I of perfpedtive : a plain proof, that, in point of defign,
no miftake is to be deemed trifling. Hence we are en¬
abled to feel all the weight of thofe words in v/hich
Michael Angelo, after he confidered a pidture drawn
by a prince of the Venetian fchool, addrefled Vafari j
“ What a pity it is,” faid he, “that this man did not
fet out by ftuclying defign!” As the energy of nature,
ting. eij-
fhines moft in the fmallelt fubjedts, fo the energy of Imitation,
art ihines moft; in imitating them. w-—y——<
Sect. IV. Of Imitation-
When you confider art as the imitation of nature
(fays Mengs), it is not to be underftood that nature
which is the object, is more perfedt than art which
imitates it. Nature, it is confefled, offers fotne views
of which the imitation muft for ever remain imperfedt,
as in the inflance of the claro-obfcuro ; but, on the
other hand, in every thing relative to beauty of form,
imitation may even furpafs nature. Nature, in her
productions, is fubjedt to many accidents. Art, la¬
bouring on paffive and obedient materials, renders per¬
fect the objedls of its creation, choofes every thing in
nature the moft excellent, and coliefts the different
parts and the different beauties of many individual into
one whole. It is feldom that we find in the fame
man greatnefs of foul and the due proportions of bo-
dy, vigour, fupplenefs, firmnefs, and agility, joined to¬
gether. Arc conftandy reprefents what is rarely or
never to.be met with in human nature; regularity in
the outlines, grandeur in the forms, grace in the atti¬
tudes, beauty in the members, force in the breaft, agi¬
lity in the limbs, addrefs in the arms, franknefs in the
forehead, fpirit in the eyes, and affability over the
whole countenance. Let an artift give force and ex-
preffion to all the parts of his fubjedl, let him vary
this force and exprelfion as different circumftances
make it neceffary, and he will footi perceive that art
may furpafs nature. But although this be granted,
the artift is not to imagine that art is aElually arrived
at this fupreme degree of perfedlion, and can proceed
no larther. 1 he moderns feem never to have percei¬
ved the tradl pointed out by the ancient Greeks : for,
fince the revival ef painting, the true and the agree¬
able, initead of the beautified, have been the objedls
of cultivation. Still, however, imitation is the firft
part of the art of painting, though not the moft ex¬
cellent or beautiful. It is a neceffary ftep in the
progrefs which leads forward to greater perfedtion.
A painter ought attentively to confider, compare
together, and weigh in the balance of reafon and truth,
all the different ftyles of the great mafters; but he
ought likewife carefully to guard againft too great a
tondnefs for any one of them in particular that he
may think proper to adopt; otherwife, to ufe the ex-
preffion of a firft-rate mailer *, inftead of the child, he* Vinci,
would become the grand child of nature. on Painting,
Belides, his imitation muft be of generals, and not of
particulars. Whatever a young painter’s natural dif-
pofitien may he, whether to paint boldly and freely like
Tintoret and Rubens, or to labour his works like Ti¬
tian or Da Vinci, let him follow it. This kind of imi¬
tation is very commendable. It is thus that Dante,
at the fame time that he carefully avoided adopting the
particular expreffions of Virgil, endeavoured* to feize
his bold and free manner, and at lift caught from him
that elegance of ftyle which has done him fo much
honour.
As to the reft, nothing ffiould hinder an able mafter
from making ufe now and then of any antique, or
even modern figure, which he may find his account in-
employing. Sanzio, in a Si Paul at Li/ira, ferupkd
6i6 PAIN
^nutation, not to atai’l himfelf of an ancient facrifice in baffo-re-
”^v" lievo ; nor did Buonarroti himfelf difdain to ufe, in his
paintings of the Sextine chape!, a figure taken from that
famous cornelian, which tradition tells us he wore on
his fingers, and which was lately in the pofiefiion of the
moil Chriflian tting. Men like thefe avail themfelves
of the productions of others in fuch a manner as to make
us ^pply to them, what La Bruyere faid of Defpreaux,
that one would imagine the thoughts of other men had
been of his own creation.
In general, a painter fhould have his eye conflantly
fixed on nature, that inexhauftible and varied fource of
every kind of beauty ; and fhould ftudy to imitate her
in her moft fingular effefts. As beauty, fcattered over
the whole univerfe, fhines brighter in fome objedls than
in others, he fhonld never be without his little book
and crayon, in order to make drawings of every beau¬
tiful or uncommon objeft that may happen to prefent
itfelf; and take fketches of every tine building, every
fituation, every effedl of light, every flight of clouds,
every flow of drapery, every attitude, every expreflion
ef the pafiions, that may happen to flrike him. He
may afterv/ards employ thefe things as occafion offer ;
and in the mean time will-have the advantage of acqui¬
ring a grand tafte.
It is by carefully ftudying the bed mailers, and imi¬
tating nature, that a painter arrives at the flyle of per-
fedlion which the Italians czW gujlograndof the French
/e beau ideal, and the Englifh the great Jlyle.
“ A mind (fays Sir Jofhua Rynolds), enriched by
an aflcmblage of all the treafures of ancient and mo¬
dern art, will be more elevated and fruitful in refources
in proportion to the number of ideas which have been
carefully collefted and thoroughly digefled.
“ The addition of other mens judgement is fo far
from weakening, as is the opinion of many, our own,
that it will fafhion and confolidate thofe ideas of excel¬
lence which lay in their birth feeble, ill-fhaped, and
confufed ; but which are finifhed and put in order by
the authority and pra&ice of thofe, whofc works may
be faid to have been confecrated by having flood the
tefl of ages.
“ When we fpeak of the habitual imitation and
continued lludy of mailers, it is not to be underflood
that I advife any endeavour to copy the exadl pe¬
culiar colour and complexion of another man’s mind ;
the fuccefs of fuch an attempt mufl always be like
his who imitates exaclly the air, manner, and geflures
of him whom he admires. His model may be excel¬
lent, but he himfelf will be ridiculous; and this ridi¬
cule arifes not from his having imitated, but from his
not having chofen the right mode of imitation,
“ It is a neceflary warrantable pride to difdain
to walk fervilely behind any individual, however ele¬
vated his rank. The true and liberal ground of imi¬
tation is an open field, where, though he who pre
cedes has bad the advantage of llarting before you,
yet it is enough to purfue his courfe : you need not
tread in his footfleps; and you certainly have a right
to outflrip him if you can.
“ Nor, vvhilfl I recommend fludying the art from
artifts, can I be fuppofed to mean that nature is to be
fiegledled : I take this lludy in aid, and not in ex-
chifion of the other. Nature is, and mull be, the foun-
N° 256.
TING.
tain, which alone is inexhauflible j and from which all
excellencies mufl originally flow.
“ The great ufe of fludying our predeceffors is to
open the mind, to fhorten our labour, and to give us
the refult of the feledl'on made by thofe great minds
of what is grand or beautiful in nature : her rich flores
are all fpread out before us ; but it is an art, and no
eafy art, to know how or what to choofc, and how to
attain and fecure the objeft of our choice.
“ Thus th7e highefl beauty of form mufl be taken
from nature; but it is an art of long dedudlion and
great experience to know how to find it. I cannot
avoid mentioning here an error which fludents are apt
to fall into.
“ He that is forming himfelf muft look with great
caution and warinefs on thofe peculiarities or pro¬
minent parts which at firfl force themfelves on
view, and are the marks, or what is commonly call¬
ed the manner, by which that individual artill is di-
flinguifhed.
“ Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not al¬
ways, defedls, however difficult it may be wholly ta
efcape them.
“ Peculiarities in the works of art ate like thofe in
the human figure; it is by them that we are cogni¬
zable and diflinguifhed one from another; but they
are always fo many blemifhes, which, however, both
in the one cafe and in the other, ceafe to appear de¬
formities to thofe who have: them continually before
their eyes. In the works oV art, even the mofl en¬
lightened mind, when warmed by beauties of the high¬
efl kind, will by degrees find a repugnance within
him to acknowledge any defedls; nay, his enthufiafm
will carry him fo far as to transform them into beauties
and ohjedls of imitation.
“ It mufl be acknowledged, that a peculiarity of
ftyle, either from its novelty, or by feeming to pro¬
ceed from a peculiar turn of mind, often efcapes blame;
on the contnry, it is fometimes linking and pleafing ;
but it is vain labour to endeavour to imitate it, becaufe
novelty and peculiarity being its only merit, when it
ceafes to be new, it oeafes to have value.
“ A manner, therefore, being a defedl, and every
painter, however excellent, hsving a manner, it feems
to follow, that all kinds of faults as well as beau¬
ties may be learned under the fanftion of the greateH
authorities.”
Sect V. Of Colouring.
Colouring, though a fubje£l greatly inferior to
many others which the painter mufl fludy, is yet of
fufficient importance to employ a confiderable fhare of
his attention ; and to excel in it, he muft fee wtll ac¬
quainted with that part of optics which has the nature
of light and colours for its ohjicft. Light, however fimple
ani uncompounded it may appear, is neverthelefs m de
up, as it were, of feveral diftindl fubftances; and the
number, and even dofe, of thefe ingredients, has been
happily difeovered by the moderns. Every undi¬
vided rcy, let it be ever fo fine, is a little bundle of
red, orange, yellow, green, azure, indigo, and violet
rays,which, while combined, are not to be diftinguiffied
one from another, and form that kind of light called
8 •white i
‘TrattatO
lUlla Pit-
tur*, c. 14
Part f. PAIN
Coleu nnp. fo that white is Hot a colour perfe, as the learn-
ed Da Vinci f (fo far, it feerns, the precurfor of New¬
ton) exprefsly affirms, hut an aflcmhlnge of colours.
Now, thde colours, which compofe light, although
immutable in themfelves, and endued with various qua¬
lities, are continually, however, feparating from each
other in their reflexion from and paflage through
other iubftances, and thus become manifeft to the eye.
Grafs, tor example, reflects only green rays, or rather
reflefts green rays in greater r.unvberthah itdoesthofe
of any other colour one kind of wine tranfinits red
rays, and another yellowiffi rays: and from this kind
oi reparation ariles that variety of colours with which
nature has diverfified her various productions. Man,
too, has contrived to fcparate the rays of light by ma-
king a portion of the fun’s beams pafs through a
glafs prifm ; for after paffing through it, they appear
divided into feven pure and primitive colours, placed
in fucceffion one by the other, like fo many colours on
a painter’s pallet.
Now, though litian, Corregio, and Vandyke, have
been excellent colourifts, without knowing any thing
of thcfe phyfical fubtleties, that is no reafon why
others fnould negled them. For it cannot but be of
great fervice to a painter to be well acquainted with the
nature of what he is to imitate, and of thofe colours
with which he is to give life and perftftion to his de-
ligns;- not to fpeak of the pleafure there is in being able
to account truly and fohdly for the various effefts and
appearances of light, from a due tempering, for ex¬
ample, and degrading, of the tints in a picture ; from
making colours partake of each other, according to the
reflection of light from one objeCt to another; there
antes, in fame meafure, that fublime harmony which
n ay fie confidcred as the true mafic of the eye. And
this harmony has its foundation in the genuine prin¬
ciples of optics. Now this could not happen in the
fyftem ef thofe philolophers, who held, that colours did
not originally txift in light, but were, on the contra¬
ry, nothing elfe than fo mauy modifications which it un¬
derwent in being refiefled from other fubftances, or in
palling through them; thus fubjeft to alterations with¬
out end, and every moment liable to periffi. Were that
the cafe, bodies could no more receive any hues one
iiom another, nor this hotly partake of the colour of
that, than fcarlet, for example ; becaufe it has the
power of changing into red all the rays of the fun or
my which .immediately fall upon it, has the power of
changing into red all the other rays refle&ed to it from
a blue or any other colour in its neighbourhood.
Whereas, allowing that colours are in their own nature
immutable one into another, and that every body re¬
flects, more or lefs, every fort of coloured rays, though
tuofe. rays in the greaceft number which are of the co
lorn it exhibits, there muft neceiTarily arife, in colours
placed near one another, certain particular hues or
temperaments of colour : nay, this influence of one co¬
lour upon another may be fo far traced, that three or
four bodies of different colours, and likewrfe the in-
tenfenefs of the light falling upon each, being affign-
ed, we may eafily determine in what fituations and
how much they would tinge each other. We may
thus, too, by the fame principle of optics, account for
feveral other things pra&ifed by painters; infomuch
that a perlon, who has carefully obferved natural ef-
Vol.XIII. Part II,
TIN G. 617
feels with an eye dtrefled by folid learning, {hall be Colouring.
able to form general rules, where another can only' 
diftinguiffi particular cafes.
But after all, the piaures of the beft colourifls are,
it is univerfally allowed, the books in which a young
painter muft chiefly look for the rules of colouring ;
that is, of taat branch of painting which contributes fo
much to exprefs the beauty of objeas, and is fo requi-
fite to reprefent them as what they really are Gior¬
gio and 1 itian feem to have difeovered circnmftanccs
in nature which others have entirely overlooked; and
the laft in particular has been happy enough to exprefs
them with a pencil as delicate as his eye was quick and
piercing. In his w’oiks we behold that ffveetnefs of
colouring which is produced by union ; that beauty
which is confident with truth ; and all the infenfible
tranfmutations, all the foft tr^nlitions, in a word, all
the pleafing modulations, of tints and colours. When
a young painter has, by clofe application, acquired
fi;oin Titian, whom he can never fufficiently dwell up¬
on, that art which, of all painters, he has beft contri¬
ved to hide, he would do well to turn to Baflano and
Paolo, on account of the beauty, boldnefs, and ele¬
gance of their touches. That richr* fs, foftnefs, and
frefhnefs of colouring, for which the Lombard fchool
is fo juftly cried up, may likevvife be of great fervice
to him. Nor will he reap lefs benefit by ftudying the
principles and praaice of the Flemiffi fchool ; which,
chiefly by means of her varnifhes, has contrived to give
a molt enchanting luilre and tranfparency to her co¬
lours.
But whatever piaures a young painter may choofe
to ftudy the art of colouring upon, he muft take great
care that they are well preferred. There are very few
pieces which have not fuffered more or lefs by the
length, not to fay the injuries, of time ; and perhaps
that precious patina, which years alone can impart to
paintings, is in feme meafure akin to that other kind
which ages alone impart to medals; inafmuch as, by
giving tellimony to their antiquity, it renders them
proportionably beautiful in the fuperftitious eyes of the
learned. It muft indeed be allowed, that if, on the
one hand> this patina bellows, as it really does, art
extraordinary degree of harmony upon the colours ofa
Picture, and deftroys, or at leaft greatly leffens, their
original rawnefs, it, on the other hand, equally im¬
pairs the frefhnefs and life of them, A piece feen ma¬
ny years after it has been painted, appears much as it
would do, immediately after painting, behind a dull
glafs. It is no idle opinion, that Paolo Veronefe, at¬
tentive above all things to the beauty of his colours,
and what is called Jlrepito, left entirely to time the care
of harmonizing them perfe&ly, and (as we may fay)
mellowing them But moft of the old mafters took that
talk upon themfelves ; and never expofed their works
to the eyes of the public, until they had ripened and
finifhed them with their own hands. And who can fay
whether the Chnjl of Moneta, or the Nativity oi Baffano
have been more improved or injured (if'we may fo
fpeak) by the touchings and retouchings of time, in
the courfe of more than two centuries ? It is indeed
iropoffible to be determined. But the ftudious pupil
may majce himfelf ample amends for any injuries which
his originals may have received from the hands of time,
by turning to truth, and to Nature which never grows
4 I old)
6i8
Cplourxiijj.
PAIN
old, tut ronllantly retains its primitive flower of youth,
<md was itfelf the mode! of the models before him. As
foon, therefore, as a young painter has laid a proper
foundation for good colouring, by ftudying the bell
mafters, he fhould turn all his thoughts to truth and
nature. And it would perhaps be well worth while to
have, in the academies of painting, models for colour¬
ing ns well as defigning ; that as from the or.e the pu¬
pils learn to give their due proportion to the feveral
members ;:nd mufcles, they may learn JYom the other
to make, their carnations rich and warm, and faithfully
copy the different local hues which appear quite d'f-
tinof in the different parts of a fine body. To iilufirate
itill-farther the ufe of fuch a model, let us fuppofe it
placed in different lights; now in that of the fun, now
in that of the Iky, and now again in that of a lamp or
candle ; cr.e time placed in the fhade, and SROther in
a reflected light. Hence the pupil may learn *11 the
different effects of the compledlion in different circum-
iiances, whether the livid, the lucid, or tranfparant;
and, above nil, that variety of tints and half tints, oc-
caficned in the colour of the fit in by the epidermis ha¬
ving the bones immediately under it in fome places,
and in others a -renter or lefs number of blood-veffels
or quantity of fat. An artifl: who had long fludied
fuch a model, would run no rifle of degrading the beau¬
ties of nature by any particularity efftyle, or of giving
into that prepofterous fulnefs and floridmfs of colour
which is at prefent fo much the take. He would not
feed his figures with rofes, as an ancient painter of
Greece fkre.vdly exprefied it, but with good beef; a
dial, difference, which the learned eye of a modern writer
jp could perceive between the colouring of Barocci and
that of Titian. To pradtife in that manner, is, ac¬
cording to a great mafter, no better than inuring one’s
felf to the commiffioh of blunders. What ftatues are
in defign, nature is in colouring ; the fountain head of
that perfe&ion to which every artifl;, ambitions to ex¬
cel, fhould conftantly afpire : and accordingly the Fle-
mifli painters, in confequence of their aiming folely to
copy nature, are in colouring as excellent as they are
wont to be aukvvard in defigning. The beft model
for the tone of colours and the degradation of (hades
is furnifhed by means of the camera-obfcura. See
Dr oftrics, Sedl. 6th and 9th. -
Sect. VI. Of Drapery.
Drapery is one of the moft important branches of
the whole art, and accordingly demands the greatefl at¬
tention and ftudy. It feldom happens that a painter
has nothing but naked figures to reprefent; nay, his
fubjedls generally coulift of figures clothed from head
to foot. Now the flowing of the folds in every gar¬
ment depends chiefly upon the relief of the parts that
lie under it. A certain author, we forget his name,
©bferves, that as the inequalities of a furface are dif-
coverable by the inequalities in the water that runs over
it, fo the pofture and lhape of the members muft be
difctrnible by the folds of the garment that covers
them. Thofe idle windings and gatherings, with
which fome painters have affedfed to cover their figures,
make the clothes made up of them look as if the body
Had ted from under them, and left nothing in its place
ting. partr,
but aheap of empty bubbles, fit emblems ®f ct>c brain Drapery.
that conceived them. As from the trunk of a tree' v-—
there iffue here and there boughs of various forms, fo
from one miftrefs foil there always flow many lefler
ones : and as it is on the quality of the tree that the
elegance, compaftnefs, or opennefs of its branches
chiefly depends ; it is, in like manner, by the quality
of the fluff of which a garment is made, that the num¬
ber, order, and fize of its folds muft be determined.
To fum up all in two words, the drapery ought to be
natural and eafy, fo as to (how what fluff it is, and
what parts it covers. It ought, as a certain author
exprefies it, to cover the body, as it were merely to
fhow it.
It was formerly the cuftom with fome o? our mafters
to draw all their figures naked, and then drape them;
from the fame principle that they firft drew the Ikele-
tons of their figures, and afterwar ds covered them with
mnfcles. And it was by proceeding in tkis manner
that they attained to fuch a degree of truth rn expref-
fing the folds of their drapery, and the joints and di¬
rection of the principal members that lay under it, fo
as to exhibit in a moil ftriking manner the actitude of
the petfon to whom they belonged. That the ancient
fculptors clothed their ftatues with equal truth and
grace, appears from many of them that are ftill in be- 1
ing; particularly a Flora lately dug up in Rome, whofe
drapery is executed with fo much judgment, and in fo
grand and rich a flyle, that it may vie with the fineil
of their naked ftatues, even with the Venus of Medicis.
The ftatues of the ancients had fo much beauty when
naked, that they^etained a great deal when clothed.
But here it muft he confidered, that it was ufual with
them to fuppofe their originals clothed with wet gar¬
ments, and of an extreme finenefs and delicacy, that*
by lying clofe to the parts, and in a manner clinging
to them, they might the better fhow what thtfe parts
were. For this reafon a painter is not to confine him-
felf to the ftudy of the anc:ent ftatnes, left he fhould
contradl a dry ftyle, and even fall into the fame faults
with fome great mafters who, accuftomed to drape with
fuch light fluffs as fit clofe to the body, have after¬
wards made the coarfeft lie in the fame manner, fo as
plainly to exhibit the mufcles underneath them. It is
therefore proper to ftudy nr.ture herfelf, and thofe mo¬
dern mafters who have come neareft to her in this
branch ; fuch as Paolo Veronefe, Andrea del Sarto,
Rubens, and above all, Guido Reni. The flow of
their drapery is foft and gentle ; and the gatherings
and p’aits are fo contrived, as not only not to hide the
body, but to add grace and dignity to it. Their gold,
filk, and woollen fluffs, are fo diftingui(liable one from .
another, by the quality of their feveral luflres, and the
peculiar light and fhade belonging to each, but above
all by the form and flow of their folds, that the age
and fex of their figures are hardly more difcoverable
by their faces. Albert Durer is another great mafter
in this branch, infomuch that Guido lumfelf was not
afhamed to ftudy him. There are ftill extant feveral
drawings made with the pen by this great man, in
which he has copied whole figures from Albert, and
fcrupuloufly retained the flow of his drapery as far as
his own peculiar ftyle lefs harfh and fharp, but more
eafy and graceful, would allow. It may be faid that-
hs
Parti. PAIN
Drapery, he made tne fame ufe of Albert that our modern wri-
v ters ou,rht to make of the bell authors of the 13th cen¬
tury.
To drape a figure well, it is neeefiary that the folds
be large and few in number; becaufe large folds pro¬
duce great mafles of light and fhadow, while final!
■ones multiply the objedb of view and didraft the at¬
tention. But if the char, £te'r of the drapery or kind
of Huff require fmall folds, tluy flroulj at lead be dif-
tributed in groups, in fuch a manner that a great
number of final! * lis {hall be fubordinate to an equal
mafs formed by a principal fold.
It is a!fo proper to obferve, that the colour of the
drapery contributes to the harmony of the whole, and
‘produces effects which the claro obf-uro cannot do
alone. At the fame time, the principles of the claro-
obfcuto fhould prefide over, or at lead regulate, the
trt of drapery. If the folds of the fluff which cover
the members expofed to the light are too ftrongly
'Ihaded, they w ill appear to enter into the members*
an I cut them.
Drapery contributes to the life, to the charadler, to
the ex;, reffion of the figures, provided all the move¬
ments of the folds announce the lively or more tran¬
quil movement of thofe figures. The colour, and the
kind of duff, concur alio to promote the general ex-
prtffion ; brilliant or fine drapery cannot be properly
introduced in a mournful fubjetff, nor the oppofite irv
a gay one.
The drapery mull alfo agree w ith the age and cha-
ra&er of the figures : And if nature in any inftance is
found to contradict thofe principles, it is becaufe they
rehce to the ideal of the art; and it is tin’s ideal which
carries it to the greateft perfection.
Great attention is alfo neceffary to the fituatron in
which the figures are placed, and the actions about
which they are employed. If they are in the adt of
afeending, a column of air weighs down the drapery ;
if, on the contrary, they are defeending, the drapery
is fupported and fpread out. The folds placed on
every member, and the general play of the drapery,
ftould indicate whether the figure is in aflion or about
to be fo; w'hether aftion be beginning or ending} and
whether it be flow, or quick, or violent. All this is
agreeable to nature ; but it alfo partakes of the ideal,
fince 1131111X1 never can be copied in fuch fluctuating li-
tu lions. The praftice of the Roman fchools, fir ft to
draw after nature, and then to paint after the drawing,
cannot be adopted by colouriits; becaufe nature, ac¬
cording to the kind of the fluffs, produces tones and
ligh's wdiich give more perfection and truth to the
Work. Meanwhile Raphael, wha followed this prac¬
tice, enjoys the firft reputation for giving play to his
drapery, and difpofing the folds in the bell order. In
this part he has even attained the height of ideal beau¬
ty. He is the greateft painter of drapery, as the Ve.
netianS'are the greateft in painting fluffs.
Raphael, fays Mengs, imitated at firft his mafter
Perugin’s manner of drapery ; and he brought this*
manner to perfection, by Undying the works of Ma-
faccio and of Bartholemew : but he departed en¬
tirely from the talle of the fchool in which he was
educated when he had fetn the works of the ancients,
It was the baffo-relievo of antiquity wdiich pointed out
to him the true flowing of drapery, and he was not
TING. 619
backward to introduce it. He difcovcixd, by attend- Drapery,
ingto the principles of the ancients, that the nnked
the principal part; that drapery is to be regarded al¬
together as an acceffory, and that it is intended to
cover, not to conceal; that it is employed from ne-
ceffity, not capr ice ; that of confequence the clothes
fbouU not be fo narroiv as to conftrain the members*
nor fo ample as to embarrnfs them ; but that the ar-
tift fhould adapt them to the fize and attitude of the
figures intended to wear them.
He underftood that the great folds fhould be placed
at the large places of the body ; and where the nature
of the drapery required fmall folds, that it was necef¬
fary to give them a projeflion, which indicates a fub-
ordination to the principal parts.
fie made his ample draperies without ufelefs folds,
and with bendings at the articulations. It was the form
of the naked figure whLh pointed out to him the form
of his folds, and on the great mufcles he formed great
maffes. When any part required to be forefhortened*
he covered it with the fame number of folds as if it had
been ftraight ; but then*he crowded them in proper*
ticn to the forefhortening.
He frequently di-fcovered the border of his dr pery,
to fliow chat his figures were not dreffed in a fimple
fack. The form of the principal parts, and the fpe-
cific weight of the air, were always the caufes of his
folds. It was eafv to dlfcover in his works, by the
folds of his drapery, the attitude of the figure previous
to the one in which it was placed ; and whether, for
example, the arm was extended or other wife, immedi¬
ately before the a diion. 1 his was an exprefiion which,
he had carefuly ftudied on ail oecafions, becaufe he
found it in nature.
When the drapery was to cover the leg or arm but
half, or in an imperfedl manner, he made it cut ob¬
liquely the member which was partly to be covered.
His folds were of a triangular form. The reafon of
this form is in nature : for all drapery has a tendency
to enlarge itfclf and be extended ; and as at the fame
time its own weight obliges it to fall back on itfdf, it
is naturally formed into triangles.
He knew perfedily, that the movements of the body
and of its members are the caufcs of the adtual litua-
tion of drapery, and of the formation of its folds. All
his pradtice is nothing elfe but the unfolding and de-
monftrating of this theory ; and drapery executed iu
any other manner mull be in a fillc and vicieus t..fte.
Sect. VII. Of Landfape and Arcb'.tcclure.
When our young painter has made a fufficient pro-
grefs in thofe principal branches of his art, the dtfign-
ing, perfpeclive, colouring, and drapery of human fi¬
gures, he fhould turn his thoughts to landfcape and ar¬
chitecture t for, by ftudyingthem, he will render him-
felf imiverfal, and qualified to undertake any fubjedt |
fo as not to refemble certain literati, who, thought
great mafters in fume articles, are mere children in
every tiling elfe.
The moft eminent landfcape-painters are Pouffin,
JLorenefe, and Titian.
Poufiln was remarkable for his great diligence. His
pieces are quite exotic and uncommon ; being fet.off
with buildings in a beautiful but Angular ftyle ; and
4 I 2 with
620 PAIN
L,andfcape with learned epifodes, fuch as poets reciting their verfes
-cajrto t^e woo^s> ant^ youths exerciling themfelves in the
feveral gyn.naftic games of antiquity ; by which it
plainly appears, that he was more indebted for his fuh-
jedfs to the defcriptions of Paufanias than to nature
and truth.
Lorenefe applied himfelf chiefly to exprefs the va¬
rious phenomena of light, efpecially thofe perceivable
in the heave ns. And, thanks to the happy clinute of
Rome, where he ftudied and ex-^rcifed his talents, he
has left us the brighteft fkies, and therichell and moll
glorioufly cloud-tipt horizons, that can be well concei¬
ved. Nay, the fun himfelf, which, like the Almighty,
can be reprefented merely by his effedfs, has fcarce
efcaped his daring and ambitious pencil.
l itian, the great confident of nature, is the Homer
of landfcape. His fccnes have fo much truth, fo much
variety, and fuch a bloom in them, that it is impofiible
to behold them, without veifhiug, as if they were real,
to nuke an excnrfion into them. And perhaps the
fineit landfcape that ever iffued from mortal hands, is
the back ground of his Martyrdom of Si Peter ; where
by the difference between the bodies and the leaves of
his trees, and the difpefition of their branches, one im¬
mediately diicovers the difference between the trees
theinfelves; where the different foils are fo well expref-
fed, and fo exquifitely clothed with their proper plants,
that a botanift has much ado to keep his hands from
them. See Part II, Sedh ii.
Paolo Veronefe is in architedfure what Titian is in
landfcape. To excel in landfcape, we muft, above all
things, ftudy nature# To excel in architedture, we muft
chiefly regard the fineft works of art; fuch as the fronts
of ancient edifices, and the fabrics of thofe moderns
who have beft ftudied and heft copied antiquity. Next
to Brunellefchi and Alberti, who weie the firft revivers
of architedhire, came Bramnnte, Giulio Romano, San-
fovino, Sanmichcli, and laftly Palladio, whofe works
the young painter fliould above all the reft diligently
fludy and imprint deeply on his mind. Ncr is Vignola
to be forgot; for feme think he was a more fcrupulous
copier of antiquity, and more exadl, than I^alladio him¬
felf, infomuch th jt moft people confider him as the firft
architedf among the moderns. For our part, to fpeak
of him, not as fame, but as truth feems to require, we
cannot help thinking, that rather than break through
the generality of the rules contrived by him to facili¬
tate pradtice, he has in feme inftances deviated from
the moft beautiful proportions of the antique, and is
rather barren in the diftribution and difpofition of cer¬
tain members Moreover, the extraordinary height of
his pedeftals and cornices hinders the column from
fhowing in the orders defigned and employed by him,
as it does in thofe of Palladio. A mongft that great
variety of proportions to be met with in ancient ruins,
Palladio has been extremely happy in chooling the beft.
His prefiles are well contralled, yet eafy. All the parts
ef his buildings hang well together. Grandeur, ele¬
gance, and beauty, walk hand in hand in them. In
fhort, the very blemifhes of Palladio, who was no Have
to conveniency, an^ fornetimes perhaps was too profufe
in his decorations, are pidlurefque. And we may rea-
fonabiy ielieve, that it was by following fo great a
mafter, whofe works he had continually before his eyes,
that Paolo Vcroaefe formed that fine and mafterly tafte
a
T I N G. ' . Parer.
which enabled kirn to embellifh his compofitions with ExprefTnn
fuch beautiful ftrubtures. the
The ftudy of architedfture cannot fail, in another t>ai^ons,)1
refpeft, of being very uferul to the young painter, in-
afmuch as it will bring him acquainted with the form
of the temples, thermae, bafiiics, theatres, and other
bail! ings of the Greeks an 1 Romans. Befides, from
the bafio-relievos with which it wa&cuftomnry to adorn
thefe buildings, he may gather, with equal delight and
profit, the nature of their facrificcs, arms, military en-
fign, and drefs. The ftudy of lan *.:ape, too, will
render familiar to him the form of the various plants
peculiar to each foil and climate, and fuch other things
as ferve to character)le the different regions of the
earth. Thus by degrees he will learn what we call ro-
Jiume one of the chief requdices in a painter; fince by
means ot it he may exprtfs with great precifion the
time and place in which bis feenes are laid.
Sect. VIII. Of the Expr 'effort of the Paffions.
That language which above all others a painter
fhould carefully endeavour to learn, and from nature*
herielf, is the language of the paifions. Without it
the fineft works muft appear lifelefs and inanimate, it
is not enough for a painter to be able to delineate the
moft exquifite forms, give them the moft graceful atti¬
tudes, and compoie them well together; it is net e-
nough to drefs them out with propriety, and in the
moft beautiful colours ; ifc is not enough, in fine, by
the powerful magic of light and (hade, to make the
canvas vaniih. No ; he muft like wife know how to
clothe his figures with grief, with joy, with fear, with-
anger; he muft, in fome fort, write on their faces what
they think and what they feel; he muft give them life
and fpeech. It is indeed in this branch that painting
truly foars, and in a manner liies fuperior to ufelf; it
is in this branch (he makes the ipeciator apprehend
much more than what (he expreffes.
The means employed in her imitations by painting,,
are the circumfcription of terms, the ebiaro-feuro, and
colours; all which appear folely calculated to ftrike the
vifual faculty. Notwithftanding which, (he contrives
to reprefent hard and foft, rough and finooth furfaces,
which are ohjedls of the touch ; and this by means of
'certain tints, and a certain chiaio-fcuro, which has a
different look in marble, in the bark of trees, in downy
and delicate fubilances. Nay, (he contrives to exprels
found and motion, by means of light and (hade, and
certain particular configurations. In fome 1 mdfeapes.
of Didcrich, we almoft hear the water murmur, and
fee it tremble along the fides of the river and of the
boats upon it. In the Battle of Bargogne, we are
really apt to fancy that the trumpet founds ; and we
fee the horfe, who has thrown his rider, fcamper along
the plain. But what is (till more wonderful, painting,
in virtue of her various colours and certain particular
geftures, expreffes even the fentiments and molt hidden
aftedftions of the foul, and renders her vifible, fo as to
make the eye not only touch and hear, but even kindle
into paffion and reafon.
Many have written, and amongft the reft the fa¬
mous Le Brun, on the various changes tha1|, according
to the various paffions, happen in the mufcles of the
face,, which is, as it were, the dumb tongue of the fou.k
They
J
PartT:
Expreffion
of the
Faffion?.
LtR.ires of
I’hilp Bat-
db.ucci in
the Academy
•f La
('rufca il
L'jlraio,
P A I N T I N G. 622
They ebferve, for example, that in fits of anger the wards the middle of the eye, and lowered towards the Expreffion
face reddens, the mufcles of the lips puff out, the eyes fides of the nofe : the eyes almoft (hut, appear fome- °f the-
fpr.rkle ; and that, on the contrary, in fits of melan- times moiftened with tears : the mouth a little open., Pafli°ns- >
choly, the eyes grow motionlefs and dead, the face allows the teeth to be feen : the extremities of the
pale, and the lips fink in. It may be of fervice to a mouth drawn back, make a dimple in the cheeks,
painter to read thefe and fuch other remarks ; but it which appear to be fwelled : the nofirils are open :
will be of mfinitely more fervice to lludy them in na- and the face becomes red. The changes which weep*
tore itfcT, from which they have been borrowed, and ing occaficns are equally vifible. The eye-brow is
which exbb-its them in that lively manner which r.ei- lowered on the middle of the forehead ; the eyes are
ther tongue nor pen can exprefj. almoft (hut, moiftened and lowered towards the fides of
Upon Le Brun’s Treatiie on the Pafiions, we have the cheeks: the noftrils are fwelled, and the veins of
the following juft, though fevere, criticifm by Winckle- .the forehead very apparent : the mouth (hut, by the
man. “Expreffion, though precarious in its nature lownefs of its fides, occafions wrinkles in the checks;
(Eys he), h.-.s been reduced into a fyftem, "in a Trea- the under lip is turned down, and pveffes at the fame
tile on the P,'(lions by Charles le Brim, a work gene- time the upper lip : the whole countenance is wrink-
r ally put into the hands of young ertifts. The plates led and becomes red; efpeelally the eye-brows, the
which accompany this treatife do not only give to the eyes, the nofe, and the cheeks.”
faee the affections oi the foul in too high a tone, but According to Leonardo da Vinci, the heft mafters-
there are many of the heads in which the paffions are that a painter can have recourfe to in this branch are
reprefented in an outrageous manner, He appears to thofe dumb men who have found out the method of
give inftrudtions in expreffion, as Diogenes gave ex- expreffing their fentiments by the motion of their hands,
amples of morality : I adt like muficians, (aid thatcy- eyes, eye-brows, and in fhort every other part of the
nic, who give a high tone, in order to indicate a true body. If this advice be at all proper, fuch geftures
one. But the fervour of youth has naturally more in- mult be imitated with great fobriety and moderation,
clination to feize the extreme than the, middle ; and left they (hould appear too ftrong and exaggerated ;
he nee it is difficult for the young artift, in copying and the piece (hould (how nothing but pantomimes,
after Le B run, to feize the true tune. Youth in ge- when fpeaking figures alone are to be exhibited ; and
aeral rnay be fuppofed to have that regard for the fo become theatrical and fecond-hand, or, at beft, look
calm and moderate in the arts, which they have for like the copy of a theatrical and fecond hand nature,
the precepts of wffdom and virtue.” The artift will reap greater benefit from ftudying
Ocher French writers have given inftrudlions re- fuch fine ancient heads as thofe of Mithridates, Sene-
fpebing the expreffion of the paffions, equally excep- ca, Alexander dying, Cleopatra, Niobe, See- and above
tionable with thole ol Le Brim. All of them whom all, from attentively obferving fuel) movements of na-
we have confulted make fo many divifior.s and fubdi- ture as we daily meet within the world. But let him
vifions o( paffions, that a philofopher cannot follow chiefly confuit his looking-glafs, and ftudy after his
them in metaphyfical theory, nor a painter exhibit their own Lee, what, in certain expreffions, are the mufcles,
effects upon canvafs. Nature therefore muft be his the lineaments, the tines, and the accidental circum*
guide, particularly in treating thofe very minute and fiances which charaCtcrife the fituation of the foul,
almoft imperceptible differences, by which, however, It rarely happens that a model, which is affedfed witll-
things very different from each other are often ex- no fentiment, prefents that to us which we ourfelves
prefled This is particularly the cafe with regard to feel, end which we are capable of expfeffiog when we
the paffions of laughing and crying; as in thffc, how are our own model. Puget executed the legs of his
ever contrary, the mufcles of the face operate nearly Milo after his own ; and many ingenious artifts have
in the fame manner. As the famous Pietro de Cor- had recourfe to a fimilar expedient. In (hert, to be
tona was one day finiffiing the face of a crying child affedfed ourfeivts is the true fecret of affedling the
in a reprefentation of tiie Iren Age, with which he fpedfator.
was adorning the (ioor called the Hot-bath in the royal We muft not negledf, at the fame time, to fecure
palace of Pitti, L.rdinand II. who happened to be the fleeting charadfers which, nature preftnts to us on
looking over him (or his amufetnent, could not forbear a thousand cccafions. We muft diftruft our me-
expreffing his approbation, by crying out, “'Oh how mory, and all the icfources which are not eafiiy enr-
well that child cries ! ’ To whom the artift:,—“ Has ployed when vve happen to ftand in need of them. It
your majefty a mind to lee how eaiy it is to make chil- is neceffary to watch the circumftances from which we
dren laugh ? Behold,-PU prove it in an irritantAnd cati derive any ufeful hint; to feize them when they
taking up his pencil, by giving the contour of the prefent thernfelvts; and to be careful never to lofc,
mouth a concave turn downwards, inftead of the con- by an irreparable negligence, the fruit of a happy in-
vex upwards which it before had, and with little or no sident.
alteration in any other part of the face, he made the Let us alfo endeavour to poffcfs the feeling of what
child, who a little before feemed ready to burft its we are to exprefs; whether it be by forming the
heart with crying, appear in equal danger of hunting image of a thing abfent as if it were prefent, or by
its fides with immoderate laughter ; and then, by re- being affedled with the lively idea of a fituation which
ftoring the altered features to their former pofition, he we have either experienced, or with which we have
foon fet the child a-crying again.” feen another perfon remarkably affe&ed. We muft
The different exprtffions of laughter and weeping never forget, that all the terrible or agreeable, the
are thus deferibed by Le Biun. “ 1 he movements of violent or flight movements, are to be treated in a na-
laughtcr are exprefled by the eye-brows elevated to. tural manruy, aud bear a relation to the age, condi¬
tion,,.
642 ^ PAIN
^!f*lfl0n tlon, (ei, zhl dignity of the perfon. Thofe grada-
Paffi -s which art varies according to the nature of the
htuatioHy and the charaffer of men, compofe the
principal mg red tents of difcernment, knowledge, and
tafle. They have been the objects of attention and
inquiry to the mod eminent painters of every age;
and they were of the laft importance in afifi ting them
to arrive at that degree of excellence to which they
have carriet expreflion.
We are told ffrange things of the ancient p unters
of Greece in regard to expreffion ; efpecially of An¬
ilides ; who, in a pidlure of his, reptefenting a woman
Wounded to death at a liege, with a child crawling to
her breafty makes her appear afraid, left the child,
when Ihe was dead, fhould, for want of milk, fuck her
•blood, s? Medea murdering her children, by Timoma-
chus, was like wife much cried up, as the ingenious
artift contrived to exprefs, at once, in her countenance,
both the fury that hurried her on to the commiffion of
To great a crime, and the tenderrefs of a mother that
feemed to with-hold her from it, Rubens attempted to
exprefs fuch a double effect in the face of Mary of Me-
dicis, ft ill in pain from her paft Itbour, and at the fame
time full of joy at the birth of a Dauphin. And in
the courtenance of S:.n£ta Polonia, p unted by Tie¬
polo for St Anthony’s church at Padua, one may
Dearly read a mixture of p un from tire wound given
her by the executioner, and of pleafnre from the pro-
fpedt of paradife opened to her by it.
Few, to fay tire truth, are the examp’es of flrorig
expreflion afforded by the Venetian, Flemifh, or Lom¬
bard fchools. Deprived of that great happinefs, the
happinefs of being able to contemplate, at leifure, the
works of the ancients, the pureft fources of perfection
in point of defign, expreflion, and character; and ha¬
ving nothing but nature conllantly before their eyes ;
they made flrength of colouring, blooming complec-
tions, and the grand efiefts of the chiaro feuro, their
principal ftudy; they aimed more at charming the fen-
f s than t captivating the underftanding. The Ve¬
netians, in particular, feem to have placed their whole
glory in fetting off their pieces with all that rich va¬
riety of perfonages and drefs, which their capital is
continually receiving by means of its extcnflve com¬
merce. and which attrafts fo much the eyes of all thofe
who vifit it. It is much to be doubted, if, in all the
pictures of Paolo Veronefe, there is to be found a bold
and judicious expreffion, or one of thofe attitudes
which, as Petrarch expreffes it, fpeak without words;
urilefs, perhaps, it be that remarkable one in his
Marriage Feajl of Cana of Galilee. At one end of
the table, and dire&ly oppofite to the bridegroom,
whofe eyes are fixed upoh her. there appears a woman in
red, holding up to him the fkirt of her garment; as
much *s to fay, we may fuppofe, that the wine mira-
culoufly produced was exactly of the colour with the
fluff on her back. A nd in faft it is red wine we fee in
the cups and pitchers. But all this while the faces and
attitudes cf molt of the company betray not the leafl
flgn of wonder at fo extraordinary a miracle. They all,
in a manner, appear intent upon nothing but eating,
drinking, and making merry. Such, in general, is
the ffyie of the Venetian fchool. The Florentine, over
■which Michael Angelo prefided, above all things curi-
©U3 of defign, was moft minutely and fcrupuloufly ex-
4
T I N G. P&nr,
aft in point of anatomy. On this fha fet her heart, and £xpreffi ,jt
took fingular pleafurc in difpiaying it. Not only ele- ' f t}le
gance of form, and noblenefs of invention, butlikewjfe ^a^10n«- _
ft length of expreflion, triumph in the Roman fchool,
nurfed as it were amongft the works of the Greeks,
and in the bofom of a city which had once been the
feminary of learning and policenefs.!! Here it was that
Domenichino and Pouflin, both great mrfters of ex¬
preffion, refined themfclves, as appears more particularly
by the St Jerome o the one, and the Death of Germanic
cus7 and the Slaughter cf the Innocents, by the other.
Here it was that Raphael arofe, the fovereign mailer
of them all. One would imagine, that pidlures, which
are generally confidered as the books of the ignorant,
and of the ignorant only, he had undertaken to make
the inftrudors even of the learned. One would ima¬
gine, that he intended, in fome meafure, to juftify * I
Quintilian *, who affirms, that printing has more power, -
over us than all the arts of rhetoric. There is not, x; X,p V *
indeed, a fingle picture of Raphael’s, from the flu iy of *
which thofe who afe curious in point'of expreffion may
not reap great benefit ; particularly his Martyrdom cf
St Felicit as, his Transfigurations, his Jofeph explaining
to Pharoah his dream, a piece fo highly rated by
Pouffin. His School of Athens, in the Vatican, is, to
ail intents and purpofes, a fchool of expreffion. A-
mong the many miracles of art with which this piece
abounds, we fhall fingle out that of the four boys at¬
tending on a mathematician, who, Hooping to the
ground with hi? compares in his hand, is giving them
the demonftration of a theorem. One of the boys,
recolkfting within himfelf, keeps back, with all the
appearance of profound attention to the reafoning of
the mafter; another, by the briiknefs of his attitude,
difeovers a greater quicknefs of apprehenfion ; while
the third, who has already feized the conclufion, ia
endeavouring to beat it into the fourth, who, Handing
motionlefs, with open arms, a flaring countenance, and
an unfpeakable air of limpidity in his looks, will never
perhaps be rble to make any thing of the matter. Ami
it is probably from this very group that Albani, wffo
ftudied Raphael fo clo'ely, drew the following precept
of his: “ 'I hat it behoves a painter to exprefs rnora
circumftances than one by every attitude ; and fo to
employ his figures, that, by-barely feeing what they
are aiftually about, one may be able to guefs, both what
they have been already doing, and are next going to
do.” This is indeed a difficult precept; but it is only
by a due obfervance of it that the eye and the mind
can be made to hang in fufpenfe on a painted piece of
canvafs. It is exprefixon that a painter, ambitious to
foar in his profeffion, tnuft, above all things, labour
to perfeeft himfelf in. It is the laft goal of his art, as ^ ,
Socrates proves to Parrhafius. It is in expreflion that Mclorak
dumb poetry confifts, and what the prince of our poets hb. in.
calls a vilible language.
Sect. IX. Of Invention.
As the operations of a general flrould all ulti¬
mately tend to battle and oonqueft, f© fhould all the
thoughts of a painter to perfect invention. Now, the
ftud ies which w;e have been hitherto recommending,
will prove fo many wings by which he may raife hnn-
felf, as it were, from the ground, and fear on high*
when
Part I. PAIN
Inventor, when dtfirous of trying his flrength tins w sy, and f ro-
ducing fomething from his own fund, invention is the
finding out probable things, not only fuch as are adap¬
ted to the fubjeft in hand, but fuch, bcfides, as by
their fublimity and beauty are molt capable of exciting
fuitable fentiments in the fpedatcr, and of making
him, when they happen to be well executed, fancy that
it is the fubjedb itfelf in its greateft perftdfion, and not
a mere reprefentation of it, that he has before him. We
do rot fay true things, but probable things; becaufe
probability or veriiimilitude is, in fadf, the truth of
thofe arts which have the fancy for their objedt. It
is, indeed, the bufinefs and duty of both naturalifts
and hiftorians to draw objeds as they find them, and
reprefent them with all thofe imperfedions and ble-
ni;fhts, to which, as individuals, they are fubjtd. But
an ideal painter, and fuch alone is a true painter, re-
fe rubles the pcet: in (bead of cop)ing, he imitates;
that is, he works with his fancy, an* reprefents ob-
jeds endued with all that perfection which belongs to
the fpecies, and may be conceived in the archetype.
“ ’Tis nature all, but nature methodis’d
fays an eminent poet, fpeaking of poetry : And the
fame may be faid of painting ; it is nature methodized,
and made perfed. Infomucb, that the circumftances
of the adion, exalted and fublimed to the highdt
degree of beauty and boldnefs they are fufceptible of,
may, though poffibie, have never happened exactly
fuch as the painter fancies and thinks proper to re¬
prefent them. Thus, the piety of /Eneas, and the
anger of Achilles, are things fo perfed in their kind,
as to be merely probable. And it is for this reafon
that poetry, which is only another word for invention,
is more philofophical, more inilrudive, and more en¬
tertaining, than hillory.
Here it is proper to obferve, what great advantages
the ancient had over the modem painters. The hiflory
of the times they lived in, fraught with great and glo¬
rious events, was to them a rich mine of the moll
noble fubjects, which, belides, often derived no fmall
fublimity and pathos from the mythology upon which
their religion was founded. So far were their gods
from being immaterial, and placed at an infinite di-
ftance above their worfhippeis ; fo far was their reli¬
gion from recommending humility, penance, and felf-
denial, that, on the contrary, it appeared calculated
merely to flatter the fenfes, inflame the paffrons, and
poifon the fancy. By making the gods partake of
our nature, and fubjeding them to the fame paflions,
it gave man hopts of being able to mix with thofe
who, though greatly above him, refembled him, not-
withftanding, in fo many refpeds. Befides, thofe dei¬
ties ot theirs were in a manner vifible, and to be met
at every flop. The fea was crowded with Tritons and
Nereids, the rivers with Naiads, and the mountains
•with Dryads. The woods fwarmed with Fauns and
Nymphs, who, in thefe obfeure retreats, fought an
afylum for their flolen embraces. The moll potent
empires, the moll noble families, the moll celebrated
heroes, all derived their pedigree from the greater di¬
vinities. Nay, gods interfiled themfelves in all the con¬
cerns of mankind. Apollo, the god of long arrows,
ftoed by thi fide of Hedor in the fields of Troy, and
infpired him with new ftrength ami courage to batter
TING. 623
down the wells and burn the flups of the Greeks. Invention.
Thefe, on the other hand, were led on to the fight
and animated by Minerva, preceded by I error, and fol¬
lowed by Death. Jove nods, bis divine locks ihake
on Iris immortal head; Olympus trembles. With that
countenance, which allays the tempell, and reitores
ferenity to the heavens, he gathers kdfes from the
mouth of Venus, the delight oi gods and ot men. A-
mong the ancients, evety thing fported with the fan¬
cy ; and in thofe works which depend entirely on the
imagination, fume oi our greatell mailers have thought
they could not do better than borrow from the Pagans,
if we may be allowed to fay it, their pictures of Tar¬
tarus, in order to tender their own drawings oi hell
more linking.
After all, there have not been wanting able inven¬
tors in painting among the moderns. Michael ain-
gelo, notvvithllandmg the depth and boldnefs of his.
own fancy, is not alhamed, in fome of his compofi-
tions, to Dant'ze; as Phidias and Apelles may be
faid formerly to have iIotneri%ed. Raphael, too, tutor¬
ed by the Greeks, has found means, like Virgil, to
extract the quintelfence of truth; has ieafoned his
works with grace and noblenefs, and exalted nature,,
in a manner, above herfell, by giving her an alpect
more beautiful, more animating, and more lublime,
than fhe is in reality aecullomed to wear. In point oi
invention, Domenichinp and Hannibal Carracci come
very near Raphael, efpeciaily in the pieces painted by
them in Rome ; nor does Pouflin fall very Ihort of
him in fome of his pidlures, particularly in his EJiher
before Ahafuerusy and his Death of Germanicus, the
richell jewel belonging to the Barberine family. Of
all the painters who have acquired any extraordinary-
degree of reputation, no one lludied Ids to fet off his
pieces by bold and beautiful circumllances, or was
more a llranger to what is called poetical perfe£liont
than Jc.copo Baflano, Among the numberlefs in-
flances we could produce ol his carelelfnefs this way,,
let it fuffice to mention a Preaching oj St Pam painted
by hi ai in a place, near that of his birth, called Ma-
roflega. Initead of reprelenting the apoltle full of a
divine enthufialm, as Raphael has done, and thunder¬
ing againft the fuperllitions of the heathen in an
aflembly of Athenians ; initead of. exhibiting one of
his auditors ftruek to the quick, another perfuaied, a
third inflamed ; he makes mm hold forth, in a village
of the Venetian Hate, to a parcel of poor peafants and
their wives, who take not the lealt notice of nim , the
women efpecially, who feem to mind nothing but the
country labours in which he had found them em¬
ployed.
With regard to invention, painting and poetry re-
femhle each other fo much in many other rdpe&e, be¬
fides that of combining in ever) addon all the beauty
and elegance it will admit, that they ell deferve the
name of JiJler arts. They differ, however, in one
point, and that too of no fmall importance. It is this.
The poet, in the reprefentation of his llory, relates
what has already happened, prepares that which is Hill
to come, and io proceeds, jlep by Hep, through all
the circumftanees of the aedion ; and, to produce the.
greater effedl on his hearers, avails himfelf of the fuc-
cefiion of time and place. The painter, on the con¬
trary, deprived of fuch helps, mull be content to de-
624
PAIN
^ii’-vection. pend uport one fingle moment. But what a moment!
A moment, in which he may conjure up, at once, to
the eyes of the fpeftator, a thoufand objefts; a mo¬
ment, teeming with the moft beautiful circumftances
that can attend the aftion ; a moment, equivalent
to the iucctffive labours of the poet. i his the works
ot the greateft mafters, which are everywhere- to be
feen, fufRciently evince ; among others, the St Paul
at by Raphael, whom it is impofllble not to
praife as often as this picture is mentioned. In order
to give the fp; flator a thorough infight into the fub-
jeft of this piece, the painter has placed, in the front
of it, the cripple already reftored to his limbs by the
apoftle, fired with gratitude towards his benefaftor,
and exciting his countrymen to yield him all kinds of
honour. Roipid the cripple are fome figures lifting
up the Hurts of his coat, in order to look at the legs
teduced to their proper fhape, and acknowledging by
geftures full of aftonifhment the reality of the miracle ;
7VM, dial, an invention, fays a certain author, aprofeffed admirer
f* of antiquity, which might have been propofed as an
example in the happieft age of Greece.
We have another fhining inllance of the power of
painting to introduce a great variety of objefts on the
feene at the fame time, and of the advantage it has in
this refpeft over poetry, in a drawing by the celebrated
La Page. This drawing reprefents the defeent ofiEneas
into hell. The field is the dark caverns of Pluto’s
kingdom, through the middle of which creeps flowly
the muddy and melancholy Acheron. Nearly in the
centre of the piece appears vEneas with the golden
bough in his hand, and with an air of aftonifhment at
what he fees. The Sybil, who accompanies him, is
anfwering the queftions which he afks her. The per-
fonage there is the ferryman of the pitchy lake, by
which even the gods themfelves are afraid to fwear.
Thofe who, crowding in to the banks of the river,
numberlefs as the leaves fhaken off the trees by autum¬
nal blafts, exprefs, with outftretched hands, an impa¬
tience to be ferried to the oppofite fhore, are the un-
happy manes, who, for want of burial, are unqualified
for that happinefs. Charon, accordingly, is crying
out to them, and with his lifted-Hp oar driving them
from his boat, wdiich has already taken in a number
of thofe who had-been honoured with the aceuftomed
funeral rites. Behind ./Eneas and the Sybil we difeover
a confufed group of wretched fouls, lamenting bitterly
their misfortune in being denied a paffage ; two of
thenr wrapped up in their clothes, and, in a fit of de-
fpair, funk upon a rock. Upon, the firft lines of the
piece {lands a third group of uninhumed fhades, Leu-
cafpes, Orontes, and, in the midft of them, the good
old Palinurus, formerly maffer and pilot of the hero’s
own veflel, who with joined hands moft earncftly de¬
fires to be taken along with him into the boat, that,
aiter death, at leaft, he may find fome rtpofe, and his
dead body no longer remain the fport of winds and
waves. 1 bus, what v/e fee fcattered up and down in
many verfes by Virgil, is here, as it were, gathered
into a focus, and concentered by the ingenious pencil
of. tfie pffnter, fc as to form a fubjeft well worthy of
being expofed, in more fhapes than one, to the eyes
of the public.
When a painter takes a fubjeft in hand, be it hifto-
rical, be it fabulous, he firould carefully perufe the
N°2j6. r
7* * ^ . Part I,
bocks which treat of it, impfint well on his mind all Invention,
t.ie circumftances that attend it, the perfons concern- 1 —, 1
ed in it, and*the paflions with which they muff have
been feverally animated ; not omitting the particulars
of time and place. His next bufinefs is to create it,
as it were, anew, obferving the rules already laid down
for that purpofe : From what is true, choofing that
which is moft ftriking ; and clothing his fubjeft with
fuch acceffory circumftances and aftions, as may render
it more confpicuous, pathetic, and noble, and belt dif-
play the powers of the inventive faculty. But, in do¬
ing this, great diferetion is requifite ; for, let his ima¬
gination grow ever fo warm, his hand is never to exe¬
cute any thing that is not fully approved by h.is judge¬
ment. Nothing low or vulgar fhould appear in a lofty
and noble argument; a fault, of which fome of the
greateft mailers, even Lampieri and Pouffin, have been
now and then guilty.
Ihe aftion muft be one, the place one, the time
one. We need not fay any thing of thofe painters,
who, hke the writers of the Chinefe and Spanifh
theatre, cram a variety of aftions together, and fo
give us, at once, the whole life of a man. Such blun¬
ders, it is prefumed, are too grofs to be feared at
prefent. i he politenefs and learning of the age feem
to demand confiderations of a more refined nature; fuch
as, that the epifodes introduced in the drama of a pic¬
ture, the better to fill and adorn it, fhould be not on¬
ly beautiful in themfelves, but indifpenfably requifit.*.
The games celebrated at the tomb of Anchifes, in Si¬
cily, have a greater variety in them, and more fources
of delight, than thofe that had been before celebrated
at the tomb of Patroclus under the walls of Troy.
Ihe arms forged by Vulcan for ./Eneas, if not better
tempered, are at leaft better engraved, than thofe
which the fame ^od had forced feveral ages before for
Achilles. Neverthclefs, in the eyes of judges, both the
games and the arms of Homer are more pleafing than
thofe of Virgil, becaule the former are more neceffary
in the Iliad than the latter in the aEneid Every
part fhould agree with, and have a relation to, the
whole. Unity fhould reign even in variety ; for in this
beauty confifts. This is a fundamental maxim in
all the arts whofe objeft it is to imitate the works of
nature.
Pifturcs often borrow no fmall grace and beauty
from the fiftions of poetry. Albani has left us, in fe¬
veral of his works, fufficient proofs of the great (hare
the belles lettres had in refining his tafte. But Ra¬
phael, above all others, may in this branch too be
conlidered as a guide and matter. To give but one
inllance out of many; what a beautiful thought was it
to reprefent the river himft if, in a Pq/fage of Jordan^
fupporting his waters with his own hanJs, in order to
open a way to the army of the Ifraelites ! Nor has he
difplayed lefs judgment in reviving, in his defigns en¬
graved by Agoitino of Venice, the little loves of Ae-# See Tum
tius playing with the arms of Alexander, conquered^ upon
by the beauty of Roxana. Calumny;
Among the ancients, Apelles and Parrhafius were."f
thofe who diflinguifhed themfelves moft in allegorical TAfjlf 1 ^
lubjefts, in which the inventive faculty fhows itfelf to Apdles,
the greateft advantage ; the firft by his pifture ofnote 20.
Calumny *, the fecond by that of the Genius of the*' C‘
Athenians f. The ancient painter called Galaton gave^*
like wife c. io.
Tart!. PAIN
invention, Hkewife a fine proof of hia genius in this branch, by
‘—'v—reprefenting a great number of poets greedily quench.
ing their thirft in the waters gufhing from the mouth
of the fublime Homer. And to this allegory, ac-
*VlmiiNat. cording to Guigni, Pliny * has ati eye, when he calls
Hifi- hb pr[nce 0f poets the fountain of wits. But it is,
xvii. cap. j. a^er nQ way. furprifing that we fhould often
meet fuch fine flights of fancy in the ancient artifts.
Webb, They were not guided in their works by a blind prac-
diaJ. 4- tice : they were men of polite education ; converfant
with the letters of the age in which they lived ; and
the companions, rather than the fervants, of the great
men who employed them. The finefl: allegorical
painter among the moderns was Rubens ; and he was
accordingly much celebrated for it. The belt critics,
Polym. however, find fault with his uniting in the Luxemburg
dial. 18. gallery, the queen-mother, in council, with two car¬
dinals and Mercury. Nor is there lefs impropriety in
his making Tritons and Nereids, in another piece of
the fame gallery, fwim to the queen’s veffel through the
galleys of the knights of St Stephen. Such freedoms
are equallydifguftingwith rhe propheciesof Sannazaro’s
Proteus, concerning the my fiery of the incarnation, or
the Indian kings of Camoens, reafoning with the
Portuguefe on the adventures of Ulyfles.
The belt modern performances in pi&urefque alle¬
gory are certainly thofe of Pouffin ; who availed him-
felf, with great diferetion and judgment, of the vafi
treafures with which, by a clofe lludy of the ancients,
he had enriched his memory. On the other hand, Le
Brim, his countryman, has been very unhappy this
way. Ambitious to have every thing his own, inftead
of allegories, he has filled the gallery of Verfailles
with enigmas and riddles, of which none but himfelf
was qualified to be the CEdipus, Allegory mull be
ingenious, it is true ; but then it muft be equally per-
fpicuous; for which reafon, a painter flrould avoid all
vague and indeterminate allufions, and likewife thofe
to hifiory and heathen mythology, which are too ab-
ftrufe to be underftood by the generality of fpedtators.
The beft way, perhaps, to fymbolize moral and ab-
ftraft things, is to reprefent particular events: as
f5ee Tielloris Caracci did. by advice of Monfignore Aguccbi, in
L[fe of Car-Farnefian palace. For example, what can better
tacei. exprefs a hero’s love towards his country, than the
virtuous Decius confecrating himfelf boldly to the
infernal gods, in order to fecure vi£lory to his coun¬
trymen over their enemies ? What finer emblems can
we defire of emulation, and an infatiable thirft for
glory, than Julius Caefar weeping before the ftatue of
Alexander in the temple of Hercules at Gades ? of
the inconftancy of fortune, than Marius fitting on the
ruins of Carthage, and receiving, inftead of the ac¬
clamations of an army joyfully fainting him imperator,
orders from a li&or of Sextilius to quit Africa; of
indiferetion, than Candaules, who, by fhowing the
naked beauties of his wife to his friend Giges, kindled
a pafiion that foon made him repent his folly ? Such
reprefentations as thefe require no comment ; they
carry their explanation along with them. Befides,
fuppofing, and it is the worft we can fuppofe, that
the painter’s '“aim in them fhould happen not to be
underftood, his piece would dill give delight. It is
thus that the fables of Ariofto prove fo entertaining,
*ven to thofe who underftand nothing of the moral
VoL.XllI. Part II.
TING. 6z$
couched under them ; and likewife the iEneis, though Difpofltion,
all do not comprehend the allufions and double intent
qf the poet.
Sect. X. Of Difpofiticn.
So much for invention. Difpq/ition, which may
be confidered as a branch of invention, confifts in the
proper ftationing of what the inventive faculty has
imagined, fo as to exprefs the fubjeft in the moft lively
manner The chief merit of difpofitioa may be faid
to confift in that diforder, which, wearing the ap¬
pearance of mere chance, is in fa<ft the moft ftudied
effeft of art. A painter, therefore, is equally to
avoid the drynefs of thofe ancients who always plant¬
ed their figures like fo many couples in a proceffion,
and the affedtation of thofe moderns who jumble
them together as if they were met merely to fight
and fquabble. In this branch Raphael was happy
enough to choofe the juft medium, and attain perfec¬
tion. The difpofition of his figures is always exactly
.fuch as the fubjedl requires. In the Battle of Con-
Jlantine, they are confufedly qluftered with as much
art, as they are regularly marfhalled in Chrijl's com¬
mitment of the keys to SJ Peter and conftituting him
prince of the apoftles.
Let the inferior figures of a piece be placed as they
will, the principal figure fhould ftrike the eye moft,
and Hand ©ut, as it were, from among the reft. This
may be effedted various ways, as by placing it on the
foremoft lines, or in fome other confpicuous part of
the piece ; by exhibiting it, in a manner, by itfelf;
by making the principal light fall upon it ; by giving
it the moft refplendent drapery; or, indeed, by feveral
of thefe methods, nay, by all of them together. For,
being the hero of the pidfurefque fable, it is but juft,
that it fhould draw the eye to itfelf, and lord it, as it
were, over all the other objedls.
According to Leon Batifta Alberti, painters ftiould
follow the example of comic writers, who compofe
their fable of as few perfons as poifible. For, in faft,
a crowded pidture is apt to give as much pain to the
fpedtator, as a crowded road to the traveller.
Some fubjedt^ it muft be granted, require a num¬
ber, nay, a nation, as it were, of figures. On thefe
occafions, it depends entirely on the ikill of the paint¬
er to difpofe of them in fuch a manner, that the prin-
cipal ones may always make the principal appearance;
and contrive matters fo, that the piece be not over¬
crowded, or want convenient refts and paufes. He
muft, in a word, take care that his piece be full, but
not charged. In this refpeef, the Battles of Alexan¬
der by Le Brun are mafter-pieces which can never be
fufficiently ftudied ; whereas nothing, oq the other
hand, can be more unhappy than the famous Patudfe
of Tintoret, which covers one entire fide of the grea^
council-chamber at Venice, it appears no better than
a confufed heap of figures, a fwarm, a cloud, a chaos,
which pains and fatigues the eye. What a pity it is
that he did not difpofe this fubjedl after a model of his
own, now in the gallery of Bevdacqua it Verona ! In
this laft, the feveral choirs of martyrs, virgins, bi-
Ihops, and other faints, are judicioufly thrown into fo
many clufters, parted here and there by a fine fleece of
clouds j fo as to exhibit the innumerable holt of hea-
4 K ven
626
js^pofition. ven drawn tip in a way that makes a mofl agreeable
an(j glorious appearance. There goes a (lory, to our
purpofe, of a celebrated matter, who in a drawing of
the Univerfal Deluge, the better to exprefs the im-
inenfity of the waters that covered the earth, left a
corner of his paper without figures. Being afked, if
he did not intend to fill it up : No, faid he ; do not
you fee that my leaving it empty is what precifely
conftitutes the pi&ure ?
The reafon for breaking a compofition into feveral
groups is, that the eye, pafiing freely from one objeft
to another, may the better cemprehend the whole.
But the painter is not to (lop here ; for thefe groups
are, befides, to be fa artfully put together, as to form
rich clufters, give the whole compofition a Angular air
of grandeur, and afford the fpedlator an opportunity
of difeerning the piece at a diftance, and taking the
whole in, as it were, at a fingle glance. Thefe effects
are greatly promoted by a due regard to the nature of
colours, fo as not to place together thofe which are
apt to pain by their oppofition, or diftraft by their
variety. They (hould be fo judicioufly difpofed as to
temper and qualify each other.
A proper ufe of the chiaro-fcuro is likewife of great
fervice on this occafion. The groups are eafily part¬
ed, and the whole picture acquires a grand effe6t,.by
introducing fame ftrong falls of (hade, and, above all,
one principal beam of light. This method has been
followed with great fuccefs by Rembrandt in a famous
pidture of his, reprefenting tire Virgin at the foot of
the crofs on mount Calvary; the principal light dart¬
ing upon her through a break of the clouds, while the
reft of the figures about her (land more or lefs in the
(hade. Tintoret, too, acquired great reputation, as
well by that brilknefs with which he enlivened his fi¬
gures, as by his mafterly manner of (hading them ;
and Polidoro de Caravaggio, though he fcarce paint¬
ed any thing but baffo-relievos, was particularly fa¬
mous for introducing with great (kill the effedts of the
chiaro -fcuro, a thing firft attempted by Mantegna in his
Triumph of Julius Cafar. It is by this means that his
compofitions appear fo ftrikingly divided into different
groups, and, among their other perfedlions, afford fo
much delight through the beautiful difpofition that
reigns in them.
In like manner, a painter, by the help of perfpec-
tive, efpecially that called a rialt the oppofition of lo¬
cal colours, and other contrivances which he may ex-
pedt to hit upon by (ludying nature, and thofe who
have bed (ludied her before him, will be able not
only to part his groups, but make them appear at
different diftances, fo as to leave fufficient paffages be¬
tween them.
But the greateft caution is to be ufed in the purfuit
of the methods here laid down ; efpecially in the ma¬
nagement of the chiaro-fcuro, that the effedts attribu¬
ted t© light and (hade, and to their various concomi¬
tants, may not run counter to truth and experience.
This is a capital point. For this purpofe, a painter
would do well to make, in little figures, as Tintoret
and Pouffin ufed to do, a model of the fubjedt that he
intends to reprefent, and then illuminate it by lamp
or candle light. By this means he may come to know
with certainty, if the chiaro-fcuro, which he has form¬
ed ib hie mind, does not clafh with the reafon of things.
Part
By varying the height and dire&ion of his light, he Difpofition.
may eaiily difeover fuch accidental effedls as are mod '—-v—*
likely to recommend his performance, and fo eflablifh
a proper fyftem for the illuminating it. Nor will he
afterwards find it a difficult matter to modify the qua¬
lity or his (hades, by foftening or ftrengthening them,
atcording to the fituation of his feene, and the quality
of the light falling upon it. If it (hould happen to be
a candle or lamp light feene, he would then have no¬
thing to do but coufider his model well, and faithfully
copy it.
In the next place, to turn a group elegantly, the
heft pattern is that of a bunch ©f grapes adopted by
Titian. As, of the many grains that compofe a bunch
of grapes, fome are (truck diredly by the light, and
thofe oppofite to them are in the (hade, whilft the in¬
termediate ones partake of both light and (hade in a
greater or lefs degree ; fo, according to Titian, the
figures of a group (hould be fo difpofed, that, by the
union of the chiaro-fcuro, feveral things may appear
as it were but one thing. And in faft it is only from
his having purfued this method, that we can account
for the very grand effedl of his pieces this way, in which
it is impoffible to ftudy him too much.
The mannerifts, who do not follow nature in the
track of the mailers juft mentioned, are apt to commit
many faults. The reafon of their figures calling their
(hades in this or that manner feldom appears in the
pi&ure, or at lead does not appear fufficiently pro¬
bable. They are, befides, wont to trefpafs all bounds
in fplaffiing their pieces with light, that is, in enliven¬
ing thofe parts which we ufually term the deafs of a
picture. This method, no doubt, has fometimes a
very fine effeft ; but it is, however, to be ufed with
no fmall diferetion, as otherwife the whole lofes that
union, that paufe, that majeltic filence, as Carracci
ufed t® call it, which affords fo much pleafure. The HogattJS*
eye is not lefs hurt by many lights fcattered here and Anabf,s °f
there over a pi&ure> than the ear is by the confufed Beauty'
noife of different perfons fpeaking all together in an af-
fembly.
Guido Reni, who has imparted to his paintings that
gaiety and fplendor in which he lived, feems ena¬
moured with a bright and open light; whereas Michael
Angelo da Caravagio, who was of a fulien and favage
difpofition, appears fondeft of a gloomy and clouded
(Icy : fo that neither of them were qualified to handle
indifferently all objefts. The chiaro-fcuro may like¬
wife prove of great fervice to a painter in giving his
compofition a grand effe&; but, neverthelefs, the light
he choofes muft be adapted to the fituation of the feene
where the adlion is laid: nor would he be lefs faulty,
who in a grotto or cavern, where the light entered by
a chink, (hould make his (hades foft and tender, than
he who (hould reprefent them ftrong and bold in an
open (Icy-light.
But this is by no means the only fault which man-
nerifts are apt to be guilty of in hiftorical pieces, and
particularly in the difpofition of their figures. To fay
nothing of their favourite group of a woman lying on
the ground with one child at her bread, and another
playing about her, and the like, which they generally
place on the firft lines of their pieces; nor of thofe half¬
figures in the back ground peeping out from the hol¬
lows contrived for them ; they make a common prac¬
tice
PAINTING
Part t. PAIN
Pifyofitioi; tice of mixing naked with clothed figures; old men
'■“"’“'V”—"' with young ; placing one figure with its face towards
you, and another with its back ; they contrail violent
motions with languid attitudes, and feem to aim at
oppofition in every thing ; whereas oppofitions never
pleafe but when they arife naturally from the fubjedt,
like antithefes in a difeourfe.
As to forelhortened figures, too much affedlation in
ufing or avoiding them is equally biameable The at¬
titudes had better be compofed than otherwife. It
very feldoni happens that there is any occafion for ma¬
king them fo impetuous as to be in danger of lofing
their equilibrium ; a thing too much pradlifed by fome
painters.
In regard to drapery, equal care fhould betaken to
avoid that poverty, which makes fome mailers look as
if, through mere penury, they grudged clothes to their
figures ; and that profufion which Albani imputed to
Guido, faying, that he was rather a tailor than a
painter. The ornaments of drefs Ihould be ufed with
great fobriety ; and it wall not be amifs to remember
what was once faid to an ancient painter: “ I pity you
greatly ; unable to make Helen handfome, you have
taken care to make her fine.”
Let the whole, in a word, and all the different parts
©f the difpofition, poffefs probability, grace, collume,
and the particular charadler of what is to be reprefent
ed. Let nothing looklike uniformity of manner; which
does not appear lefs in the compolition than it does in
colouring, drapery, and defign ; and is, as it . were,
that kind of accent, by v/hich painters may be as rea¬
dily dillinguifhed as foreigners are, by pronouncing
in the fame manner all the different languages they
happen to be acquainted with.
Sect. XI. Of Illufon-
Among painters, and th« writers on painting, there
Is one maxim univerfally admitted and continually in¬
culcated ; it is, that nature ought to be imitated, and ob-
jedls are faid to be reprefented naturally, when they
have fuch relief that they may feem real. If we in¬
quire to what degree painting may carry this illufion,
we lhall find that it deceives the eye, and obliges the
fpedlator to employ the touch in mouldings and in
baffo-relievos where they are a little projedled ; but
that it is weakened and the effect partly ddtroyed
where the proje&ion is one or two feet. It is poffible
alfo to make it in the higheft degree complete in pic¬
tures of flowers, fruits, and other reprefentations of
flill life, provided they be feen in a certain point of
view, and at a conliderable diltance ; but there is no
example of a picture containing a number of figures,
and placed in a proper light,being miftaken for real life.
We are told, indeed, of a bull of an abbe painted by
Charles Coypel, which, placed in a certain direftion be¬
hind a table, and in a certain light, deceived fiveral per-
fons fo completely as to induce them to falute it: but,
without admitting any thing very extraordinary in the
projection or illufion of this painting, it is evident,
from the circumllances attending the relation, that
the deception arofe from fnrprife and inattention,
■which might happen to a production of an inferior
artift. And hence we may conclude, that it is vain
to pretend to perfeCt the illufion, efpecially in pic-
T I N G. 627
turcs confifting of a number of figures, and with con- Illufion° ,
fiderable diflances fuppofed between them.
Among the obltacles which are oppofed to the per¬
fection of this branch of the art, we lhall chiefly at¬
tend to thofe which naturally proceed from our habits of
thinking and judging on all occafions. Thefe, together
with the experience we daily have of light on all kinds
of furfaces, and of all colours, are fufficient to demon-
ftrate the want of reality in the mere reprefentation of
any feenes.
It has been elfewhere Ihown, that dillance, figure, and
magnitude, are not naturally objeCts of perception by
the fenfe of fight; that we judge'tff thefe things by
the eye only, in confequence of affociations early form¬
ed between the perceptions of touch and the corre-
fponding imprefiions on the retina and optic nerve by
the rays of light; and that a painter makes his pic¬
ture refemble the original, merely by laying his co¬
lours on a plain furface in fuch a manner, as that they
refleCl the fame rays of light with the convex or con¬
cave original, when the fpeClator Hands at the proper
dillance (fee Metaphysics, n° 49, 50, 51, 52, and
95). But if this be admitted, illufion in painting can
never be made perfect, on account of the inevitable
falfity of the lhades which mark the moll dillant parts
of the piClure. The painter can only imitate thofe
lhadeg by obfeure colours, laid on a plane furface, and
fufceptible of reflecting the light with a degree of
force relative to the real dillance. Now our eyes give
us the. true plane of this furface, oppofed to the idea
of deepening which the painter wilhes to produce, a
contrariety which prevents the deception. On this
account, the faults found in the works of the greatell
mallets, with regard to the effeCls produced by the
whole, moll frequently relate to their manner of {had¬
ing, which is fufficient to prove, that the want of illu¬
fion in painting depends chiefly on the imperfedion
of the {hades.
This defed, though it cannot be wholly avoided,
may yet be rendered lefs perceptible. There has yet,
indeed, been no painter able to imitate lhadow, nor is
it probable that any one will ever perfedly accomplilh
this talk. Shadow in nature is not a body, but the
privation of light, which deftroys colours in a greater
or lefs degree, in proportion as it is more or lels com¬
plete. Now the painter can only imitate this priva¬
tion and real darknefs, by colours which mull from
their very nature be capable of reflefting light 
The colours may be more or lefs obfeure, but they
preferve always fomething which gives a mixture of
refledion. To carry the imitation of lhadow to the
highelt degree of perfection, it would be neceffary to
apply a colour capable of darkening all others, more or
lefs as there Ihould be occafion, and which might have
no vifible trace of its exiltence, that is, no one part of
it which reflected one coloured ray more llrongly than
another. Perhaps this kind of negative colour might
be found in praClice to be of fervice to the art; but it
would not render the furface totally invifible, for it
would be neceffary, farther, that it Ihould have the
property of not refleding a Angle ray of light when
expofed to it; which is altogether impoffible, as there
is no colour or body in nature without, reflection in
fuch a fituation.
We lhall be further convinced of the impoffibility
4 K. 2 @i
628
PAIN
Ulufior.
of painting fhadow, if we attend to the pi&ures of
the greateft mafters, with regard to the imitation of
truth. Every part, when taken by itfelf, connected
with light, or with demitints, prefents a perfect imita¬
tion. Even the different degrees of light or the ob-
je£ts are fufficiently exa£t; but notvvithftanding this
aflemblage of circumftances correfponding with truth,
and of which the refult fhould be perfeft illufton, yet
in confidering the whole, we are never fo complete¬
ly deceived, as to take a picture for a reality ; from
which we may conclude, that the want of illufion
proceeds almoft entirely from the imperfeftion of
fhading.
Illuiion then, in the flri&eft fenfe, cannot exifl in
painting ; but there is another kind of illufion, per¬
haps improperly fo called, which is one of the princi¬
pal parts of the art, and worthy of the greateft atten¬
tion : It is, that the picture (hall refemble truth to fuch
a degree by the juftnefs of its forma, by the combina¬
tion of colours, and by all its general effcfts, that the
image (hall give all the pleafure to be expected from
the imitation of truth. This is not illufion in the pro¬
per fenfe of the word, fince it exifts as well in pictures
on a fmall fcale as in thofe of equal dimenfions with
the original; but it is that truth of imitation of which
painting is fufceptible, even in pictures containing
any number of figures at any reafonabk diftance from
each other.
But it remains to be confidered whether this imita¬
tion of truth, taken by itfelf, be the higheft attainable
perfection in painting. It is generally granted, that
the greateft beauty is that which not only pleafes at
firlt view, but on the neareft and moft critical exa¬
mination. But if illufion, fuch as we have deferibed
it, were the foie merit of the art, it would follow, that
the perfon who was lead acquainted with its beauties
would experience the fame pleafure as he who had
Iludied them moft. Farther, in examining the works
of the greateft mafters, it is eafy to perceive, that it
is not their illufion which has excited the attention
and admiration of the critic. Even the works of the
divine Raphael do not deceive the eye in any point
of view more completely than theft of an ordinary
painter. Raphael, pure in hischarafter and defign, is,
without doubt, very deficient in this part of the art.
Meanwhile the grandeur of his ideas in compofition,
and the choice of his forms ; the beauty of his heads,
wherein one does not admire fimply the imitation of
any known truth; his ingenious and noble manner in
drapery, which yet does not referable any known fluff,
or the garb of any nation ; in fhort, all his beauties are
fuperior to the firnple imitation of truth, and contra¬
dict the fentiment of the greateft pleafure arifing from
illufion.
If we pafs to thofe who have purfued colouring with
the greateft fuccefs, wefhallfind them, doubtlefs, ap¬
proach nearer to illufion than thofe who have negleCted
it; and it is alfo a fad, that their works have been more
liniverfaDy admired.
At the fame time it is not the illufion occafioned by
colours which has altogether excited this admiration.
The exquifite demitints and the frefhnefs of Corregio
and Titian, which excel the ordinary beauties ef na¬
ture, and even imitate her moft perfeCt productions,
ipay perhaps not be confidered as deftroying iliufion ;
S
TIN G. Part I.
but it is no lefs a faCt, that weaker and lefs precious Ulufion.
colouring would carry it to greater perfection. Be-
fides, this large, eafy, and exquifite, manner of paint¬
ing, this harmony, of which they have given us the
beft examples, are owing to qualities in them much
more excellent than what would be fufficient to pro¬
duce the fimple imitation of truth. Guido, Cor¬
tona, and fome others, appear to approach nearer to il¬
lufion. But even thofe mafters prove by their works,
that the moft eftimable beauties in painting do not
all tend to this branch of the art; for notwithftand-
ing the high character which they have gained, they
are much inferior to Raphael, Corregio, and Titian,
although the firft failed in colouring and in the know¬
ledge of the claro-obfcuro, the fecond in point of
correftnefs, and the third in the choice of noble
fubjeCts.
From this we may conclude, that the neareft refem-
blance to truth is not the foie objeCt in painting; that
it acquires a fuperior degree of elevation by the art
of adding beauty and perfe&ion to the moft exaCl re-
femblance ; and that it is this art which diftinguifhea
and characterizes extraordinary men.
If we run over the great branches of painting, we
fliall find a number of effential beauties different from
thofe which are capable of carrying illufion to the
greateft poffible height. In compofition, we princi¬
pally admire the extent of genius, the choice of pic-
turefque and graceful attitudes, the ingenious com¬
bination of groups, whether in uniting the light and
firade in order to obtain the greateft effeCI, or in dif-
pofing a whole in fuch a manner as to make no part
fuperfluous; and finally, that kind of practical talent
by which the mind takes poffeflion of nature, and
forces it to produce all the beauties of which the art
is fufceptible. In this enumeration of particulars it
is eafy to perceive that the beauties of compofition
are very diftant from thofe of illufion.
To obtain illufion in defign, there is no occafion
for correCtnefs nor tafte beyond what is perceived in
nature by the moft ignorant fpeefator. And with re¬
gard to colouring, that is not always moft admired
which is moft natural. What departs widely from
truth, indeed, is not of confeq.uence beautiful, but.
many qualities are required befides the fimple imita¬
tion of truth. Frefhnefs, eafe, and tranfparency in
certain tones, are deemed abfolutely requifite; and the
moft efteemed colourifts have carried their beauties in
all thefe refpeCts beyond what they have feen in na¬
ture. If fome tones in the ftefhy parts have approach--
ed towards vermilion, to a light-blue, or a filver-grey,.
they have male them more apparent; not only to
point them out to the fpedator, but to fhow their
knowledge in the difeovery and their art in painting
them. This would have been going beyond the li¬
mits of perfection, if thefe had conliited in fimple il¬
lufion.
Theoppofition ofcolour,of light, and of fhade, would
have been in this cafe alfo fuptrfluous ; for nature is
always true, without any pointed attempt to make her
more engaging. The fappreifion of certain lights,
which truth would require, and which art extinguifhes,.
in order to augment the harmony of effect, would be
alfo worthy of cenfure, whatever pleafure would rtfult
from it.
Finally^
Parti.
lllufion.
PAIN
Finally, one of the greatetl beauties of the art,
1 namely the peculiar manner of a great mafter, has no
relation to illufion. This is not even founded in na¬
ture, but depends on the genius or Angularity of the
artift. It is this manner which diftinguifhes the ori¬
ginal of a great mafter from the moft exaft copy; and
which charafterizes the talents of the artifts fo well,
that the fmalleft part of the pi&ure, and even the leaft
interefting, is fufficient to difeover the painter. The
diftinftion between the beautiful and. illuftve in paint¬
ing has made Sir Joihua Reynolds, in exprefs terms,
recommend a perfe&ion fuperior to the imitation of
nature. “ The principle now laid down (fays he), that
the perfection of the art does not coniift in mere imi¬
tation, is far from being new or Angular. It is, in¬
deed, fupperted by the general opimoa of the en¬
lightened part of mankind. I he poets, orators, and
rhetoricians of antiquity, are continually enforcing
this pofition, that all the arts receive their perfection
from an ideal beauty, fuperior to what is to he found
in individual nature. They are ever referring to the
praftice of the painters and fculptors of their times,
particularly Phidias the favourite artift of antiqui¬
ty, to illuftrate their aftertions. As if they could
not fufficiently exprefs their admiration of his genius
by what they knew, they have recourfe to poeti¬
cal cnthuAafm. They call it infpiration ; a gift from
heaven. The artift is fuppofed to have afeended the
celeftial regions to furnifh his mind with this perfeCt
idea of beauty. ‘ He (fays Proclus) who takes for
his model fuch forms as nature produces, .and conftnes
himfelf to an exaCt imitation of them, will never at¬
tain to what is perfeftly beautiful. For the works
of nature are full of difproportion, and fall fhort of tne
true ftahdard of beauty, ho that Phidias, when he
formed his Jupiter, did not copy any objeCt ever pre-
fented to his fight ; but contemplated only that image
which he had conceived in his mind from Homeric
defeription.’
“ it is not eafy to deftne in what this great ftyle con-
Afts, nor to deferibe by words the proper means of ac¬
quiring it, if the mind of the ftudent Aiould be at ail
capable of fuch an acquiAtion. Could we teach tafte
or genius by rules, they would be no longer tafte and
genius. But though there neither are nor can be
any precife invariable rules for the exercife or the ac-
quifttion of thefe great qualities; yet we may truly fay
that they always operate in proportion to our atten¬
tion in obferving the works of nature, to our fkill in
feleCting, and to our care in digefting, methodiftng,
and comparing our obfervations. I here are many
beauties in our art that feem at Arft to lie without the
reach of precept, and yet may eaftly be reduced to
praClical principles. Experience is all in all; but it is
not every one that proftts by experience and moft
people err not fo much from want of capacity to find
their objeCt, as from not knowing what objeCt to pur-
fue. This great ideal perfection and beauty are not
to he fought in the heavens, but upon the earth. They
are about us, and upon every fide of us : But the
power of difeovering what is deformed in nature, or, in
ether words, what is particular or uncommon, can be
acquired only by experience ; and the. whole beauty
and grandeur of the art ccnfifts id being< able to get
TING. 629
above all Angular forms, local cuftoms, particularities, . ,
and details of every kind.” .
After thefe opinions^ however, derived from the
praftice of the art, and this high authority, it may
not be improper to hazard a few obfervatiens. Al¬
though illufion can be diftinguifhed from many of the
moft excellent parts of the art taken feparately, yet it
does not follow that it fhall not add in every pidure
to the beauty of the whole. It is impoffible to ftate
it in oppofition to defign, to compofition, to colour¬
ing, or to the peculiar manner of a great artift ; became
all thefe may exift where there alfo exifts tne moft per-
fe& iilpfion. This is evident from the works of art ?
which have real relievo, and which at the fame time are
capable of perfeftion in all thofe branches, and of
ftiowing the peculiar manner of the artift. Again, it
appears evident, that illufion, properly fo called, (hould
be a proper ohjeft of attention in painting. We may
rate the ideal beauty very high, and with great juftice ;
hut it ftill confifts in overcoming the ddeCfs m indi¬
vidual objefts in nature, and not in departing from the
truth of reprefentation. And perhaps, it may a‘-
leged, that the impoffibility of giving perfeCt illufion
on a plain furface has pufiied the. greateft matters too
far, and made them crowd artificial beauties into their
pictures to conceal their want of power to give real
ones. It is not improbable, that on this very account
the art is lefs perteft than otherwife it might have
been: For in all fubjefts thought.to be'impoffible,
there is not only great room for exertion, but the per-
fon carries the art to greater perfeaion as he comes
nearer to (how that it may not be impouible. And 11
the works of Raphael, in point of illufion, are not fu¬
perior to an ordinary artift, we may be permitted to
fay that there is great room for improvement in this
branch.
S e c t . XII. Of tie Cojlume.
The coftume in painting correfponds with the uni¬
ties of time, place, and aCtion, in tragedy and in epic
poetry. It is chiefly confined to hiftory-painting ;
and regards the cuftoms of different periods, the man¬
ners, the drefs, and the colour, of different nations.
Great exa&nefs in the coftume is fcarcely practicable
but too fentfble a departure from it denotes unpardon¬
able negligence. It frequently happens that a piece
compofed of piaurefque figures derives confiderable ad¬
vantage from certain liberties which are calculated to
pleafe both the artift and the fpeCtator; for the
judges of painting are not habitually occupied with
the details of ancient and modern hiftory, or profound¬
ly verfed in all the circumftances which make a depar¬
ture from the coftume confpicuous. On the other
hand, if they were fo ignorant as not 1.0 undeiftand;,
or fo’indifferent as not to regard thofe circumftances,
this branch of the art would be altogether arbitrary.
The road of the painter is between thefe two extremes,
not to defpife beauty on the one hand, nor probability
on the other. But in purfuing this part of the art, it
is in vain to feek for perfeCt models in ancient or mo-
“ When Raphael in his cartoons introduces monks
and Sv/ifs guards; when he puts into a boat more fi- twns> voj>
guresp.^
^39 PAIN
. Coftume- gyres than U k evulent the boat could adually con¬
tain ; when in £he chaftifement of Heliodorus, who
attempted to defpoil the temple of Jerufalem, Pope
Julius II. is depicted as being prefent ; when, in the
donation of Conftantine in the Vatican, a naked boy
is placed confpicuous in the fore-ground, aftride upon
a dog in the immediate prefence of the pope and the
emperor; when Venetian fenators are introduced while
Pope Alexander excommunicates Karbarofia; when
Ariftotle, Piato, Dante, and Petrarch, are brought
together in the fehool of Athens, to omit the lefTer
improprieties of fhoelefs apoftles, &c.~every perfon
muft acknowledge that fuch offences as thefe againft
truths fo obvious, if they do not arife from a defed!:
of underftanding, are inftances of inexcufable carelefs-
nefs.
In like manner, when the fame great mailer paints
the dreams of Jofeph and his fellow-prifoner in circles
over their heads ; when fimilar contrivances t© exprefs
future events are ufed by Albani, Pameggiano, and
lufeh—is it not evident that no poffibility can make
t it fiction true; and that real and feigned exiltences
are unnaturally introduced in one narration ?
When Polydore choofes to reprefent the death of
Cato, and expofes to the fpe&ator the hero of the
piece with his bowels gufhing out ; when Paul Vero-
nefe, at a banquet painted with hisufual magnificence,
places before us a dog gnawing a bone, and a boy ma¬
king water : however fuch difgufting circumftances
may be forgiven in the chef d'auvre of a Michael An¬
gelo, had he reprefented thefe inllead of the horrible
figures of his Day of Judgment, the performance of an
inferior artift cannot stone for them.
“ So alfo when one of the firft rate among the mo¬
dern painters, we mean Paul Veronefe, introduces Be-
nedidtine monks at the marriage of Cana ; when, in a
pidture of the crucifixion, he puls the Roman foldiers
in the jerkins of the 16th century, and adorns their
heads with turbans; when Guido, in a painting of
Jefus appearing to his mother after his refurre&ion,
places St Charles Borromee in a kind of delk in the*
back-ground as witnefs to the interview ; v/hen Tin-
toret, at the miraculous fall of manna, arms the Ifrae-
lites with fufils ; and Corregio appoints St Jerome as
the inftrudlor of the child Jefus—common fenfe revolts
at the impropriety ; and we are compelled to exclaim,
Quicquid ojiendas mihi fu, incredulvs odi!
“ The mythological tafte of the learned Pouffin is
well known ; but Rubens feems to claim the merit of
having prefented to the world a ftill greater number
of fupreme abfurdities in this learned ftyle: nor is it
eafy to conceive a more heterogeneous mixture of cir¬
cumftances, real and imaginary, facred and profane,
than the Luxembourg gallery, and the other works of
that great mafter, perpetually exhibit.
“ When fo great an authority as Sir Jofhua Rey-
Difisurft!)nolds * contends for the rejection of common fenfe in
p. 2t>6. tavour of fomewhat he terms a higher fenfe ; when he
laments, indirectly, that art is not in fuch high efti-
mation with us, as to induce the generals, lawgivers,
and kings of modern times, to fuffer themfelves to be
reprefented naked, as in the days of ancient Greece ;
when he defends even the ridiculous aberrations from
poffibility, which the extravagant pencil of Rubens has
io plentifully produccd—it is not furprifing that the
T I N G. part!
artlfts of thre Preren• ftouM be te.l to rejefl the Coftnm,,'
company of common fenfe ; or that Sir Joftma’s per - —
formances ftiould furnilh examples ©f his own pre¬
cepts. ^
“ Mrs Siddons is reprefented by Sir Jofhua in the
c iaiafter (as it is faid) of the tragic mufe: She is
placed in an old-fafhiened arm chair ; this aim chair
is fupported by clouds, fufpended in the air ; on each
fide of her head is a figure not unapt to fuggtft the
idea of the attendant imps of an enchantrefs: of thefe
figures, one is fuppofed to reprefent Comedy, and the
other Tragedy ; Mrs Siddons herfelf is decently at¬
tired in the fafhionable habiliments of 20 or 20 years
ago. J 1
“ If th,"s be a pifture of the tragic mufe, fhe ought
not to appear in a modern drefs, nor ought fhe to be
inoa" °ld arm chair' If tllia be a portraiture
of Mrs Siddons, Ihe has no bufinefs in the clouds, nor
has fhe any thing to do with aerial attendants. If this
be Siddons in the charafter of the tragic mufe
the firft fet of objeftiona apply ; for fhe is placed in
a fitu ition where Mrs Siddons could never be.
“ In the death of Dido, Sir Jofhua Reynolds in¬
troduces her fifter, lamenting over the corpfe of the
unfortunate queen. This is pcflible ; but he has alfo
introduced Atropos cutting Dido’s hair with a pair of
iciffars, a being equally real and apparent in the paint¬
ing with Dido or her fifter. This (continues our au¬
thor) appears to me a grofs offence againft mythologi-
cal probability ; nor is it the only offence againft the
coftume with which that pifture is chargeable.
U here is one other breach ©f the coftume, how¬
ever common among painters, more grofs and offen-
five than any of the inftances hitherto alleged ; we
mean the perpetual and unneceffary difplay of the
naked figure. We fhali not flay to enquire whether
more fkill can be fhown in painting the human body
clothed or unclothed. ^ If the perfonages introduced in
any pifture are more naked in the reprefentation than
can be juftified by the probability of the-times, per¬
sons, places, or circumftances, it is a breach of the co-
itume proportionate to the deviation. T6!s fault,
however, is fo common, as hardly to be noticed ; fo
flight indeed, when compared with that general tafle
for. voluptuous imagery and obfeene reprefentation,
which has fo long difgraced the art of painting in
every ftage of its progrtfs, that fcience and morality
are callous to the flight offence.
“ This depravity of imagination, this proftitution
of the pencil to the bafe purpofes of lafeivious incli¬
nation, was a fubjeft of much complaint among the
ancients. Nor is there lefs reafon to complain in mo¬
dern times, that this delightful art, which might be
employed in exciting the nobleft fentiments, and be¬
come fubfervient to the beft interefts of fociety, fhould
fo often be exercifed upon fubjefts folely calculated to
pleafe the eye of the voluptuary and debauchee. It is
hardly poffible to pafs through any admired colleftion
without meeting with fome of thefe ; of which, how¬
ever excellent the peiformance may be, the common
feelings of decency and morality (if we are neither
p.rofeffed artifts nor connoiffeurs) prevent us from
viewing them without a mixture of difguft.”
* me dt
Et fudor aver lbs texit velamine vultus'
Alar/y.
art I.
Coftume
t
PAIN
It is impoflihle to exprefs how much a pifture fuf-
fers by fuch loofenefs of fancy, and finks as a baitard
of the art in the efteem of good judges. Some people,
indeed, are of opinion, that fo fcrupulousan obfervance
of the coftume is apt to hurt pictures, by depriving
them of a certain air of truth arifing, they think, from
thofe features and habits to which we are accuilomed;
and which are therefore apt to make a greater im-
preffion, than can be expelled from things drawn from
the remote fources of antiquity ; adding withal, that
a certain degree of licence has ever been allowed thofe
artills v/ho in their works mull make fancy their
chief guide. See, fay they, the Greeks; that is, the
mailers of Raphael and Pouflin themfelves. Do they
ever trouble their heads about fuch niceties ? The
Rhodian llatuaries, for example, have not fcrupled to
reprefent Laocoon naked; that is, the prieft of Apollo
naked in the very adl of facrificing to the gods, and
that too in prefence of a whole people, of the virgins
and matrons of Ilium. Now, continue they, if it was
allowable in the ancient ftatuaries to negleft probabi-
Lity and decency to fuch a degree, to have a better op¬
portunity of difplaying their (kill in the anatomy of
the human body; why may it not be allowable in mo¬
dern painters, the better to attain the end of their art,
which is deception, to depart now and then a little
from the ancient manners and the too rigorous laws of
the coftume ? But thefe reafons, we beg leave to ob-
ferve, are more ablurd than they are ingenious. What!
are we to draw conclufions from an example, which,
far from deciding the difpute, gives occafion to ano¬
ther ? The learned are of opinion, that thofe Rhodian
mailers would have done much better had they loaked
out for a fubjedf in which, without offending fo much
againft truth, and even probability, they might have
had an equal opportunity of difplaying their know¬
ledge of the naked. And certainly no authority or
example whatever ftiould tempt us to do any thing
contrary to what both decency and the reafon of things
require, unlefs we intend, like Carpioni, to reprefent
Sognl d’infermiy e foie ch romanzi.
The dreams of Tick men, and the tales of fools.
No : a painter, the better to attain the end of his
art, which is deception, ought carefully to avoid mix¬
ing the antique with the modern, the domeftic with the
foreign; things, in Ihort, repugnant to each other, and
therefore incapable of gaining credit. A fpe&ator will
never be brought to confider himfelf as aftually pre-
fent at the feene, the reprefentation of which he has
before him, unlefs the circumftances which enter it
perfe&ly agree among themfelves, and the field of ac¬
tion, if we may ufe the expreffion, in no lhape belies
the aftion itfelf. For inftance, the circumftances, or,
if you pleafe, the acceffories, in a Finding of Mofes, are
not, furely, to reprefent the borders of a canal plant¬
ed with rows of poppies, and covered with country-
houfes in the European tafte; but the banks of a great
TING. 631
river fhaded with clufters of palm-trees, with a Sphinx Proper
or an Anubis in the adjacent fields, and here and there Btg°rr a
in the back-ground a towering pyramid. And indeed - -1
the painter, before he takes either canvafs or paper in
hand, fhould on the wings of fancy tranfport himfelf
to Egypt, to Thebes, or to Rome; and fumrr.oning
to his imagination the phyfiognomy, the drefs, the
plants, the buildings, fuitable to his fubje£t, with the
particular foot where he has chofen to lay his feene,
fo manage his pencil, as, by the magic of it, to make
the emaptured fpedlators fancy themfelves there along
with him.
Sect. XIII. Of proper Books for a Painter.
From what has been already faid, it may be eafily
gathered, that a painter ftiould be neither illiterate
nor unprovided with books. Many are apt to imagine,
that the Iconologia of Ripa, or fome fuch colle&ion,
is alone fufficient for this purpofe ; and that all the ap¬
paratus he (lands in need of, may be reduced to a few
cafts of the remains of antiquity, or rather to what
Rembrandt ufed to call his antiques, being nothing more
than coats of mail, turbans, (herds of ftuff, and all man¬
ner of old houfehold trumpery and wearing apparel.
Such things, no doubt, are neceffary to a painter, and
perhaps enough for one who wants only to paint half-
lengths, or is willing to confine himfelf to a few low
fubjefts. But they are by no means fufficient for him
who would foar higher ; for a painter who would at- Algarotu
tempt the Univerfe, and reprefent it in all its parts,1 ai* >n^'
fuch as it would appear, had not matter proved refrac¬
tory to the intentions of the fovereign Artift. Such
a painter alone is a true, an univerfal, a perfeft pain¬
ter. No mortal, indeed, muft ever expedt to rife to
that fublimity ; yet all (hould afpire to it, on the pain
of otherwife ever continuing at a very mortifying di-
ftance from it: as the orator, who wifties to make a
figure in his profeffion, (hould propofe to himfelf no
lefs a pattern than that perfeft orator deferibed by
Tully ; nor the courtier, than that perfeft courtier de¬
lineated by Caftiglione. It cannot, therefore, appear
furprifing, if we infill on the propriety of reckoning a
good colledtion of books as part of fuch a painter’s
implements. The Bible, the Greek and Roman hi-
ftorians, the works of Homer that prince of poets, and
of Virgil, are the moft claffical. To thefe let him add
the Metamorphofes of Ovid, fome of our bed poets,
the voyage of Paufanias, Vinci, Vafari, and others, up¬
on painting.
It will alfo be of confiderable advantage to him to
have a well-chofen colledtion of drawings by the belt
matters(d), in order to trace the progrefs and hiftory
of his art, and make himfelf acquainted with the va-
riops ftyles of painting which have been, and now are,
in the greateft vogue. The prince of the Roman fchool
was not afhamed to hang up in his (tudy the drawings
of Albert Durer ; and,fpared n© pains or expence to
acquire
(d) We have formerly (fee Anatomy, p. 672. column 2.) mentioned a great anatomical work carrying
on by Andrew Bell, Efq; in Edinburgh, of the figures of which, as they are engraved under the inspec¬
tion of fo able an anatomift as Mr Fyfe, and with the approbation of Dr Monro, we may at lead form a fa¬
vourable opinion ; and if well executed, of which there can be but little doubt, they will unqueftionably be of
effential feivice to the painter.
6.52 PAIN
Proper acquire all the drawings he could meet with that were
^Painter ataken ^rom haffo relievos; thingst which the art of
i ‘ " , engraving has fince rendered fo common as to be in
every one’s hands. This art of multiplying drawings
by means of the graver is of the fame date, and boafts
the fame advantages, with the art of printing, by
means of which the works of the mind are multiplied,
as it were, at one llxoke, and difperfed over the whole
world.
The fight of fine fubjedts treated by able mailers,
^nd the different forms which the fame fubjetts aflame
in different hands, cannot fail both of enlightening and
enflaraing the mind of the young painter. The fame
may be faid of the perufal of good poets and hiito-
rians, with the particulars and proofs of what they ad¬
vance; not to mention thofe ideas and flights of inven¬
tion, with which the former are wont to clothe, beau¬
tify, and exalt every thing they take in hand. Bouch-
ardon, after reading Homer, conceived, to ufe his own
words, that men were three times taller than before,
and that the world was enlarged in every refpeft. It
is very probable, that the beautiful thought of cover¬
ing Agamemnon’s face with the fkirt of his mantle at
the facrifice of Iphigenia, was fuggefled to Txmantes
by the tragedy of Euripides. And the fublime con¬
ceit of Raphael, who, in a Creation of his, reprefents
God in the immenfe fpace, with one hand reaching to
the fun and the other to the moon, may be confidered
as the child of the following words of the Pfalmilt :
The heavens declare the glory of God) and the frmament
(henveth his handy-work.
This thought of Raphael has been, indeed, cenfured
by Mr Webb. <c A God (fays this gentleman), ex¬
tending one handle the fun, and another to the moon,
deftroys that idea of immenfity which fttould accom¬
pany the work of creation, by reducing it to a world
of a few inches.” But the opinion of Count Algarotti
is very different. “ For my part (fays that elegant
critic), I cannot difeover in this painting a world of
a few inches, but a world on a much greater fcale; a
world of millions and millions of miles: and yet this
fo immenfe a world, by means of that aft of the God¬
head, in which with one hanjl he reaches to the fun,
and with the other to the moon, fliriisks, in my imagi¬
nation, to a mere nothing, in refpeft to the immenfity
of God himfelf; which is all that the powers of paint¬
ing can pretend to. This invention is, though in a
contrary fenfe, of the fame kind with that of Timan-
tes, who, to exprefs the enormous fize of a fleeping
Polyphemus, placed round him fome fatires meafuriag
the monfter’s thumb with a thyrfus. Hence Pliny,
who relates the faft, takes occafion to tell us, that his
works always imply more than they exprefs; and that
how great foever he may be in execution, he is ftill
greater in invention : Atque in omnibus ejus operibus
intelligitur plus femper quam pingitur ; et cum ars fumma
Jit, ingenium tamen ultra artem ejll* Nat. Hill. lib.
XXXV. C. IO.
The perufal of good authors cannot but be very
ferviceable to a painter in another refpeft; as, among
the great number of fubjefts afforded by hiffory and
poetry, he may expeft to meet with many on which
his talents may difplay themtelves to the greateft ad¬
vantage. A painter can never be too nice in the choice
NQ 256.
T I N G. Part I.
of his arguments; for on the beauty of them, that of Proper
his piece will greatly depend. How much to be pi-Cuok.sfor*
tied, therefore, were our firil maflers, in being fo of- 1
ten obliged to receive their fubjefts from the hands of
fimple and illiterate perfons ! and what is worfe, to
fpend all the riches of their art upon barren or unwor¬
thy fubjefts! Such are the reprefentations of thofe
faints, who, though they never had the ieaft inter-
courfe with each other, and perhaps even lived in dif¬
ferent ages, are, notwithftanding, to be introduced,
tete a tete, as it were, in the fame pifture. The me¬
chanic of the art may, indeed, difplay itfelf on thefe
.occafions; but by no means the ideal. The difpofx-
tion may be good and praxfe-worthy, as in the works
of Gortoni and Lanfranc ; but we are not to expeft
re them either invention or expreflion, which require
for their bafis the reprefentation of fome faft capable
of producing fuch effefts. Who does not, on the bare
mention of this abufe, immediately recolleft many fid
inftances of it ? fuch as the famous St Cecilia of Ra¬
phael, furrounded by St Paul, St Mary Magdalen, St
John, and St Auguftin; and the pifture of Paolo Ve-
renefe, in the veliry of the Nuns of St Zachary at Ve¬
nice, in which St Francis of Affizium, St Catharine,
and St Jerome richly habited in his cardinal’s robes,
form a ring round the Virgin feated on a throne
with the child Jefus in her arms ; perhaps the mofl
beautiful and pifturefque of all the infipid and inligni-
ficant pieces with which Italy abounds. It is very
ftxocking to think, that young painters Ihould be ob¬
liged to lludy their art from fuch wretched cempofi-
lions.
The fubjefts in which the pencil triumphs moft,
and with which a judicious painter may flock himfelf
by the perufal of good books, are, no doubt, thofe
which are moft univerfally known, which afford the
largeft field for a difpiay of the paffxons, and contain
the greateft variety of incidents, all concurring, in the
fame point of time, to fofm one principal aftion. Of
this the ftory of Coriolanus befieging Rome, as related
by Livy, is a fhining example Nothing can be ima¬
gined more beautiful than the feene of aftion itfelf,
which ought to take in the praetoriuin in the camp of
the Volfcians, the Tiber behind it, and the feven hills,
among which the towering Capitol is, as it were, to
loi-d it over the reft. It is impoflible to conceive a
greater variety, than what muft appear in that crowd
of foldiers, women, and children, all which are to en¬
ter the compofition ; unlefs, perhaps, it be that of the
different psffioas with which they are feverally agita¬
ted; fome wiftiing that Coriolanus may raife the fiege,
others fearing it, others again fufpefting it. But the
principal groupe forms the piftureique part of the
piece. Coriolanus, haftily defeending from his tribu¬
nal, and hurried on by filial affeftion, to embrace his
mother, ftops ftiort through fhame, on her crying out
to him, Hold ! let me firft know, if it is a fon, or an Livy, Dec,
enemy,! am going te embrace? Thus a painter may im-11- hb. a.
part novelty 10 the moft; hackneyed fubjeft, by taking
for his guides thofe authors who poffefs the happy ta¬
lent of adding grace and dignity, by their beautiful
and fublime deferiptions, even to the moft common and
trifling tranfaftions.
tSecr,
"Parti,
Painter’*
Balance-
Bee Mai-
j-an’s re
masks, in
JVLem. de
l' Acad, des
. Sciences.
S7.53-
P A I N
Sect. XIV. Of the Painter's Balance.
The celebrated De Piles, who by his writings has
thrown fa much light upon painting, in order to afiiil
young painters in forming a right judgment of thofe
matters who hold the txrit rank in the profeflion, and
to reduce fuch judgment to the greater precilion, be¬
thought himfelf of a pi&orical balance, by means of
which a painter’s merit may be weighed with the
greateft exa&nefs. This merit he divides into Com-
pofition, Defign, Colouring, and Expreffion ; and in
each of thefe branches he has afiigned to every paint¬
er that fhare to which he thought him intitled, ac¬
cording as he approached more or lefs the higheft de¬
gree of excellence and fummit of perfedlion ; fo that,
by fumming up the numbers which, Handing againft
each mailer’s name, exprefs his lhare of merit in each
of thefe branches, we have his total merit or value in
the art, and may hence gather what rank one painter
holds in regard to another. Several objections, it is
true, have been ilarted to this method of calculation,
by a famous mathematician of our days, who, among
other things, infills, that it is the product of the above
numbers multiplied by each other, and not the fum
of them, that gives the merit of the artift. But this is
not a place to enter into fuch niceties, nor indeed
would the doing of it be of any fervice to the art.
The only thing worth our notice is, whether the ori¬
ginal numbers, Handing for the painter’s merit in the
feveral branches of his art, are fuch as he is really in-
titled to, without fuffering ourfelves to be biafled by
any partiality, as De Piles has been, in favour of the
prince of the Flemilh fchool ; the confequence of
which, Hrange as it may appear, is, that in his ba¬
lance Raphael and Rubens turn out exactly of the
fame weight.
The idea of the painter’s balance is doubtlefs cu¬
rious, and therefore deferved to be mentioned ; but as
the merits of t-he moH eminent painters have been al¬
ready appretiated under the fecond fedtion of the hi-
ftorical part of our article, to which we refer, it is
needlefs to be more particular here, or to repeat what
lias been already treated of at fuflicient length.
Sect. XV. Practical Obfervations.
Having thus laid down the principles of the art,
and ventured to give the Hudent fome diredlions with
refpeft to his Hudies, we Hiall conclude this part of
the fubjeft with a few obfetvations relative wholly to
practice.
And, r. The young painter mull be careful not to
be led aHray by the ambition of compofing eafily, or
attaining what is called a maferly handling of the chalk
or the pencil; a pernicious attempt, by which Hudents
are excluded from all power of advancing in real excel¬
lence. To this attempt, however, young men have not
only the frivolous ambition of being thought maHerly,
inciting them on the one hand, but alfo their natural
floth tempting them on the other. They are terrified
at the profpeft before them, and of the toil required
to obtain exaftnefs; vvhilH the lives of the moH emi¬
nent painters furnifli us with examples of the moft un-
Ceafin-g induHry. When they conceived a fubjedt,
You XIII. Bart II.
TING. . 633
they firR made a variety of /ketches; then a fim/hed Tragical
drawing of the whole ; after that a more corredl draw-
ing of every feparate part,' heads, hands, feet, and , ^ i
pieces of drapery ; they then painted the picture, and
after all retouched it from the life. The pictures
thus wrought with fuch care, now appear like the
effefts of enchantment, and as if fome mighty genius
had Rruck them off at a blow.
But a Hudent is not always advancing becaufe he is
employed ; he mull apply his Hrength to that part of
the art where the real difficulties lie ; to that part
which dillinguilhes it as a liberal art, and not by mif-
taken induHry lofe his time in that which is merely
ornamental. The Hudents, inHead of vying with each
other who /hall have the readieR hand, ffiould be taught
to labour who fiiall have the purell and moRcorredl out¬
line ; inHead of Hriving who /hall produce the bright-
ell tint, or endeavouring to give the glofs of Huffs fo
as to make them appear real, let their ambition bedi-
redled to contend, who /hall difpofe his drapery in the
moR graceful folds, and give the greateH dignity to
the human form.
He who endeavours to copy accurately the figure
before him, not only acquires a habit of exaftnefs and
precifion, but is continually advancing in his know¬
ledge of the human figure ; and though he feems to
fuperficial obfervers to make a flower progrefs, he
will be found at lall capable of adding (without run¬
ning into capricious wildnefs) that grace and beauty
which is neceffary to be given to his more finifhed
works, and which cannot be got by the moderns, as
it was not acquired by the ancients, but by an at¬
tentive and wcll-diredled fludy of the human form.
2. It is, in the next place, a matter of great im¬
portance, that the drawings on which the young ar-
tifl firfl exercifes his talents be of the moR excellent
kind. Let the profiles, the hands, and the feet given
him to copy, be of the befl maflers, fo as to bring his
eye and his hand early acquainted with the moH ele¬
gant forms and the moH beautiful proportions.’ A
painter who has early acquired a fine talle, finds it an
eafy matter to give dignity to the meanefl features,
while even the works of a Praxiteles or a Glycon are
feen to fuffer in the hands of another. A veffel will
ever retain the feent which it has firR contracted.
3. It would be proper alfo to make the pupil copy
fome fine heads from the Greek and Roman medals;
not fo much for the reafon juH laid down, as to make
him acquainted, if we may ufe the expreffion, with
thofe perfonages which in time he may have occafion
to introduce into his pieces, and, above all, to improve
him early in the art of copying from relief. Hence
he will learn the rationale of light and fhade, and the
nature of that chiaro-fcuro by which it is, properly
fpeaking, that the various forms of things are dillin-
guifhed.
There is no danger of Rudying too much the works
of the greateil mailers, either in painting or fculpturej
but how they may be Hudied to advantage is an in*
quiry of great importance. “ Some (fays Sir Jofliua
Reynolds), who have never raifed their minds to the
confideration of the real dignity of the art, and who
rate the works of an artifl in proportion as they ex¬
cel or are defe&ive in the mechanical parts, look on
theory as fomething that may enable them to talk,
4 L but
634 PAIN
Pra&ical but not to paint better ; and, confining themfelves en-
rions3 to mechanicr,l praftice, very affiduoufly toil in
- y‘-— ^ the drudgery of copying, and think they make a ra¬
pid progrefs, while they faithfully exhibit the minu¬
ted: part of a favourite picture. This appears to me
a very tedious, and, l think, a very erroneous method
of proceeding. Of every large compofition, even of
tbofe which are moft admired, a great part may be
truly f id to be common place. This, though it takes
up much time in copying, conduces little to improve¬
ment. I comider general copying as a delufive kind
of induftry : the Undent fatislres himfelf with the ap¬
pearance of doing fomething ; he falls into the danger¬
ous habit of imitating without fele&ing, and of la¬
bouring without any determinate object: as it requires
no effort of the mind, he fleeps over his work ; and
thofe powers of invention and compofition which
ought particularly to be called out, and put in ac¬
tion, lie torpid, and lofe their energy for want of ex-
ercife.
“ However, as the practice of copying is not entirely
to be excluded, fince the mechanical practice of paint¬
ing is learned in fome meafure by it, let thofe choice
parts only he felebted which have recommended the
work to notice. If its excellence confiffs in its gene¬
ral effect, it would be proper to make flight /ketches
of the machinery and general management of the pic¬
ture. Thofe /ketches /hould be kept always by you,
for the regulation of your ftyle. Inftead of copying
the touches of thofe great mafters, copy only their
conceptiorts. Inffead of treading in their foetfteps,
endeavour only to keep the fame road. Labour to
invent on their general principles and way of think¬
ing. Poffefs yourfelf with their fpirit. Confider with
yourfelf how a Michael Angelo or a Raphael would
have treated this fubjeft, and work yourfelf into a be¬
lief that your picture is to be feen and criticifed by them
when completed. Even an attempt of this kind will
roufc your powers.”
The fame great matter recommends to ftudents to
keep their minds fixed on the higheft excellencies.—
tJ I f you compafs them, and compafs nothing more,
T I N G. Parti.
you are ttill in the firtt clafs. We may regret the in- Practical'
numerable beauties which you may want: you may bP.ferva-
be very imperfefk ; but Aill you are an imperfeft per- tl0'i<s' j
fon of the higheft order.
I inculcate as frequently as I can your forming
yourfelves upon great principles and great models.—
Your time will be much mifpent in every other ptir-
fuit. Small excellencies ihould be viewed, not ttu-
d.ed ; they ought to be viewed, becaufe nothing ought
to efcape a painter’s obfervation, but for no other
reafon.
“ There is another caution which I wifh to give you.
Be as feledl in thofe whom you endeavour to pleafe,
as in thofe whom yoli endeavour to imitate. With¬
out the love of fame you can never do any thing ex¬
cellent ; but by an exceffive and undirtingnilhing thiifl:
after it, you will come to have vulgar views ; you will
degrade your ftyle ; and your tafte will be entirely-
corrupted It is certain that the loweft ityie will be
the moil popular, as it falls within the compafs of ig¬
norance itfelf, and the vulgar will always he pleafed
with what is natural in the confined and mifunderftood
fenfe of the word.”
Genius he confiders as an improveable talent, never
to be deftroyed by the moft: exceffive, if well directed,
application, and displaying the elegancies of the art
in proportion to the number of ideas which have beer*
carefully collefted and digefted in the mind.
He cautions painters, therefore, in every ftage of
their progrefs, to beware of that falfe opinion, but too
prevalent among artiils, of the imaginary power of
native genius, and its fufficiency in great works.
This opinion, according to the temper of mind it*
meets with, almofl always produces, either a vain con¬
fidence or a fiuggifh defpair, both equally fatal to all
proficiency. “ Study, therefore, the great works of the1
great mafters for ever. Study, as nearly as you can#,
in the order, in the manner, on the principles on
which they ftudied. Study nature attentively, but
always with thofe mafters in your company ; coniL
der them as models which you are to imitate, and ap
the fame time as rivals whom you are to combat.”
PART II. Of the Different Classes of Painting.
Sect. I. General Enumeration.
AS all the obje&s in nature are fufceptible of imi¬
tation by the pencil, the mafters of this art have
applied themfelves to different fubjeifts, each one as his
talents, his tafte, or inclination, may have led him.—
From whence have arifen the following claffes.
I. H'ljlory painting : which reprefents the principal
events in hiftory facred and profane, real or fabu¬
lous ; and to this clafs belongs allegorical exprejfion.
Thefe are the moft fublime produftions of the art; and
in which Raphael, Guido, Rubens, Le Brun, &c. have
excelled.
II. Ruratihtflory; or the reprefentation of a country
life, of villages and hamlets, and their inhabitants.
This is an inferior clafs; and in which Teniers, Breug¬
hel Watteau, &c. have great reputation, by render¬
ing it at once pleafmg and graceful.
III. Portrait-painting) which is an admirable branch
of this art, and has engaged the attention of thu
greateft mafters in all ages, as Apelles, Guido, Van¬
dyke, Rembrandt, Regauds, Pefne, Kneller, La
Tour, &c.
IV. Grotefque hijlories ; as the nocturnal meetings of
witches ; forceries and incantations ; the operations of
mountebanks, &c. a fort of painting in which the
younger Breughel, Teniers, and others, have exercifed
their talents with fuccefs.
V. Battle-pieces; by which Huchtemberg, Wouvver-
man, &c. have rendered themfelves famous.
VI. Lar.dfcapes; a charming fpecies of painting, that
has been treated by mafters of the greatell genius in
every nation.
VII. Landfcapes diverfified with waters, as rivers,
lakes, catarafts, &c. ; which require a peculiar ta¬
lent, to exprefs the water fometiaus fmooth and tranf.
15 ' parent,
fart IT. PAIN
General parent, und at others foaming and rufliing furioufly
Eritu^e'a' ‘l!or,'T-
i ^ ) VIII. Sea-pieces; in which are reprefented the ocean,
harbours, and great rivers; and the veffels, boats,
barges, &c. with which they are covered ; fometimes
in a calm, fometimes with a frefh breeze, and at others
in a florm. In this dafs Backhuyfen, Vandervelde,
Blome, and many others, have acquired great repu¬
tation.
IX. Night-pieces ; which reprefent all forts of objects,
either as illumimated by torches, by the flames of a
conflagration, or by the light of the moon. Schalck,
Vanderneer, Vanderpool, &c. have here excelled.
X. Living Animals : A. more difficult branch of
painting than is commonly imagined ; and in which
Rofa, Carre, Vandervelde, and many others, have fuc-
ceeded marvelloully well.
XL Birds of all kinds ; a very laborious fpecies,
and which requires extreme patience minutely to ex-
prefs the infinite variety and delicacy of their plu¬
mage.
XII Culinary pieces ; which reprefent all forts of
provifions, and animals without life, &c. A fpecies
much inferior to the reft, in which nature never ap¬
pears to advantage, and which requires only a fervile
imitation of objeds that are but little pleafing. The
painting of fifties is naturally referred to this clafs.
XIII. Fruit-piecest of every kind, imitated from na¬
ture.
XIV. Ftoaver-pieces ; a charming clafs of painting,
where Art in the hands of Huyzum, P. Segerts, Me-
rian, See. becomes the rival of Nature. Plants and in-
feds are ufually referred to the painters of flowers, who
with them ornament their works.
XV. Pieces of architecture; a kind of painting in
which the Italians excel all others. Under this clafs
may be comprehended the reprefentations of ruins,
fea ports, ftreets, and public places; fuch as are feen in
the works of Caneletti, and other able mafters.
XVI. /of rumen ts of mtife, pieces of furniture, and
other inanimate objeds; a trifling fpecies, and in
which able painters only accidentally employ their ta¬
le its.
XVII. Imitations of bas-re/iefs ; a very pleafing kind
of painting, and which may be carried by an able hand
to a high degree of excellence.
XVIII. Hunting pieces: thefe alfo require a pecu¬
liar talent, as they unite the painting of men, horfes,
dogs, and game, to that of landfcapes.
It will not be expe&ed that we fliould here give the
rules that the painter is to obferve in handling each
particular fubjed. What has been faid on hiftorical
* In the painting (Part I.*) may throwfome light on the reft,
fedtionsof and the particular rules muft be learned from the ftudy
and"/)”” t^e art Good mafters, academies of reputa-
>is/i. t,on> an^ 3 clonal pradice, are the fources from
whence the young painter muft derive the detail of his
art. We fhall however infert fome rules and obferva-
tions dative to Landfcape and Portrait; thefe, with
Hiftory-painting (already pretty fully treated), forming
the principal branches of the art
Sect. II. Of Landfcapes.
LANDsCAPE-painting includes every objed that the
TING. 635
country prefents ; and is diftmguiihed into the heroic-, Land
?in<h the paf oral or rural; of which indeed all other , fcaPes- <
ftyles are but mixtures.
The heroic fiyle is a compofition of objeds, which in Y)e pues on
their kinds draw both from art and nature every ihmg Painting.
that is great and extraordinary in either, i he fitua-
tions are perfedly agreeable and furpriiing. The only
buildings are temples, pyramids, ancient places of bu¬
rial, altars confecrated to the divinities, pleafure-houfes
of regular architedure; and if nature appear not there
as we every day cafually fee her, fhe is at leaft repre-
fented as we think ftie ought to be. This ftyle is an
agreeable illufion, and a fort of enchantment, when
handled by a man of fine genius and a good under-
ftanding, as Pouffin was, who has fo happily exprefied
it. But if, in the courfe of this ftyle, the painter has
not talent enough to maintain the fublime, he is often
in danger of falling into the childish manner.
The ruralftyle is a reprefentation of countries, ra¬
ther abandoned to the caprice of nature, than cultiva¬
ted : we there fee nature Ample, without ornament, and
without artifice ; but with all thofe graces wherewith
fiae adorns herfelf much more when left to herfeif than
when conftrained by art.
In this ftyle, fituations bear all forts of varieties ;
fometimes they are veiy extenfive and open, to contain
the flocks of the fttepherds; at others very wild, for
the retreat of folitary perfons, and a cover for wild
Leafts.
It rarely happens that a painter has a genius exten¬
five enough to embrace all the parts of painting : there
is commonly fome one part that pre-engages our choice,
and fo fills our mind, that we forget the pains that are
due to the other parts; and we feldom fail to fee, that
thofe whofe inclination leads them to the heroic ft/le,
think they have done all, when they have introduced
into their compofitions fuch noble obje&s as will raife
the imagination, without ever giving themfelves the
trouble to ftudy the eftedts of good colouring. Thofe,
on the other hand, who praftife the paftoral, apply
dofely to colouring, in order to reprefent truth more
lively. Both thefe ftyles have their fedlaries and par-
tifans. Thofe who follow the heroic, fupply by their
imagination what it wants of truth, and they look no
farther.
As a counterbalance to heroic landfcape, it would
be proper to put into the paftoral, befides a great
charadter of truth, fome affedting, extraordinary, but
probable effedl of nature, as was Titian s.cuftom.
There is an infinity of pieces wherein both thefe
ftyles happily meet; and which of the two has the af-
cendant, will appear from what we have been juft ob-
ferving of their refpeddive properties. The chief parts
of landfcapes are, their openings or fituations, acci¬
dents, Ikies and clouds, offskips and mountains, ver¬
dure or turfing, rocks, grounds, or lands, terraces, fa¬
brics, waters, fore-grounds, plants, figures, and trees ;
of all which in their places.
Of Openings or Situations. The word ftte, or fitu-
ation, fignifies the “ view, profpedl, or opening of a
country.,, It is derived from the Italian word ftlo \
and our painters have brought it into ufe, either be-
caufe they were ufed to it in Italy, or becaufe, as we
think, they found it to be very expreffive.
Situations ought to be well put together; and fo dif-
4 L 2 engaged
636 P, A I N
Land- engage 1 in their nuke, that the conjun&ion of grounds
, >aFcs- , may not feem to be obitrufted though we fhould fee
but a part of them.
Situations are various, and reprefented according to
the country the painter is thinking of: as either open
or clofe, mountainous or watery, tilled and inhabited,
or wild and lonely; or, in fine, variegated by a prudent
mixture of fome of thefe. But if the painter be obli¬
ged to imitate nature in a flat and regular country, he
muft mrjte it agreeable by a good difpofition of the
daro obfeuro, and fuch pleafing colouring as may make
one foil unite with another.
It is certain, that extraordinary fituations are very
pleafing, and cheer the imagination by the novelty and
beauty of their makes, even when the local colouring
is but moderately performed : becaufe, at worft, fuch
pictures are only looked on as unfinifhed, and wanting
to be completed by fome fkilful hand in colouring;
whereas common fituations and objefts require good
colouring and abfolute finifhing, in order to pleafe.
It was only by thefe properties that Claude Lorrain
has made amends for his infipid choice in moll of his
fituations But in whatever manner that pait be
executed, one of the bell ways to make it valuable,
and even to multiply and vary it without altering its
form, is properly to imagine fome ingenious accident
in it.
Of Accidents. An accident in painting is an ob-
flrudtion of the fun’s light by the interpofition of
clouds, in fuch manner, that fome parts of the earth
fhall be in light and others in thade, which, according
to the motion of the clouds, fucceed each other, and
produce fuch wonderful efftfts and changes of the claro-
cbfcuro, as feem to create fo many new fituations. This
is daily obferved in nature. And as this newnefs of fi¬
tuations is grounded only on the lhapes of the clouds,
and their motions, which are very inconllant and un¬
equal, it follows, that thefe accidents are arbitrary ; and
a painter of genius may difpofe them to his own ad¬
vantage when he thinks fit to ufe them: For he is not
abfolutely obliged to do it; and there have been fome
able landfcape-painters who have never pra&ifcd it,
either through fear or cullom, as Claude Lorrain and
fome others.
0/ the SJhy and Clouds. The iky, in painters terms,
is the ethereal part over our heads; but more par¬
ticularly the air in which we breathe, and that where
clouds and ftorms are engendered. Its colour is blue,
growing clearer as it approaches the earth, becaufe of
the interpofition of vapours arifing between the eye and
the horizon ; which, being penetrated by the light,
communicates it to objects in a greater or lefler degree,
as they are more or lefs remote.
But we muft obferve, that this light being either
yellow or reddifh in the evening, at funfet, thefe fame
obiedls partake not only of the light, but of the co¬
lour : thus the yellow light mixing with the blue, which
is the natural colour of the Iky, alters it, and gives it a
tint more or lefs greenilh, as the yellownefs of the light
is more or lefs deep.
This ohfervation is general and infallible: but
there is an infinity of particular ones, which the pain¬
ter muft make upon the natural, with his pencil in his
hand, when occafion offers ; foj» there are very fine and
lingular effeds appearing in the fky, which it is difli-
T I N G. part II»
cult to make one conceive by phyfical reafons. Who 1.and¬
ean tell, for example, why we fee, in the bright part fcaPe8-
of fome clouds, a fine red, when the fource of the light
which plays upon them is a moli lively and diltinguilh-
ing yellow? Who can account for the different reds
feen in different clouds, at the very moment that thefe
reds receive the light but in one place ? for thefe co¬
lours and furpriling appearances feem to have no rela¬
tion to the rainbow, a phenomenon for which the phi-
lofopher pretends to give foh'd reafons.
Thefe effe&s are all feen in the evening when the
weather is inclining to change, either before a ftorm,
or after it, when it is not quite gone, but has left fome
remains of :t to draw our attention.
The property of clouds is to he thin and airy, both
in fhape and colour: their fhapes, though infinite,
muft be ftudied and chofen after nature, at fuch times
as they appear fine. To make them look thin, wt:
ought to make their grounds unite thinly with them,
efpecially near their extremities, as if they were tranf-
parent: And if we would have them thick, their re-
fledions muft be fo managed, as, without deftroying
their thinnefs, they may feem to wind and unite, if ne-
ceffary, with the clouds that are next to them. Little
clouds often difeover a little manner, and feldom have
a good effed, unlefs when, being near each others they
feem altogether to make but one objed.
In Ihort, the charader of the fky is to be luminous ;
and, as it is even the fource of light, every thing that
is upon the earth muft yield to it in biightnefs: If,
however, there is any thing that comes near it in light,
it muft be waters, and polilhed bodies which are fuf-
ceptible of luminous refledions.
But whilft the painter makes the fky luminous, he
muft not reprefent it always ftiining throughout.
On the contrary, he muft contrive his light fo,
that the greateft part of it may fall only upon one
place: and, to make it more apparent, he muft take
as much care as pofiibie to put it in oppolition to fome
terreftrial objed, that may render it more lively by its
dark colour; as a tree, tower, or fome other building
that is a little high.
This principal light might alfo be heightened, by 3
certain difpofition of clouds having a fuppofed light,
or a light ingenioufly inclofed between clouds, whofe
fweet obfeurity {preads itfelf by little and little on all
hands. We have a great many examples of this in
the Flemifh fchool, which heft underftood landfcape;
as Paul Bril, Brugel, Saveri: And the Sadelers and
Merian’s prints give a clear idea of it, and wonderfully
awaken the genius of thofe who have the principles of
the claro-fcuro.
Of Offskips and Mountains. Offskips have a near
affinity with the fky; it is the Iky which deter¬
mines cither the force or faintnefsof them. They are
darkeft when the fky is moil loaded, and brighteil
when it is moft clear. They fometimes intermix their
fhapes and lights ; and there are times, and coun¬
tries, where the clouds pafs between the mountains,
whofe tops rife and appear above them. Mountains
that are high, and covered with fnow, are very proper
to produce extraordinary effefts in the offskip, which
are advantageous to the painter, and pleafing to the
fpedlator.
The difpofition of offskips is arbitrary ; let them
only
Part If. PAIN
Land- only agree with the whole together of the picture, and
, the nature of the country we would reprefent. They
are ufually blue, becaufe of the interpofition of air be¬
tween them and the eye : but they iofe this colour by
degrees, as they come nearer the eye, and fo take that
which is natural to the objedls.
In diftancing mountains, we muft obferve to join
them infenfibly by the roundings off, which the reflec¬
tions make probable ; and muft, among other things,
avoid a ceitain edginefs in their extremities, which
makes them appear in flices, as if cut with fciflars,
and ftuck upon the cloth.
V/e muft further obferve, that the air, at the feet
of mountains, being charged with vapours, is more
iufceptible of light th^.n at their tops. In this cafe,
we fuppofe the main light to be fet reafonably high,
and to enlighten the mountains equally, or that the
clouds deprive them of the light of the fun. But if
we fuppofe the main light to be very low, and to
ftrike the mountains, then their tops will be ftrongly
enlightened, as well as every thing elfe in the fame de
gree of light.
Though the forms of things diminifh in bignefs, and
colours lofe their ftrength, in proportion as they recede
from the firft plan of the pi&ure, to the moft remote
offskip, as we obferve in natuie and common practice ;
yet this does not exclude the ufe of the accidents.
Thefe contribute greatly to the wonderful in landfcape,
when they are properly introduced, and when the ar-
tift has a juft idea of their good effe&s.
Of Verdure, or Turfing. By turfing is meant the
greennefs with which the herbs colour the ground:
This is done feveral ways; and the diverfity proceeds
not only from the nature of plants, which, for the
moil part, have their particular verdures, but alfo from
the change of feafons, and the colour of the earth,
when the herbs are but thin fown. By thiswariety, a
painter may choofe or unite, in the fame tradl of laud,
feveral forts of greens, intermixed and blended toge¬
ther, which are often of great fervice to thofe who
know how to ufe them; becaufe this diverfity of greens,
as it is often found in nature, gives a charadler of truth
to thofe parts, where it is properly ufed. There is a
wonderful example of this part of landfcape, in the
view of Mechlin, by Rubens.
Of Rocks. Though rocks have all forts of fhapes,
and participate of all colours, yet there are, in
their diverfity, certain charafters which cannot be
well exprefled without having recourfe to nature.
Some are in banks, and fet oft' with beds of fhrubs;
others in huge blocks, cither proje&ing or falling
back ; others confift of large broken parts, contiguous
to each other; and others, in ftiort, of an enormous
fize, all in one ftone, either naturally, as free-ftone, or
elfe through the injuries of time, which in the courfe
of many ages has worn away their marks of reparation.
But, whatever their form be, they are ufually fet out
with clefts, breaks, hollows, bullies, mol's, and the
ftains of time ; and thefe particulars, well managed,
Create a certain idea of truth.
Rocks are of themfelves gloomy, and only proper
for folitudes: but where accompanied with bullies,
they infpire a frelh air; and, when they have waters,
cither proceeding from, or walhing them, they give
TING. 637
an infinite pleafure, and feem to have a foul which anl- Land-
mates them? and makes them foctable. , *caPes- ^
Of Grounds or Lands. A ground or land, in
painters terms, is a certain diftinft piece of land,
which is neither too woody nor hilly. Grounds con¬
tribute, more than any thing, to the gradation and
diftancing of landfcape ; becaufe they follow one ano¬
ther, either in lhape, or in the claro-obfcuro, or in their
variety of colouring, or by fome infenfibie conjunflioa
of one with another.
Multiplicity of ground*, though it be often con¬
trary to grand manner, does not quite deftroy it; for,,
befides the txtent of country which it exhibits, it is
fufceptible of the accidents we have mentioned, and
which, with good management, have a fine effedl.
There is one nicety to be obierved in grounds,
which is, that in order to charailcrizc them well,
care muft be taken, that the trees in them have a dif¬
ferent verdure and different colours from thofe grounds;
though this difference, withal, muft not be too ap¬
parent
Of Terraces. A terrace, in painting, is a piece
of ground, either quite naked or having very little
herbage, like great roads and places often frequent¬
ed. They are of ufe chiefly in the foregrounds of a
pi£ture, where they ought to be very fpacions and
open, and accompanied, if we think fit, with fome ac¬
cidental verdure, and alfo with fomc Hones, which, if
placed with judgment, give a terrace a greater air of
probability.
Of Buildings. Painters mean by buildings any
ftru&ures they generally reprefent, but chiefly fitch as
are of a regular architecture, or at leaft are moft con-
fpicuous. Thus building is not fo proper a name for
the ho'ufes of country-people, or the cottages of ihep-
herds, which are introduced into the rural tafte, as
for regular and fhowy edifices, which are alwaysbrought
into the heroic.
Buildings in general are a great ornament in land-
fcapes, even when they are Gothic, or appear partly in¬
habited and partly ruinous: they raife the imagination
by the ufe they are thought to be defigned for ; as ap¬
pears from ancient fowers, which feem to have been the
habitations of fairies, and are now retreats for fhepherda
and owls.
Pouflin has very elegantly handled the Roman man¬
ner of architecture in his works, as Bourdon has done
the Gothic ; which, however Gothic, fails not to give'
a fublime air ta his landfcapes. Little Bernard has
introduced into his facred hitlory what may be called
a Babylonian manner ; which, extraordinary as it is,
has its grandeur and magnificence.- Nor ought fuch
pieces of architedure to be quite rejefted : they raife
the imagination ; and perhaps would fucceed in the
heroic ftyle, if they were placed among half-diftant ob¬
jects, and if we knew how to ufe them properly.
Of IVaters. Much of the fpirit of landfcape is¬
owing to the waters which are introduced in it. They
appear in divers manners ; fometimes impetuous* as
when a ftorm makes them overflow their banks ; at
other times rebounding, as by the fall of a rock ; at
other times, through unufual preffure, gufhing out and
dividing into an infinity of filver ftreams, whofe motion
and murmuring agreeably deceive both the eye and. ,
ear ^
63$ V A l N
X^aml- ear ; St other times calm and purling in a Tandy bed ;
, feapes. at other times fo ftill and {landing-, as to become a
v faithful looking-glafs, which doubles all the obje&s
that are oppolite to it ; and in this Hate they have more
life than in the moft violent agitation. Confult Bour¬
don’s works, or at lead; his prints, on this fubjeft : he
is one of thofe who have treated of waters with the
■greatefl: fpirit and bed genius.
Waters ere not proper for every fituation : but to
exprtfs them well, the artid ought to be perfedl mailer
x>fthe exa&nefs of watery refledfions; becaufe they only
make painted water appear as real: for practice alone,
without exadlnefs, deftroys the effedt, and abates the
ydeafure of the eye. The rule for thefe refledfions
is very eafy, and therefore the painter is the lefs par¬
donable for negledfing it.
But it mull be obferved, that though water be a
lobking-glafs, yet it does not faithfully reprefent ob-
jedls but when it is ftill; for if it be in any motion,
either in a natural courfe or by the. driving of the
wind, its furface, becoming uneven, receives on its
/urges fuch lights andihades as, mixing with the ap¬
pearance of the objedts, confound both their Ihapes and
colours.
Of the Foreground of a Pifture. As it is the part
of the foreground to ulher the eye into the piece, great
care muft be taken that the eye meet with good recep¬
tion ; fometimes by the opening of a fine terrace, whofe
xiefign and workmanfhip may be equally curious; fome¬
times by a variety of well-diftinguifiied plants, and
thofe fometimes flowered; and at other times, by figures
in a lively tafte, or other objcdls, either admirable for
their novelty or introduced as by chance.
In a word, the artift cannot too much ftudy his forcr
ground objedfs, fince they attradf the eye, imprefs the
firft charadder of truth, and greatly contribute to make
the artifice of a pidlure fuccefsful, and to anticipate our
efteem for the whole work.
Of Plants. Plants are not always neceflary in fore¬
grounds, becaufe, as we have obferved, there are fe-
veral ways of making thofe grounds agreeable. But
if we refolve to draw plants there, we ought to paint
them exadlly after the life ; or at leaft, among fuch as
■we paint pradtically, there ought to be fome more fi-
nilhed than the reft, and whofe kinds may be diftin-
guiftied by the difference of defign and colouring, to
the end that, by a probable fuppofition, they may give
the others a charaAer of truth. What has been laid
here of plants may be applied to the branches and
harks of trees.
Of Figures. In compofing landfcape, the artift;
may have intended to give it a charadder agreeable to
the fubjedt he has chofen, and which his figures ought
to reprefent. He may alfo, and it commonly happens,
have only thought of his figures, after finifhing his
landfcape. The truth is, the figures in moft landfcapes
are made rather to accompany than to fuit them.
It is true, there are .landfcapes fo difpofed and fitu-
ated, as to require only palling figures ; which feve-
ral good mailers, each in his llyle., have introduced,
as Pouffin in the heroic, and Fouqurer in the rural,
with all probability and grace. It is true alfo, that
Telling figures have been made to appear inwardly ac¬
tive. And thefe two different ways of treating figures
£re not to be blamed, becaufe they adt equally, though
TING. ^ part if.
in a different manner. It is rather inadlion that ouo-ht Lanii' 11
to be blamed in figures ; for in this condition, which fcapei’
robs them of all conneddion with the landfcape, they ~ *
appear to be palled on. But without obftrudding the
painter’s liberty in this refpea, undoubtedly the beft
way to mike figures valuable is, to make them fo to
agree with the charadder of the landfcape, that it may
feem to have been made purely for the figures. We
would not have them either infipid or indifferent, but
to reprefent fome little fubjedd 'to awaken the fpedla-
tor’s attention, or elfe to give the picture a n ime of
diftinddion among the curious.
Great care mult be taken to proportion the five of
the figures to the bignefs of the trees, and other ob-
jedds of the landfcape. If they be too large, the pic¬
ture will difeover a little manner; and if too fmall,
they will have the air of pigmies ; which will deltroy
the worth of them, and make the landfcape look enor¬
mous. There is, however, a greater inconvenience in
making figures too large than too fmall; becaufe the
latter at leaft gives an air of greatnefs to all the reft.
But as landfcape figures are generally fmall, they muft
be touched with fpirit, and fuch lively figures as will
attradd, and yet preferve probability and a general
union. The artift muft, in fine, remember, that as the
figures chiefly give life to a landfcape, they muft be
difperfed as conveniently as poffible.
Of Trees. The beauty of trees is perhaps one of
the greateft ornaments of landfcape ; on account of the
variety of their kinds, and their frefhnefs, but chiefly
their lightnefs, which makes them feem, as being ex-
pofed to the air, to be always in motion.
Though diverfity be pleafing in all the objedds of
landfcape, it is chiefly in trees that it fliows its greateft
beauty. Landfcape confiders both their kinds and their
forms. Their kinds require the painter’s particular
idudy and attention, in order to diftinguifh them from
each other ; for we muft be able at firft fight to difeo¬
ver which are oaks, elms, firs, fycamores, poplars, wil¬
lows, pines, and other fuch trees, which, by a fpecific
colour, or touching, are diftinguilhable from all other
kinds. This ftudy is too large to be acquired in all its
extent; and, indeed, few painters have attained fuch a
competent exaednefs in it as their art requires. But it
is evident, that thofe who come nearett to perfeddion
in it, wiil make their works infinitely pleafing, and gain
a great name.
Befides the variety which is found in each kind of
tree, there is in all trees a general variety. This is ob¬
ferved in the different manners in which their branches
are difpofed by a fport of nature ; which takes delight
in making fome very vigorous and thick, others more
dry and thin ; fome more green, others more red or
yellow. The excellence of practice lies in the mix¬
ture of thefe varieties : but if the artift can diftinguiflx
the forts but indifferently, he ought at leaft to vary
their makes and colours; becaufe repetition in land¬
fcape is as tirefome to the eye, as monotony in dif-
courfe is to the ear.
The variety of their makes is fo great, that the pain¬
ter would be inexcufable not to put it in praddice up¬
on occafion, efpecially when he finds it neceflary to
awaken the fpetfator’s attention ; for, among trees,
we difeover the young and the old, the open and dole,
tapering andfquat, bending upwards and downwards,
Hooping
Part II. P A I N T I N G. 639
l.apdr ftooping- and {hooting: in fhort, the variety is rather a defcription of the works of great mafiers: a little I-and-
. faults, to be conceived than exprtfled. For inilance, the cha- rtfledlion on nature will be of more fervice than all ^cat)es*
rafter of young trees is, to have long flender branches, that can be faid on this head. By great mailers, \vq^“ v"'~J
few in number, but well fet out ; boughs well divided, mean fuch as have publiihed prints; for thofe will
and the foliage vigorous and well ihaped : whereas, in give better ideas to young copyiils than even the paint-
old trees, the branches are fhort, llocky, thick, and rngs themfelves.
numerous ; t;:e tufts blunt, and the foliage unequal and Among the many great mafters of all fchools, Ds
ili fbaped : but a little obfervation and genius will make Piles prefers Titian’s wooden prints, where the trees
us per eddy fenfible of thefe particulars. are well ihaped ; and thofe which Cornelius Cort and
In the various makes of trees, there muft alfo be a Agoftino Carracci have engraved. And he albert?,
diftrib ution of branches, that has a juft relation to, and that beginners can do no better than contradl. above
probable connexion wnth, the boughs or tufrs, fo as all things, an habit of imitating the touches of thefe
mutually to affill each other in giving the tree an ap- great mafters, and of confide ring at the fame time
pearance of thicknefs and of truth. But, whatever the perfpeftive of the branches and foliages, and ob-
their natures or manners of branching be, let it be re- ferving how they appear, either when rifing and feen
membered, that the handling muft be lively and thin, from below, or when finking and feen'from above.*
in order to preferve the fprrit of their characters. or when fronting and viewed from a point, or when
Trees likevvife vary in their baiks, which are com- they appear in profile; and, in a word, when fet io
monly grey ; but this grey, which in thick air, and the various views in which nature prefents them,with-
low and marfhy places, looks blackifh, appears lighter out altering their characters.
in a clear air: and it often happens, in dry places, that After having ftudied and copied, with the pen or
the bark gathers a thin mofs, which makes it look crayon, firft the prints, and then the defigns of Titia’n.
quite yellow ; fo that, to make the bark of a tree ap- and Carracci, the ftudent fhould imitate with the
parent, the painter may fuppofe it to be light upon a pencil thofe touches which they have moft diftinCtly
dark ground, and dark on a light one. fpecified, if their paintings can be procured : but fince
The obfervation of tbe different barks merits a par- they are fcarce, others fhould be got which have a good
ticular attention ; for it ’will appear, that, in hard charader for their touching ; as thofe of Fouquier,
woods, age chaps them, and thereby gives them a fort who is a moft excellent model: Paul Bril, Breugel,
of embroidery ; and that, in proportion as they grow and Bourdon, are alf'o very good ; their touching is
old, thefe chaps grow more deep. And other acci- neat, lively, and thin.
dents in l arks may arife either from mrifture, or dry- After having duly weighed the nature of trees,
nefs, or green moffes, or white ftains of feveral trees. their fpread and order, and the difpofition of their.
The barks of white woods will alfo afford much branches, the artift muft get a lively idea of them, in
matter for praClice, if thtir diverfity be duly ftudied ; order to keep up the fpirit of them throughout, eithen-
and this confideration leads us to fay fomething of the by making them apparent and diftinCt in the fore-
ftudy of landfcape. grounds, or obfeure and confufed in proportion to thein
Of the Study of Landfcape. The ftudy of land- diftance.
fcape may be coniidered either with refpeft to be- After having thus gained fome knowledge in good
ginners, or to thofe who have made fome advances manner, it will next be proper to ftudy after nature,
in it. and to cheofe and re&ify it according to the idea.
Beginners will find, in praClice, that the chief which the aforefaid great mafters had of it. As to
trouble of landfcape lies in handling trees ; and it is perfeftioh, it can only be expeCled from long praClice
not only in praClice, but alfo in fpeculation, that trees and ptrfeverance. On the whole, it is proper for thole
ire the moft difficult part of landfcape, as they are its who have an inclination for landfcape, above all things
greateft ornament. But it is only propofed here, to to take the proper methods for beginning it well,
give beginners an idea of trees in general, and to fhow As for thofe who have made fome advances in this
them how to exprtfs them well. It would be need- part of painting, it is proper they fhould colled the
lefs to point out to them rhe common effeds of trees neceffary materials for their further improvement, and
and plants, Lecaufe they are obvious to every one ; ftudy thofe objeds at lead which they fhall have mofl
yet there are fome things, which, though not un- frequent occafion to reprefent.
known, deferve our refttdion. We know, for in- Painters ufually comprife, under the wordany
fiance, that all trees require air, feme more, fome Ids, thing whatever which they either defign or paint Te¬
as the chief caufe of their vegetation and production; parately after the life ; whether figures, heads, feet,
and for this reafon, all trees (except the cyprefs, and hands, draperies, animals, mount, ins, trees, plants,
fome others of the fame kind) feparate in their growth flowers, fruits, or whatever may confirm them in the
from one .mother and from other ftrange bodies as juft imitation of nature : the drawing of thefe things
much as poffible, and their branches and foliage do is wh-1 they call Jludy; whether they be for inftruc-
the fame : wherefore, to give them that air and thin- tion in defign, or only to affure them of the truth,
nefs, which is their principal charader, the branches, and to perfed their work. In fad, this word Jludy
boughs, and foliage, muft appear to fly from each is the more properly ufed by painters, as in tire di-
other, to proceed from oppoiite parts, and be well di. verity of nature they are daily making new difeove-
vided. And all this w'ithout order; as if chance aid- ries, and confirming themfeives in what they already
ed nature in the fanciful diverfity. But to fay parti- know.
cularly how thefe trunks, branches, and foliages, As the landfcape-painter need only fludy fuch ob-
ought to be diftributed, would be needlefs,. and only jeCls as are. to be met with in the country, we ■ ouli
recommend. .
640
JLand-
i'capes.
».*
<
PAIN
recommend to him feme order, that his drawings may
be always at hand when he wants them. For inftance,
he fhould copy after nature, on feparate papers, the
different effefts of trees in general, and the different
effe&s of each kind in particular, with their trunks,
foliage, and colours. Fie fhould alfo take the fame
method with fome forts of plants, becaufe their variety
is a great ornament to terraces on fore-grounds. He
ought like wife to ftudy the effects of the fky in the
feveral times of the day and feafons of the year,
in the various difpofitions of clouds, both in ferene,
t.hundeiing, and ftormy weather; and in the offskip,
the feveral fares of rocks, waters, and other principal
objedls.
Thefe drawings, which may be made at different
times, fhould be collected together ; and all that relate
to one matter be put into a book, to which the artift
may have recourfe at any time for what he wants.
Now, if the fine effedts ef nature, whether in fhape
or colour, whether for an entire pidlurc or a part of
one, be the artift’s ffudy; and if the difficulty lies in
choofing thofe effefts well, he muff for this purpofe be
born with good fenfe, good tafte, and a fine genius ;
and this genius muff be cultivated by the obfervations
•which ought to be made on the works of the heft ma¬
ilers, how they choofe nature, and how, while they
corredled her, according to their art, they preferved
her character. With thefe advantages, derived from
nature and perfected by art, the painter cannot fail to
make a good choice ; and, by diftinguifhing between
the good and the bad, muff needs find great inltrudlion
T£ven from the molt common things.
To improve themfelves in this kind of ftudies, pain¬
ters have taken feveral methods.
There are fome artifts who have defigned after nature,
and in the open fields ; and have there quite finilhed
thofe parts which they had chofen, but without adding
any colour to them.
Others have drawn, in oil colours, in a middle-tint,
on ftrong paper ; and found this method convenient,
becaufe, the colours finking, they could put colour on
colour, though different from each other. For this
purpofe they took with them a flat box, which com-
modioufiy held their pallet, pencils, oil, and colours.
This method, which indeed requires ferveral imple
ments, is doubtlefs the beft for drawing nature more
particularly, and with greater exa&nefs, efpecially if,
after the work be dry and varnifiied, the artift return
to the place where he drew, and retouch the principal
things after nature.
Others have only drawn the outlines of objefls, and
{lightly wartied them in colours near the life, for the
cafe of their memory. Others have attentively obferved
fuch parts as they had a mind to retain, and content¬
ed themfelves with committing them to their memory,
which upon occafion gave them a faithful account of
them. Others have made drawings in paftil and wafii
together. Others, with more cUriofity and patience,
have gone feveral times to the places which were to
their tafte: the firft time they only made choice of the
parts, and drew them corre&ly ; and the other times
were fpent in obferving the variety of colouring, and
its alterations through change of light.
Now thefe feveral methods are very good, and each
may be praftifed as beft fuits the ftudent and his tem-
FP 256.
TING.
Part IT.
per: but they require the neceffaries of painting-, as Land-
colours, pencils, paftils, and leifure. Nature, how- f=aPei-
ever, at certain times, prefents extraordinary but^-
trailfient beauties, and fuch as can be of no fervice to
the artift who has not as much time as is neceffary
to imitate what he admires. The beft way, per¬
haps, to make advantage of fuch momentary occafions,
is this:
The painter being provided with a quire of paper,
and a black-lead pencil, let him quickly, but ftightly,
defign what he fees extraordinary ; and, to remember
the colouring, let him mark the principal parts with
charafters, which he may explain at the bottom of the
paper, as far as is neceffary for himfelf to underftand
them : A cloud, for inftance, may be marked A,
another cloud B, a light C, a mountain D, a terrace
E, and fo on. And having repeated thefe letters at
the bottom of the paper, let him write againft each
that it is of fuch or fuch a colour ; or for greater
brevity, only b/ue, red> violet, grey, &c. or any other
ftionter abbreviation. After this, he muft go to
painting as foon as poffible ; otherwife moft of what
he has obferved will, in a little time, flip out of his
memory. This method is the more ufeful, as it not
only prevents our lofing an infinity of hidden and tran-
fitory beauties, but alfo helps, by means of the afore-
faid marks and characters, to perfedl the other methods
we have mentioned.
If it be afked, Which is the prepereft time for thefe
fiudies? the anfwer is, That nature fhould he ftudied
at all times, becaufe (he is to be reprefented at all fea¬
fons ; but autumn yields the moft plentiful harveft for
her fine eft’eds: the mildnefs of that feafon, the beauty
of the fky, the richnefs of the earth, and the variety
of obje&s, are powerful inducements with the painter
to make the proper inquiries for improving his genius
and perfecting his art.
But as we cannot fee or obferve every thing, it is
very commendable to make ufe of other mens ftudies,
and to look upon them as if they were our own. Ra¬
phael fent fome young men into Greece to defign fuch
things as he thought would be of fervice to him, and
accordingly made ufe of them to as good purpofe as if
he himfelf had defigned them on the fpot: for this,
Raphael is fo far from deferving cenfure, that he ought,
on the contrary, to be commended ; as an example,
that painters ought to leave no way untried for im¬
proving in their profeffions. The landfcape-painter
may, accordingly, make ufe of the works of all thofe
who have excelled in any kind, in order to acquire a
good manner ; like the bees, which gather their variety
of honey from different flowers.
General Remarls on Lamlfcapes. As the general
rules of painting are the bafis of all the feveral kinds
of it, we muft refer the landfcape-painter to them, or
rather fuppofe him to be well acquainted with them.
We fliall here only make fomc general remarks on this
kind of painting.
I. Landfcape fuppofes the knowledge and practice
of the principal rules in perfpe8ive, in order to maintain
probability.
II. The nigher the leaves of trees are to the earth,
the larger they are, and the greener ; as being aptell
to receive, in abundance, the fap which nourifhes
them : and the upper branches begin iirft to take the
6 redsefs
Part II. PAIN
Xandfcapes.rednefs or yellownefs which colours them in autumn.
But it is othervvife in plants; for their ftocks renew all
the year round, and their leaves fucceed one another,
at a confiderable diftance of time, infomuch that na¬
ture, employed in producing' new leaves to adorn the
Hock as it rifes, does by degrees defert the under ones;
which, having firft performed their office, are the fird
that die : but this effedl is more vifible in fome than
in others.
III. The under parts of all leaves are of a brighter
green than the upper, and almoft always incline to the
filverifii ; and thofe which are wind-fhaken are known
from others by that colour: but if we view them from
beneath, when penetrated by the fun’s rays, they dif-
cover fuch a fine and lively green as is far beyond all
comparifon.
IV. There are five principal things which give fpi-
nt to landfcape, viz. figures, animals, waters, wind-
fhaken trees, and thinnefs of pencilling ; to which add
fmoke, when there is occafion to introduce it.
V. When one colour predominates throughout a
landfcape, as one green in fpring, or one red in au¬
tumn, the piece will look either as of one colour, or
elfe as unfinilhed. We have feen many of Bourdon’s
landfcapes, which, by handling the corn one way
throughout, have loft much of their beauty, though
the fituations and w’aters were very pleafant. The in¬
genious painter muit endeavour to correct, and, as
they fay, redeem the havlh unfightly colouring of win¬
ter and fpring by means of figures, waters, and build¬
ings ; for fummer and autumn fubjeCts are of them-
felves capable of great variety.
VI. Titian and Carrache are the heft models forin-
fpin’ng good tafte, and leading the painter into a good
track, with regard to forms and colours. He muft
ufe all his efforts to gain a juft idea of the principles
which thofe great men have left us in their works ;
and to have his imagination filled with them, if he
would advance by degrees towards that perfection
which the artift fhould always have in view.
VII. The landfcapes of thefe two mafters teach us
a great many things, of which difeourfe can give us
no exaCf idea, nor any general principle. Which way,
tor example, can the meafures of trees in general be
determined, as w^e determine thofe of the human tody ?
I he tree has no fettled proportions ; moft of its
beauty lies in the contraft oi its branches, an unequal
diftribution of boughs, and, in fiiort, a kind of whiin-
iical variety, which nature delights in, and of which
the painter becomes a judge when he has thoroughly
relifhed the works of the two mafters aforefaid. But
we muft fay, in Titian’s praife, that the path he ftruek
out is the fureft ; becaufe he has exadfly imitated na¬
ture in its variety with an exquifite tafte, and fine co¬
louring : whereas Carrache, though an able artift:, h is
not, more than others, been free from manner in his
landfcapea.
VIII. One cf the greateft perfedKons of landfcape,
in the variety it reprefents, is a faithful imitation* of
each particular charafteri as its greateft fault is a
licentious pra&ice, which brings us to do things by
rote*.
IX. Among thofe things which are painted practi¬
cally, w*e ought to intermix fome done after nature, to
induce the fpeCiator to believe that ail arc fo.
Vol.XUI. Part II.
TING. 6*r
X. As there are ftyles of thought, fo there &re alfo Portraiture
ftyles T)f execution. We have handled the two relating
to thought, viz. the heroic and paftoral; and find
that there are two aifo with regard to execution, viz.
the firm ftyle. and the polifhed ; thefe two concern the
pencil, and the more or lefs ingenious way of conducing
it. The firm ftyle gives life to work, and excufe for
bad choice ; and the polifhed finifties and brightens
every thing ; it leaves no employment for the fpeCta-
tor’s imagination, which pleafes itfelf in difeoyering
and finiftiing things which it aferibes to the artift, tho’
in faCt they proceed only from itfelf. The poliftied
ftyle degenerates into the foft and dull, if not fupported
by a good opening or fituation ; but when thofe two
characters meet, the picture is fine.
Sect. III. Of Portraiture.
If painting be an imitation of nature, it is doubly
fa in a portrait; which not only reprefents a man in
general, but fuch an one as may be diftinguifhed from
all others. And as the greateft perfection of a por¬
trait is extreme likenefs, fo the guatelt of its faults is
to referable-a perfon for whom it was not made; fince
there are not in the world two perfons quite like one
another. But before we proceed co the particulars which
let us into the knowledge of this imitation, it is r.ecef-
fary, for fhortening this part of our fubjeCt, to attend
to fome general propefitions.
I. Imitation is the eftence of painting: and good
choice is to this effence what the virtues are to a
man ; they raife the value of it. For this reafon, it
is extremely the painter’s intereft to choofe none but
good heads, or favourable moments for drawing them,
and fuch pofitions as may fupply the want of a fine
natural.
IT There sre views of the natural, more or lefs ad¬
vantageous ; all depends upon turning it well, and ta¬
king it in the favourable moment.
III. There is not a fingle perfon in the world who
has not a peculiar charaCler both in body and face.
IV. Simple and genuine nature is more proper for
imitation ; and is a better choice than nature much
formed, and embelliftied too artificially.
V. To adorn nature too much is doing it a violence;
and the c&ion which attends it can never be free when
its ornaments are not eafy. In ftiort, in proportion as
we adorn nature, we make it degenerate from itfelf,
and bring it down to art.
VI Some means are more advantageous than others
to come at the fame end.
VII. We muft not only irritate wh t we do fee in
nature, but alfo what we may pofiibly fee that is ad¬
vantageous in art.
VIII. Things are valuable by comparifon ; and it. is
only by this we are enabled to make a right judgment:
of them.
IX. Painters eafily accuflom themfelves to their own
tints, and the manner of their mafters: and after this
habit is rooted in them, theyr view nature not as lire
really is, but as they are ufed to paint her.
X It is very difficult to make a piCdure, the figures
of which are as big as the life, to have its effect near
as at a diftanre. A learned piCture pleafes the ig¬
norant only when it is at fome diftam e ; but judge*
4 M will
PAIN
will admire its artifice near, and its efTeft at a di-
ftance.
XL Knowledge makes work pleafant and eafy. The
traveller who knows his road, comes to his journey’s
end with more fpeed and certainty than he who in¬
quires and gropes it out.
XII. It is proper, before we begin a work, to
meditate npon it, and to make a nice coloured fketch
of it, for our own fatisfaftion, and an help to the
memory.
We cannot too much rc fle& on thefe propofitions ;
and it is necefTary to be well acquainted with them, that
they may prefent themfeives to our mind, of their own
accord, without our being at the trouble to recal them
to our memory when we are at work.
There are four things necetTary to make a portrait
perfect ; air, colouring, altitude, and drefs.
Of Air. The air refpefts the lines of the face, the
head attire, and the fize.
The lines of the face depend upon exaftnefs of
draught, and agreement of the parts ; which all toge¬
ther mull reprefent the phyfiognomy of the perfon
painted in fuch a manner, that the pi&ure of his body
may feem to be alfo that of his mind.
It is not exaffnefs of defign in portraits that gives
fpirit and true air, fo much as the agreement of the
parts at the very moment when the difpofition and
temperament of the fitter are to be hit off. We fee
feveral portraits which, though corredlly defigned, have
a cold, languifhing, and llupid air ; whilft others, lefs
correct in defign, {trike us, however, at firft fight with
the fitter’s character.
Few painters have been careful enough to put the
parts well together : Sometimes the mouth is fmiling,
and the eyes are fad : at other times, the eyes are
cheerful, and the cheeks lank : by which means their
work has a falfe air, and looks unnatural. We ought
therefore to remember, that, when the fitter puts on a
fmiling air, the eyes clofe, the corners of the mouth draw
lip cowards the noftrils, the cheeks fwell, and the eye¬
brows widen : but in a melancholy air, thefe parts have
a contrary effect.
The eye brows, being raifed, give a grave and noble
air; but if arched, an air of aftonifhment.
Of all the parts of the face, that which contributes
moil to likenefs is the nofe ; it is therefore of great
moment to fet and draw it well.
Though the hair of the head feems to be part of the
drefs which is capable of various forms without alter¬
ing the air of the face ; yet the head-attire which one
has been molt accuftomed to creates fuch a likenefs,
that we fcarce know a familiar acquaintance on his
putting on a periwig fomewhat different from that which
he tiled to wear. It is neceffary therefore, as far as
poffible, to take the air of the head ornament, and
make it accompany and fet off that of the face, if there
be no reafon to the contrary.
As to the ftature, it contributes fo much to likenefs,
that we very often know people without feeing their
face : It is therefore extremely proper to draw thedize
after the fitter himfelf, and in fuch an attitude as we
think fit; which was Vandyke’s method. Here let us
remark, that, in fitting, the perfon appears to be of
a lefs free make, through the heaving of his Ihoulders;
ivherefore, to adjufi. his fize, it is proper to make him
x
TING.
Part IL
Hand for a fmall time, fwaying in the pofture we iViouring.
would give him, and then make our obfervation. But
here occurs a difficulty, which we (hall endeavour to
examine : ‘‘ Whether it is proper, in portraiture, to
corredf the defefts of nature P"
Likenefs being the efitnre of portraiture, it would
feem that we ought to imitate defedts as well as beau¬
ties, (ince by this means the imitation will be more
complete : It would be even hard to prove the contrary
to one who would undertake the defence of this pofi-
tion. But ladies and gentlemen do not much approve
of thofe painters who entertain fuch f/ntiments, and
put them in pra&iee. It is certain that fome complai-
fance in this refpeft is due to them ; and there is little
doubt but their pi&ures may he ma le to refemble,
without difpleafing them ; for the effeftuil likenefs is
a juft agreement of the parts that are painced with
thofe of nature ; fo that we may be at no lofs to know
the air of the face, and the temper of the perfon. whole
pidlure is before us. All deformities, therefore, when
the air and temper may be difeovered without them,
ought to be either corrected or omitted in womens and
young mens portraits. A nofe fomewhat awry may
be helped, or a (hrivelled neck, or high fhouldtrs, ad¬
apted to a good air, without going from one extreme to
another. But this muff be done with great diferetioni
for, by endeavouring to correct nature too much, we
infenfibly fall into a method of giving a general air to
all our portraits ; juft as, by confining ourfelves too
much to the defedls and littlenefs of nature, we aie in
danger of falling into the low and taftelefs manner.
But in the faces of heroes and men of rank, diftin-
guifhed either by dignities, virtues, or great qualities,
we cannot be too exaft, whether the parts be beauti¬
ful or not: for portraits of fuch perfons are to be
Handing monuments to pofterity ; in which cafe, every
thing in a pifture is precious that is faithful. But af¬
ter whatever manner the painter acquits himfelf in this
point, let him never forget good air nor grace ; and
that there are, in the natural, advantageous moment*
for hitting them off.
Of Colouring.—Colouring, in portraiture, is an ef-
fufion of nature, difeovering the true tempers of per¬
fons ; and the temper being effential to likenefs, it ought
to be handled as exadftly as the defign. This part is the
more valuable, as it is rare and difficult to hit. A great
many painters have come to a likenefs by ftrokes and
outlines; but certainly they are few who have (hown ia
colours the tempers of perfons.
Two points are neceffary in colouring; exaftnefs of
tints, and the art of fetting them off. The former is
■acquired by praftice, in examining and comparing the
colours we fee in life with thofe by which we would
imitate it : and the art of thofe tints confifts in know¬
ing what one colour will produce when fet by another,
and in making good what either diftance or time may
abate of the glow and freffinefs of the colours.
A painter who does nothing more than what he fees,
will never arrive at a perfedt imitation; for though his
work may feem, on the eafel, to be good to him, it
may not appear fo to others, and perhaps even to him.
ft If, at a diftance. A tint which, near, appears dif-
joined, and of one colour, may look of another at a
diftance, and be confounded in the mafs it belongs to.
If you woukt have your work, therefore, to produce a
good
Part II. PAIN
Attitude, good effe& in the place where it is to hang, both the
' * ' colours and lights mud be a little loaded; but learnedly,
and with diferetion. In this point confult Titian, Ru¬
bens, Vandyke, and Rembrandt’s methods; for in¬
deed their art is wonderful.
The tints ufually require three times of obfervation.
The firft is at the perfon’s firft fitting down, when he
has more fpirit and colour than ordinary; and this is to
be noted in the firfl; hour of his fitting.. The fecond is
when, being compofed, his look is as ufual; which is
to be obferved in the fecond hour. And the third is
when, through tirefomenefs by fitting in one pofture,
his colour alters to what wearinefs ufually creates. On
which account, it is bed to keep to the fitter’s ufual
tint, a little improved. He may alfo rife, and take
fome turns about the room, to gain frefh fpirits, and
fhake oif or prevent tirefomenefs.
In draperies, all forts of colours do not fuit all forts
of perfons. In mens portraits, we need only obferve
great truth and great force : but in womens there muft
alfo be charms ; whatever beauty they have mult ap¬
pear in a fine light, and their blemifhes mult by fome
means or other be foftened. For this reafon, a white,
lively, and bright tint, ought never to be fet off by a
fine yellow, which would make it look like plalter ;
but rather by colours inclining to green, blue, or grey,
or fuch others as, by their oppofition, may make the
tint appear more flelhy than ufual in fair women. Van¬
dyke often made a fillemot-coloured curtain for his
ground ; but that colour is foft and brown. Brown
women, on the other hand, who have yellow enough
in their tints to fupport the charafter of flelhinefs, may
very well have yellowilh draperies, in order to bring
down the yellow of their tints, and make them look
the freflier ; and near very high-coloured and lively
carnations linen does wonders.
In grounds, two things are obfervable; the tone and
the colour. The colour is to be confidered in the fame
manner as thofe of draperies, with refpe£f to the head.
The tone muft be always different from the mafs it
fupports, and of which it is the ground, that the ob-
jefts coming upon it may not feem tranfparent, but
folid and raife 1. The colour of the hair of the head
ufually determines the tone of the ground ; and when
tire former is a bright chefnut, we are often embarraf-
fed, unltfs helped by means of a curtain, or fome ac¬
cident of the claro-obfcuio, fuppofed to be behind, or
unlcfs the ground is a fky.
We mu ft further obferve, that where a ground is
neither curtain nor landfcape, or fuch like, but is plain
and like a wall, it ought to be very much party-colour¬
ed, with almoft imperceptible patches or ftains ; for,
befides its being fo in nature, the pidture will look the
more grand.
Of Attitude, or Poflure.—Attitudes ought to fuit
the ages and qualities of perfons and their tempers.
In old men and women, they fhould be grave, majeftio,
and fometimes bold : and generally, in women, they
ought to have a noble fimplicity and modeft cheerful-
nefs ; for modefty ought to be the character of women ;
a charm infinitely beyond coquetry! and indeed co¬
quettes themfelves care not to be painted fuch.
Attitudes are of two kinds : one in motion, the
other at reft. Thofe at reft may fuit every perfon :
but thofe in motion are proper lor young people only,
TING. 643
and are hard to be exprefied ; becaufe a great part ofPraftice
the hair and drapery muft be moved by the air ; mo-in pnr'
tion, in painting, being never better expreffed than1:1 amire‘ *
by fuch agitations. The attitudes at reft muft not
appear fo much at reft as to feem to reprefent an in-
aftive perfon, and one who fits for no other purpofe
but to be a copy. And though the figure that is re-
prefented be at reft, yet the painter, if he thinks fit,
may give it a flying drapery, provided the feene or
ground be not a chamber or clofe place.
It is above all things neceflary that the figures which
are not employed fliould appear to fatisfy the fpe&a-
tor’s curiofity ; and for this purpofe fhow themfelve*
in fuch an aftion as fuits their tempers and conditions,
as if they would inform him what they really were :
and as moft people pretend to fincerity, ho nelly, and
greatnefs of mind, we muft avoid, in attitudes, all
manner of affedftation ; every thing there muft appear
eafy and natural, and difeover more or lefs fpirit,
noblenefs, and majefty, in proportion to the perfon’s
character and dignity. In a word, the attitudes are
the language of portraits; and the fkilful painter ought
to give great attention to them.
But the bell attitudes are fuch as induce the fpe&a-
tor to think that the fitter took a favourable opportu¬
nity of being feen to advantage, and without affedla-
tion. There is only one thing to be obferved with
regard to womens portraits, in whatever attitude they
are placed; which is, that they fway in fuch a man¬
ner as to give their face but little ftude; and that wc
carefully examine whether the lady appear moft beau¬
tiful in a fnailing or in a ferious air, and conduct our-
felves accordingly. Let us now proceed to the next
article.
OJ Practice in Portraiture.—According to De Piles,
portraiture requires three different fittings and ope¬
rations ; to wit, dead-colouring, fecond-colouring, and
retouching or finifhing. Before the painter dead-
colour, he muft attentively esnfider what afpedf wrll
heft fuit the fitter, by putting him in different pofi-
tions, if we have not any fettled deiign before us; and
when we have determined this, it is of the laft confe-
quence to put the parts well together, by comparing
always one part with another; for not only the por¬
trait acquires a greater likenefs when well defigned,
but it is troublefome to make alterations at the fecond
fitting, when the artifl muft only think of painting,
that is, of difpofing and uniting his colours.
Experience tells us, that the dead-colouring ought
to be clean, becaufe of the Hope and tranfparency of
the colours, efpecialiy in the fhades; and when the
parts are well put together, and become clammy, they
muft be judicioufly fweetened and melted into each
other; yet without taking away the air of the pic¬
ture, that the painter may have the pleafure of fiuifli-
ing it, in proportion as he draws. But if fiery geni-
ufes do not like this method of feumbiing, let them
only mark the parts flightly, and fo far ai is neceffary
for giving an air.
In dead colouring, it is proper to put in rather too
little than too much hair about the forehead ; that, in
finifhing, we may be at liberty to place it where we
pkafe, and to paint it with all pollible foftnefs and de¬
licacy. If, on the contrary, you fketch upon the fore¬
head a lock which may appear to he of a good tafte,
4 M 2 and
644 PAIN
^Van-Ike*' ^ecomi'n& t‘ie 70a may he puzzled in fi-
n-nifhing it, and not find the life exatfly in the fame
pofition as you would paint it. But this obfervation
as not meant for men of Ikill and confummate experi¬
ence, who have nature in their heads, and make her
fubmic to their idess.
The bufinefs of the fecond fitting is, to put the co¬
lours well in their places, and to paint them in a man¬
ner that ;s fuitable to the fitter aad to the effett we
propoie : But before they are made clammy, we ought
to examine afreih whether the parts are rightly placed,
and here and there to give feme touches towards like-
nefs, that, when we are allured of it, the work may
go on with greater fatisfaftion. If the painter under-
Hands what he is about, and the portrait be juftty de-
figned, he ought as much as pofiible to work quick ;
the fitter will be'better pleaded, and the work will by
this mesns have the more fpirit and life. But this rea-
dinefs is only the efFedh of long ftudy awd experience ;
for we may well be allowed a con u tier able time to find
out a road that is eafy, and fuch as we mult often tra¬
vel in.
Before we retouch ®r finilh, it is proper to ter¬
minate the hair, that, on finjfhing the carnations,
we may be abler to judge of the effedt ot the whole
head.
11, at the fecond fitting, we cannot do all we in¬
tended, which often happens, the third makes up the
lols, and gives both fpirit, phyuognomy, and cha¬
rade r.
If we would paint a portrait at once, we mud load
the colouring : but neither iveeten, nor drive, nor
very much oil it : and if we dip the pencil in var
nifii as the work advances, this will retdily enable us
to put colour on colour, and to mix them without
driving.
The ufe and fight of good pidares give greater
light into things than words can exprefs: What hits
one arlift’s underftanding and temper rnav Le difa-
greeable to another’s; and almoft all painters have
taken different ways, though their principles were of¬
ten the fame.
We are told that a friend of Vandyke’s having ob-
ferved to him how little time he beftowed on his por¬
traits, Vandyke anfwered, “ That at firft he worked
hard, and took great pains, to acquire a reputation,
and alfo to get a fwift hand, againftthe time he fhouid
work for his kitchen.” Vandyke’s cud pin is faid to
have been this:.He appointed both the day and hour
for the perfon’s fitting, and worked not above an
hour on any portrait, either in rubbing in or finifhing;
fo that as foon as his dock informed him that the
hour was out, he rofe up, and made a bo.v to the
filter, to fignify, that he had done enoujh for that
day, and then appointed another hour fome other
day ; whereupon his fervent came to clean his pencils,
and brought a frefli pallet, whilli he was receiving
another fitter, whofe day and hour he had before ap¬
point! d. By this method he worked on feveral pic¬
tures the fame day, with extraordinary expedition.
After having lightly dead-coloured the face, he put
the fitter into fome attitude which he had bcfoie con¬
trived ; a*d on a grey paper, with white and black
crayons, he defigned, in a quarter of an hour, his
ibape and drapery, which he difpofed in a grand
T I N G. Part II.
manner, and an exquilite tatle. After this, he gave the Judgment
drawing to the Ikilful people he had about him, to of
paint after the fitter’s own clothes, which, at Van- —'V—
dyke’s requeft, were fent to him for that purpofe.
When his difciples had done what they could to thefe
draperies, he lightly went over them again ; and fo,
in a little time, by his great knowledge, difplayed
the art and truth which we at this day admire in them.
As for hands, he had in his houfe people of both fexes,
whom he paid, and who ferved as models.
Inis conduct of Vandyke, however, is mentioned,
rather to gratify the reader’s curiolity, than to ex¬
cite his imitation ; he may choofe as much of it as
he pleafes, and as iuits his own genius, and leave the
redt. ,
We mull obferve by the way, that there is nothing
fo rare as fine hands, either in the defign or colouring.
It is therefore convenient to cultivate, if we can, a
friendlhlp with fome women who will take pleafure in
ferving for a copy : The way to win them is, to praife
their beauty exceedingly. But if an opportunity
ferves of copying hands after Vandyke, it tnufi not be
let flip ; for lie drew them with a fuvpriiing dedicacy,
and an admirable colouring.
It is of great fetvice to copy after the manners
which come neareft to nature; ao are thofe of Titian
and Vandyke. We muff, at fuch times, believe them
to be nature itfelf; and, at fome diiiance, confider
them as fuch, and fay to ourfeives—IVhat colour and
tint Jhall l ufe for fuch a part ? And then, coming near
the pi&ure, we ought to examine whether we are
right or not ; and to make a fixed rule of what we
have difeovered, and did not pra&ife before without
uncertainty.
It is recommended, before we begin colouring, to
catch the very iirit moments, which are commonly the
moil agreeable and moll advantageous, and to keep
them in our memory for ufe when we are finiihing t
for the fitter, growing tired with being long in the
fame place, lofes thofe fpirits, which, at his firfl fit¬
ting down, gave beauty to the parts, and conveyed
to the tint more lively hlood, and a frefher colour.
In fhort, we mull join to truth a probable and advan¬
tageous poffibdity, which, far from abating iikenefs,
ferves rather to let it off. For this end, we ought to .
begin with obferving the ground of a tint, as well
what it is in lights as in lhades; for the fha*es are
only beautiful as they ate proportioned to the light.
We mull oblerve, if the tint be very lively, whether
it partake oi yeiiownefs, and where that yelLownefa is
placed ; becauie uiuoily, cowards the end of the fit¬
ting, fatigue diffufes a general yellownefs, which
makes us forget what parts were ot this colour, and
what were not, unlels we had taken due notice ot it
before. For this reafon, at the fecond fitting, the
colours mull be everywhere readily clapped in, and
fuch as appear at the firfl fitting down ; for thefe are
always the fineil.
The fureil way to judge of colours is by compa-
rifon ; and to know a tint, nothing is better than
to compare it with linen placed next it, or elfe pla¬
ced next to the natural objed, if there is occafion.—
We fay this only to thofe who have little pradfifed
nature.
The portrait being now fuppofed to be as much
fiailhed
Part IT. V A I N
Different finifhed as you are able, nothing remalnt, but, at
Method* °ffome reafonabie diilance, to view both the ptfture and
fatnting. ^ ^tt >r t0getper> {n ortier to determine with certainty,
wliether there is any thing ftiil wanting to ^erfed the
work.
Sect. IV. Of Theatric Decorations ; the Dfigns
for Furniture, Embroidery, Carriages, &c.
Of Theatrical Decorations.—This is a particular art
which unites feveral of the general parts of painting
with the knowledge of architedure, perfpedive, See.
They who apply themfelves to it would do well to
defign their decorations by day, and to colour them
by candle-light, as they will be much better aSle to
pidge of the effed of a painting intended to be viewed
by that light. It is proper aifo to caution the young
painter to avoid, as much as poffible, the uniting the
imitations of nature with nature itfelf; that is, he fhould
not introduce with his decorations living horfes, or
other anima's, real fountains or cafcades, trees, or fta-
tues, &c. For fu:h combinations are the effed of
ignorance and a bad talle ; they are the refource of
painters of little ability; theydifeover a fterility of in¬
vention, and produce great inconvenience in the re-
prefentation. Thofe pieces which they call moving
pidures, where the painted landfcape remains im¬
moveable, and the figures move by means of fprings,
form a part of thefe decorations; an i there are fome
of them, as thofe of Antwerp and Ghent, that have
a pleafing effed
The defigns for furniture, carriages, porcelain, and
other branches of manufadure, form alfo a very im¬
portant article of painting in general, and of acade¬
my painting in particular. This is a diffind branch
of the art ; and without doubt not the leaff ufefui of its
parts, as it concurs fo effentially to the fuccefs of ma-
mifadures, and confequently to the profperity of a
ftate : and it is an art, to which it were much to be
wifhed that youth of ability and invention would ap¬
ply themfclvcs. See the articles Japanning and Por¬
celain.
Sect. V. Enumeration of the different Methods of
Painting, or the different Means and Materials
that Painters make ufts of to imitate all vffible
Objects on a plane Superficies.
Those now in pradice are,
1. Painting in oil ; which is preferable to ail other
methods, as it is more fufceptible of all forts of ex-
preflions, of more perfed gradations of colours, and is
at the fame time more durable.
2. Mosaic painting; an invention truly wonderful;
it is compofed of a great number of fmall piecei of
marble of different colours, joined together with If ucco.
The works of this kind are made principally at Rome,
where this art has been carried fo far as to refemble
the paintings of thegreateft mailers; and of thefe are
made monuments for the latefl pofterity.
3. Painting in fresco ; which is by drawing, with
colours diluted with water, on a wall newly plallered,
and with which they fo incorporate, that they perilh
only with the Itucoo itfelf. This is principally ufed
on. ceilings. •
TING. 645
4. Painting in water-colours ; that is, with co- Frefco.
lours mixed with water and gum, or paile, &c. _«__v 1
5. Miniature painting ; which differs from the
preceding as it reprefents objeds in the leaft difeer-
nibie magnitudes.
6. Painting in crayons;.for which pilrpofe colours,
either fimple or compound, are mixed with gum, and
made into a kind of hard paile like chalk, and with
which they draw on paper or parchment.
7. Painting in enamel ; which is done on copper
or gold, with mineral colours that are dried hy fire,
and become very durable. The paintings on the
porcelain of China and Europe, on Delpht ware, &c.
are fo many forts of enamel.
8. Painting in wax, or encaustic painting: This
is a new or rather an old invention renewed, in which
there are in France performances highly plealing. It
is done with wax mixed with varnilh and colours.
9. Painting on glass ; of which there are various
kinds.
See all the articles here enumerated, explained in the
order of the alphabet On one of them, however,
fome additional obfervations may here be fubjomed.
§ l. Of painting in Frefco.
Of all kinds of painting frefco is the moll ancient,
the mod durable, the molt fpeedily executed, and the
mail proper to adorn great buildings. It appears;, that
the fragments of ancient pain-ting handed down to us
by the Romans are all in frefco. Norden, quoted by
Wmkleman, fpeaks of the ruins of Egyptian palaces
and temoies, in which are Coloffia-n paintings on walls
80 feet high. The defeription which thofe authors
have given of thefe paintings, of the prepared ground,
and of the manner in which the colours have been
employed, &c. Ihows plainly that they have been ex¬
ecuted in frefco.
Theftatilityof frefcoisdemonftrated by the exigence
of thofe fragments of the higlieft antiquity. Th re are
no other kinds of painting which could equally have
refilled the injuries of the weather, the cxceffive ari¬
dity of certain elements, the moiftufe of fubterraneous
fxtuations, and the encroachments of barbarians.
There are different opinions concerning the climate
moll proper to preferve this kind of painting. It is
obferved (fays Feiibien), that the colours in frefio fade
fooner in Italy and Languedoc than at Paris; perhaps
from iefs heat in the lath mentioned place, or better
lime.,> M. Falconet contradicts this affertion in his
notes on Pliny, vol. i. p. 223. of his mifcelkneous
works, publiihed at Paris 1787. Painting in frefco,
according to this author, is longer oreferved in dry
and warm, than in northern and moilt climates. How¬
ever oppofite the fentiments of thefe two authors may
appear to be, it is poffible to reconcile them, when
we conlider, that the expofure to a burning fuu is ca-
p ible of operating a great change of the colours on
the one hand, and that the froll in a cold climate ine*
vrtably deilroys the paintings of frefco on the other.
Froll is capable of burfting Hones, of corroding the
petrified veins of earth in the heart of coloured marble,
and, in ihort, nothing can refill its dtllruflive operation.
Thefe cbfervations on frefco paintings lead us to
conclude, that the choice of place, when they are with¬
out doors, is of the greaUil importance. In countries
2 • where
o,
^ where there is little or no froft, an expofure to the
north is the moft favourable ; and in cold climates a
v/eftern expofure fliould be made choice of, becaufe
the firft rays of the riling fun have a very pernicious
effect alter froft. We are not, however, wholly to
adopt the fentirnent of M. Falconet with regard to the
pernicious efTefts of moillure on frefco paintings: for,
i. .The ancient paintings recovered from moilt places,
in which they were buried for many ages, have, un¬
der enormous heaps of earth, preferved all their colours.
Thofe from the ruins of Herculaneum have been ob-
ferved, on the contrary, to lofe their colours in a fhort
time after they have been dried by the exterior air.
1. The mortar which compofes the ground of this
painting is not deltroyed in our rainy climates. It is
necefiary frequently to ufe powder in removing pieces
of this mortar, which are now found to obltrudd fome
buildings in Paris.
After the choice of place, the choice of materials
is the next thing of importance in executing frefco.
To make it durable, the ground is the objedl of chief
attention ; and to make this perfect, the mortar ufed
by the ancients, now unknown, would be neceffary.
It is eafy to perceive, that a minute detail of forms,
an extenfive mixture and gradation of tints, and the
merit of a delicate and gentle touch, can make no part
of the excellencies of this kind of painting. It can¬
not bear a clofe examination like a pidure in oil.
There is always fomething dry and rough which dif-
pleafes. An artift who would flatter himfelf with fuc-
cefs in a frefco placed near the eye would be grofsly
deceived : a common fpedator would find it "coarfe
and badly finifhed.
Frefco is chiefly employed in palaces, temples, and
public edifices. In thefe vaft places no kind of paint¬
ing can be preferred to it; large, vivid in its llrokes,
and conllantly frelh, it enriches the archite&ure, ani¬
mates it, and gives relief to the eye from the repetition
ol the fame forms, and the monotony of colour in a
place where coloured marbles and bronzes are not em¬
ployed. Still more a tine frefco gives the greated
effect: to a lofty building, fince this building ferves
as a frame and fupport to this enchanting art, which
fixes the attention of every perfon of fenfibility and
tafte.
We fliall afterwards have occafion to fhow the man¬
ner of executing frefco, as well as the nature and ap¬
plication of the colours employed in it : it is neceffary
to demonflrate here, that it has a frefhnefs, fplendor,
and vigour not to be found in oil or water colours.
A known principle in all kind of painting is, that
the colouring is more perfeft in proportion as it ap¬
proaches to the lights and {hades in nature. As co¬
lours applied to any fubjedt can never reach this degreee
of perfection, the allufion which painters produce
ccnaiis in the comparifon and oppofition of the tones
ot colours among themfelves.
. If the white of the fineft and pureft oil appears
heavy and grey, compared with great lights in na-
tuni wh'tes, it follows, that, in order to copy them
•with fidelity, the tones which follow the fuff white
muff be degraded in an exadl proportion. Thus it is
nectffary that the {hades of a picture be confiderably
deeper than thofe of the model; efpecially if, from
the greateft lights to the browns, one hath propor-
painting.
tionally followed the diftanee which is found between
the colours on the pallet and the tones of the objedt'
copied.
Now if the white of frefco be infinitely more bright
than that of oil, the fame effedl will be obtained in a
brown tone. On the other fide, if it conftantly hap¬
pens that the brown tones of frefco are much more vi¬
gorous than thofe of water colours, and equal even to
the browns of oil itfelf, it is certain that it poffeffes
a fplendor and vigour more extenfive than any other
kind of painting. Thus in the hands of an artiff who
is well acquainted with the colours fit for frefco, it is
more fufceptible of the general effedt, and more ca-
pable than any other kind of giving projedtion and the
femblance of life to the figures.
If we were to inquire why painting in frefco is now
fcarcely or never pradtifed, we fhould perhaps afcribe it
to the great talents required to execute it. “ Many of
our painters (fays Vafari in his treatife on painting)
excel in oil and water colours, and yet fail in frefco ;
becaufe of all kinds this requires the greateft ftrength
of genius, boldnefs in the ftrokes, and refolution.’*
If in an age abounding in great mafters, it was diffi¬
cult to excel in this kind, it mutt be much more fo
in ours ; but we fliould not require the charadiers of
fublimity and ftyle to which men were accuftomed in
the time of Valari.
We fliould execute in frefco as we do in oils ; for
Italy herfelf, along with Michael Angelo and Zui-
charo, had Cortonni Giardano and Francifchini as
middling frefco-painters. And in France, Lafoffe, Bon
Boulogne, and Perur, performed feveral works in
frefco which might be imitated by the painters of our
times. But let us proceed to the real caufes for aban¬
doning this art. Thefe proceed from the want of
knowledge and tafte in the perfons who employ the
artifts, and from the manners of the age. As a plea-
fant or licentious conceit, unfiniflied colouring, and
bold effedts of (hade, are the chief objedts of coniide-
ration, a very fmooth painting enlivened by gentle
touches completely gratifies the perfon who pays the
price ; and therefore the philofophical principles of
the art, which require ftudy, are not cultivated.
We fliall now attend to the mechanical procefs of
this ufeful and beautiful kind of painting. Before
painting, it is neceffary to apply two layers. If the
wall on which you are to paint is of brick, the layer
is eafily applied ; but if it is of freeftone clofely
united, it is neceffary to make excavations in the ftone,
and to drive into them nails or pegs of wood in order
to hold the firft layer.
The firft layer is made of good lime and a cement
of pounded brick, or, which is ftill better, river-fand :
this latter forms a layer more uneven, and better fitted
to retain the fecond frnooth and polifiled layer applied
to its furface.
There fhould be experiments to difcoifer a layer
ftill more compact, and more independent of the vari¬
ations of the air; fuch, for example, as covers the
aquedudfs and ancient refervoirs conflruOted by the
Romans in the neighbourhood of Naples.
Before applying the fecond layer, or what you are
to paint, it is neceffary that the lirft be perfedly dry ;
for there iffues from the lime, when it is moiit, a fmell
both difagreeable and pernicious to the artift.
Part IF,
Frefco.
When
Part II. PAIN
Frefco. When the firft Inyer is perfectly dry, * is wet with
V" ”water in proportion to its dryneis, that the fecond
layer may the more eafily incorporate with it.
The fecond layer is compofed of lime, flaked in
the air, and expofed for a year, • nd of river-fand, of
an equal strain, and moderately fine.
It requires wn active and intelligent mafon to apply
this layer, as the furface muft he altogether tqual.
The operation is performed with a trowel 5 and the
operator requires to have a fmall piece of wood to
takeaway the large grains of fmd, which, remaining,
might render the furface uneven.
To give a fine polifh to this layer, one ought to
take a (heet of paper, apply it to the wall, and pafs
and repafs the trowel over the paper. By this means
the little inequalities which hurt the exactnefs of the
ftroke, and which produce falfe appearances at a
diftance, are entirely fmoothed.
The artift muft not lay more than the painter can
finifh in a day, as this kind of painting mult be exe¬
cuted on a frefh ground.
The layer being thus prepared, the painter begins
his operation ; but as painting in frefco mull be exe¬
cuted rapidly, and as there is no time to retouch any
of the ftrokes, the painter, as we have obferved under
the article Fresco, takes care to provide himfelf with
large cartoons, on which he has drawn, with exaift-
nefs, and in their full fize, the figures which he is to
paint, which leaves him nothing to do but to copy
them on the wall.
The cartoons are compofed of fcveral Iheets of
large paper palled one on another, neither too thick
nor too flender.
The painter traces the tracks of the figures on the
plalter, by palling a Heel point over the tracks in the
cartoons, or in pricking them.
Having in this manner attained an exafl and fpeedy
drawing, it now remains to execute the painting.
But it is eflential, when one wilhes to finilh any
fmall work of this kind, in the firft place to be in¬
formed of the proper colours, and of thofe which can¬
not fee ufed.
In general, the colours which are extra&ed from
earths, and thofe which have palled through the fire,
arc the only ones which can be employed in this kind
of painting.
The colours are white, made of lime, the white of
egg-lhells, ultramarine, the black of charcoal, yellow
ochre, burnt vitriol, red earth, green of Verona,
Venetian black, and burnt ochre.
There are othets which require to be ufed with
great precaution, fuch as enamel blue, cinnabar, and
white marble dull.
When enamel blue is ufed, it requires to be applied
inftantaneoufly, and when the lime is very moill,
otherwife it does not incorporate with the plaller ;
and if one retouch with this colour, it mull be done
an hour or more after the firll application, to increafe
its luftre.
With regard to the white marble dull, it is fubjeft
to turn black if it be not mixed up with a convenient
quantity of white lime.
Cinnabar, which has a fplendor almoll fuperior to
all other colours, lofes it almoll entirely when mixed
with lime. At the fame time, it may be employed in
TING.
places not expofed to the air, with a little de,:
care in the preparation. Reduce a quantity of the
pureft cinnabar to powder, put it into aln cat t u n vcf-
fel, and pour lime-water on it for two or three times.
By this procefs the cinnabar receives fome imprtffion
of lime-water, which makes it capableof being employed
in frefco-painting.
One of the bell colours, and the one moll ufed in
frefco for the gradation of tints, and for giving the
requifite tone, is white of lime. this white is prepa¬
red by mixing lime flaked long before with good
water. The lime depofites a fediment at the botton
of the velfel; when the water is poured off, this fedi¬
ment is the white of lime.
Another kind of white might be ufed, the effecls
of which would be known by experience, namely, the
white of egg (hells. To prepare this white, one mull
take a great quantity of {hells of eggs, which mull be
pounded and boiled in water along with a quantity of
quicklime ; after this they are put into a llrainer, and
walhed repeatedly with fountain-water.
The fhells are again pounded until the water em¬
ployed for that purpoft become pure and limpid j and
when they are in this manner reduced to powder, this
powder is grinded in water, and formed into fmall
pieces, and dried in the fun.
All the different kinds of ochres make excellent co¬
lours for frefco, and take different lhades, being pre-
vioufly burned in iron cheits.
With regard to the Naples yellow, it is dangerous
to ufe it where the painting is much expofed to the
air. The blacks of charcoal, of peach-ltones, and of
vine twigs, are good ; but that extracted from bones is
of no value. .
Roman vitriol gathered at the furnaces, and which
is called iurnt vitriol, grinded afterwards in fpirit of
wine, refills the air extremely well when employed in
lime. There is alfo a red extracted from this prepara¬
tion fomewhat like that produced from lac.
This colour is very proper for preparing the layers
to be coloured with cinnabar; and the draperies paint¬
ed With thefe two colours will vie in fplendor with
thofe painted with fine lac in oil.
The ultramarine is the moll faithful colour ; and it
not only never .changes, but it communicates this pre¬
cious quality to thofe colours with which it is mixed.
The manner of employing thofe colours, is to grind
them in water, and to begin by arranging them into
the principal tints you are to employ: thefe are after¬
wards put into pots ; and it is neceffary to ufe a great
many pallets raifed at the edges, to form the interme¬
diate (hades, and to have under your eye all the lhadea
you require.
As all the tints, except burnt ochre, violet, red, and
blacks of all kinds, are apt to become clear, the pain¬
ter mull have befide him fome pieces of brick or new
tile very dry. A dalh of the colours is applied to one
of thefe with the pencil before ufing them; and as tile
inftantaneouffy imbibes the water, one perceives what
the lhade will be after the frefco is dry.
§ 2. Ely dork Painting, invented by M. Vincent of Mont-
petit.
This new kind of painting is little known, and ca¬
pable of great improvement.
Ita
M - PAIN
Paintln?" Its P,^ncIP',I advantages are, that the artlft Is able
i—to P've t‘ie greateft finifliing poffible to ftnail figures
in oil; to add to the meltownefs of oil painting, the
greateft beauty of water-colours in miniature, and to
do it in fuch a manner that it appcirs like a large
picture fcen thiough a glafs which, diminifhes objects.
This kind of painting takes its name from two
Greek words exprefilve of oi/and water; becaufe thefe
two liquids are employed in the execution. The fol¬
lowing is the manner of proceeding : A piece of very
fine linen, or of white taffety, Is fized with flarch, in
ihe molt equal manner pofixbk, on pieces of glafs about
two inches fqnare, the angles of which are blunted in
order that the cloth may cover them neatly and with¬
out wrinkles.
When thefe pieces of cloth are fufficiently dry, a
layer compofed of white lead finely grinded, and oil of
pinks or of poppies, the whiteft that can be found, is
applied to them with a knife. When this layer is dry
enough to admit of feraping, more may be applied if
neceffary.
As it is of the greateft importance for the prefer-
vition of this kind of painting, that the different lay¬
ers be purged of oil, in order that they may imbibe
the colours applied to them, it is neceflary that their
furfuce be very fmopth, very dry, and very hard.
The artift is next provided with a circle of copper
nearly two inches in diameter, one-fourth of an inch
m height, extremely thin, and painted on the infide
with black. This circle is employed to contain the
water on the furface of the picture.
The preference is given to water diftiikd from rain
cr fnow; becaufe ordinary water, from the falls which
it contains, is pernicious to this kind of painting.
It is necefiary aifo to obferve, that the colours muft
be grinded between two oriental agates, molt carefully
preferved from dull, and mixed with oil of poppies, or
any other ficcative oil which has been extradited with¬
out fire, and pure as water.
All the colours being grinded, they are placed in a
fmali neap on a piece of giais, which is covered with
diftilled water in a tin-box.
T 1 N G. Part If,
• thl? maten’als are ^us prepared, the fubjeT Eiyd-ic
is ilightly traced on one of the pieces of cloth above- Eaiminjr.
mentioned with a lead pencil. ' v-- J
The tints are formed on the pallets from the heaps
of colours under the water, and the pallet placed as
ufu-1 on the left arm with the thumb through the
aperture. b
1 He picture is held between the thumb and fore¬
finger, fupparted by the middle, and the neccffary pen¬
cils between the third and little fingers. The hand is
fupported on the back of a chair, that there may be
full liberty of bringing the work near, or keeping it
at a diftance from the eye.
1 he pencils are cleaned with the effence of rectified,
turpentine.
After having made the rough draught with the co¬
lours ftill frefh, the circle of copper, which ought to
furround the pifture, is fitted exadtly to the furface.
I he diftilled water is poured within this circle to
the height of one-eighth part of an inch ; and the
body is leaned forward till the fight fall perpendicularly
on the objedl. 7
The third finger of the right hand muft reft on the
internal right angle of the piftnre.
^ ± he artift, with a fine and firm pencil, runs over
the firft draught, to give colours to the weak places,
and to foften thofe w'hich appear too ftrong.
As foon as the oil fwims on the top, the water is
poured oft, and the pidturc is carefully covered with
a watch-glafs, and diied in a box with a gentle heat.
When it is fufficiently dry, to be ffiraped almoft'to
a level with t.ie knife : the above operation is renewed
till the artift is iatisfied with his work.
It is in this laft work that the artift feels all the
advantage of this new method for finifhing.
The water poured on the pi&ure difeovers all the
famts of the pencil, gives facility in fearching into the
bottom of the fhades, and the power of correcting- the
work and of rendering it perfedt.
When the work is finiftied, it is put under a cryftal,
where there is no admiffion of external air, and dried
with a gentle heat.
PAR I HI. Of Oeconomical Painting.
SECTION 1.
’TIE object of this Part is to give an account of
feme mechanical proceedings in certain kinds of
painting, calculated to preferve and embdlifh the wal s
of houfes and furniture. This branch of the art ex¬
tends to every part of architecture. The whole build-
ing becomes the workftiop of the artift; the flairs, the
balluftrades, the falhes, the doors, and the railing of all
kinds, occupying his firft care, and then the clelings
and wainfeotting.
I he artift gives to all his fuhjecis a chofen and uni¬
form tint ; but he has it in his power to vary the co¬
lours on different parts of the building in fuch a tnan-
1Z Ilcr as to produce the moft pleafing eftedl.
Of the Among the I’tenfils of the painter, it is needlefis,
ntenfii's for but for rendering the article complete, to mention
ofbrufhes and pencils of all fu.es as abfoluteiy neceffary.
;N° 2yf.
The brufries are made of boars briftles, or of hair
with a mixture of briftles ; they ought to be ftraight,
very frr.ooth, and of a tound form. Half an hour be-
iore they arc ufed, it is proper to foak them in water,
in order to fwell the wood of the handle, and prevent
the hairs from falling oft'; after this they may be a^.
plied to all purpofes, either in water colours or in oil;
but it may be obferved, that for the former they re¬
quire lefs foftenin r.
t he pencils are made of badgers hair, or any fine
hairs enchafed in the pipes of quills cf all fizes.
The veflel wherein the pencils are cleaned is ma«’e
fopper or ot tin, frrooth below, rounded at the
ends, and divided into two parts by a thin plate in the
middle. The oil, or the fubftance with which the pen¬
cil is cleaned, is contained in one ol the divifions.
1 he pallet is made of. the wood of the pear or apple
tree, of an oval or fquare fhape, very flender, but
fomfi-
•ng
23
Of gnnd-
Part Iir» PAIN
Oeconomi fomewlmt thicker at the centre than at the extremi-
eal Paint- t{eg# ^ hole is made in one of its fides fufficiently
large to admit the thumb of the workman.
When the pallet is new, it is covered with oil of
■walnuts ; and as often as it dries, the operation is re¬
peated, till it he hilly impregnated ; it is afterwards
polifhed, and finally rubbed with a piece of linen
dipped in oil of common nuts.
The painter’s knife is a thin flexible plate, equally
flender on both fides, rounded at one extremity, and
the other fixed into a handle of wood.
All the veflels employed to hold the colours fhould
be varniflied ; a precaution neceffary to prevent their
drying too quickly.
To grind, is to reduce to powder the fubftances which
inglind di- give colours on a piece of marble or any hard flone by.
luting the means of water, oil, or efl'ence,
col#urs. 'Pq dHute, is to impregnate a liquid with a tint in
fuch a manner as to make it capable of being applied
by a brufh.
When the materials are grinded in water, it is pro¬
per to dilute them in fize made from parchment. If
they are diluted in fpirit-of-wine, there muft be no more
diluted than what ferves the immediate occafion, as
colours prepared in this manner dry very rapidly.
Colours grinded in oil are fometimes diluted with
pure oil, more frequently with oil mixed with eflence,
and commonly with the pure eflence of turpentine;
the effence makes the colours eafy to work. Thofe
prepared in this manner are more folid, but they re¬
quire more time to dry.
When colours are grinded with the eflence of tur¬
pentine, and diluted in varnifh, as they require to be
immediately applied, it. is neceffary to prepare a fmall
quantity at a time. This preparation of colours gives
greater brilliancy, and dries more fpeedily, than thofe
prepared in oil; but they require more art to manage
them.
They grind colours or coloured fubftances with a
mullet, which is employed on the ftone till they be¬
come a very fine powder. The operation is facilitated
by moiftening them from time to time with a little
water, and by collefting them under the mullet with
the knife. They are afterwards laid in fmall heaps on
a flieet of white paper, and allowed to dry in a fitua-
tion not expofed to duft. Thofe who grind white
lead have a ftone for the purpofe, as this colour is
very eafily tavnifhed. In executing this part well, it
is nectlTary to grind the colours equally and mode¬
rately ; to grind them ft-parately, and not to produce
a tint by mixtute till the colours are well prepared.
Dilute no more at a time than what you have occa¬
fion to employ, to prevent them from growing thick.
In grinding the colours, put in no more liquid than
what is neceilary to make the folid fubftances yield
eafily to the mullet : the more the colours are grinded,
they mix better, and give a fmoother and more agree¬
able painting.
It is alfo neceflary to give all attention to the grind¬
ing and diluting of colours, that they may be neither
too thick nor too thin.
Sect. II. application of Colours.
1. Prepare omy the quantity neceflary for the
work you undertake, becaui'e they d© net keep long :
Vol. XIII. Part II.
TING. 649
and thofe which are newly mixed are more vivid and Application
beautiful. of Colours.,
2. Hold the brufh ftraight before you, and allow ^
only the furface to be applied to the fubjeft : if you
hold it inclined in any other direction, you will run the
hazard of painting unequally.
3. It is neceflary to lay on the colours boldly, and.
with great ftrokes; taking care at the fame time to
fpread them equally over the furface, and not filling
up the moulding and carved work. If this accident
fhould happen, you muft have a little brufh to clean
out the colours.
4. Stir them frequently in the veflel, that they may
preferve always the fame tint, and that no fediment
may remain at the bottom.
5. Take care not to overcharge the ferufh with the
colour.
6. Never apply a fecond layer till the fir ft or prece¬
ding one be perfectly dry ; which it is eafily known
to be when, in bearing the hand gently over it, it doe*
not adhere.
7. In order to render this drying more fpeedy and
uniform, make always the layers as thin as pofiible.
8. Before painting, it is neceffary to prime the fub-
je<5\ ; that is, to give it a layer of fize, or of white co¬
louring oil, to fill up the pores, and tender the furface
fmooth : by this means fewer layers of colour or of
varnifh arc afterwards neceflary.
9. Every fubjeft to be painted or gilded ought to
have firft a white ground ; this preferves the colours
frefh and vivid, and repairs the damage which they ©c-
cafionally receive from the air.
$ I. Of Painting in Water-colours.
To pain* in water-colours, is to do it in thofe which
are grinded in water and diluted in fize. There are
three kinds of this painting ; namely, common, the var-
ni/hed, and that which is called king’s ’white; but before
entering on thefe, it is neceffary to make fome preli¬
minary obfervations.
1. Take care that there be no greafe on the fub-
jedl; and if there be, ferape it off, or clean it with a
lye, or rub the greafy part with garlic and worm¬
wood.
2. Let the diluted colour fall in threads from the
end of the brufh when you take it out of the veffel;
if it adheres to it, it is a proof that it wants fize.
3. Let all the layers, efpecially at the beginning, be
laid on very warm, provided that the liquid be not
boiling, which would effectually fpoil the fubjedt; and
if on wood, expofe it to crack. The laft layer, given
immediately before the varnifh, is the only one which
ought to be applied cold.
4. In very fine work, where it is neceflary to have
beautiful and folid colours, the fuhjedts are prepared
by fize and proper whites, which ferve as a ground to
receive the colour, and render the furface very equal
and fmooth.
5. Whatever colour is to be laid on, the white
ground is the beft, as it aflimilates moft eafily with
the painting, which borrows always fomething of the
ground.
6. If knots of wood are found in the fubjeft, it is
neceffary to rub them with garlic, to make the fize
adhere.
4N
To
6v5°
ti Cillo. 'rT r^° n,ate tl,e lowing details fufficiently plain, we
l foall take the meafures to which the quantity of co¬
lours are applird at fathoms ; that is to fay, fix feet
in height by fix feet in breadth. We fhall afterwards
fix the quantity of materials, and of liquids necefi'ary
to cover this furface. This, however, cannot be ex¬
actly defined; as fome fubjefls imbibe the colours much
more than others. 1 he manner of employing them
alfo makes a difference; as habit enables one to ma¬
nage them to greater advantage than another. And
it is alfo to be obferved, that the firft layer will cou-
fume more than the fecond ; and that a prepared fub-
jedf requires lefs than one which has not been fo.
When we fpeak of a fathom, it rnuft be underflood
of a fmooth and equal furface ; for if the wood is va¬
ried with mouldings and carving, there mull be a dif¬
ference in the quantity of colours. In general it re.
quires about a pound of colours to paint a fquare fa¬
thom in water-colours. In making up this quantity,
take three-fourths of colours grinded in water, and
one fourth pound, or fix ounces, of fize to dilute it.
§ 2. Of Painting in common Water-colours.
Wort.ks which require no great care or preparation,
as cielings and flaircafes, are generally painted in
common water colours, i.e. with earths infufed in wa¬
fer and diluted in fize.
For a common white kind of this painting, fleep
Spanifh white moderately pounded in water for two
hours. Infufe a proper quantity of the black of char¬
coal in water for the fame fpace of time; mix the black
and white in the proportion that the tint requires ; af¬
terwards mix them up with a pretty flrong fize, fuf¬
ficiently thick and warm, and apply them to t he fub-
jt£t in as many layers as may be thought necefiary.
it requires about two pounds of white in a pint of
water, and a quantity of black in proportion to the
tint, together with apart of fize, to cover a fquare fa¬
thom. If this be employed on old walls, they mufl be
well feraped, the dufl brufhed off with a hair befom,
and wafhed carefully with lime water. If on new pla-
fier, the colours require more fize.
Ail kinds of colours may be grinded in water only
when the tint is made ; and when they have been is-
fufed in water, they muft be mixed up with fize.
PAINT! N G.
,. , r Partin,
white, and a fin d! quantity of turpentine to give it Appii^
brdli ncy.. The fize proper for it is made of glove-of Urlounu
leaner,, with tlie addition of fome alum ; and the  
whole is applied with a flrong bruih in five or fix
layers to new plafler.
4. Idie wall is flrongly rubbed over with a b^ufh of
hog, briflles after the painting is dry ; which gives it
its iuflre and value, and which makes it appear like
marble or ftucco. 1
$ 4- Qf Badegeon.
Badegeon is a pale yellow colour applied to plafler
to make it appear like free Hones. It gives to old
houfes and churches the exterior of a new building, by
afiuming the colour of Hones newly cut. °
1. Take a quantity of lime newly killed.
2. Add to it the half quantity of what the French
call feiure de pierre, in which you have mixed of the
ochre of n/e, according to the colour of the Hone you
intend to imitate.
3. Steep the whole in a -ail of water, in which is
melted a pound of rock auim. When the feiure de
/ re cannot be obtained, it is neceffary to ufe a great¬
er quantity of ochre de rue, or of yellow ochre, or grind
-he Fates of the Hone de St Feu; pafs it through a lieve;
and along with the lime it will form a cement, on which
the weather willfcarctly make any impreffion.
§ 5- Of Cielings and the Roofs of Rooms.
When the cielings or roofs are new, and you wifli
to whiten them, take white of Bougival, to which add
a little of the black of charcoal to prevent the white
from growing reddifh : infufe them feparately in wa¬
ter ; mix the whole with half Water and half fize of
glove-leather, which being itrong would make the layer
come off in rolls if it were not reduced with water.
Give two layers of this tint while it is lukewarm.
If the roof hss been formerly whitened, it is ne-
ceffary to ferape to the quick all the remaining white
then give ft two or three layers of lime to ground
and whiten it : Brufh it carefully over; and give it
two or three layers of the white of Bougival prepared
as before.
§ 6. Of Colouring the bads of Chimneys with Lead Ore.
§ 3. Walls done with the White Des Cannes.
The white des carmet is a manner of whitening in¬
terior walls, whereby they are rendered extremely
beautiful.
1. Procure a quantity of the very befl lime, and
pafs it through fine linen; pour it into a large tub, fur-
nifhed with a fpigot at the height equal to that which
the lime occupies : fill the tub with clear fountain-
water ; beat the mixture with great pieces of wood*
and then allow it to fettle for 24 hours.
2. Open the fpigot, allow the water to run off, fup.
ply the tub with frefh water, and continue this opera¬
tion for feveral days until the lime receives the greatefl
degree of whitenefs.
3. When you allow the water finally to run off, the
lime will be found in the conbflency of paffe; but with
the quantity yon ufe it is neceffary to mix a little Pruf-
fan blue or indigo to relieve the brightnefs of the
Clean them with a very ffrong brufh, and care^.
fully rub off the duft and ruff ; pound about a quarter
of a pound of lead ore into a fine powder, and put it
into a vcffel with half a pint of vinegar ; then apply
it to the back of the chimney with a brufh : When it
is made black with this liquid, take a dry brufh, dip it
in the fame powder without vinegar, and dry and nib
it with this brufh till it become fhining as glafs.
$ 7 • Cf Warnifhed Water-colours.
Th e advantages of this kind of painting are, that
the colours do not fade ; that they reflect the light 4
that they give no offenfive fmell, but permit the places
to be inhabited as foon as finifhed ; and that the var-
nifh preferves the wood from inlefts and raoiflure.
1 o make a fine varnifh on water colours, feven prin*
cipal operations are neceffary; namely, to fixe the wood,
to prepare the white, to foften and rub the fubjedt, to
clean the moulding, to painty to fize, and to varnifh.
To
*
Part Iff.
t* A 1 N
Application To ifize the wood is to give one or two layers of fize
i,{ Colours. to tjie fukje& which you intend to paint.
u^"v Take three heads of garlic and a handful of worm-
ffifft opera-wood leaves; boil them in three pints of water^till
tton. they are reduced to one ; pnfs the juice through a li¬
nen cloth, and mix it with a pint of parchment frze ;
add half a handful of fait and half a pint of vinegar ;
and boil the whole 6n the fire.
Size the w^ood with this boiling liquor; allow it to
penetrate into the carved and fmooth places of the
wbod, but take care at the fame time to take it as
clean off the work as pofiible, or at leaf! to leave it at
no place thicker than another. This firft filing ferves
to fill up the 'pores of the wood, and to prevent the
materials afterwards from collefting in a body, which
would caufe the v/ork to fall off in feales.
In a pint of ftrong parchment fize, to which you
have added four pints of warm water, put two hand¬
fuls of white Rougival, and allow it to infufe for the
fpace of half an hour.
Stir it well, and give a fingle layer of it to the fub-
jeft very warm but not boiling, equally and regularly
laid on, and dafhed with repeated ftrokes of the brufh
a. into the mouldings and carved work.
| Second ope- To prepare the white, take a quantity of ftrong
tation. parchment fize, and fprinkle lightly over it, with the
hand, Bougival white, till the fize be covered with
it about half an inch in thicknefs; allow it to foak
for half an hour as near the fire as to keep it milk
warm ; and then ftir it with the brufh till the lumps
are broken, and it be fufii dently mixed.
Give feven, eight, or ten layers of this white, or
as many as the nature of the work or the defers in
the wood fhall render neceffiry, giving more white to
the parts which require to be foftened ; but in gene¬
ral, the layers mull* be equal both with regard to
the quantity of the white and the flrength of the fize.
The laft layer of the white ought to be clearer
than the reft, which is made by adding water. It
mull be applied more fiightly, taking care with fmall
brufhes to cover all the difficult places in the mouldings
and carved work. It is neceftary alfo, between the
drying of the different layers, to fill up all the defebls
with white maftich and fize.
To foften, is to give to the fubjeft after the whiten¬
ing a fmooth and equal furface, and to rub it over
with a pumice fto'ne.
The wood being dry, take little pieces of white
wood and of pumice ftone, grinded lor the purpofe
into all neceffaiy forms, either for the panels or the
moulding.
Take cold water, heat being deftruflive of this kind
of work ; in fummer it is common to add a little ice.
Soften the wall with a brulh, hut only ns much at a
time as you can eafily work, as the water might di*
lute the white and fpoil the whole: Then fmooth
and rub it with the pumice ftones and with the fmall
pieces of wood : Wafh it with a bruffi as you fmooth
it, and rub it over with a piece of neto linen, which
gives a fine luftre to the work.
fourth ope- The mouldings and carved work are cleaned with
cation. an iron ; and the only thing to be attended to in the
operation is not to raife the grain of the wood.
The fubjeft thus prepared is ready to receive the cq*
Third ope
ration.
Choofe your tint; fup- Painting in
Oil-colours.
TING. on
lour you intend to give it.
pole a filver colour.
Grind white cerufe and Bougival white feparately
in water, of each an equal quantity, and mix them to- Fifth ope-
gether.—Add a little blue of indigo and a very fmallrati°n-
quantity of black of charcoal from the vine-tree very
fine, grinded alfo feparately, and in water; more or
lefs of the one or other gives the tint you require.—.
Dilute this tint in ftrong parchment fize ; pafs it
through a bolting cloth of filk very fine, and lay the
tint on your work, taking cate to fpread it very
equally ; and then give it two lyere, and the colour
is applied.
Make a weak, beautiful, and clean fize; ftir it till Sixth <>pc«
it cools ; ftrain it through a fine cloth, and give tworatl0n°
layers to the work with a foil painting brufh, which
1 as been nful, but which you have been careful to
clean. Take care not t® choak up the mouldings nor
to lay on the fize thicker on one place than another,
and fpread it over the work very' fiightly, otherwife you
will dilute the colours, and occalion undulations in the
painting.
The beauty of the work depends on this Lift fixing;
for if any part is omitted, the varnilh will penetrate
into the colours and give it a darker lhade.
When the fizrng is dry, lay on two or three layers Seventh o*.
of fpirit-of-wine varniih, taking care that the place onPeratimi*
which you lay it be warm, and the work is finiihed.
§ 8. Of the King's White,
This derives its name from the ufe of it in the
apartments of the French king. It is in all refpetis
conduced like the former, except that there is only
a fmall quantity of indigo, to take the yellow from
the white, without any black of charcoal, and without
varnifh.
This white anfwers extremely well for apartments
which are ieldom ufed ; but otherwife it fpoils eafily,
efpeciaily in bed-chambers. It is the bell white where
there is any kind of gilding; and in this cafe it receives
a little varnifh.
Sect. III. Of Painting in OH-colours.
To paint in oil is to apply to all forts of fubjefls,
as walls, wood, cloths, and metals, coloured earths
grinded and diluted-in oil. The ancients arc thought
to have been ignorant of this art, and the honour of
the difeovery is generally aferibed to John Van Eyck
a Flemifh painter. The fecret is nothing more than
fubftitsting oil in place of water in grinding and di¬
luting colours.
By means of oil the colours are longer preferved;
and not drying fo fpeedily, they give painters longer
'time lo fmooth, finifh, and retouch, their works;
the colours being more marked, and mixing better to¬
gether, give more diftinguifhable tints, and more vivid
and agreeable gradations, and the colouring is more
fweet and delicate.
The painting in oil confifts of two kinds, namely,
of that in fimple oil and of that in polifhed oil varniih.
§ l. Ghfer'nations on painting in Oil.
i. When bright colours, as white of grey, are grind¬
ed and diluted in oil, it is neceffary to make ufe of the
4 N 2 oil
PAIN
Oil^coiour" °"r wr,'nuts 5 ljut ^ the colours be dark, fuch as
t - U‘s' chefnut, or olive, or brown, you mull make ufe of pure
linfeed oil.
2. When the colours are grinded and diluted in
oil, they muft he laid on cold, except on a new or
modi plafter, which requires them to be boiling.
3. Lvery colour diluted in pure oil, or in oil mix¬
ed with effence, ought to fall in threads from the end
©1 the brufn.
4. Take cr.re to ftir from time to time your colour
before taking it up on the brufh, that it may preferve
an equal thicknefs, and confequently the fame tone.
NotwitliHanding the precaution ot {lining, if it is
found to be thicker towards the bottom, it will be
neceffary to pour in from time to time a little oil.
5. In general, every fubjehl which is painted in oil
ought firft to receive one or two layers of white ce-
rufe, grinded and diluted in oil.
6. When the painting is expofed to the air, as in
doors, windows, and other works, which cannot be
varnifhed, it is neceffary to make thefe layers with pure
oil of walnuts, mixed up with about one ounce of ef-
fenct to a pound of colours; more would make the
colours brown, and occ.afion them to fall off in duff ;
but this quantity prevents the fun from bliffering the
work.
7. In fuhjedls on the infxcle of the houfe, or when
the painting is varnifhed, the firft layer ought to be
grinded and diluted in oil, and the laft diluted with
pure effence.
8. If copper or iron, or other hard fubftances,
?.re to be painted, it is neceffary to mix a little ef¬
fence with the firft layers, to make the oil penetrate
into them.
9. When there are many knots in the fubjedl, as
is particularly the cafe with fir-wood, and when the
colour docs not eafiiy take impreflion on thefe parts,
it is neceffary, when you paint with fimple oil, to lay
on a little oil mixed with litharge on the knots. If
you paint with polifhed oil varnifh, it is neceffary to
apply a hard tint, which we fhall have occafion to
fpeak of afterwards. A fingle layer well applied is
generally fufficient to give a body to the wood, and
make the other layers apply eafiiy.
10. There are colours, fuch as what the French call
ftils-de-grain, black of charcoal, and efpecially bone and
ivory blacks, which are difficult to dry when grinded
in oil. To remedy this inconveniency, the following
ficcatives are mixed with the colours, to make them
dry, viz. litharge both of the filver and gold colow,
vitriol or copperas, and what is called fucutive oil.
§ 2. Obfcrnmtions on the Siccatives..
T. Do not mix the ficcatives with the colours
till they are to be employed, otherwife it will thicken
them.
2. Mix it only in very imall quantities in tin, where¬
in there is white lead or cerufe, bccaufe thofe colours
are ficcative of themfelves, efpcciaily when they are
diluted in effence.
3. In painting which is to be_ varnifhed, give the
liccative only to the firft layer, and allow the
ether layers, in which there is effence, to dry of them-
felvcs.
4. In dark colours in oil, give to every pound of
TING. Part 111,
colours in diluting them half an ounce of litharge; !’ai. tinbMn
to bright colours, a drachm of white copperas grind- Oh-cdourj.
ed in walnut oil v'-""*
5. When in place of litharge or copperas the ficca¬
tive oil is employed, it requires a quartern of this oil to
every pound of colour.
The ficcative oil is prepared of one half ounce of
litharge, ss much of c: leined cerufe, as much of terre
d'ombre, a colour with which the French p:ffnt ftia-
dovvs, and as much of talc boiled for t.vo hours on a
flow and equal fire, with one pound of linfeed oil, and
ftirred the whole time. It mull be carefully fkimmed
and clarified, and the older it grows it is better.
$ 3. Olfervations on the Quantities of Subjlances and
Liquids.
X. Och res and earths require more liquids both in
grinding and diiiuing than cerufe.
2. Different quantities of I'quids are required in
the grinding only on •account of greater or lefs
drynefs; but in diluting, the quantity is always the
fame.
3. For the firft layer after the priming, which has
no relation to the colours laid on afterwards, to a fquare
fathom give fourteen ounces of ceruie, about two
ounces of liquid to grind, and four ounces to dilute it.
It there is a fecund layer of the fame materials, the
quantities will require to, be lefs.
4. It will require three pounds of colour for
three layers of a fquare fathom. The firft may con-
fume eighteen ounces, the fecond fixteen, and the
third fourteen.
5. To compofe thefe three pounds of colour, take
two or two and a half pounds of grinded colours,
and dilute them in a pint or three half pints of oil,
mixed with effence or pure oil. But if the firft layet
of cerufe is not ufed, there will be a nectfiity for a
greater quantity of colours.
N.B. In the following kinds and applications of oil
painting, we are to hold thole proportions in our eye.
$ 4. Painting in Jimple Oil.
On doors and windows give a layer of cerufe grinded of door?
in oil of walnuts diluted in the fame oil, together with windows’
a little ficcative ; then give another layer of the and win-* ^
fame preparation ; to which, if you want a greyi{hdow-ftlut'‘
colour, add a little black of charcoal and Pruffian blue,tcr8,
grinded alfo in oil of walnuts. If to thefe you incline
to add a third layer, grind and dilute it in pure wal¬
nut oil; obferving that the tw© laft layers be kfs
clear, or have lefs oil in them, than the firlt; the co¬
lour in this cafe is more beautiful and lefs apt to
Llifter with the fun.
Walls that are to be painted muft be very dry ; and of wall*
this being fuppofed, give two or three layers of boiling
linfeed oil to harden the plafter; then lay on two
layers of ceruie or ochre, grinded and diluted in lin¬
feed oil; and when thefe are dry, paint the wall.
I o paint tiles of a flate colour, grind feparately Of ule*.
cerufe and German black in linfeed oil; mix them to¬
gether in the proportion which the colour requires,
and dilute them in linfeed oilthen give the firft
layer very clean to prime the tiles ; and make the three
next layers thicker, to give folidity to the work.
To paint arbours and all kinds of garden work,
give
Part HI- P Ar ^ N
Painting in give a layer of white cerufe grinded in oil of walnuts,
Oil-colours and diluted in the fame oil, with the addition o. a
    little litharge, then give two layers of green, compoied
of one oound of verdegrife and two pounds ot white
Of arbours,®' ®*ie Pm nc walnllts. TV. B. This
&c.
35
Of ftatues
and vales.
3<S
Painting
on the m-
fule of tlie
houl’c.
37
Chairs,
benches,
lead, crinded and diluted in oil of walnuts. N. B. 1 his
ereen°i3 of great fervice in the country for doors, win¬
dow fhutters, arbours, gardens, feats, rails, either ot
wcod or iron ; and in fhort for all works expofed to
the inj uries of the weather.
To whiten ftatues, vafes, and all ornaments
either within or without doors; firlt clean the fuhjea
well, then give one or two layers ot white ctruie,
grinded and diluted in pure oil of pinks, and hmlh
with giving one or many layers of white lead prepared
in the fame manner.
If you wifh to paint on walls not expofed to the
air, or on new platler, give one or two layers o. I oil¬
ing linfeed oil, and continue the brulh till the walls
are fully foaked; then give a layer of white ceruie,
grinded in oil of walnuts and diluted with three
fourths of the fame oil and one fourth effence ; and
laftly, give two layers more of white cerufe, grinded in
oil of walnuts and diluted in oil mixed with thence,
it it is not to be varniihed ; but in pure efTence if it is.
It is in this manner that walls are painted white, it
you adopt another colour, it is neccflary to grinc. and
dilute it in the fame quantities of oil and effence. .
To paint chairs, benches, ftone, or plafter, give a
, layer of white cerufe grinded in oil of walnuts and
fWie.and diluted in the fame oil, into which you have caft a little
plalter. litharge to make it dry ; then apply a layer ct t le
tint you fix on, grinded in oil and diluted in one pait
oil and three parts effence ; and afterwards give two
more layers ot the fame tint grinded in oil an^. diluted
in pure e{fence : This may be varnifhed with two layers
of fpirit of wine. .
38 To make a fteel colour, grind feparately m ellence,
Stee-colourwhite cerufe> pniffian blue, fine lac, and verdegrife..
tor locks. rfhe tone wbich you require is procured by the pro¬
per mixture of thofe ingredients. When you have
fixed on the tone of colour, take about the. fize ot a
walnut of the ingredients, and dilute them in a inudl
vefiel in one part of effence and three parts of white
oily varnifh. N. B. This colour is generally made of
white cerufe, of black charcoal, and Prufnan blue,
grinded in thick oil, and diluted in effence, which is
the cheapeft. method of procuring it ; but the former 13
the molt beautiful. _
39 for painting balluftrades and railings, dilute lamp-
tirades and black with varnifh of vermilion ; giving two layers
failings. of it, and afterwards two layers of fpirit-of-wme var-
nifh. ...
4° Since the difeovery of oil-painting, and the know-
Wainfcot- kd that wood is preferved by it, and efpecially fince
Sments. the difeovery of a varnifh without fmell, and which
even takes away that cf oil, the painting of apaitments
in oil has been with juftice preferred.
In fa& the oil flops up the pores of the wood; and
although it does not altogether refill the impreflion
of moifture, yet the effea is fo little perceptible, that
it is to be recommended as the beft method of pre-
ferving wood.
To preferve wainfeotting in the moft effeftual man-
»er from rooiflure, it is neceffary to paint the wall be-
TING. . , 65 3
hind it with two or three layer, of common red,
ed and diluted in linfeed oil. < . c——y
To paint the wainfeotting itfelf, give a layer of white
cerufe grinded in oil of walnuts, and diluted in the.
fame oil mixed with eflence. f his layer being diy,
give two more of the colour you have adopted,
grinded in oil and diluted in pure effence. If you
wifh the mouldings and fculpture to be painted in
a different colour, grind and dilute it in the fame
manner.
Two ot three days after, when the colours are
fully dry, give two or three layers of your white
varnifh without fmeil, and which alfo prevents the
offenfive fmell of the oil colours. N. B. l hofe who
begin their operations in water colours, if they find
it more agreeable, may finifh it in oil colours as above.
When the pores of the wood are well flopped by
the prepared white, a layer of white cerufe grinded in
oil of walnuts, and diluted in the fame oil, mixed with
effence, may be applied. This will be fufficient, the
wood being previoufly primed ; and afterwards lay on
your intended colour and varnifh.
$ 5. Painting in Oil -with the polijhed Vami flu
This is the bell kind of oil-painting, owing more
to the care it requires thap to the proceedings, For
they are nearly the fame with thofe of iimple oil-
painting ; the difference conliiting only in the prepa¬
ration and manner ot finifhing. 4t
To paint wainfeottings of apartments with the po-yyainfoitfc
lifhed varnifh, it is neceffary, in the firft place, that tings.
the pannels be new. ihen, ,
1. Make the furface of the fubjeft which you mean
to paint very fmooth and level, which is done by a
layer, which ferves to receive the hard tint or polifhed
ground and the colours.
& This layer ought to be of white, whatever colour
are afterwards to apply. It confifls of white
cerufe,1 Vinded very fine m 'linfeed oil, with a little
litharge, and diluted in the fame oil mixed with ei-
k^ Make the polifhed ground by feven or eight lay¬
ers of the hard tint. In painting equipages, a dozen
is neceffary. .
The hard tint is made, by grinding pure white, ce¬
rufe, which has not been much calcined, very Hne-
ly in thick oil, and diluting it with effence. Yon
mull take care that the layers of the hard tint be not
only equal as to the application, but to the quantity
of the white cerufe and the oil, and to the degree ol
calcination. Then, ■ n
2. Soften this ground with pumice-ftone.
a Polish it moderately with a piece of ferge foaked
in a pail of water, in which you have put fome pow¬
der of pumice-ilone finely grinded and pafkd through
a fine fieve. There is no occafion to fpare waih-
ing, as this part of the operation wiL not fpoil with
"^c^Choofe the tint with which you intend to deco¬
rate your apartment; grind it in oil, and ddute.it
in effence; pafs it through a piece of very fine hlx, give
two or three layers carefully and thinly fpread over toe
furface, as on this part of the operation depend" ■" »
great meafure the beauty of the colour. AH iorts ^
« this manna- In oil of ef-
~' .„6- °'.t" t"0 OT. Ame layers of a fplrit-of-wlne var.
mfli, if It is to wainfcottingj if to the body of a coaeh,
a varmfh or oA 1S employed. If the varnifh is to be
poh.hed, it 13 neeeffary to give feven or eight livers
at lea it, laid oil equally and with great precaution, not
to be thicker in one place than another, v/hich occa-
iions fpots.
7- It is again polifhed with pumice-Hone reduced
to pov/oer, and water and a piece of ferge. If the
wainicotting has been painted before, it is neceffary
to rub on the colour till you come to the hard tint
which is done with pumice-ftone and water, or with
 4* 3 piece of linen dipped in t Hence.
White var- ^ere is a white painting in oil, called white varnifh
mfli pohih polyb, which correfponds to the king's white in water
rii eiL colours, and is equal to the frefhnefs and glofs of
marble if it is applied to wood. To paint" in this
PAINTING.
rer, however, as not to injure the colour, K, B. The Proportion'
thiee layers may be given in one day. of Colours.
9- If you want to give a perfefi luftre, add a fourth “y—*
layer prepared as the third.
All other colours, as blue, See. may be applied in
toe fame manner. 1 his method is the only one by
waich orpiment can be employed in all its beauty, but
not without fome of its inconveniences.
. jAj-not’ncr manner of performing this kind of work,
is to apply the colours and the varnifh without pre-
viouiJy ufing the fize and the white ground. This i8
extremely expeditious, but it is eafy to perceive it will
want the poliih and brilliancy of the other.
SECTION IV.
manner,
1. Give a layer of white eerufe grinded in oil of
walnuts, with a little calcined copperas, and diluted
in eflence. But if it is applied to Hone, it is necef-
iary to employ oil of walnuts and calcined copoeras
alone.
2. Grind white cerufe very fine in efience, and di¬
lute it in fine white oil varnifh with copal.
3. Give feven or eight layers of it to the. fubjeft.-^.
I he varnifh mixed with the white cerufe dries fo
promptly, that three layers of it may be given in a day.
4. Soften and polifh all the layers as above.
^ 5. Give two or three layers of white lead grinded
sn oil of walnuts, and diluted in pure eflence.
6. Give feven or eight layers of white fpirit-of-wine
varnifh, and then pohfh them.
$ 6. Of painting in Varnijh.
To paint m varnifh, is to employ colours grinded
and diluted in varnifh, either in fpirits of wine or oil
on all forts of fuhjeas. Wainfcotting, furniture, and
equipages, are painted in this manner, though we fhall
confine ourfelves to the firff.
1. Give two layers of white of Bougivai, diluted ih
a itrong fize boiling hot.
2. Give a layer of what the French call de bianc
apprit,
3* I *3 up the defedls of the wood with maftich in
water; and when the layers are dry, fmeoih them with
the pumice-ftone.
4- When the wood is fmooth, fuppofe the paint a
grey colour, take one pound of white eerufe one
drachm of Pruffian blue, or of black of charcoal or
ivory black ; put the white into a piece of leather,
*0 tied that the colours cannot efeape ; (hake them till
they are fufficiently mixed.
3'.^>ut ^wo ounces of colours into a quartern of
varnifh, mix them carefully; give one layer above the
white.
. j' k‘s layer being dry, put one ounce of fcolpurs
mto toe lame quantity of vartiilh as above, and give a
iecond layer. J *
7. 1 o the third layer give half an ounce of colour
to the lame quantity of varnifh.
3. As each of thefe layers dry, be careful to rub
them with a piece of new coarfe cloth, in fuch a man-
Wccanaotperhaps more properlyconcludethisai tide,
than with an account of M. de Moiveau’s attempts
to render more perfeft the proportion of colours, and
especially pf employed in painting. Thefe we
(hail extraft from a memoir of hia read in the aeademy
cf Dijon. }
White (fays the ingenious academician) is the
meft important of all colours in painting. It affoids
to the painter the materials of light, which he diftri-
nutes in fuch a manner as to bring his obje&s toge-
ther, to give them relief, and that magic which is the
glory of his art. For thefe reafons I (hall confine my
attention at prefent to this colour.
^ “ 1 he firft white which was difeovered, and indeed Exannaa*
the only one yet known, is eXtraded from the calx oft!on of
lead. The danger of the procefs, and the dreadfulkl!°Vn
diftemper with which thofe employed in it are often * lltC**
feized, have not yet led to the difeovery of any other
white Lefs anxious, indeed, about the danger of the
artift than the perfedion of the art, they have varied
the preparation, to render the colour lefs liable to
change. Hence the different kinds of white, viz.
white of crems in Auftria, white lead in fhells, and
white cerufe. But every perfon converfant in colours,
knows that the foundation of all thefe is the calx of
lead, more or lefs pure, or more or lefs loaded with
gas. That they all participate of this metallic fub-
kance, will indeed appear evident from the following
experiment, which determines and demonftrates the
alterabihty of colours by the phlogiflic vapour.
“ I poured into a large glafs bottle a quantity of li¬
ver of fulphur, on a bafis of alkali, fixed er volatile, it
makes no difference ; I added fome drops of diftiiled
vinegar, and I covered the mouth of the bottle with a
piece of pafttboard cut to its fize, on which I difpo-
fed different famples of crems, of white lead, and of ce¬
rufe, either in oil or in water; I placed another ring of
pafteboard over the firft, and tied above all a piece of
bladder round the neck of the bottle with a ftrong pack¬
thread. It is evident, that in this operation I took
advantage of the means which chemiftry offers to pro¬
duce a great quantity of phlogiftie vapour, fo accom-
plifn inftantaneoufly the effedl of many years ; and, ia
a word, to apply to the colours the very fame vapours
to which the pichue is neceflarily expofed, only more
accumulated and more concentrated. I fay the fame
vapour, for it is now fully eftablifhed, that the (moke
of candles, animal exhalations of all kinds, aikaldfcent
odours, the electric effluvia, and even light furnifh
4 continually '
Part II!. PAIN
proportion continually a quantity more or lefs of matter, not only
«f Colour*. analogous, but identically the fame with the vapour ot
'■y vitriolic acid mixed with fulphur.
“ If it happens that the famples of colours are fen-
fibly altered by the phlogittic vapour, then we may
conclude with certainty, that the materials^ of which
the colours are compofed, bear a great affinity to that
vapour ; and fince it is not poffible to preferve them
entirely from it in any fituation, that they will be more
or lefs aftacled with it, according to the tune and a
variety of circumitances.
“ After fome minntes continuance in this vapour,
I examined the famples of colours fubmitted to its
influence, and found them wholly altered. The ce-
rufe and the white lead both in water and oil were
changed into black, and the white of creme into a
brownilh black ; and hence thofe colours are bad, and
ought to be abandoned. They may indeed be de¬
fended in fome meature by varnifh : but this only re¬
tards for a time the contaA of the phlogiilic vapour •,
for as the varnilh loles its humidity, it opens an infi¬
nite number of paffages to this fubtiie fluid.
“ After having afeertained the inllability of the
whites in common ufe, I made feveral attempts to ditco-
ver fuch a» would prove more lafting ; and tho’ many
of thefe attempts were without effeA I fhall give a
fuccinA account of the whole, which may fave a great
deal of trouble to thofe who wiih to travel over the
fame field.
“ There are three conditions effential to a good co¬
lour in painting.
“ Fir}}, That it dilute eafily, and take a body both
with oils and with mucilages, or at Itaft with the one
or other of thefe fubftances, a circumftance which
depends on a certain degree of affinity. Where this
affinity is too flrong, a difl’olution enfues ; the colour
is extinguifhed in the new compofition, and the mafs
becomes more or lefs tranfparent; or elfe the fudden
re-a&ion abforbs the fluid, and leaves only a dry fub-
ilance, which can never again be foftened. But if the
affinity is too weak, the particles of colour are fcarcely
fufp -nded in the fluid, and they appear on the canvafs
like fund, which nothing can fix or unite.
ii’Y\\t feccndcondition is,Thatthe materials of which
colours are campofed do not bear too near an affinity
with the phlogiftic vapour. The experiments to which
I fubmitted whites from lead, is an infallible means of
afeertaining the quality of colours in this refpeft,
without waiting for the flow impreffionof time.
“ A third condition equally effentiai is, That the co¬
louring body be not volatile, that it be not connected
with a fubftance of a weak texture, fufeeptible of a
fpontaneous degeneracy. This confideration excludes
the greater part of fubitances which have received therr
tint from vegetable organization; at lead it makes it
impoTibie to incorporate their finer parts with a com¬
bination more folil.
“ After thefe nfficAlons, my refearches were direA-
ed, firft, to the five pure earths ; next, to the esrthy
compounds ; in the third place, to the earthy falts,
which can fcarcely be difTolved ; laftly, to the metallic
earths, either pure or precipitated by Pruffian alkali.
M. Wenzel has difeovered a fixth earth, which I call
eburne, and which, after other experiments, I thought
of applying to the purpofes of painting j but I foon
TING.. %5
perceived that it would have-the fame fault with other Propornoa
kinds of earth, and, befides, that it could not be ob-° 0j0liiS;
tained but at a very confiderable expence.
“ The five pure earths poffefs fixity in a very gneat
degree, and at the fame time are little afieAed by the
phlogiftic vapour ; but they refufe to unite with oil
or mucilages, and the white is totally extinguifhed
when they are grinded with thefe liquids. I made
feveral attempts bn earth from alum, not only becaufe
M. Beaume recommended the ufe of it in painting, and
becaufe it enters into the compofition of Pruffian blue,
but alfo becaufe it is a chief ingredient in ochres, and
other earths of that nature, which fuppofes that it
ffiould unite in a certain degree with diluting liquors;
notwithftanding, in whatever manner I treated it, it
would not yield a white ; but one will be lefs furpri-
fed at this want of fuccefs, when he confiders, that in-
the ochres and Pruffian blue, the earth from alum in
only the vehicle of the colouring body, whereas here
it is the colour itfelf.
“ To be convinced of the truth of this obfervation,
it is only neceflary to mix equal parts of this earth, or
even of clay not coloured, y/ith cerufe or any other
white : the mixture will be fufceptille of being grind¬
ed in oil or in gum without being extinguifhed ; it
will eafily unite with any coloured fubftance, and be
produAive of no bad confequences to the pure earths.
Nature and art preftnt to us a confiderable number
of earthy compofkions fufficiently white for the pur-
pofes of painting ; fuch as the jafper white, the feld-
fpat white, the fchirl white, Sec. But ail theie fub¬
ftances, in all the trials which I made, had the fault
which I have already mentioned ; and originating Tori
the fame caufe, they wanted a fixed colouring body,
which would not change when it is pulverifed, nor be
extinguifhed when it is diluted.
“ The ultramarine blue, which is extraAed from the:
blue jafper, and knows by the name of lapis lazuli.,,
feems at firft view to warrant the poffibiiity of appro¬
priating to painting all the opaque haif-vitrified com-
pofitfons of the nature of jafper.
“ Prepofieffed with this idea, I conceived the hope of
producing a true white lapis ; but 1 foon perceived
that the experiment confirmed the principle which I
had laid down from my obfervations on pure earths ^
fince it is not the fubftance peculiar to the jafper
which conftitutcs the ultramarine blue, but the metal¬
lic fubftance which accidentally colours this particular-
kind of jafper.
“In the f*me manner, art in this imitation of nature
fhould have for its objeA to give a permanent bale to a
colour a.lrcady formed, to fix it without altering, and
to augment perhaps its fplenclor and its intenfity, with *
out attempting to produce a colour.
“ In excepting from earthy and metallic falls all thofe
of which the acid is not completely faturated, which
would eafily r.ttraA the humidity of the air, or which
would be eafily diffolved, you have but a very fmall
number to make experiments on.
“ The natural and artificial felenite gives with oil a
pafte without colour, and tafting fomewhat like ho¬
ney ; its white is better preferved with a gnm, but
even in this cafe it relembles a half tranfparent pap.
“ The nature or regenerated fpat parent is the moft
likely fait to produce white. A? it is of all others the
mo ft
M PAIN
^Colour" mt>^ difficult to diflolve, it appears after pulverization
1,., to be a very fine white, but is fcarcely touched with
oil when it becomes grey and half tranfparent: the
mucilage alters it alfo, although lefs difcernibly ; and
it does not even refume its white colour, after it be¬
comes dry on the canvafs.
£* The fame is the cafe with calcareous borax, form¬
ed by the difiblution of borax in lime-water ; its white
is completely extinguifhed with oil, lefs fo with gum;
but it hardens fo inftantaneoufly with the latter, that
it is impoflible ever to dilute it again.
“Calcareous tartar, obtained by calling quicklime
into a boiling diAblution of cream of tartar, is affe&ed
with oil in the fame manner as felenite ; but with
mucilaginous water it gives a pretty good white, only
poffeffed of little refledlion, and appearing like plafter ;
it applied very well to the canvafs, and refitted the
phlogiftic vapour.
“ According to M Weben, in his work intitled Fa-
brihen and Kunjle, publittied 1781, the white called in
Germany krembfer av'iefs, is nothing but the vitriol
of lea 1, prepared by diflblving lead in nitrous acid,
and precipitating it in vitriolic acid; and forming it
afterwards into folid tablets by means of gum water.
It is certain that this refembles in no lhape the white
called in France the white of crems; at leaft I never
found that it could be diffolved in vinegar; but I tri¬
ed the white prepared in M. Weben’s manner, and the
refult was the fame as above, that is to fay, it turned
completely black.
“The vitriols of lead and of bifmuth alter more fnee-
dily than the calces of thofe metals And thus, with
the exception of calcareous tartar, which may be of
fome ufe in water-colours, the beft earthy falts ©n
■which I have made experiments, may all, or the
moll of them, give a bafe to fome colours, but can¬
not conftitute by themfeives a colour ufeful in paint-
ing.
, “Ofthe fifteen known metallic fubftances, there are
nine which yield white calces; namely, lilver, mer¬
cury, lead, tin, antimony, bifmuth, zinc, arfenic, and
manganefe.
“ Ot thefe nine fubftances, we may almoft pafs over
filver and mercury ; becaufe, though they yield a very
fine white, precipitated by means of eryftallifed ve¬
getable alkali, yet it is foon altered when expofed to
the air ; that from filver changing into black, and that
from mercury into yellow.
“ It is well known that lead gives a very good white,
and one which unites eafily with oil or fize ; but that
it is extremely liable to change, has been my principal
objedt to prove ; and the experiments which I have
made place it beyond contradiction.
“ I fhall only add, that if there is a preparation able
to correct; this fault, it {horrid be the precioitation of
the earth of this metal in its acetous diflblution by
Pruftian alkali ; but the white which relults from
this preparation becomes fenfibly brownifh when it
is expofed a few minutes only to the phlogiftic va¬
pour.
“It would be tli ere fore unreafonable to perfevere in
the ufe of this fribftance, or to wifh to render it fixed,
fince the changes which it undergoes do not alter its
nature, and the indeftrucftible order of its affinities.—
N° 257. .
ting. partI[I,
The calx of tin is eafily applied to any purpofe, and Proportion
experiences no change from the concentrated phlogi-Colours,!
lire vapour. Thefe confiderations induced me to en-
deavour to obtain this calx perfedtly white ; and here
follows the refult of my operations : The tin of cal¬
cined melac gives a pretty white calx ; but whatever
attention I paid to take off the red furface which the
violence of the fire occafioned, it takes always a (hade
of grey when it is diluted. Tin calcined by nitre in
fulion, gives a tarnifhed and grofs calx, which mul¬
tiplied walkings could not deprive of a yellowifli tint. -
“ Having precipitated, by means of cryftallifed vege¬
table alkali, a diffolution,of Englilh tin, which had
been made in the muriatic acid, after the manner of
M Bayen to extradl the arfenic, I had a calx of the
greateft whitenefs, fo light that it buoyed up to the
furface of the liquor, and fo thin that the greater part
of it paffed. through the filter; but it experiences at
the fame time a kind of adherence with the falts,
which makes the part of it retained by the filter in¬
capable of being pulverifed, gummy, half tranfparent,
and even a little changed into yellow. In this con¬
dition it is extinguilhed when diluted ; it is necefftry,
therefore, to moiften it in boiling water, and afterwards
to calcine flightly the fediment after it has had fuffi*
cient time to fettle.
“ * have tried the calcination by means of moifture,
in employing the tin of the pureft melac, and a refti-
fied nitrous acid, according to the method of Meyer.
It formed a very white fparkling calx, which re¬
mained in the filter in the conuilency of jelly 
Meanwhile, 1 obferved that it was always a little
yellow by the mixture of a portion of that earth
which took, in the operation, the colour of turbith
mineral.
“A very fine white calx is ex-trafted from antimony,
calcined by nitre in fufion ; but the earth of this femi-
metal mutt be placed in the number of thofe which
combine too eafily with the phlogiftic vapour. The
diaphoretic antimony, grinded in oil, took in ten mi¬
nutes in my phlogiftic apparatus a colour fomewhat
like fulphur.
“ The property of bifmuth to give a very fine white
calx, known by the name of maglftery, or white iard,
is generally known ; it is eaiily prepared, fince it is
only neceffary to diffolve the bifmuth in nitrous acid,
and to precipitate the diffolution by pure water : it
dilutes perfectly with oil and mucilages. But this co¬
lour ought to be rejefled, as the moil alterable by the
phlogiftic vapour. It became completely black in ten
minutes in iny apparatus ; and this fad is alfo proved
from what happens to women who ufe this colour,
when they are expofed to the vapours of fulohur, of
garlic, or of any putrid fubftances.
“ Zinc furniihes by all the proceffes of calcination
and precipitation a pretty white calx, when it is pure
and feparated from iron ; otherwife the diffolutions of
the vitriol of zinc will become yellow when expofed to
the air. I have precipitated thofe diffolutions by
lime-water, by cauftic, and effervefeent alkalis; I have
calcined this femi-mctal alone and with nitre ; and in
all thofe operations I have obtained an earthy fub-
ftance of different degrees of whitenefs, which, after
it was dried and prepared, mixed readily with oil and
mucilage*
3
Part TIL
proportion mucilages W'ithotit lofing- its colour ; and which cxpe-
of Colours rifncoj no fcnfible change when expofed to the phlo-
* ' giftic vapour.
“ Thefe valuable properties, the chief objeft of my
refearches, engaged me to multiply my experimerts,
to determine at once the moft economical procefs, and
the moft advantageous and infallible preparation.—
Thefe attempts have convinced me, that the calcina¬
tion of this femi-metal alone in a crucible, placed ho¬
rizontally on the corners of a reverberating furnace,
gives the pureft, the whiteft, arid the leaft reducible
calx ; and that to make an excellent colour, it is fuffi-
cient to feparate the parts not burned with water, and
grind it with a little of the earth of alum or chalk to
give it a body. Zinc precipitated in Pruffian alkali,
even in diftilled vinegar, retains always a fhade of yel¬
low, does not unite fo well in oil, and takes a demi-
tranfpnrent confiftence like cheefe.
“ White arfenic extinguifhes much lefs in diluting
than one would believe from its faline nature ; it pre-
ferves its colour heft in gum-water ; and it is remark¬
able, that inftead of turning black in the phlogiftic
vapour, it takes a very diftindt (hade of yellow. This
property is fufficiently fingular and conftant to fur-
nifti a new method of analyfmg arfenic, fo as to know
it. And this alteration of colout makefc it of no ufe
in painting, although its deleterious qualities did not
forbid the pradhice.
“ The femi-metal known by the name of mavganefe
gives alfo a white calx. 1 had at firft great hopes
from this colour, as, contrary to all thofe extradled
from the other metals, it became white by the phlogi¬
ftic vapour. There remained, therefore, but one dif¬
ficulty to overcome, viz. to feparate from the manga-
nefe the portion of iron which it ufually contained, and
which infallibly makes the earth a little yellow. To
accomplifh this in the cbeapeft manner, I fubmitted
the black ore of the manganefe to a long calcination,
to tender its iron infoluble ; I afterwards applied vine¬
gar to it, after the example of M. de la Peyroufe; and
in precipitating the diftblution by effervefeent alkali,
I eaiily obtained a pure white precipitate. But I foon
perceived that the facility with which a colouring
body lofes its phlogifton, is no lefs an inconveniency
than that of attracting it, and produdtive of the fame
• alterations.
“ The white of manganefe became very foon yellow
when expofed to the air; and this is not to be aferibed
to the iron contained in it, ftnee neither the galls nor
Pruffian alkali had difeovered any of it in the diflb-
Jution. This fubftance, therefore, can be of no ufe
■in producing a white colour for painting.”
The experiment by which M. de Morveau tried
the colours not alterable by the phlogiftic vapour, was
performed before the academy, the prince of Conde
being prefident “ I placed (fays he) in my appa¬
ratus pieces of cloth, on which were laid the white of
calcareous tartar in water, different preparations of
white from tin and zinc, in oil and water ; and I al-
PAINTING.
lowed them to continue exposed to the phlogiftic va-P^portron
pour during a fitting of the academy; if they were of Cciour^
rot altered, their fuperiority over the whites in ufe
would be fufficiently eftablifhed. The fitting conti¬
nued for near art hour; and the bottle having been
opened, all the colours continued to have the fame
fnade which they had before. I can, therefore, re¬
commend to painters thofe three whites, and particu¬
larly that of zinc, the preparation of which is expofed
to lefs variation, the ftiade more lively and uniform,
and moreover it is fk for all purpofes, and perhaps
procured at lefs expence..
“ I will aflert farther, that it may be procured in fuf-
ficient quantities to fupply the place of cerufe in every
branch of the art, even in Interior houfe-painting :—.
I would recommend it, lefs with the view of adding
new fplendor to this kind of ornament, than for the
fafety of thofe w'ho are employed in it, and perhaps
for the fafety of thofe who inhabit houfes ornamented
in this manner.
“ But without being too fanguine, altho’ the pro-
cefies in the fabrication be fimplified in proportion to
the demand, as is ufually the cafe, yet there is reafon
to apprehend, that the low price of cerufe will always
give it the preference in houfe-painting. With re¬
gard to thofe who apply colours to nobler purpofes,
they will not hefitate to employ the white of zinc. I
am affured that four franks is paid for the pound of
white of crems ; and I believe the white in queftion,
prepared in the manner which I have pointed out,
might be fold for fix.
“ M. Courtors, conne&ed with the laboratory of
the academy, has already declared that it is ufed for
houfe-painting ; lefs, however, in regard to its unalter-
ability, than to its folubility : and this can be the more
readily believed, as the flower of zinc enters into many
compofiticns of the apothecary. The fame M. Cour-
tors has arrived at the art of giving more body to
this white, which the painters feemed to defire, and
alfo of making it bear a comparifon with white lead
either in water or oil. The only fault found with it,
is its drying flowly when ufed in oil ; but feme expe¬
riments which I have made, incline me to believe that
this fault may be eafily remedied, or at leaft greatly
corrected, by giving it more body. At any rate, it
may be rendered frccative at pleafure, by adding a
little vitriol of zinc or copperas flightly calcined.
“Painters already know the propertiesof this fait,but
perhaps they do not know that it mixes with the white
of zinc better than with any other colour; the reafon
is, they have chemically the ft me bafe. It is prepared
by purging the white copperas of that fmall portion of
iron which would render it yellow ; and this is eafily
done in digefting its diflblution, even when cold, on
the filings of zinc.
“ The mixture of this fait thus prepared is made on
the pallet, without producing any alteration, and a fmall
quantity will produce a great effect.”
4 O
Vol.XIII. Part IL
PAIR 5
Pair,
Pairing.
' ^ 
-^Karnes i
St etches,
vol. i.
p. 198.
P A I [ 658 ]
P A I
PAIR; two of a fort, a couple.
PAIRING, the uniting or joining in couples.
The inftinft of pairing is beftowed on every fpecies
of animals to which it is neceifary for rearing their
young ; and on no other fpecies. All wild birds pair ;
but with a remarkable difference between fuch as place
their nefts on trees and fuch as place them on the
ground. The young of the former, being hatched
bl ind, and without feathers, require the nurfing care
of both parents till they be able to fly. The male
feeds h s mate on the neft, and cheers her with a fong.
As foois as the young are hatched, flnging yields to a
more neceff.iry occupation, that of providing food for
n numerous iflue; a talk that requires both parents.
Eagles and other birds of prey build on trees, or on
other inacceflible fpots. They not only pair, but con¬
tinue in pairs all the year round ; and the fame pair
procreates year after year. This at leaft is the cafe of
eagles : the male and female hunt together, unlefs du¬
ring incubation, at which time the female is fed by the
male. A greater number than a Angle pair are never
feen in company.
Gregarious birds pair, in order probably to prevent
difeord in a fociety confined to a narrow fpace. This
is the cafe particularly of pigeons and rooks. The
male and female fit on the eggs alternately, and di¬
vide the care of feeding their young.
Partridges, plovers, pheafants, fea-fowl, groufe, and
other kinds that place their nefls on the ground, have
the inftindl of pairing ; but differ from fuch as build
on trees in the following particular, that after the fe¬
male is impregnated, fhe completes her talk without
needing any Help from the male. Retiring from him,
Ihe choofes a fafe fpot for her neft, where flic can find
plenty of worms and grafs-feed at hand ; and her
young, as foon as hatched, take foot, and feek food
for themfelves. The only remaining duty incumbent
on the dam is, to lead them to proper places for food,
and to call them together when danger impends. Some
males, provoked at the defertion of their mates, break
the eggs if they ftumble on them. Eider ducks pair
like other birds that place their nefts on the ground ;
and the female finifhes her neft with down plucked from
her own breaft. If the neft be deftroyed for the down,
which is remarkably warm and elaftic, (he makes ano¬
ther neft as befoie. If fhe is robbed a fecond time,
fhe makes a third reft ; but the male furnifties the
down. A lady of fpirit obferved, that the eider duck
may give a leffon to many a married woman, who is
more difpofed to pluck her hufband than herfelf. The
black game never pair: in fpring, the cock on an emi¬
nence crows, and claps his wings; and all the females
within hearing inftantly refort to him.
Pairing birds, excepting thofe of prey, flock to¬
gether in February, in order to choofe their mates.
They foon difperfe j and are not feen afterward but in
pairs.
Pairing is unknown to quadrupeds that feed on
grafs. To fuch it would be ufelefs; as the female
gives fuck to her young while fhe herfelf is feeding.
If M. Buffon deferves credit, the roe-deer are an ex¬
ception. They pair, though they feed on grafs, and
have but one litter in a year.
Beafts of prey, fuch as lions, tygers, wolves, pair
Rot. The female is left to Ihift for herfelf and for her
young; which is a laborious talk, and often fo unfuc- Pairing,
cefsful as to fhorten the life of many of them. Pairing Paifl(:y-
is efiential to birds of prey, becaufe incubation leaves v
the female no fufficient time to hunt for food. Pairing
is not neceflary to beafts of prey, becaufe their young
can bear a long faft. Add another reafon, that they
would multiply fo faft by pairing, as to prove trouble-
fame neighbours to the human race.
Among animals that pair not, males fight defperate-
ly about a female. Such a battle among horned cattle
is finely deferibed by Lucretius. Nor is it unufual for
feven or eight lions to wage bloody war for a fingle
female.
The fame reafon that makes pairing neceftary for*
gregarious birds, obtains with refpeft to gregarious
quadrupeds ; thofe efpecially who ftore up food for
winter, and during that feafon live in common. Dif¬
eord among fuch would be attended with worfe eonfe-
quenees than even among lions and bulls, who are not
confined to one place. The beavers, with refpedt to .
pairing,, referable birds that place their nefts on the
ground. As foon as the young are produced, the
males abandon their ftock of food to their mates, and
live at large ; but return frequently to vifit them while
they are fuckling their young.
Hedgehogs pair as well as feveral of the monkey-
kind. We are not well acquainted with the natural
hiftory of thefe animals; but it would appear that the
young require the nurfing care of both parents.
Seals have a Angular oeconomy. Polygamy feems to
be a law of nature among them, as a male affbeiates
with feveral females. The fea-turtle has no occafion
to pair, as the female concludes her talk by laying her
eggs in the fand. The young are hatched by the fun,
and immediately crawl to the fea.
PAISLEY, a town of Renfrewfhire, in Scotland,
fituated about fix miles and a half weft of Glafgow,
on the river White-Cart, over which there are two.
ftone-bridges of two arches each, and one which con-
fifts of three arches. The town is very ancient; but.
was of much lefs confequence formerly than it is at
prefent. “ No fatisfa&ory etymology has hitherto oc- Statical
curred of the name Paijley. The following has been, '‘ccount of
fuggefted by a good Gaelic fcholar v. ‘ A ridge tfScotlami,
rocks that runs acrofs the river, and forms a beautifulVol‘ VU’
cafcade, would, prior to the building of the town, be
undoubtedly the moft ftriking objed that this place
would prefent. The brow or face of a rock is in
Gaelic Pais-licht. A church in front of the rock would
be the church in Pais-licht. A church did (land here
previous to 1160: it is named in the foundation char¬
ter Ecclejia de Pafclet, Latinized, in the records of the
monaftery, Paflat urn, an eafy derivative from Pais-licht,
in all probability the original of the modern Paiflcy.*
It was ere&ed into a burgh in barony by James IV. in,
the year 1488, at that time probably deriving all its
importance from the rich monaftery which had been
eftabliftied there for feveral ages ; for George Schaw,
who was then abbot of that monaftery, obtained this
privilege from the king. Even in Mr Crawford’s time,
who wrote the hiftory of the ftiire of Renfrew near the
beginning of this century, it feems to have been but
an inconfulerable place; for he deferibes it as confift-
ing only of one principal ftreet, about half a mile in
length, with feveral lanes belonging to it; whereas
now
f A t
t>a.fley.
t 659 1
P A I
now the town, with its fuburbs, occupies fuch an ex-
' tent of ground, that flrangers are apt to confider it as,
next to Edinburgh and Glafgow, the largeft and mofl;
populous town in Scotland. Its buildings of late years
have been greatly improved; its ftreets are well paved;
and the different parts of the town and fuburbs, where
the river intervenes, are connected with one another
by three bridges at convenient diftances.”
The affairs of the community are managed by three
bailies, of which the eldell is commonly in the com-
miffion of the peace, a treafurer, a town-clerk, and 17
counfellors, who are annually elefted upon the firft
Monday after Michaelmas. It enjoys all the powers
neceffary for government and police, without any of
the burdens to which royal boroughs are fubje£ted. The
freedom of the place is conferred on very moderate terms.
The revenues of the town are not great, but they have
been managed to the heft advantage. The rapid increafe
of the place has not been attended with a proportional
increafe of revenue ; therefore feveral neceffary im¬
provements, and intended public buildings, are not yet
carried into execution. It gives the title of baron to
the earls of Abercorn; the firft of whom was a young¬
er fon of the Due de Chatelherault. The black-book of
Paijley, frequently mentioned in Scottifh hillory, was
a chronicle of the public affairs and remarkable events,
kept by the monks who refided in the monaftery. It
agreed in every material faft with the Scoti-chronicon
of Fordun ; and is by many thought to be the fame
performance.
The old part of the town runs from eaft to weft upon
the fouth flope of a ridge of hills, from which there is
a fine profpeA of the city of Glafgow and the adja¬
cent country; but to the feuthward, the view termi¬
nates in a ridge of green hills, about two miles diftant.
Including the late buildings and fuburbs, it is fully a
mile long, and nearly as much in breadth. On the
eaft fide of the river Cart, Hand the abbey and new
town. This new town was fome years ago feued off
by the earl of Abercorn, and now confifts of a num¬
ber of handfome buildings. The ftreets are laid off
in a regular manner, but (rather unfortunately for the
conveniency and elegance of fome of the houfes) not
in right angles. Here the earl of Aberqorn has built
at his own expence one of the largeft, moft commo¬
dious, and moft elegant inns in Scotland. In the vi¬
cinity of this his lordfhip is likewife to build feveral
convenient and neceffary market-places. A little way
fouth of the inn ftands the abbey-church, the only one
which Paifley formerly required. This church, when
entire, has been a moft noble building, and confifted
of feveral diftinft and feparate places of vvorfhip; what
now remains of this magnificent Gothic ftru&nre is not
yet unworthy the notice of the curious in antiquities.
Mr Pennant fays, the great north window is a noble
ruin, the arch very lofty, the middle pillar wonderfully
light, and ftill entire : only the chancel now remains,
which is. divided into a middle and two fidc-ifles, all
very lofty pillars, with Gothic arches ; above thefe is
another range of pillars much larger, being the feg-
ment of a circle, and above a row of arched niches from
end to end, over which the roof ends in a (harp point.
The outfide of the building is decorated with a pro-
fufion of ornaments, efpecially the great weft and north
doors, than which fcarce any thing lighter or richer
can be imagined.
The town of Paifley continued a part of the origi¬
nal or abbey parifh of Paifley till the year 173 ^ * when
the magiftrates and council having purchafed the right
of patronage from the then earl ©f Dundonald, a new
church was built, and the town was erefted into a fe¬
parate parifh. This is called the Laigh Churchy is built
in the form of a Greek crofs, very well laid out, and
capable of containing a great number of people. In
1756 another church was built, upon a very extended
plan, to accommodate its multiplied inhabitants ; in
which, though it is one of the largeft; in Scotland, yet
the moft diftant of the congregation can hear a tole¬
rably good fpeaker with eafe and diftin&nefs ; and as
it ftands upon the higheft part of the town, it was af¬
terwards ornamented with a lofty and well-proportion¬
ed fpire vifible at a great diftance. This is called the
High Church, and is a very fine building : it is an ob¬
long fquare of 82 feet by 62 within the walls, built of
free-ftone well fmoothed, having ruftic corners and an
elegant (tone cornice at the top. Is the conftruftion
of the roof (which is a pavilian covered with flate*
having a platform covered with lead on the top), there
is fomething very curious, and it is admired by every
perfon of tafte. In 1781, the number of the inhabi¬
tants ftill rapidly increafing, another church, called the
Middle Churchy was built, not quite fo large as the
former, but very handfomely and elegantly finifhed :
and in the following year, the town was divided and
erefted into three feparate parifhes, exclufive of the
Abbey parilh, and named according to their refpe&ive
churches.
There are two large diffenting congregations in the
town ; thofe of the Antiburgher perfuafion and the
Relief. The firft of thefe has exifted there for upwards
of 30 years ; the other is of a late date. There is be-
fides a fmall congregation of Cameronians.
The town-houfe is a very handfome building of cut
(lone, with a tall fpire and a clock. The fleflr-market
has a genteel front of cut ftone, and is one of the
neateft and moft commodious of the kind in Britain.
Butchers-meat, butter, cheefe, fifli, wool, and feveral
other articles, are fold here by what they call the
tron-pound, of 22 Englifti ounces and an half.
The poor-houfe is a large building, very well laid
out; and ftands oppofite to the quay, in a fine free
air. It is fupported by a fmall tax laid upon the in¬
habitants quarterly.
Clofe by the Abbey-church is the earl of Abercorn’s
burial-place, the greateft curiofity in Paifley. It is a
vaulted Gothic chapel, without pulpit, pew, or any
other ornament, but has the fineft echo perhaps in the
world. When the end door (the only one it has) is
(hut, the noife is equal to a loud and not very diftant
clap of thunder. If you ftrike a (ingle note of mufic,
you hear the found gradually afi ending, with a great
number of repetitions, till it dies away as if at an im-
menfe diftance, and all the while diffufing itfelf thro*
the circumambient air. If a good voice fings, or a mu-
fical inftrument is well played upon, the effeft is inex-
prefiibly agreeable. The deepejl, as well as the moft;
acute tones, are diftin&ly reverberated, and thefe in re¬
gular intervals of time. When a mufical inftrument
4-0 2 is
Paifley.
P A I [ 6(So 1 P A I*
is founded, it has the efFe& of a number of inilruments
of a like fize and kind playing in concert. When a
number of different inftruments in unifon founds the
fame note} a good ear is able to diltinguifh the variety
of found produced by each. A Angle inftrument found¬
ing a particular note, and then inflantly its fifth, or
any other concordant note, the two founds can be
heard, as it were, running into and gniting with each
other in a manner peculiarly agreeable. But the ef-
feft of a variety of inftruments playing in concert is
particularly charming, and muft excite fuch emotions
in the foul as it is impoffioie to deferibe. In this
chapel is the monument of Marjory Bruce (a) ; fhe
was daughter of Robert Bruce, and wife of Walter,
great fteward of Scotland, and mother of Robert It'.
In this fame chapel were interred Elizabeth Muir and
Euphemia Rofs, both conforts to Robert II.
A particular account of the abbey of Paiftcy would
fill many pages. It was founded as a priory for monks
of the order of Clugni about the year 1160 by Walter
great fteward of Scotland. It was afterwards railed
to the rank of an abbacy ; and the lands belonging to
it were by Robert II. eredled into a regality, under
the jurifdi&ion of the abbot. After the reformation,
the abbacy was fecularized by the Pope in favour of
Lord Claud Plamilton, third fon of the Duke of Cha-
telherault, in reward ©f his fteady adherence to the
caufe of Queen Mary; and, in 1588, it was by the
king and parliament erefted into a temporal lordlhip,
and Lord Claud was created Lord Paifiey. The re¬
venues of the abbacy were very confiderable : They
confifted of the tythes of 28 different parilhes, with the
property of the lordlhips of Paifiey, of Kilpatrick in
Dunbartonfhire, and of Monkton in Ayrfiiire, extend¬
ing each to a hundred merk land; and the forty pound
land of Glen in Lochwinnoch ; with the lands of
Achengown, Grange, &c. and a confiderable detach¬
ed property in different parts of the kingdom. All
this property, with the patronage of the feveral
churches, fell to Lord Claud Hamilton, Lift abbot of
Paifiey. It continued in that family till 1653, when
his grandfon James Earl of Abercorn fold thelordfirip
of Paifley to the Earl of Angus, who next year fold it
to William Lord Cochran, Kilpatrick to Sir John Ha-
miltoun of Orbiftoun, Monktoun to. Lord Bargenny,
and Glen to Lord Semple and others. Great part of
the lordfhip of Paifiey was at different times fold off
by the family of Dundonald ; and what remained of
it was in 1764 repurchafed by the late Earl of Aber¬
corn. The fabric of the abbey owed much of its mag¬
nificence to Abbot George Schaw, who about 1484
enlarged and beautified the building, furrounding the
church, the precintfts of the convent, the gardens, and
a final! deer-park with a noble wall of hewn free-ftone. Paifiey.
1 he abbey was after the reformation fuccefiively the ' "—v——
feat of the Earls of Abercorn and Duudonald. The
late Earl of Dundonald demoliftted the ancient gate¬
way ; and, by feuing off the immediately adjoining
grounds for building, entirely changed the appear¬
ance of the place. As it was thus rendered totally
unfit for a family refidence, it has fince that time been
let out into feparate dwellings, and is now in a very
mean and almoft ruinous ftate. The wall flood almoft
entire till 1781, when the garden being feued off for
building upon by the late Earl of Abercorn, the wall
was fold to the teuers, and the ftones of it employed
in their houfes.
1 he veftiges of the Roman camp and printorium^
at the weft end of the town, are at prefent almoll
annihilated. It was fuppofed to be vaulted under¬
neath.
The number of inhabitants in the town of Paifiey
amounted in 1-695 *0 2200; in 1755 they were 4290;
in 1782, 11,too; and in 1792 they were 13,800. At
prefent the number of inhabitants in the town and
fuburbs certainly exceeds 20,000.
Paifley is now the firft manufa&uring town in Scot¬
land, and is greatly celebrated on account of fome of
its branches. The manufadlory of filk gauze, in this
refpedd, firft claims our notice. This branch is brought
here to the utmoft perreffion, and is wrought to an
amazing variety of patterns. It has been computed,
that there have been no lefs than 5000 weavers em¬
ployed in Paifley and in the country adjacent; and the
number of winders, warpers, clippers, and others ne-
ceffary in other parts of the lilk-manufa&ure, has been-
likewife computed to be no lefs than 5000. Each loom
will produce in an average value 70I. yearly; the whole
will then be 350,0001.
It appears, from the beft calculation that could be
made, that in the year 1784 the manufadures of
Paifiey, in filk gauze, lawn and linen gauze, and
white fewing thread (b), amounted to the value of
579,i8j1. 16s. 6d. and that no fewer than 26,484
perfons were employed in carrying them on. It is
difficult to give an exad account of the ftate of its
manufactures at prefent. The filk branch has evi¬
dently declined, but the muffin has fo far come in its
room, and the thread manufacture has confiderably
increafed. There is, however, reafon to conclude,
that, though it is daily advancing, it has not yet re¬
covered its former greatnefs. Befides thefe principal
manufactures, there are fome others carried on there
of too much importance to be overlooked : lor in-
ftance, confiderable tan-works, four in number, two
foap and candle works, a manufacture of ribbons, and
another
(a) Her ftory is Angular: In the year 1317, when ffie was big with child, file broke her neck in hunting
near this place: the Caffarian operation was inftantly performed, and the child taken out alive ; but the ope¬
rator chancing to hurt one eye with his inftrument, occafioned the blemifh that gave him afterwards the epi¬
thet of Blear-eye ; and the monument is alfo ftyled that of Queen Bleary. Elizabeth Muir died before the
acceffion of her hufband Robert.
{b) Ibis was introduced into this town about 60 or 70 years ago. A gentleman in this place lately dif-
covered the method of making what is called glazed white thread, to as great perfection as that made byr
Mr Leland attd Son, London, The value of this branch is coaiputed at about 60,0001. annually.
P A I [ 661 ]
Palfcy. another of inkle or tape. In 1789 the annnal value heavy rain..
V—- of all the manufa&ures in Pailley of every fort amount¬
ed to 660,385 1. 168.
In the .various weaving branches there were employ¬
ed at Whitfunday 1791, in the fuburbs of Paifley,
1108 looms, which, added to 2494. employed in the
town, gives 3602 in all- But it is to be obferved,
that the extent to which the weaving branches are
carried on by the manufa&urers in Pailky, is not to
be judged of from the number of looms in the town
and fubnrbs. Befides about 150 in the country part
of the parifh, there are great numbers employed by
them in the villages of Nielitoun, Bar-head, Beith,
Dairy, Kilwinning, &c. &e. In 1744* when all the
bufmefs was confined to the town and fuburbs, there
were 867 looms at work —The thread-making in
Abbey parifh employs 9 mills, which, added to 1^8
employed in Paifley, makes 137 in I number
in 1744 was 93. I he fpinning of cotton was intro¬
duced into Abbey parifh in 1783. The principal feat
of that manufadlory is at Johnftoun, a neat and regu¬
larly built village about three miles weft from Paifley,
upon the eftate of Mr Houllon of Johnftoun._ The
feuing of that village was begun in 1782 ; and it con¬
tained, at Whitfunday 1792, 293 families, or 1434.
fouls. There are five companies eftablifhed in it for
cotton fpinning. Two of thefe carry on their princi¬
pal operations by water-machinery. In the two mills
employed in them, there are going at prefent 11,672
fpindles ; but, when the whole machinery in both fhall
be completed, there will be 22,572. The number of
perfons, young and old, at prefent employed in both
mills is 660. There is alfo in the neighbourhood of
Paifley a calico printing work and a copperas work.
The bleaching bufinefs in the Abbey parifh is car¬
ried on to a very confiderable extent. There are 10
fields for whitening muflins and lawns, and about as
many for thread, almoft wholly employed by the ma-
nufa&urers in Paifley. About 300 perfons are at work
in this branch of bufinefs, of whom about 240 are wo¬
men, who are hired for the feafon. A foap and candle
manufacture pays about 2000 1. of duty per annum to
government, and has in fome years paid upwards of
30001. A black and hard foap manufacture, 4500 1.
per annum. The ftarch manufacture is but lately efta-
blifhed. The diftillery bufinefs is to be mentioned
under this head : it has for fome time p ift been
carried on to a great extent, and the fpirit manufactured
in great perfection. A confiderable quantity of it ia
exported, but too much of it is confumed at home.
The river on which Paifley ftands runs from foutft
to north ; and falls into the Clyde, after- it has joined
the conflux of the rivers Grief and Black-Cart at Inch-
innan bridge, about three miles below the town. At
fpring-tides, veflcls of 40 tons burden come up to the
quay. The communication by water is of great im¬
portance to the inhabitants : for in this way they are
frequently ferved with fifh of different kinds, and can
fend their goods and manufactures to Port-Glafgow
and Greenock, and to Glafgow likewife ; and now,
; by means of the great canal, they have alfo a communi¬
cation with the fifth of Forth.
The air here is moiff ; a necefiary confequence of
the prevailing louth-weft winds, which, coming loaded
with vapour from the Atlantic, produce frequent and
PAL
 f    The effeas of this moift atmofphere
appear in rheumatifms, quinfeys, -pneumonic ailments,
and all the tribe of inflammatory diforders. Upon
the whole, however, neither the town nor country
adjacent can be faid to be unhealthy. Contagions,
indeed, at times vifit this as other places, which
run their ufual courfe as epidemics; but none are
remembered of any uncommon violence except a pleu-
rify in fummer 1771, and which, contrary to the
received opinion, was truly epidemic. There are no
diforders that can be faid to be endemic, unlefs fero-
fula is to be excepted, which is ftill but too common.
This has been aferibed to the water ufed by the inha¬
bitants in Paifley : It more probably proceeded from,
it certainly was greatly aggravated by, poor living, and
by the damp fhops which were neceffary for the linen
manufa&ure ; for fince filk weaving became the gene¬
ral employment, and increafe of trade has introduced
better living, thisdiforder is lefs frequent. From the
fame caufes probably it is that fwelled and fore legs,
once extremely common here, are now but rarely met
with. Dyfentery raged with great violence in 1765 ;
fince that time it has been fcarcely complained of.
Nervous fevers at times appear; but they are neither
very general nor uncommonly fatal. It is to be ap¬
prehended, that the confinement and fedentary pofture
of the weaver, and the laborious life of the bleacher,
are frequent caufes of confumptive complaints. Inter-
mittents, which, from the damp air, and adjoining
mofs, might be expefled to be common, are not £0
much as known. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 55. 52.
PAIX, a town of America, in the ifland of Hif-
paniola, and on the north coaft. It was built by the
French, to whom it is fubjeft, and has a pretty good
harbour. W. Long. 72.55. N. Lat. 19. 58.
PAITA, a fea-port of America, in Peru, and in
the audience of Quito. The town conlifts of about 2CO
houfes but one ftory high ; and the wails are made of
fplit cane and mod, and the roofs only a covering of
leaves. The only defence of Paita is a fort without ei¬
ther ditch or out-work ; but is furrounded by a brick
wall of little or no ftrength, on wThich are mounted
eight pieces of cannon. It has frequently been plun¬
dered by the buccaneers; and Commodore Anfon got
pofieflion of its fort in 1741, and took and burnt the
town becaufe the governor refufed to ranfom it. W.
Long. 81. 19. S. Lat. 6. 12,
PALACE, Palatium, a name generally given to
the dwelling-houfes of kings, princes, and other.great
perfonages; and taking different epithets, according to
the quality of the inhabitants, as imperial palace, royal
palace, pontifical palace, cardinal p.dace, ducal palace,
episcopal palace, &c.
It is cuftomarv in China to build palaces in honour of
great anceftors. Hu-pi-lay, of the Mogul empire, in the
year 1263, built one for his anceftors; and he is the
firft who borrowed this Chinefe cuftom. Amongft the
works of the ancient Egyptians, we have an account, in
the Ancient Univerfal Hiftory, of a moft magnificent
palace in the Upper Egypt, not far from Afwan, the
ancient Syene ; the ruins whereof are enough to
ftrike a fpe&ator with aftonifhment. It is as large as
a little city, having four avenues of columns, leading
to as many porticoes. At each gate, \ ttween two pil¬
lars of porphyry, Hand two gigantic figures of fine
black
Paifley
II
Palace.
Bfelace
„ II
Pa'apa-
' phos.
u ■ . P A L [ 662 1 PAT
biack marble, armed with maces. The avenues confift PAT a * r- • • •
of columns fet three and three tocrerhpr • i • In ^rec^an anticlu,ty> a public build'
on one pedeftal: on the chaoitefof each t • •’ ‘ng ^here,th^ y°uth exercifed themfelves in wreftling,
erjfaa-aScSK-? ®*^,ss&.*sstfs£
itS8wsal«Jjr«iir
Pala’ftrs,,
'JLucat,
vol. iii.
^ wi uuuu ui tr
inmns, a preat many of whidi are fallen dov/n.
The fir ft hall of this palace is adofned with pieces
o, mftory, which feem as frefh as if the painting had
not been long fimfhed. In fome places they have re-
preiented the hunting of antelopes ; in others, feafts,
and a great many young children playing with all
kinds of animals* From thehce you go into other
apartments, _ incrufted with marble, the roof being
upported with pillars of porphyry and black marble.
JNotwithftanding the vaft quantity of rubbiftr, our an-
^thor made flnft to get up to the top of this building,
from whence he had a profpeft of the ruins of the
greateft city that ever had been, as he thought, in the
world He fuppofes it might be the ancient Thebes j
but that city flood much lower.
Palace-Court. See MarshalsKA.
1ALJEMON, or Melicerta. See Melicerta.
Paljemon (Q^Rhemmius), a famous grammarian
of Rome, in the reign of Tiberias. He was born of
a have at Vienza. We are told he was firft brought
up in the bufinefs of a weaver: but attending his
mafter s fon to fchool, he ufed this opportunity to
procure knowledge ; and acquired f» much /kill in the
common learning, that he obtained his freedom, and
became a teacher or preceptor at Rome. His claim
to learning cannot be queftioned, fince he is recorded
as a fcholar even by Juvenal:
Quis gremio Knceladi doB'iquc Palxmonis ([fferty
Quantumgrammaticus meruit labor? Sat. 7.
XBe had alfo an excellent memory, a ready elocution,
and could make verfes extempore. On account ©f
thefe qualities, notwithftanding his debauched courfe
of life, which was fuch that nobody was more unwor¬
thy to have the preceptorfirip of youth, he held the
firft rank among thofe ot his profefiion. But his ar¬
rogance furpaffed his merit: he had the confidence to
*dn, that learning was born when he wasborr^and gen/s Thafos 'IVa-
ruld die When he died , and that Virgil had inferted fwhole o* in a dav 'fc-
would die when he died ; and that Virgil had inferted
his name in his Eclogues by a-certain prophetic fpirit:
for that he, Pala:mon, would infallibly become one
day foie judge and arbiter of all poetry. Fie was ex-
ceffively prodigal for the gratification of his voluptu¬
ous humour; mfomuch that neither the immenfe fums
he gamed by teaching, nor the great profit he made
r Ti,r * , j r 1 «-uc gymna-
ftum. _ Many authors imagine that the palteftra was of
two kinds 5 the one fer the exetcife of the body, the
ether for the cultivation of the mind: but the deri¬
vation of the word feems to confine it to bodily exer-
We have this account of the pateftrte in Barthelemi’s
Anacharfis : “ They are nearly of the fame form * Vol. ii,
with the gymnafia. We vifited the apartments appro¬
priated to all the fpectes of baths; thofe where the
wreftlers leave their clothes, where they rub their
bodies with oil to render their limbs fupple, and where
they roll themfelves in the fand in order to give their
antagomfts a hold. “
“ Wreftling, leaping, tennis, and all the exercifes
oi the lyceum, were here repeated before us with
greater varieties, and with more ttrength and fkill on
the part of the performers.- Among the different
groups before us, we diftinguifhed men of the moft
perfeft beauty, and worthy of ferving as models for
artifts; fome with vigorous and boldly marked out-
lines, as Hercules is reprefented ; and others of a
more Him and elegant fhape, as Achilles is deferibed.
Ihe former, devoting thcmfelves to wreftling and
boxing, had no objed but to increafe their bodily
ftrength ; the latter, educated to lefs violent exercifes,
iuch as tunning, leaping, &c. confined themfelves to
acquirements of agility.
“ Their regimen is foiled to the different exercife*
for which they are defigned. Some of them abftain
from women and wine ; others lead a very abftemious
me ; but thofe who make laborious exertions ftand
in need of a great quantity of fubftantial food, fuch
as roafted beef and pork, to reftore their ftrength.
If they require only two min* a-day, with bread in
proportion, they give a very favourable idea of their
temperance. _ But feveral are mentioned who have
made a terrible confumption of provifions. Thea-
i"ndS ^ “t s thC n° rr rigred
proved a Mcien, fund to fuppon his e.ttLgancic.: S “VSf. ^ ^
>   7—& ***" *-*‘*v*u2 niv, way ui Frame,
proved a fufficient fund to fupport his extravagancies.
V e have only lome Aagments of his works.
PAL^EOLOGUS (Michael), a very able man who
was governor of Afia under the emperor Theodorus
Lakaris ; and who, by various ftratagems and cruelties,
procured the empire for himfelf and his pofterity. See
Constantinople, from n° 145 to the end of that ar¬
ticle.
PALiLPAPHOS (Strabo, Virgil, Pliny), a town
of Cyprus, where ftood a temple of Venus; and an ad¬
joining town called JVea Paphos where St Paul ftruck
JElymas blind, and converted the proconfid Sergius
yauJus. 0
a whole ox in a day. The fame exploit"i8‘attributed
to Milo of Crotona, whofe ufual quantity of food for
a day was twenty mime of meat, as many of bread, and
three congft of wine. It is faid likewife, that Afty-
damas of Miletus, when at the table of Ariobarzanes
the Perfian fatrap, devoured alone the flipper prepared'
for nine guefts. Thefe ftories, no doubt exaggerated.
racity of this clafs of wreftlers. When they are able
to gratify it without danger, they acquire extraordi¬
nary ftrength : their ftatm* becomes fometimes gigan¬
tic ; and thtir adversaries, ftrnck with terror, either
decline entering the lifts, or fink under the weight of
their enormous bodies.
“ are fo oppreffed by excefs of nutriment as
to be obliged to pafs part of their lives in a profound
llcep, and foon become fo extremely corpulent as to
j?e no l°nger known to be the fame perfons : this is
ucceeded by difordets which render them as wretched
as they have always been unferviceable to their coun¬
try ; for it cannot be denied that wreftling, boxing,
5 and
PAL
Pa!*'*™- and all thofe combats difputed with fo much fury and
phylax obftinacy in the public folemnities, are no longer any
II thing but. oftentatious exhibitions, fince taftics have
Palame' ea. brought to perfeftion. Egypt at no time adopted
them, .as they give only a temporary ftrength. Lace-
damon has correfted their inconveniences by the wif-
dom of her inliitutions. In the other ftates of Greece
men have difeovered, that, by fubje&ing their children
to them, they incur the rilk of injuring their fhape and
preventing their growth ; and that, in a more advan¬
ced age, profeffed wrelllers never make good foldiers,
becaufe they are unable to fupport hunger, third,
watching, the fmalleil wants, or the moft trifling devi¬
ation from their ufual habits.” See Pentathlum
and Pancratium.
P ALiESTROPHYLAX, was the dire&or of the
palceftra, and the exercifes performed there.
PALAMBOANGj or Palambang, a town of
Afia, in the Eaft Indies, and in the ifland of Java,
capital of a kingdom ; feated at the call end of the
ifland, on the drafts of Bally, and feparated from the
ifland of Bally by a narrow channel. E. Long. 115.
jo. S. Lat. 7. 10.
PALAMEDEA, in ornithology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of gralla:. The character of this ge¬
nus, according to Latham, is, the bill bends down at
the point, with a horn, or with a tuft of feathers eredt
near the bafe of it; the noftrils are oval; the toes are
divided almofl to their origin, with a fmall membrane
between the bottoms of each.
There are two fpecies of it; the firfl of which is the
palamedea coinuta, or horned fereamer. It is about
the fize of a turkey ; in length about three feet four
CceilxiV ‘nc^es- he kM is two inches and a quarter long, and
black ; the upper mandible is a little gibbous at the bafe,
the under (huts beneath it, as in the gallinaceous tribe:
the noifrils are oval and pervious, and placed near the
Za ham's middle of the bilk From the crown of the head
General Sy- fprings a fLndcr horn of more than three, inches in
°f length, and pointed at the end : the irides are the co-
r ‘ lour of gold : the plumage on the head, neck, and up¬
per part of the body, is black, margined with grey on
the hrft, and downy : fome of the feathers round the
neck are likewife edged with the fame : the under
parts of the wings are pale rufous, appearing on the
fhoulders and edges of them when clofed : at the bend
of the wing are two ilrong, fharp, horny, yellow fpurs,
one above another, the uppermofl an inch and a half
in length : the belly, thighs, and vent are white : the
tail is eight inches and a half long, and black : the
kgs are flout and dulky : the fore claws are moderate¬
ly bent; the hind one is nearly ftraight, not unlike
that of a lark, and is about an inch long.—The female,
we are told, is very like the male.
It is remarked, that they are always met with in
pairs ; and if one dies, the other mourns to death for
PAL
thelofs. They frequent places near the water; make Pa’ameo’ea,
a large neft of mud, in the fhape of an oven, upon the ^a'alTie^fc3-
ground (a) ; and lay two eggs, the flze of thofe of a '
goofe. The young aie brought up in the neft till able
to fliift for themfelves. They have but one neft in a
year, which is in Jsnuary or February, except the
firft eggs are taken away, when they make a lecond
in April or May. The young birds are frequently
eaten by the natives, though the c olour of the flefh is
very dark; that of the old ones is tough and ill tailed.
By fome authors this fpecies is faid to feed on crabs
and birds, fuch as pigeons, poultry, and even to attack
Iheep and goats ; but this is denied by others, who
fay that its principal food is reptiles. In the ftomach
of one which M. Bajon diffedted, there were only
found herbs and feeds of plants; however, he adds,
that the bird has no gizzard. The cornuta is a rare
fpecies. - It is found in certain diftridls in Cayenne,
Guiana, Surinam, and other parts of South America,
chiefly in the marfhes and wet favannas, and for the moft
psfrt near the fea. Thefe fhoulcb feem to be the birds
mentioned by Ulloa(B), which are called by the inha¬
bitants of Quito difpertadcres, or “ awakeners,” from
their giving notice to others of the approach of dan¬
ger ; as on hearing the lead noife, or feeing any one,
though at a great diftance, they rife from the ground,
and make a loud chattering like a magpie, continuing
the neftfe, and hovering over the object which caufed
the alarm, whereby the reft of the birds, taking the
hint, are able in time to efcape the impending danger.
This fereaming noife, which feme authors relate as be¬
ing exceedingly loud and terrible (c), has occafloned
Mr Pennant to give the genus the name annexed to it.
In Dr Hunter’s mufeum there is a fine fpecimen of this
bird, brought from Cayenne.
The fecond fpecies of palamedea is the criftata, or
crelled fereamer. This bird is about the fize of an
heron : the bill is fhort, bent like that of a bird of
prey, and of a yellowilh brown : the irides are gold-
coloured : on the forehead, juft above the bill, is a
tuft of black feathers, variegated with alh-colour: the
head, neck, and body, are grey,«mixed with rufous
and brown, moft inclining to the laft on the wings and
tail: the wings are not furnifhed with fpurs: the legs
pretty long, of a dull yellow : claws brown ; the hind
toe placed high up, fo as not to touch the ground in
walking.
This bird inhabits Brafil. Linnaeus makes it to
belong to the fereamer genus, perhaps from its cry ;
for it is faid to be heard at a great diftance, and is not
unlike that of a hen turkey. None of our later
waiters feem to have feen it, all of them relying on
Marcgrave both for defeription and figure. It is faid
to feed on the fame food as the heron tribe : the flefli
is good, and the bird by fome kept tame.
PALAMEDES, a Greek chief, fon of Nauplius
king
[ 663 ]
(a) Authors differ. Bajon fays, that it makes the neft both in thickets, at fome diftance from the ground,
and often among the ruflres. Fermin tells us, that it builds on high trees. See Mem. fur Cay. and Defer.
Surin.
(b) Voy. vol. ii. p. 243.—Ulloa makes their fize no bigger than that of a cock. He fays, that the head
is adorned with a tuft of feathers. Perhaps he may mean the next fpecies.
(c) Terrilili voce clamitans, Linnaeus.
P A L
Palamcdes king of Eul cci/ by Clemene.
Paiite Grecian princes who were going to the Troj m war.
Grecian
in order to bring Ulyffes to the camp, who, to avoid
the expedition, pretended infanity ; an ' the better to
carry on the impofition, he often harnefled different
animals to a plough, and fowed fait intfead of barley.
Palamedes foon difcovered the cheat. He knew that
regret to part with Penelope, whom Ulyfles had lately
married, was his only reafon for pretending infanity;
and to demonftrate this, Palamedes took Tele orach us, of
whom Penelope had lately been delivered, an ! put him
before h:s father’s plough. Ulyfles turned the plough
a different way, not to hurt his child. He was there¬
fore obliged to attend the Greek princes to the war ;
but an immortal enmity took place between Ulyffes
and Palamedes. The king of Ithaca determined to
take every opportunity to diftrefs him ; and when all
his expedations were friiftrated, he was mean enough
to bribe one of his fervants, and to make him dig a
hole in his mafters tent, and there conceal a large film
of money. After'this Ulyfles forged a letter in
Phrygian charaders, as from Priam to Palamedes.
In the letter the Trojan king feemed to beg Pala¬
medes to deliver into his hands the Grecian army,
according to the conditions which had been previoufly
agreed upon when he received the money. This
forged letter was carried, by means of Ulyfles, before
the princes of the Grecian army. Palamedes was
iummoned, and made the moft folemn proteftations of
innocence, but in vain. The money that was dif-
covered in his tent ferved to corroboiate the accufa-
tion ; and he was thetefote found guilty by the whole
army, and ftoned to death. Homer is iilent about
the unfortunate fate of Palamedes ; and Paufanias
mentions, that it had been reported by fome that
Ulyfles and Diomcdes had drowned him in the fea as
be was flfhing on the ccaft. Philoftratus, who men¬
tions the tragical ftory as above related, adds, that
Achilles and Ajax buried his body with great
pomp on the fea-fhore; and that they raifed upon it
a fmall chapel, where faerifices were regularly offered
by the inhabitants of Troas. Palamedes was a man
of learning as well as a foldier ; and according to fome
he completed the alphabet of Cadmus by the addition
of the four letters ?. x> during the Trojan war.
To him alfo is attributed the invention of dice and
backgammon ; and it is faid that he was the firff who
regularly ranged an army in a line of battle, and who
placed fentinels round the camp, and excited their vi¬
gilance and attention by giving them a watchword.
PAL ARIA, among the Romans, a kind of exercife
performed at a flake by the foldiers. The flake being
fixed in the ground, and fix feet high above it, the
young undifeiplined foldiers advanced againft it, armed
with a hurdle and cudgel, inftead of afvvord and fliield,
and went through ail the rules of attack and defence,
as if actually engaged with an adverfary. Sometimes
they flood at a diftance, and attacked with miflive wea¬
pons ; at the fame rime ufmg all the requifite motions
for defending themfelves, and warding off what might
be thrown againff them.
PALA1 E, in anatomy, the flefh that compofes the
roof, or the upper and inner part, of the mouth.
The palate has much the fame fttu&ure with the
gums; but it has alfo a great number of glands, difeo-
M? 257. 6
[ 664 ] PAL
He was fent by the vered fo early as the time of Fallopius : thefe are prln- Pflat
cipally fituated in the hinder part near the uvula, where  
jt is pendulous, in the manner of a curtain, which part
is called the -velum, or claujlrum, of the palate. The
glands fituated particularly in this part, fecrete a mu¬
cous fluid, fervimr to lubricate the mouth and throat,
and to facilitate deglutition : they have a great num¬
ber of apertures there for the difeharge of this humour
into the mouth.
The great uies of this membrane are to defend the
bones of the palate from corrupting ; and for prevent¬
ing, by its ciauftrum or velum, the things to be fwal-
lo'. ed from getting up into the noftrils.
P ALATINATE, a province or figniory, poffeffed
by a palatine.
Palatinate of the Rhine, a province of Germany,
divided into two parts by the Rhine, called the Upper
and Lower Palatinate, The former lies in the circle
of Bavaria, and belongs to the eleflor thereof; but
the latter, in the circle we are now treating, belongs
to the eledlor Palatine. The latter part is bounded to
the eafl by the county of Katzenellnbogen, the arch-
bifhopric of Mentz, the bifhopvic of Worms, and part
of the territory of the Teutonic order in Franco¬
nia ; to the weft by Alface, the duchy of Denxponts,
the county of Sponheim, the duchy of Simmern, and
certain diftri&s of the eledlorate of Mentz ; to the
fouth by the duchy ofWurtemberg and the bifhopric
of Spire; and to the north by a part of the archbifhopric
of Mentz and the county of Katzenellnbogen. It
contains 41 towns, befides feveral boroughs ; and is
about too miles in length, and 70 in breadth. The
air is healthful, and the foil fruitful in corn pafturage,
wine, tobacco, and all forts of pulfc and fruits, particu¬
larly walnuts, chefnuts, and almonds. This countryalfo
breeds abundance of cattle, and is well watered by the
Neckar, the Nahe, and the Rhine. In the laft of
thefe, near Germerfheim and Selz, is found gold ; the
exclufive right of Larch in g for which is farmed out by
the eleftor. The ftate of religion hath varied greatly
here fmee the Reformation, Lutheranifm and Calvi-
nifm having been uppermoft by turns, till the elebto-
rate devolved to the Popiflr branches of the family,
when Popery, with all its fuperftition and mummery,
was eftablifhed anew: fo that the Proteftant religion
is now on a very precarious footing in the Palatinate,
though moll of the natives are ftill of that perfuafion :
but the two fedls of Proteftants, namely, the Luthe¬
rans and Calvinifts, have greatly contributed to theft
own ruin, by their mutual jealoufy and' animofity, be¬
ing no lefs rancorous againft one another than againfl
their common adverfaries the Papifts The Lutherans
reckon themfelves 50,000 Ifrong, and are poffeffed of
about 85 churches; but not one half of their preach¬
ers and fchoolmaflers have a competent maintenance.
The number of Calvinift clergy here L ertimated at
500, and that of the Roman Catholics at 400. Be¬
fides fchools and Jefuits colleges in this country, there
is one univerfity, namely, that of Heidelberg ; but
there is very little trade in it except in wine. Authots
are divided about the origin of the name Palatines, or
Pfalzgravesy as the Germans call them ; but it Lems
moft likely to be derived from the palatia} or palaces,
which the old Frankifh aud German kings and Roman
emperors were poffeffed of in different parts of the
country,
PAL
[ 66S ]
PAL
»**>■!. country, and over which they appointed fupreme (lew
w—y ' arda or judges, who were called Palatines or PJalz-
graves. The countries where thefe Palatines kept
their courts, were, from them, called Palatinates;
which name came at lafl to be appropriated, by way
of eminence, to this country, as being the moft con-
fiderable of them. The ancient eleftoral line failing
in 1685, the ele&orate devolved to Philip-William
duke of Neuburg ; and upon the death of his fecond
fon Charles-Philip, to the prince ©f Sultzbach. _ This
cle&or has the title of arch-treafurer of the empire, as
well as the eleaor of Brunfwic-Lunenburgh, and is
the fifth in rank among the fecular ekaors. He. is
alfo one of the vicars of the empire alternately with
the elector of Bavaria, and enjoys many other prero¬
gatives. In his own dominions, he difpofes of all va¬
cant benefices; but allows the ecclefiaftical council,
compofed of two clergymen and two laymen, to pre-
fent two candidates, of which he choofes one. He is
alfo mafter of all the tithes in his dominions; but he
either grants them to the clergy, or falaries in lieu of
them, out of the revenues of the church. His title is
Pfalzgrave of the Rhine ; aichtreafurer and ele&or of
the holy Roman empire; duke in Bavaiia, Juliers,
Cleve, and Berg ; prince of Mors ; marquis of Ber-
gen-op-Zoom; count of Veldens, Sponheim, the hdai k,
and Ravenlherg ; and lord of Ravenftein. His quota
to the army of the empire is 30 horfe and 138 foot,
or 914 florins monthly. TLo the chamber of Wetzlar
he contributes, each term, 4^4 rix-dollars, 82 kruit-
zers. There is an order of knighthood in this coun¬
try, viz. that of St Hubert; the badge of which is a
quadrangular crofs pendant to a red ribbon, with a
ftar on the breaft. The whole of the ekaor’s reve¬
nue, arifing from the Palatinate, the duchies of Berg
and Juliers, the feigniory of Ravenftein, and the du¬
chies of Neuburg and Sultzbach, hath been eftimated
at about 300,000 1. per annum. The military efta-
blifhment confifts of feveral regiments of horfe and foot,
befides the horfe and Swifs life-guards : in time of
peace he is faid to maintain about 6000 men.—All
the different courts and councils, ufsal in other coun¬
tries for the different departments of government, are
alfo to be found here.
In general, the Lower Palatinate has fuffered more
by the preceding wars with France than all the pro¬
vinces of Germany put together during the fpace of
30 years ; for the French have plundered the country,
and demoliflicd fome of its firft towns more than once.
In the modern part of the Univerfal Hiftory, we have
the following account of the rife of the Palatinate of
the Rhine, under the hiftory of Germany.
Though Conrad the Ion of Everhard inherited
from his father the duchy of Franconia, with the
counties of Heffe and Alface, he could not fucceed
him in the dignity of count-palatine, becaufe Otho
had taken it from his father, and conferred it on Her¬
man third fon of Arnold duke of Bavaria : but as this
honour was unattended with any folid advantage, the
emperor began to annex to it the lands and caftles fi-
tuated on the Rhine, whence he acquired the title ©f
Count Palatine of the Rhine: and, in procefs of time,
thefe counts made great acquifitions by marriages.,
purchafes, mortgages, and imperial donations, fo as to
form a very confiderabk province.” The powers of
Vou XIII. Part II-
counts palatine in the German empire have always been Palatinate
ample; we have this account of it in the fame learned H,
r, ’ Palatine,
work. . . ' 1 1
“ When the counts palatine of the Rhine began to
execute their office, they neither poffeffed on that ri¬
ver lands, cities, nor caftks; but having by degrees
made great acquifitions by marriages, purchafes, agree¬
ments, imperial donations, or otherwife, they have at
length formed a very confiderabk principality. We
are told, that under the emperors of the hoqje of Sua-
bia, their authority and power increafed greatly, tho*
it was a gradual increafe. Under the reign of the
emperor Henry IV. the credit of the counts pa¬
latine was very confiderabk at the court; and by the
German law, the count palatine of the Rhine enjoys
not only during the abfence of the emperor, but like-
wife during a vacancy of the empire, the right of the
ban beyond the Rhine, till within a mile of the city
of Metz, and as far as the ocean, as well as in Flan¬
ders. However, this right of the ban has not been
granted to him by the emperors. There is likewife
an ancient ordonnance, in which the office of count
palatine is mentioned ; it imports, that the count pa¬
latine is always by right the reprefentative or lieutenant
of the kingdom. Laftly, how great the power of the
counts palatine was, may be underftood from this,
that in the ekftion of Rodolphus of Hapftmrgh, and
in that of Henry VII. the other ekftors promifed to
acknowledge him as emperor whom he fhould name.
Although, however, the power of the counts palatine
had as it were fecured to them the vicariate of the
empire, neverthelefs the emperors ftill referved to
themfelves the right of eftablifhing vicars.” See Ba¬
varia*
PALATINATES of Poland. Previous to the
Revolution in this unfortunate country, it was divided
into palatinates ; whether thofe will be now changed
cannot be at prefent afcertained, tho’ it feems likely.
A Folifh palatine is thus defcribed in the Univerfal
Hiftory :
“ A palatine may be regarded as the governor of a
province, who levies and leads the troops of his own
jurifdiftion to join the army of the republic. His ci¬
vil power is likewife confiderabk, as he prefides at the
affemblies of his palatinate, rates the prices of all com¬
modities and merchandife in the province, regulates
the weights and meafures, and judges and defends the
Jews within his jurifdiftion. This part of his func¬
tion is particularly fpecified, that a fet of men the
moft ufeful and induftrious in Poland may not be op-
preffed ; the king being likewife obliged, by his oath,
to afford them the protection of the laws and his fo-
vereignty. Under him is appointed a fubftitute or
vice-palatine, who takes an oath to his fuperior, and
muft be poffeffed of a land-eftate to a certain value.”
PALATINE, or Count Palatine, a title an-
ciently^given to all perfons who had any office or em¬
ployment in the prince’s palace : but afterwards con¬
ferred on thofe delegated by princes to hold courts of
juftice in the provinces; and on fuch among the lords
as had a palace, that is, a court of juftice, in their
-own houfes.
Counties-Palatine in England.—Chefter, Durham,
and Lancafter, are called counties-palatine. The two
former are fuch by prefeription, or immemorial cu-
4 P ftom j
f A L l 666 ] PAL
frahtinf, ; cr, at. leail as old as the Norman conqueft : the
latter was created by kfng Edward III. in favour of
Henry Plantngenct, firft earl and then duke of Lan-
eafter ; vvhofe heirefs being married to John of Gaunt
the king’s fon, the frarrehife was greatly enlarged
and confirmed in parliament, to honour John of
Gaunt himfelf, whom, on the death of his father-in-
law, the king had alfo created duke of Lancafter.
Counties-palatine are {o czWed a palatio \ becaufe the
owners thereof, the earl of Chefter, the bifhop of Dur¬
ham, and the duke of Lancafter, had in thofe conn-
ties jura regalia, as fully as the king hath in his palace;
regalem poiejlatem in omnibus, as Brafton expreffes it.
They might pardon treafons, murders, and felonies;
they appointed all judges and juftices of the peace;
all writs and indictments ran in their names, as in
other counties in the king’s ; and all offences were faid
to be done againft their peace, and not, as in other
places, contra pacem domini regis. And indeed by the
ancient law, in all peculiar jurifdiftions, offences were
faid to be done againfl his peace in whofe court they
were tried ; in a courtdeet, contra pucem domini ; in
the court of a corporation, contra pacem balhvovum ;
in the fheriff’s court or tourn, contra pacem vice-
comitis. Thefe palatine privileges (fo fimilar to the
regal independent jurifdiClions ufurped by the great
barons on the continent during the weak and infant
ffate of the firfl feudal kingdoms in Europe) were in
all probability originally granted to the counties of
Chefter and Durham, becaufe they bordered upon
enemies countries, Wales and Scotland : in order that
the owners, being encouraged by fo large an authority,
might be the more watchful in its defence ; and that
the inhabitants, having juftice adminiftered at home,
might not be obliged to go out of the county, and
leave it open to the enemy’s incurfions. And upon
this account alfo there were formerly two other coun¬
ties palatine, Pembrokefhire and Hexamfhire, the
latter now united with Northumberland : but thefe
were abolifhed by parliament, the former in 27 Hen.
VIII, the latter in 14 Eliz. And in 27 Hen. VIII.
likewife, the powers before mentioned of owners of
counties-palatine were abridged ; the reafon for their
continuance in a manner ceafing: though ftill all
writs are witneffed in their names, and all forfeitures
for treafon by the common law accrue to them.
Of thefe three, the county of Durham is now the
only one remaining in the hands of a fubjeft. For
the earldom of Chefter, as Camden teftifies, was
united to the crown by Hen. III. and has ever fince
given title to the king’s eldeft fon. And the county-
palatine or duchy of Lancafter was the property of
Henry of Bolingbroke, the fon of John of Gaunt, at
the time when he wrefted the crown from king
Jlichard II. and aflumed the title of Hen. IV. But
he was too prudent to fuffer this to be united to the
crown ; left, if he loft one, he fhoiald lofe the other
alfo For, as Plowden and Sir Edward Coke obferve,
he knew he had the duchy of Lancafter by fure
and indefeafifcle tide, but that his title to the crown
was not fo afiured : for that after the deceafe of
Richard II. the right of the crown was in the heir of
Lionel duke of Clarence, fecond fon of Edward III.;
John of Gaunt, father to this Henry IV. being but
the fourth foiie” And therefore he procured an ad
of parliament, in the firft year of his reign, ordaining
that the duchy of Lancafter, and all other his h.'redi-
tary eftates, with all their royalties and franchifes,
fhould remain to him and his heirs for ever; and fhould
remain, defeend, be adminiftered, and governed, in
like manner as if he never had attained the regal dig¬
nity : and thus they defeended to his fon and grand-
fon, Henry V. and Henry VI.; many new territories
and privileges being annexed to the duchy by the
former. Henry VI. being attainted in i Edward IV.
this duchy was declared in parliament to have become
forfeited to the crown, and at the fame time an aft
was made to incorporate the duchy of Lancafter, to
continue the county-palatine (which might otherwife
have determined by the attainder), and to make the
fame parcel of the duchy : and, farther, to veft the
whole in king Edward IV. and his heirs, kings of
England, for ever ; but under a feparate guiding and
governance from the other inheritances of the crown.
And in 1 Hen. VII. another aft was made, to refume
fuch part of the duchy lands as had, been difmem-
bered from it in the reign of Edward IV. and to veil
the inheritance of the whole in the king and his heirs
for ever, as amply and largely, and in like manner,
form, and condition, feparate from the crown of Eng¬
land and pofieflion of the fame, as the three Henries
and Edward IV. or any of them, had and held the
fame.
The ifle of Ely is not a county-palatine, thbugh
fometimes erroneoufly called fo, but only a royal
franchife : the bifhop having, by grant of king Hen¬
ry I. jura regalia within the ifle of Ely ; whereby
he exercifes a jurifdiftion over all caufes, as well cri¬
minal as civil.
Palatine Games, in Roman antiquity, games in-
ftituted in honour of Auguftus by his wife Livia, after
he had been enrolled among the gods. They were
celebrated in the palace, from whence the name, and
were confirmed by the fucceeding emperors.
Some authors fay that thefe games were inftituted
in honour of Julius Gkefar, and others again confound
them with the Ludi Auguftales ; but neither of thefe
opinions feem to be well fupported. See Augu-
STALES.
PALATINUS mons, or Palatium, the firft moun¬
tain of Rome, occupied by Romulus, and where he
fixed his refidence and kept his court, as did Tulins
Hoftilius, Auguftus, and all the fucceeding emperors:
and hence it is that the refidence of princes is called
palatium. The reafon ®f the name is varioufly affign-
ed : fame fay it is derived from the goddefs Pales, or
from the Palatini, who originally inhabited the place,
or from balare or palare, the Heatings of fheep, which
were frequent there ; 01 perhaps from the word pa-
lantes, wandering, becaufe Evander, when he came to
fettle in Italy, gathered all the inhabitants, and made
them all one fociety. To the eaft it has the mount
Ccelius, to the fouth the Aventine, to the weft the Ca*
pitoline, and to the north the Forum.—Palatinus, the
furname of Apollo from this place ; where Auguftus
built a temple to that god, adorned with porticoes and
a library, valuable for the various colleftions of Greek
and Latin manuferipts which it contained.
PALATIUM (anc. geog.), a place in the territory
of Reate, diftant from it 25 ftadia. Dionyfius Hali-
carnafleus
Palatine
II
Palatinm.
PAL
[ 667 ]
PAL
f Palermo.
palatium carnaffeus reckons it one of the firtfc towns oi the
Aborigines; and from it Varro accounts for the name
of the Mens Palatums ,• namely, that a colony from Pa-
latium fettled there.
Palatium (,Pliny), Pallantium (Paufanias), Palan-
teum (Livy) ; Pallanteum (Solimis). This laft. is the
true writing ; the great grandfather of Evander, from
whom it took its name, being called Pallas, not Pa/as :
A town of Arcadia, which concurred to form Mega¬
lopolis (Paufanias). From it x\\zPalatium, or Mons Pa-
latinus, takes alfo its name, according toVirgiland Pliny
Palativm Dioclejiani; the villa of Dioelelian, near
Salome, where he died, (Eufebius). Afterwards call¬
ed Spalatum ; which rofe to a confiderable city from
the ruins of Salonte ; fituated in Dalmatia on the Adri¬
atic. Now Spalatlo, or Spa/atro.
Palatium Lucul/i, (Plutarch), or Villa Luculli}
a place between Mifenum and Baise in Campania, of
wonderful ftru&ure. Now in ruins, and called Pifci-
na Miralile.
PALATO-salpingteus,. 1 See Anatomy, 'TalU
PALATO’Staphyhnvs, j of the Mufclts, p- 708.
PALE, a little pointed ftake or piece of wood ufed
in making inclofures, feparations, &c. 1 he pa/e was
an inftrument of pumifhment and execution among the
ancient Romans,and ftill continues fo among thel'urks.
Hence empaling, the pacing a {harp pale up the fun¬
dament through the body.
Pale, in heraldry. See Heraldry, p. 446.*
PALEARIU.'i (Aonius), was a man of the great-
eft probity, and one of the heft writers of the 16th
century. He gained the efteem of the men of wit and
learning of his time by a noble poem on the immorta¬
lity of the foul. He was appointed piofeflor of po¬
lite literature at Sienna ; where his tranquillity was dif-
turbed by contefts with an envious colleague, and by
the malicious afperlions ot his enemies; againit which,
however, his eloquence proved always a fufficient de¬
fence. At laft he left Sienna, and accepted the invi¬
tation of the magiftrates of Lucca, who gave him fe*
veral marks of their efteem, and fettled a conliderable
ftipend upon him. Some years after, he removed to
Milan ; where he was feized by order of pope Pius V.
and carried to Rome He was convi&ed of having
fpoken in favour of the Lutherans, and agaiuft the in-
quifition ; and therefore was condemned to lie burnt.
This fentence was executed in 1566. He wrote feve-
ral pieces in verfe and prole; of which the one above-
mentioned is the moft efteemed.
PALENCIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
I.eon, with a rich archbiftiop’s fee. It had an univer-
fity, but it was removed to Salamanca. It is feared
in a fertile foil on the river Carion on the frontiers of
Caftile, in W. Long. 3. 7. N. Lat. 42. 10.
PALERMO, a city of Sicily, in the Val-di-Mazara,
with an archbifhop’s fee and a large harbour. “ Phis
* Tmvelt city (fays Mr Hill*), which is the capital of Sicily,
through Si {s 0f great antiquity ; and if a conjedhire may beform-
jV La' ed from its ancient name Paiwnnus, which fignifies
as univerfalEarLour, it was formerly in a very flourilh-
ing condition. By whom it was founded is uncer¬
tain, nor have we any authentic accounts of its inha¬
bitants till it became a colony of the Phoenicians, after
which it paffed into the hands of the various nations
that became maftere of this illand. The prefent city Palermo.
principally confifts of two wide, uniform, and well-
built ftreets, each about a mile in length, crofting each
other at right angles in the centre, where there is a
fmall odlagon fpace,ornamentedvvithfourftalues.” Moll
of the cities of Sicily have furnames ; Palermo is deno¬
minated the happy. It has gained this epithet, no doubt,
on acount of the advantages of its lituation. It has two
harbours : in the one, which is very large, and in which
there is a mole 1300 paces in length, fhips lie at anchor;
in the other their cargoes are laden and unladen. Both
the harbours open to the weft : there is alfo a fuperb
quay which extends a mile from weft to eaft, in a redtili-
near dirediion, and is called La marine, i he profpedl
is, on the one fide, loft in the wide expanfe of the
ocean, and on the other confined by the walls of the
city ; the walls appear adorned with pilafters, and
crowned with a- row of balluftrades through which the
eye difeovers a long range of palaces. i’hefe objedts
altogether form a delightful fpedtacle. Indeed no¬
thing can be more pidlurefque than the bay of Palermo.
It forms a large amphitheatre, with the capital of Si-
rll- in the centre; furrounded for fome miles by a
moft delightful country, and inclofed by romantic
rocks and mountains. The town was formerly fur-
rounded by a flrong wall ; but the fortifications are
now entirely negledled, except towards the fea, v/here
there are ftill a few weak works. The quay is the
principal public walk here. Palermo is embellifhed
all round with avenues of trees, and has four princi¬
pal entrances, facing the four cardinal points which
are at the extremities of the two fpacious ftreets which
crofs eafch other. The moft frequented of thefe two
ftreets is called Cajfero. It begins where the quay ends,
with the north gate called Porta Felice, the happy gate ;
and terminates on the fouth, at the new gate, which
opens on the road to Montreale. Near the laft of thefe
gates, this city, which fo well merits the attention of a
lover of the arts, exhibits a large fquare, round which
Hand fome extenlive monafteries, the palace of the
archbifliop, and the palace of the viceroy. Diredtly
oppofite to the palace of the viceroy Hands, on a pe-
deftal richly ornamented with a variety of'figures, a
ftatue of Philip IV. The ftatue, the pedeftal, and the
ornaments, are all of marble.
Palermo is quite filled with public monuments,
churches, monafteries, palaces, fountains, ftatues, and
columns. Thefe are not all eminently beautiful; for
they have not been all erefted under the reign of good
tajle ; but every one of them fhows that the nation is .
fond of the arts, and poflefies a genius for decoration.
Spring-waters are very copious in this city. Not a
quarter in Palermo but is liberally fupplied with foun¬
tains, moft of which are marble, all of them adorned
with pieces of fculpture, and all afford large quanti¬
ties of water.
The fituation of this city is truly happy ; the fea,
the hills, the lofty mountains, prefent on all tides
beautiful and {Hiking profpe&s, which render it one
of the moft favourable fixations for the genius of the
artift, whofe object is to copy the beauty and fublimi-
ty of nature. Freed from the fetters of the Inquifi*
tion, the abolition of which was procured by the mar¬
quis of Caraccicli, and from the influence of fome
4 P 2 othes
PAL [ 668 1 PAL
Palermo, oilier unfavourable inftitutions, which are rapidly de*
clining, Palermo muft become one of the fined cities
in the world ; and the ifland of which it is the capital,
being all cultivated like a garden, one of the mod en¬
chanting fpots on the face of the earth. Nature has
denied none of her bed gifts to Sicily. It was the be¬
nignity of nature, which, in the happy ages of anti¬
quity, when the political circumdances of the Sicili¬
ans were not fuch as to reprefs their genius, prompted
and enabledthemto ere£t fo manyilluftrious monuments.
8‘ Adjoining to the town, and near the fea, is a public
garden or promenade, planted with orange and lemon-
* FeB. trees, formed into arcades, and now loaded with fruit* ;
the ftems of the trees dand in furrows, and are conti¬
nually watered by a fmall dream. In the middle is a
fountain, on which ftands a coloffiis of white marble,
furrounded by four grotefque temples, in two of which
are canary-birds. Among the oranges is a kind call-
Janguinet or bloody, which are dained in the middle
with red, and have ufually the fined flavour. Some
of the lemons are fweet, but very flat, lading like fu-
gar and water. The citrons grow to an immenfe fize ;
the rind, which occupies at lead three-fourths of the
bulk of the fruit, is eaten with fugar ; the juice is
fharper than the foured lemon. Indian figs in very
great abundance grow wild in the fields and hedges,
to the height of twelve or fourteen feet; of thefe there
are three kinds, one with large fpines, another with
fmaller, and the third almod fmooth. Their fruit is
cooling and delicious, 10,000 1. worth of which is fold
annually to the poor people in the neighbourhood of this
city. Another plant, very common in this country, is
the aloe, which ufually hloffoms every fifth or fixth year.
Of thefe there are five or fix fpecies, which grow
moftly in the hedges, and, together with the Indian
figs, form a mod impenetrable fence.
“ The palace, which is an indifferent old building, is
fituated in a fquare, near the fouth gate of the city,
and commands a delightful profpeft of the adjacent
country. At the top is an obfervatory, inhabited by
an ingenious old pried, who has been in England, and
brought from thence feveral aflronomical in/iruments
ccnflrufted by Ramfden.” Neither the ftru&ure, fitu-
ation, nor archite&ural ornaments of the palace are fuch
as to merit any extraordinary praife. It is, like many
others, an affemblage of buildings ereftedin various ages,
as need of accommodation »r fancy fuggefted ; and, of
confequence, it mud unavoidably be defective in archi-
tedural order and beauty. The chapel is the only
part of it that merits any attention. It was founded
by the Counts Roger, the Noiman conquerors of Si¬
cily. Within, it is decorated with beautiful pieces of
marble and porphyry, and of Mofaic work in gold and
various colours, it is in the fame tade with the ca-
* thedral of Montreale. It is built on the fame plan
with common churches, only on a fmaller feale. The
nave is encircled with pillars ; on the right and the
left are two narrower openings, called lateral or low
paffages : the choir and fanftuary are at the end of the
nave. Among all the pillars which inclofe the nave,
it would be hard to find two exaftly of the fame form
and workmanfhip. Oppofite to a channelled column
Hands another op which the graving tool has made no
fuch impreffions ; feveral have neither adragal, nor bafe,
sor fcale; they are formed of various kinds of marble,
and are of different orders and unequal in height.
The walls, the arcades, and the arches, are covered
with Mofaic work, in gold and colours, reprefenting
angels, and male and female faints.
Over the entrance into the choir, and fronting the
nave, there is an Eternal Father of a huge fize ; the de-
fign of which has, in all probability, been to imprefs
the beholder with a fufficiently awful idea of the great-
nefs of God. Such reprefentations of the Deity, how¬
ever improper, not to fay impious, occur pretty com¬
monly in the churches of Sicily. The cathedrals of
both Montreala and Palermo difplay the Divine Ma-
jefty with equal dignity. Over the walls of the cha¬
pel there are many pieces of granite, porphyry, and
ferpentine, cut into a round, or a fquare, or fome
other form, and fet like panes of glafs. Their edges
are encircled with varicus draughts in gold and colours;
decorations unqueftionably expenlive, as they are in¬
deed very finely executed in their kind. But it is
amazing that fuch irregularity of defign was admitted
in a building of fuch magnificence and raifed at fuch
an enormous expence. The pavement of the chapel
has been originally laid, and ft ill confifts in part of
large blocks of tin, porphyry, and ferpentine. Moil
of thefe are round ; ornamented with compartments of
draughts, and covered over, as well as the walls, with
incruftations of coloured Mofaic work. The feat defign-
ed for the viceroy is of the fame kind, and highly orna¬
mented. The candleltick intended to receive the wax-
lights at the fetlival of Eafter is of white marble.
All the riches of fculpture are laviflied on it with fuch
profulion as renders it a prodigy of labour; but in a
fantaflic unnatural tafte.
In a long gallery in the palace of the viceroy, ftand
two figures of rams in bronze, concerning which wa
find the following tradition.—Archimedes is faid to
have long ago erected in one of the public fquares of
Syracufe four columns with a brazen ram upon the top
of each. He is faid to have placed them there in fuch
a pofture, as that fome one of them always indicated
which of the four principal winds was blowing ; and it is
added, that they were fabricated with fuch art, that the
wind caufed them to utter founds exahlly fimilar to
the bleating of fheep ; and whenever any one of the
four bleated, he thereby gave notice that the wind was
blowing from that quarter towards which he ftoodi
It is certain (as travellers inform us) that the two
brazen rams in this gallery are perforated with fmaU
holes in their flanks, clofe to their thighs, and in other
places over their bodies ; and that by blowing through
thofe holes a found is produced pretty much like
the bleating of fheep. The wind appears to pafs
through the holes, and to iffue out at the mouth :
there might, however, be other holes in the pedeltal
on which the ram flood, or in other parts of the body,
which might contribute to produce the bleating j for tra¬
vellers agree in faying, that thofe which they could
obferve, do not appear to be fufficient to produce the
effed. The prince of Torre Muzza, one of the moll
enlightened men in Sicily, informed M. Houel, that
thefe two rams were dug up from among the ruins of
Syracufe in the fourteenth century: as they were bu¬
ried under-ground, they had probably lain there for
many centuries. They were bought by the Marquis
Geraci, of the family of Ventimiglia, and lay long in
hia
PAL
r 669 i
PAL
Palermo, his caftle. About the end of the fifteenth century
they were brought to Palermo, and placed in the pa¬
lace of the viceroy. It is not known what is become
of the other two. They are probably buried in feme
ancient ruins, and may be one day or other difcove-
red in digging for the foundation of fome new build¬
ing. The proportions of thefe two rams are larger
than nature. They are pieces of very fine workman-
jhip : both the heads and the horns are formed with
taide, delicacy, and truth; the wool is not fo well
executed; the'forms all together are not abfolutely
the fineft that might be felefted from among the whole
fpecies.
The cathedral of Palermo is dedicated to St Rofa*
lia. The Sicilians, though fo exceedingly devout,
have however neglcfted to repair it ; and it is at
prefent in a molt miferable ftate, as the interior parts
appear to be falling into ruins. Propofals have been
made for rebuilding it, and various plans have been
firown. ^
The prefent church appears to have been built by
the Counts Roger. The external parts are in a Go
thic tafte, and very heavy : within, it has been at dif¬
ferent periods repaired and embellifhed. The pillars
of the nave are adorned with pilafters of the Corin¬
thian order : thefe are joined by arches through which
you pafs to the fides of the building. In fome places
it is overloaded with ornaments, in others but very
poorly ornamented: viewed all together, it is fo defti-
tute of order or proportion as to be abfolutely ridicu¬
lous.
In a chapel on one fide of the cathedral are four Go¬
thic tombs of the fame period. They have been origi¬
nally farcophagi; and having efcaped the fate of moft of
the other works of antiquity, have been fpoiled by at¬
tempts to repair or improve them, and have been fet
up here to preferve the remains of fome of the kings
©f Sicily. The only thing about them that can de-
ferve attention is the beauty of the ftone : they are of
a fine red porphyry.
In the fame chapel there is a fine large tabernacle ;
the whole of which, when viewed without diftin&ion
of the parts, refembles the dome and the front-gate of
the Val-de grace at Paris. It is of rich lapisdazuli,
of the very fir ft colour. The whole of it isolated, and
the pillars are faid to be folid. All its ornaments are of
gilt brafs. And on the whole it is extremely beautiful.
Around the church are feveral ftatues of faints by
Guagini, the celebrated fculptor. On the way from
the cathedral down the Cafiero there is, on the right
hand, a fmall fquare, at the entrance of which ftands
a pedeflrian ftatue of Charles V. in bronze. Near the
place where the two great ftreets crofs ftands the fenate-
Loufe, in a fmall court before which there is a fine
marble fountain ; there are befides about this edifice
many curious fragments of antiquity. It would extend
this article beyond all proportion if we were to mention
all the curiofities which are to be found in Palermo.
We (hall now endeavour to give our readers an idea
of the internal government of the place, which we fhall
do in the words of Mr Hill.
“ The magiftrates appointed to preferve the order
of fcciety in this city are, firft, the fupreme judge, to
whom belongs the adminiftration of jultice in criminal
cafes;, he is the head of the nobility, and immediately
follows the viceroy in all the folemn functions. Second
ly, the praetor, who regulates the affairs of the city*
He is the perpetual deputy of the kingdom ; chief in
parliament of the order to whom appertains the right
of regulating the king’s demefne, and poffeffed of the
prerogative of captain-general during the abfence of
the viceroy. Thirdly, the praetorian court, which con-
fifts of three judges, citizens of Palermo, who are cho-
fen annually by the king. They affiil the lupreme
judge in the decifion of criminal affairs, and the prae¬
tor in the deliberations upon the finances; thefe two
officers, however, have neither vote nor fignature, ex¬
cept the praetor, in the bufinefs refpefting the public
bank and firft fruits. Fourthly, the fenate of Paler¬
mo, compofed of the praetor and fix praftitioners of
the law, named by the king, who wear the toga after
the manner of the ancient Roman fenators, and princi¬
pally infpedl the police which regards the grain and
provifions. There are befides feven great officers of
ftate, to each of which is affigned a peculiar employ¬
ment. Firft, II Maejlro Portelano, to whom is com¬
mitted the care of the public granaries, and who ma¬
nages the fale of the corn both at home and abroad.
The impofition of a tax upon this commodity has
nearly proved the ruin of agriculture, efpecially as the
exportation of it is prohibited to all thofe who are not
able to pay an exorbitant price for that privilege. The
quantity of corn annually produced in the ifiand does
not at prefent amount to more than a tenth part of
what was colledted in former years. Secondly, the
auditor-general, who paffes judgment without appeal
upon all offences committed within the precindts of the
palace. Thirdly, the high-admiral, whofe jurifdidtion
extends over rhe marine. Fourthly, the chancel¬
lor, who overlooks all the notaries of the kingdom^
prepares all official patents, reads the propofitions
when the parliament aifernbles, and at-the time of a
coronation tenders the oath of fidelity to the people,
and alfo proclaims that of the monarch, who thereby
binds himfelf to maintain and defend the privileges of
the city of Palermo. The fame ceremony takes place
upon the iaftallation of a viceroy. Fifthly, the protho-
notary of the queen’s chamber, who has«the infpec-
tiom of the demefnes of fix cities, viz. Syracufe, Len-
tini, Carlentini, St Filippo, Mineo, and Virini, which
were formerly appropriated to the queens of Sicily.
Sixthly, the chief fecretary, who prefides over the of¬
ficers appointed to receive the taxes and duties in the
places ot their refpe&ive jurifdidlions. And, feventhly,.
the lieutenant of the royal exchequer, who has the ad-
minillration of all effe&s that have been fequeftered or
confifcated.
“ Palermo is the principal refidence of the greater
part of the Sicilian nobility; and as it is not the cuftom
for any gentleman to walk in the ftreets, at leaft 1000
carriages are faid to be kept in the town. They are
for the moft part in the Englilh tafte, very elegant,
ffiown to the greateft advantage, with beautiful horfes
richly caparifoned, and as many footmen in fplendid
liveries as can be crowded together behind. Every
evening all the people of rank drive about in this man¬
ner on the grand public terrace by the fea-fide. There
are alfo very convenient hackney-coaches, covered
and open, waiting all day in their rel'peftive fta-
tions,”
Palermo.
1
PAL [ 670 ] PAL
It is very remarkable, that the dead in Palermo are the men, but are not expofed. Nobles are (hut up in
never buried. Captain Sutherland gives the following chells.”
account of this circumftance in his Tour to Conftan The number of the inhabitants is above 200.000 :
tinople. The dead bodies are carried to the capuchin
convent, which is one of the largeft in Italy; “ where,
alter the funeral fcrvice is performed, they are dried in
a ftove, heated by a compofition of lime, which makes
the (kin adhere to the bones. They are then placed
ere6t in niches, and fattened to the wall by the back or
neck. A piece of coarfe drab is thrown over the
fhoulders and round the watte ; and their hands are
tied together, holding a piece of paper with their epi¬
taph, which is limply their names, age, and when they
died. We of courfe (fays Captain Sutherland) vifited
this famous repolitory ; and it is natural to fuppofe,
that fo many corpfes would imprefs one with reverence
and awe. It was nearly dulk when we arrived at the
convent. We patted the chapel, where one of the or¬
der had juft finilhed faying vefpers, by the gloomy
glimmering of a dying lamp. We were then conduc¬
ed through a garden, where the yew, the cyprefs, and
the barren orange, obfeured the remaining light ; and
where melancholy filence is only dtfturbed by the hol¬
low murmuring of a feeble water-fall. All thefe cir-
cumftances tuned our minds for the difmalfcene which
we were going to behold ; but we had ttill to defeend
a flight of fteps impervious to the fun ; and thefe, at
latt, conveyed us to the dreary manfion of the dead.
But (will you believe me?) notwithttanding the chil¬
ling feene through which we had patted, notwith*
Handing our being in the midft of more than a thou-
fand liftlefs bodies, neither our refpedt for the dead,
nor for the holy fathers who conducted us, could pre¬
vent our fmiling. The phyfiognomies of the deceafed
are fo ludicroufly mutilated, and their mufcles are fo
contra&cd and diftorted in the drying, that no French
mimic could equal their grimaces. Mott of the corpfes
have loft the lower part of the nofe ; their necks are
generally a little twitted ; their mouths drawn awry in
one direction, their nofes in another ; their eyes funk
and pointed different ways ; one ear perhaps turned
up, the other drawn down. The friars foon obferved
the mirth which thefe unexpe&ed vifages occafioned ;
and one of them, as a kind of memento, pointed out to
me a captain of cavalry, who had juft been cut off in
the pride ef his youth ; but three months ago, he was
the minion of a king—the favourite of a princefa —
Alas! how changed! Even on earth there is no di-
ftindhon between him and the meaneft beggar. This
idea in a moment reftored my refle&ion ; and I felt
with full force the folly of human vanity. 1 turned
to the holy father, who gave me this leffon. His eyes
were fixed on what was once a captain of horfe—I
faw in them, ‘ Read this, titled pomp, and fhrink to
thy original nothingnefs. Hie thee to my lady’s
chamber, tell her, though fhe pa nt an inch thick, to
this mutt fhe come at laft—make her laugh at that.’
The relations of the deceafed are bound to fend two
wax taptrs every year for the ufe of the convent ; in
default of which, the corpfc is taken down and thrown
into the charnel houfe. Were it not for the number
cf vacancies occafioned by the nonpayment of this
ftipend, the capuchins would be unable to find niches
for the number of men who mutt die every year in fo
populous a city as this. Women are dried as well as
and the harbour, though very large, is not fo com¬
modious as might be expeded, and the veffels that ride
therein are not p.lways very fafe. There is a magnifi¬
cent cattle built near the fea-iide, wherein the viceroy
refides fix months in the year; and his prefence draws
a great number of nobility to this place. This city
has fuffered greatly by earthquakes, particularly in
1693 ; and it was greatly damaged by a fire in 1730,
when a magazine of powder was blown up, containing
400 tons. It ftands in a pleafant fruitful country on
the nerth-eaft coaft of the ifland, and at the bottom
of the gulph of the fame name. E. Long. 13. 23.
N. Lat. 38.15.
PALES, in Pagan worfhip, the goddefs of the
fhepherds; to whom they offered milk and honey, in
order that fne might deliver them and their flocks from
wild beads and infedious difeafes. This goddefs is re-
prefented as an old woman She was worlhipped with
great folemnity at Rome; and her feftivals, called Pa~
lilia, were celebrated on the 21ft of April, the very
day that Romulus began to lay the foundation of the
city of Rome. The ceremony of which confifted in
burning heaps of ftraw, and in leaping over them. Nn
facrifices were offered, but purifications were made
with the fmoke of horfes blood, and with the afhes of
a calf that had been taken from the belly of its mo¬
ther after it had been facrificed, and with the afhe*
of beans. The purification of the flocks was alfo made
with the fmoke of iulphur, of the oiivt, the pine, the
laurel, and the rofemary. Offerings of mild cheefe,
boiled wine, and cakes of millet, were afterwards made
to the goddefs. Some call this feftival Panha, quaji a
pariendo, becaufe the facrifices were offered to the di¬
vinity for the fecundity of the flocks.
PALESTINE, in its prefent ftate, is a part of A-
iiatic i'urkey, fituated between 31° 30 and 33J 2c/
north latitude, and between 340 50' and 37' 15’ call
longitude. It is bounded by Mount Libanus, which
divides it from Syria, on the north ; by Mount Hcr-
mon, which feparates it from Arabia Defcrta, on the
eaft ; by' the mountains of Seir and the defarts of A-
rabia Pc-trjea, on the fouth ; and by the Mediterra¬
nean fea on the weft.
This once fertile and happy fpot was firft called the
land of Canaan, or Chanaan, from Noah’s grandfon.
In Scripture, however, it is frequently diftinguiihed by
other names; fuch as the Lana of Promife, the Land of
God, the Land of Ifrael, &c. It received the name of
Palejiine from the Palefltnes or Phihfllnes, who poffeft’ed
a great part of it; and it had the name of fudaa, or
Judtea-Pa/eJlina., from Judah, the moil confiderable of
the twelve fons of Jacob. The Chriftians have deno¬
minated it the Holy Land; partly on account of the
many fingular blefiings it received from the Divine
Providence, and partly on account of its metropolis
being made the centre of God’s worfhip and his pe¬
culiar habitation ; but much more for its being the
place of our Saviour’s birth, the Icene of his preaching
and manifold miracles ; eipecially the place in which
he accomplifhed the great work of our redemption.
As to the name of Judaa, it did not begin to receive
that till after the return of the Jews from the Babylo-
8 nilh
Pal«>,
Faleltine.
PAL l 671 ] PAL
palcfline. nlf}\ captivity, though it had been ftyled long before
^ ' » the Kingdom of Judaht in oppofition to that of Ifrael,
which revolted from it under Jeroboam, in the reign of
Rehoboam the fon of Solomon. But after the return,
the tribe of Judah, the only one that made any figare,
fettling at Jerufalem, and in the countries aijacent,
quickly gave its name to the whole territory. By pro¬
fane authors it was called by many different names;
fuch as Syria, Paleftina Syria, Cadefyria, Iduma, Idu-
msea, and Phoenicia or Phoenice; but thefe are fuppo-
fed only to have been given out of contempt to the
Jewifh nation, whom they looked upon as unworthy of
any other name than what dhtinguifhed the mofl ob-
fcure parts of the neighbouring provinces.
That part of the country which was properly called
the Land of Promife, was inclofed on the weft by the
Mediterranean; on the eaft by the lake Afphaltites,
the Jordan, and the fea of Tiberias or of Galilee, and
the Samachonite lake ; to the north it had the moun¬
tains of Lib-mus, or rather of Antilibanue, or the pro¬
vince of Phoenicia; and to the fouth, that of Edom or
Idumaea, from which it was likewife parted by another
ridge of high mountains. The boundaries of the other
part, which belonged to the two tribes and an half
beyond the river Jordan, are not fo eaiily defined, as
well as thofe of the conquefts made by the more pro-
fperous kings of the Jews. All that can be fiid with
any probability is, that the river At non was the firft
northern boundary on that fide ; and with refpeft to
thofe on this lide the Jordan, there is a confiderable
difagreement between the Hebrew and Samaritan ver-
fions of the Pentateuch.
The extent of this country is likeivife varioufly fet¬
tled by geographers; feme giving it no more than 170
or 180 miles from north to fouth, and 140 in breadth
■where broadeft, though not much above half that
breadth where narroweft. But from the lateft and
rooft accurate maps, it appears to extend near 200
miles in length, and about 80 in breadth about the
middle, and about 10 or 15, more or lefs, where it
widens or {brinks.
The climate is certainly very happy, its fituation be¬
ing neither too far fouth nor too far north. The long-
eft day is not above 14 hours 15 minutes : But the li¬
mits of Paleftine appear fo fmall, confidering that the
country is likewife interfered by high ridges or moun¬
tains, woods, deferts, &c. that many learned men have
been induced to queftion what we read of its fertility
andpopuloufnefs in former times. It mull be owned, in¬
deed, that when we compare its ancient and flourilhing
fhte, when it was cultivated with the utmoft diligence
by perfons well /killed in every branch of agriculture,
with what it hath been fince the total extirpation of the
Jews out of it, and more efpecially fince it fell into the
hands of the Turks, the contrail is amazingly great :
but when we confider the many evident caufes which
have contributed to effed this change, and even yet
confider the nature of the country itfelf, we find not
the lead reafon to doubt the truth of what the facred
hiftorinns have related. Mofes describes the richnefs
of it in the ftrongeft terms, even before the Ifraelites
got poflcfiion of it. It even exceeded the land of E-
gypt, fo much celebrated by ancient hiflorians ; efpe¬
cially in the vaft numbers of cattle which it produced;
ia the quantity and excellence of its wine, oil, and
fruits. With refped to the oil and fruits, it is plain, Paleftine.
that the olives and oil of Canaan exceeded in goodnefs * *
thofe of Egypt, fince the tribes fent them thither from
thence ; and as for vines, Herodotus tells us, that the
Egyptians had none at all, but fupplied the want of
them by a liquor brewed from barley. The prefents
which Jacob fent to bis fon Jofeph, of honey, fpices,
myrrh, almonds, and other fruits of Paleftine, fhovv
that they mull have been much better in the land of
Judea than in Egypt. The wines of Gaza, Afcalon,
and Sarepta, were famous among the tnoft remote na¬
tions ; though it is allowed, that the wine which was
made at and in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, in
great quantities, was equal at leaft, if not fuperior, to
any of the reft: and that of Libanus, mentioned by
the prophet Hofea, was no lefs celebrated for its ex¬
cellent flavour.
Several cireurcflances contributed to this wonderful
fecundity: fuch as, the excellent temperature of the
air, which was never fubjedft to exceffive heats or colds;
the regularity of its feafons, efpecially the former and
latter rain; and the natural fatnefs and fertility of its
foil, vhich required neitlrer dunging nor manuring, and
could be ploughed with a fingle yoke of oxen and a
fmall kind of plough ; for the foil was, and is ftill, fo
fhallow, that to have gone deep into it, would rather
have endangered than improved the crop. With refperfl
to the excellency of its corn, we are told, that the bread
of Jerufalem was preferred above all other; and the
tribe of After produced the bell of both, and in
greater quantity than any other tribe; and fuch plen-
ty was there of it, that, befides what fufficed the in¬
habitants, who made it their chief fuftenance, Solo¬
mon, we read, could afford to fend 20,000 cors, or
meafures, of it, and ag many of oil, yearly, to Hiram
king of Tyre ; befides what they exported into other
countries. And wc find, even fo late as King Herod,
furnamed Agrippa, the countries of Tyre and Sidon
received moft of their fuftenance from his tetrarchy.
As to their fruits, the grapes were delicious, finely
flavoured, and very large. The palm tree and its
dates were in no iefs requeft; and the plain of Jericho,
among other places, was famed for the great plenty
and excellence of that fruit; infomuch, that the me¬
tropolis of that territory was emphatically fly led the
city of palm-trees. But what both this plain, and
other parts of Paleftine, were moft celebrated for,
was the balfam fhrub, vvhofe balm was efteemed fo
precious a drug among the Greeks, Romans, Egyp¬
tians, and other nations, and is ftill to this day under
the name of halm of Gilead. They had likewife the
greateft variety of other fruit-trees in the higheft per-
fesSlion ; and which might be, in fome fenfe, ftyled
perpetual, becaufe they were not only covered with a
conftant verdure, but becaufe the new buds always
appeared on the fame boughs before the old fruit was
ripe; and of thofe buds, which were in too great
quantities to be allowed to come to maturity, they
gathered enough to make very delightful pickles and
fweetmeats, efpecially of their citrons, oranges, and
apples of paradife, which lafl commonly hung by hun¬
dreds in a clufter, and as big as hens eggs, and of aij
excellent tafte and flavour. Their vines yielded grapes
twice, and fometimes three times, a year, great quan¬
tities of which were dried up, and preferved for ufe, as
well
PAL [ 67a 1 PAL
Paleftme, well as their figs, plums, and other fruits. They had
plenty of honey ; the very trees diftilled it; and the
rocks yielded it in great quantities : but whether that
of the latter kind was there depofited by the indu-
ftrious bees, or produced fome other way, is much dif-
puted by travellers and naturalifts. They likewife
cultivated fugar-canes in great abundance } and the
cotton, hemp, and flax, were moftly of their own
growth and manufacture, except fome of a finer foit,
that were brought to them from Egypf> and worn by
thofe of the higher rank. Their vicinity to Libanus
made the cedars, cypieffes, and other ftately fragrant
trees, very common in moft parts of the land, but
more efpecially in Jerufalem. Cattle, both large and
fmall, they fed in vail quantities; and the hilly coun¬
tries not only afforded them variety and plenty of pa-
ilure, but alfo of water, which deicended thence into
the valleys and lowlands, and fertilized them to the
degree we have feen ; befides feveral other rivers and
brooks, fome of the moil remarkable of which we
(hall fpeak of in their proper places. But the moil
fertile pafture grounds were thofe on each fide the ri¬
ver Jordan ; befides thofe of Sharon, or Sarona, the
plains of Lydda, Jamnia, and fome others then juflly
famed for their fecundity. As for fifli, the rivers above-
mentioned, the hke of Tiberias, and -the Mediterra¬
nean lea, afforded, as they do to this day, great plen¬
ty and variety. Vail quantities were brought to Je¬
rufalem, on which the inhabitants moftly fubfifted*
and hence one of the gates of that metropolis was, ac¬
cording to St Jerome, called thtfjh-gate. The lake
Afphaltites yielded fait in abundance, wherewith to
feafon and preferve their fifh, which Galen affirms to
have been preferable to any other for wholefomenefs,
digellton, and extenuation. In ftiort, the Scripture is
fo pregnant with proofs of the extraordinary richnefs
and fecundity of this once happy land, and the vaft
number of people that lived in k, almoft wholly upon
its product, to fay nothing of the vaft exports of its
corn, wine, oil, raifins, and other fruits, &c. that a
man muft have taken a ftrange warp to infidelity, that
can call it in queftion, merely on account of the melan¬
choly and quite oppofite figure it now makes under its
prefent tyrannical government.
But its fertility has been called in queftion ; and
Voltaire and other infidel writers have raifed difficul¬
ties and objections againft the authority of Scripture,
from the pretended fterility of the land of Judea. In
anfwer to which, the Abbe Guenee, about the year
j 780, communicated to the academy of inferiptions
and belles lettres at Paris, Two Memoirs concerning the
Fertility of Palefline, - in order to (ho w that fuch objec¬
tions had no folid foundation.
In the firft of them, the author proves, that from
the captivity of Babylon to the war of Adrian, Judea
was always confidered as a rich and fertile country.
The pofitive and multiplied authorities of the writers
of that period, Jews, Greeks, and Romans, not only
atteil in general the fertility of that country, but
many of thefe writers, entering into a particular de¬
tail of circumftances, prove it from the nature of the
climate, the qualities of the foil, and the excellencies
and variety of its produClions. Thefe are confirmed
by proofs of another kind, but which are of a very
257.
convincing nature, even thofe refulting from a great Paleftln*.
number of medals ftruck under the reigns of the kings
of Syria and Judea, and under the Romans, both by-
Jews and Pagans, and which all bear the fymbols of a
rich fertility. To thefe proofs are added a multitude
of fads, recorded in the hiftory of the Jews during
this period ; the efforts of the neighbouring kings to
conquer their country ; the long and bloody wars that
the Jews carried on with vigour, and fometimes with
fuccefs, againft powerful princes and nations; the tri¬
bute and taxes they paid to the kings of Egypt and
Syria, to the Romans, and to their own princes ; the
magnificence of their fovereigns, and among others of
Herod ; the troops he raifed and kept on foot; the
temples, fortreftes, palaces, and cities, which he ereft-
ed and embellfthed, not only in his own country, but
alfo in Syria, Afia Minor, and even in Greece ; the irn-
menfe fums he laviftied among the Romans, the dona¬
tions he made to his own people, and the vaft treafures
which he left behind him: all thefe circumftances
concur in proving the fertility and riches of Paleftine
during that period.
In the fecond memoir, the Abbe Guenee confidera
the ftate of Paleftine as it was from the time of the
Emperor Adrian to the caliphate of Omar, which
comprehends a period of four centuries. Irom fundry
fa£ts he (hows, that it could not then have been the
barren country which it has been reprefented by fome
fceptical writers. He particularly mentions the pro-
je<ft formed by Adrian of rebuilding and embellilhing
Jerufalem, of forming it into a Roman colony, and gi¬
ving it his own name ; a projeA of which he could
never have entertained a thought, if Judea, which he
had feen and examined with his own eyes, had appear¬
ed to him fuch a barren and wretched country, as it is
faid to t,e by fome who have neither feen that country
nor examined the matter with care and attention.
Our author alfo produces a variety of other fafts, to
ffiow that Judea, after all that it had fuffered from the
defolations of war both in ancient and later times, ftill
remained at the period in queftion fertile, rich, and
populous. This is the idea which the writers of the
lime, Pagan and Chriftian, as well as Jewifti, have
given of Paleftine. Antoninus Martyr, a citizen of
Placentia, who in the 6th century travelled to Pale¬
ftine, and compofed an account of his voyage, which
is ftill extant, fays, that the canton of Nazareth was
not inferior to Egypt in corn and fruits ; and that
though the territory of that city was not very exten-
live, it abounded in wine and oil, and excellent honey.
The country about Jericho appeared to him ftill more
fertile. He favv mount Tabor, which he reprefents as
furrounded with cities: and he obferved, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Jerufalem, vineyards, great plantations of
fruit trees, and through the whole country a confide-
rable number of hofpitals, monafteries, and beautiful
edifices. Our learned Abbe, in concluding his work,
acknowledges, that the opulence and fertility of Judea
might begin to diminifh towards the middle of the pe¬
riod treated of in his fecond memoir: but he does not
think that any argument can be drawn from hence
againft its having been at the commencement of this
period in a flouriffiing ftate ; and much lefs can any
proof be brought from hence, that in preceding pe¬
riods,
PAL [ 673 ] P' A L
Paleftme. riods, un^er the kings, or under the adminiftration of plains of Ramah, Efdfaelon, and Zabulutl, is in gre3t* PalefHne.
~'r' Mofes, the country of Paleftine was a barren and im- er efteem than what is cultivated near Sidon and Tri- '—nr”*
cultivated diftridt. poli. Neither is it poflible for pulfe, wheat, or any
Befides, it ought to be confidered, that it was then fort of grain, to be more excellent than what is fold
inhabited by an induftrious people, who knew how to at Jerufal'em. The barrennefs, or fcarcity rather, which
itnprove every inch of their land, and had made even fome authors may, either ignorantly or malicioufly,
the mo ft defart and barren places to yield fome kind complain of, doth not proceed from the incapacity or
of productions, by proper care and manure : fo that natural imfruitfulnefs of the country, but from the
the very rocks, which now appear quite bare and na- want of inhabitants, and the great sverfion there is to
ked, were made to produce corn, pulfe, or pafture; labour and induftry in thofc few who pollef? it. There
being, by the induftry of the old inhabitants, covered are, befidea, fuch perpetual difcords and depredations
with mould, which, through the lazinefs of the fuc- among the petty princes who ihare this fine country,
ceeding proprietors, has been fince wafhed off with that, allowing it#was better peopled, yet there would
rains and ftorms. We may add, that the kings them- be fmall encourag-ement to fow, when it was uncertain
felves were not above encouraging all kind of agricul- who fhould gather in the harveft. Otherwife, the
ture, both by precept and example; and, above all, land is a good land, and ftill capable of affording its
that they had the divine bldling promifed to their ho- neighbours the like fupplies of corn and oil which it is
neft endeavours and induftry: whereas it is now, and known to have done in the time of Solomon,”
hath been long fince, inhabited by a poor, lazy, indo- And Voiney, in his Travels in Egypt and Syria, Valney's
lent people, groaning under an intolerable fervitude obferves, that though the whole of Paleftine is almcft Trawls^,
and all manner difcouragements ; by which their an entire level plain, without either river or rivulet in vo^ **•
averiion to labour and agriculture, farther than what fummer, and only watered by the winter torrents, the
hardy ferves to fupply their prefent wants, is become foil is yet good, and may even be termed fertile j fo
in a manner natural and invincible. We may farther when the winter rains do not fail, every thing fprings
obferve, after the judicious Mr Maundrell, that there up in abundance; and the earth, which is black and
is no forming an idea of its ancient flouriflring ftate, fat, retains moifture fufficient for the growth of graifi
when under the influence of heaven, from what it is and vegetables during the fummtr. More doura, fe-
now under a vifible curfe. And, if we had not fe- famum, water-melons, and beans, are fown here than
veral concurring tellimonies from profane authors, in any other part of the country. They alfo raife
who have extolled the fecundity of Pakftine, that Angle cotton, barley, and wheat; but though the latter be
one of Julian the apoftate, a fworn enemy to Jews and moft efteemed, it is lefs cultivated, for fear of too
Chriftians, as well as to all the facred writings, would much inviting the avarice of the Turkifh governors
be more than fufficient to prove it ; who frequently and the rapacity of the Arabs.
makes mention, in his epiftles, of the perpetuity, as Judea, in its largeft fenfe, wras divided into mari-
wcll as excellence and great abundance, of its fruits time and inland, as well as into mountainous and cham-
and produft. The vifible effefts of God’s anger, pain ; and again fubdivided into Judea on this fide,
which this country has felt, not only under Titus Vef- and Judea beyond Jordan. But the moft confiderable
pafian (when myriads of inhabitants were either flain, divifion is that which w^as made among the twelve
or periffied by the moft fevere famine, peftilence, and tribes, by lot, to prevent all murmuring and difeon-
other calamities ; and the reft fold for flaves, into all tent among that ftubborn people* ; of thefe, two and * Jofli. xfr.
lands; and new colonies fent to repeople it ; who a half were feated beyond Jordan, and the reft on this 2. &c,
found it in fuch a defolate ftate, as quite difeouraged fide. The next remarkable divifion was made by king
them from reftoring it to its priftine fruitfulnefsj; but Solomon, who divided his king’dom into twelve pro-'
much more fince that emperor’s time, in the inunda- vinces or diftridfs, each under a peculiar officer ; and
tions ol the northern barbarians, of the Saracens, and every one of thefe was to fupply the king with provi-
of the more cruel and deftru&ive Chriftians during fions for his houfehold in his turn; that is, each for one
1 ,e ll)‘y ,^,rar’. an<* t^e oppreffion it now feels month in the yearf. But the moft fatal divifion off 1 Kings,
under the Furkiffi yoke ; may be eafily owned to be all was, that which obtained under his imprudent foa^v‘ ^:c*
more th in fufficient to have wrought the difmal change Rehoboam ; when ten of the twelve tribes revolted,
w'e are (peaking of, and to have reduced the far great- under the condudt of Jeroboam, who became head of
er part into a mere defart. . this new monarchy, ftyled the kingdom of Ifrael, in op-
Ncvertheleft, if we may credit thofe who have view- polition to that of Judah, the title which diilinguifhed
ed it in this doleful condition, they will tell us, there the maimed kingdom of Rehoboam from that time
are hill fuch vifible figns of its natural richnefs and downwards. Under the feccnd temple the diftin&ion
feitiiity, as plainly (how, that the bare want of cul- lafted a confiderable time, and the fame bloody hatred
tail is the main it not the only caufe of its prefent po- and hoftilities continued between thefe two kingdoms;
VcJty.and k?‘nennefs. We (hall hint, as a farther proof that of lirael taking the name of Samaria from its ca-
ol tnio, w. at a karned traveller hath lately written of piVal. The inhabitants were a mixture of the old
U V/Vp, hiL°r ?' ^rVat’0nS‘ Ifraelites, and of new colonies fent thither by the kings
I he Holy Land (fays Dr Shaw), were it as well of Affyria after their conqueft of it, till they were fub-
peopled and cultivated as in former times, w'ould ftill dued by the Maccabees, and their metropolis deftroyed.
be rncie fruitful than the very left part of the coaft of Under the Romans it be^an to be divided into tetrar-
v yi:a and Phcenice ; for the foil is generally much ehies and toparchies: the larger were thofe of Judea,
...Kj-.t-r, and, all tilings confidered, yields a prefe- Samaria, and Galilee, Upper and Lower; the leffer,
ra jTe croP- ^mis fhe cotton that is gathered in the thofe of Geraritica, Sarona, and otheis of lefs note#
Vql. XIII. Part II. 4
PAL
Pdeftine, all which lay on this fide of the Jordan.
« ae^nnai the other fide, were thofe of Gilead, Persea, Gaulo-
nitis, Auranitis, Batanea, and Decapolis. Jofephus
| lib. mentionsJ another divifion made in Gabinius’s time
v' into five difirifts, or, as he fiyles them, crwif'-io, or
councils, agreeable to the Roman manner : thefe were
Jerufalem, Jericho, and Sephoris on this fide Jordan ;
and Gadaris and Amathus on the other. In the reigns
of the Chriftian emperors, it was divided afre'h into
Paleftina Prima, Paleftina Secunda, and Palefiina Ter-
tia or Salutanh ; which laft included the far greater
part, if not the whole country, as is known to all who
are acquainted with hifiory. On that account we
fii all wave all other divifions and changes that hap¬
pened to it under the northern bar! arians, Saracens,
&c. and conclude this article with the prefent ftate
and divifion of it under the Turks.—The whole coun¬
try of Paleftine is now reduced to a diftrift or pro¬
vince, un :er the beglerbegate or bafiafhip of Scham
or Damafcus, who hath the feven following fangiacs
or fubgovernors under him, Hyled, according to the
different places of their refidence, I. The fangiac of
Damafcus, who is under the bafha of that province ;
2. Of Jerufalem, or, as the Turks call it, Cudjembaric
or Coudfcherf; 3. Aglum ; 4. Bahara ; 5. Scifiit ;
6. Gaza ; 7. Nabolos. Each of thefe has a number
of ziamets, and each ziamet a number of timariots un¬
der them; for the better underftanding of which terms,
we fhall refer our readers to Sir Paul Ricaut’s account
of the Ottoman empire. At prefent it will be fuffi-
cient to fay of tbefe inferior fubdivifions, under the
fangiac of this diftridl, orfangiacate of Jerufalem, that
it hath nine of the former and fixteen of the latter
clafs. Neither muff the reader imagine thefe fangia-
cates or fnb-governments to be any thing confiderable,
or the rtfidence of thTe officers to be places of any
note or opulence. The former indeed live by oppref-
fmg the people under them, and extort contributions
of every thing that comes within their reach, fuch as
the proteftion of travellers, merchants, and caravans ;
but being all under their refpedtivi bafhas, who are ftill
more griping than their underlings, they are common
ly fleeced of feme confiderable part of their urjuft
gains. As for the places of their refidence, except it
be here and there one in a confiderable city, as at Da¬
mafcus and Jerufalem, the reft are either fome old ci¬
ties or even inconfiderable villages.
There are a variety of curiofitics in Paleftine both
natural and artificial; but they are fo very numerous
as almoft to preclude defeription : we therefore refer
our readers to the Ancient Univerfal Hi,lory, Vol. ! 1.
where they are mentioned and particularly deferibed.
The principal mountains, rivers, and other places of
note, h-ve already been, or will be, noticed under their
refpedlive names.
PALES ; RINA, a town of Italy, in the Campag-
na di Roma, with a biftiop’s fee. It is the capital of a
principality of the fame name, and. the biftrop is one of
the fix cardinal bifhops. Jt was anciently famous for the
temple of Eortune, being then called Prxnejle, and
feated on the top of a mountain, the ruins of which
may yet be feen. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 41. 51.
Palestrina, is one of the largeft and moft popu¬
lous of the iflands called the Laguaes, near Venice,
[ 674 i PAL
The reft, on and where the moft confiderable of the noblemen have
houfes of pleafure. It is 15,000 paces in length and
400 in breadth ; the principal harbour has alfo the
fame name.
PALFIN (John), an eminent furgeon, anatomift,
and reader in furgery at Ghent, the place of his birth}
acquired great reputation by his learning and works.
The principal of thefe are, 1. A Treatife on Olleolo-
gy, in izmo, Paris, 1731. 2. Anatomy of the Hu¬
man Body, in 2 vols Bvo, Paris, 1734. He died at
Ghent at a great age, in 1 730.
PALFREY, is one of the better fort of horfes ufed
by noblemen or others for ftate ; and fometimes of
old taken for a horfe fit for a woman to ride. Cam¬
den fays, that WilliaiTi Fauconberge held the manor of
Cukeny, in the county of Nottingham, in fergeantry,
by the- fervice of fhoeing the king’s palfrey when tire
king fhould come to Mansfield
PALICAUD, or Palgatcherry, a fortrefs of
confijerable ftrength in India, which commands the
paffage between the two coafts of Malabar and Coro¬
mandel, by way of the Tritchinopoly and Coimbettore
countries: there is alfo a communication with it thro*
the Nayrc country. It is in the hands of the Engliih;
and is of great importance to them, becaufe, as Coim¬
bettore is in the hands of Pippoo, by our holding
this place on the weft, and Dindigul on the eaft of
Coimbettore, the province is rendered of little ufe to
Tippoo in time of war, unlefs he keeps a very large
force there to protect it. See Memoir of a Map of
the Peninfula of India by Major Rennel.
PALICATE, a fea port town of India, on this
fide of the Ganges It is feated on the coaft of Co¬
romandel, in the kingdom of Carnate, 70 miles north
of Fort St George. Here the Dutch have a fadlory,
and fort called the Fort of Guelderland. E. Long. 80. 1.
N. Lat. 13. 34.
PALICI, or Palisci (fab. hift.), two deities, fons
of Jupiter by Thalia, whom iEfchylus, according
M icrobius, calls JEtna, in a tragedy which is loft. The
nymph iEtna, when pregnant, begged Jupiter to re¬
move her from the purfuit of Juno. Upon which he
concealed her in the bowels of the earth ; and when
the time of her delivery arrived, the earth opened
and brought into the world two children, to whom
were given the name of Pallettod 7ia.\iv ixtcrStti, becaufe
they cams again into the world from the bowels of the earth.
Thefe deities were worlhipped with many ceremonies
by the Sicilians; and near their temple were two final!
lakes, which were fuppofed to have fprung out of the
earth when they were born. Near thefe pools it was
ufual to take the molt folemn oaths when any body
wifhed to decide controverfies and quarrels. If any of
the perfons who took the oaths were perjured, they
were immediately punched fupernaturally ; and thofe
whofe oath, by the deities of the place, was fincere,
departed unhurt. The Palici had alfo an oracle, which
was confulted upon fome great emergencies, and which
rendered the trueft and moft unequivocal anfwers. Irt
a fuperflitious age, the altars of the Palici were ftained
with the blood of human facrifices; but this barbarous
cuftom did not laft long, as the deities were fatisfied
with the ufual offerings.
PALINDROMUS, a verfe or fentcnce which runs
the
raffia
PAL [ 6?? ] PAL
falinge- the fame when read either backwards or forwards.
Dt’|ia Such is the verfe,
Palifades. Roma till fubito motibus ibit amor.
Some people of leifure have refined upon the Palindro-
mus, and compofed verfes, each word of which is the
fame backwards as forwards ; for inilance, chat of
Camden :
Odo tenet muhm, madidam mafpam tenet Anna.
Anna tenet mappam madidam, mulum tenet Odo.
PALINGENESIA, among divines, the fame with
regeneration. Among chemitts, it denotes the produ¬
cing of a body from its principles.
PALI NGEN1US (Marcellos), well known by a
poem divided into 12 books, and intitled Zodiacus Fit<e,
which he was ftveral years of comoofing, and dedica¬
ted to Hercules 11. of Efte, duke of Ferrara. Some
fay he was phyfician to the prince ; others rank him
among the learned Lutherans, to whom the duchefs of
Ferrara gave a reception in her court, and honoured
with her protection. His Zodiac contains good things,
and is a philofophical fatire againit immorality and
falfe prejudices. Thpugh this poem has borne a mul¬
titude of imprefiions, the author's life is but little
known. He died fome time between the years 1537
and 1543.
P.aLINODY, a difeourfe contrary to a preceding
one : hence the phrafe of palinodiam canere was taken
for a recantation.
PALINURI promontorium (Virgil, Velleius),
with a cognominal port, was fituated at the fouth ex¬
tremity of the Sinus Pseltanus, on the coaft of Luca-
nia; fo called from Palinurus, vEneas’s fleerfman, who
there perifhed (Mela, Dionytius Halicarnaffeus).
PALINURUS (fab. hill.), aEneas’s pilot, v/hofe
fate Virgil very particularly defcribcs. Fie fell into
the feu when afieep ; and was three days expofed to
the tempclls and its agitation, and at laft came fitfe
afiiore, where the cruel inhabitants of the place mur¬
dered him to get his clothes. His body was left un¬
buried on the fea-lhore ; and fince, according to the
religion of the old Romans, no one could crofs the
Stygian lake before 100 years were elapfed, if his re
mains had not been decently bunt'd, we find iEneas,
when lie went down to hell, fpeaking to Palinurus, and
alluring him, that though his bones were deprived of a
funeral, yet the place where his body was expofed
fhould foon be adorned with a monument, and bear
his name ; and accordingly a promontory was called
Ralinurus.
PALISADES, in fortification, flakes made of
flrong fplic wood, about nine feet long, fix or feven
inches fquare, three feet deep in the ground, in rows
about two juid an half or three inches afunder, placed
in the covert way, at three feet from, and parallel to,
the par. pet or fide of the glacies, to fecure it from
furprife. 7 hey are alfo ufecl to fortify the avenues of
open torts, gorges, half moons, the bottoms of ditches,
and in general all pods liable to furprife. They are
ufually fixed perpendicularly, though fome make an
angle inclining towards the ground next the enemy,
that the ropes call over them to tear them up may
flip ofF.
Turning Rjusjois; an invention of Mr Coehorn,
in order to preferve the palifades of the revert way PalilTe
from the befiegers fhot. They are fo ordered, that , N
as many of them as Hand in the length of a rod, or Palja^lum*J
about ten feet, turn up and down like traps, fo as not v U
to be in fight of the enemy till they juft bring on their
attack ; and yet are always ready to do the proper
fervice of palifades.
PALISSE, in heraldry, a bearing like a range of
palifades before a fortification, reprefented on a fefie,
rifing up a confiderable height, and pointed a top, with
the field appearing between them.
PALIURUS, in botany. See Rhamnus
PALL, in heraldry, a figure like a Greek r, about
the breadth of a pallet ; it is by fome heralds called
a crofs-pally on account of its being looked upon as an
archiepifcopal bearing.
PALL A, in Roman antiquity, a mantle which wo¬
men wore over the gown called}?<?/«. It was borne on
the left Ihoulder ; whence palling to the other fide,
under the right arm, the two ends were bound under
the left arm, leaving the breaft and arm quite hare. It
had a great many folds, and derived its name from
Taxxa)} to fhake or tremble.
PALLADIO (Andrea), a celebrated Italian ar-
chitedl of the 16th century, was a native of Vicenza
in Lombardy, and the difciple of Trillin. He made
exaft drawings of the principal works of antiquity t®
be met with at Rome, adding commentaries to them,
which went through feveral impreffions. But this,
though a very ufeful work, was greatly exceeded by
the Treatife of Architecture in four books, which he
publifhed in 1570. Inigo Jones wrote fome excel¬
lent remarks on it ; which were included in an edi¬
tion of Palladio, publiihed by Leoni, in two vols folio,
1742-
PALLADIUM, in antiquity, a ftatue of the god-
defs Pallas It was about three cubits high, and re-
prefented the goddefs lifting and holding a pike in her
right hand, and in her left a diftaff and a fpindle. It
fell down from heaven near the tent of llus, as he was
building the citadel of Ilium. Some, however, fup-
pofe, that it fell at Ptflinus in Phrygia; or, according
to others, Dardanus got it as a prefent from his mo¬
ther EleUra. I here are fome who maintain, that the
palladium was made with the bones of Pelops by Aba-
ris ; but Apollodorus fays, that it was no more than a
piece of clock-work which moved of icfelf. However
various the opinions of ancient authors be about this
celebrated ftatue, it is univerfally allowed, that on iu
prefervation depended the fafety of Troy. Phis fa¬
tality the Greeks, during the Trojan war, were well
aware of; and therefore Ulylfes and Diomedes were
commiflioned to Ileal it. This they effected ; and if
we can rely upon the authority of fome, they were di¬
rected how to carry it away by Helenus a fon of Pri¬
am, who in this betrayed his country, becaufe hia
brother Deiphobus, at the death of Paris, had mar¬
ried Helen, of whom he was enamoured. Minetva
was enraged at the violence offered to her ftatue; and,
according to Virgil, the palladium itlelf feemed to
have received life and motion ; and by the fhHies
which fL.rted from its eyes, and fudden fprings from
the earth, it feemed to ihovv the re'entment of the
goddefs. 1 he true p Uadium, as is obferved by fome,
was not cRrried away from Troy by the Greeks, but
4 0^2 oH y
PAL [ 676 ] PAL
Palladius only a ftatne of fimilar Cne and fhape, which was
Palhmcini P^ace<^ near to deceive whatever faerilegious perfona
^ attempted to fteal it. The palladium, therefore, aa
they maintain, iEneas conveyed fafe from Troy to
Italy, and it was afterwards preferved by the Romans
with the grenteft fecreey and veneration in the tem¬
ple of Vefta; a circumftance which none but the veftal
virgins knew. It was efteemed the deftiny of Rome ;
and there were feveral others made perfectly like it, to
fecure it from being ftoien, as was that at Troy, which
the oracle of Apollo declared fhould never be taken fo
long as the palladium was found within‘its wads. A
palladium was alfo placed by Nicias in the citadel of
A then s-
PALLADIUS, bifhop of Helenopolis in Bithy-
nia, and then of Afpona. He was a Galatian, and
born at Cappadocia. He became an Anchorite yi
the mountain of Nebria in 388, and was confecrated
a bidiop in 401. He was an intiirute friend of St
John Chryfoftom, whom he never forfook during the
time of his perfecution, nor even in his exile. He
went to Rome fome time alter Chryfoftom’s death,
and at the requeft of Laufus governor of Cappadocia,
compofed the hiftory of the Anchorites or Hermits,
and intitied it Lauftaca, after the name of that lord,
to whom he dedicated it in 420, when it was written,
Being then in the 20th year of his epifcopacy, and
53d of his age. Palladius was accufed of being an
Origeniil. It is true, he was an enemy to St Jerome,
of whom he does not fpeak well, and was intimately
connected with Ruffinus ; but perhaps no good proof
can be brought of his Origenifm. He had been the
Viifciple of Evagrias of Pontus, and was even fufpe<.d-
ed of entertaining the fentiments of Pelagius. He
died in the 5th century, but in what year is not cer¬
tain. His Hiftory was publifned in Greek by Meut-
iius at Amfterdam in 1619, and in Latin in the Bi-
hliotheca Pair urn : but ht feems not to have been the
writer of the Life of St John Chryfoftom, in Greek
and Latin by M. Bigot, printed in 1680.
PALLAS, a freed man of Claudius, jcelebrated for
the power and the riches which he obtained. He ad-
-vifed the emperor his mailer to marry Agrippina, and
to adopt her fon Nero for his fucceffor. It was
through him and Agrippina that the death of Clau¬
dius was haftened, and that Nero was raifed to the
throne. Nero, however, forget to whom he was in¬
debted for it. He difearded Pallas, and fome time
after caufed him to be put to death, that he might
procure his great liches.
PALLAV1C1NI (Ferrante), an Italian wst of
confiderable note, was defeended from a blanch of
a noble family feated in Placentia, where he wa«
torn about the clofe of the i6th century. He foon
gave great proofs of an extraordinary genius, and
quickly acquired a mafterly knowledge in the ele¬
ments of claflical erudition. He was afterwards fent
to complete his education in the monaftery of Angu-
11 iu friars at Milan, where he took the habit, lived
much efteemed, improved himfelf in piety as well as
learning, and rdifed great expectations of future fame;
but being fomewhat amoroufly inclined, he engaged
in an intrigue with a young courtezan of Venice,
whofe charms proved irrefiftible ; and in order to en¬
joy them without reftnunt, he obtained leave from his
general to make the tour of France. Accordingly, Pallavidm.
he pretended to fet out for that country ; but it was
only a blind to cover his real defign. He never left
Venice, but lived there privately, inchanted in the
arms of his Venus: and having too ready a talent at
invention, he impofed upon his friends, by of’ten fend¬
ing them in letters feigned accounts of his travel#
through France ; alfo informing them of feveral things
refpecling that court, which he learned from the ad¬
vices of many confiderable perfons with whom he cor-
refponded.
Hismoney inthe meantime flew with expanded wings,
and he foon found his purfe much drained. In this
exigence he naturally had recourfe to his wits for fup-
plies. He wrote for the bookfellers ; an 1 compofed
feveral pieces, more for the fake of lucre than out of
fondnefs for authorfhip. Among other things, he
wrote a colledtion of letters, moftiy fatirical, which he
called the Centner robbed of his Mail. The work ap¬
peared at firft in fuch a call, as could not give great
offence except to the Spaniards, againft whom he had
fome grudge. The piece was accordingly licenfed by
the inquifitors ; but falling into the hands of the fe-
cretary of the republic of Venice, who at that time
was licenfer of books, he would not give his imprima¬
tur, though great iuterefl was employed for that pur-
pofe, neither would he return the manufeript. This
enraged Pallavicini fo much, that had not his friends
reftrained him, he would have purfued the affair to
his ruin.
At length he found an opportunity of travelling
into Germany with duke Amalfi as his chaplain.—
This journey, as was to be expected, had no good ef-
fedi either upon his wit or his morals. On the con¬
trary, finding himfelf, from the manners of the Ger¬
mans, more, at liberty, he indulged his genius and paf-
fions with greater eafe ; and after a refidence there of
upwards of a year with the duke, he returned to Ve¬
nice, with a face marked all over with blotches like
the evil, and a fpirit refolved to facrifice to his re-
fentment at the nlk of his life. He was rcfolved to
have his full meafure of revenge againft the fecretary
of the republic for keeping his manufeript; and with
him his refentment joined the family of the Barbtrini,
pope Urban VIII. and his nephews, becaufe they alio
endeavoured, at the inftigation of the Jefuits, to get
all his manuferipts forbid the prefs. In this rancorous
fpirit he call his Courier into a new mo4cl, and en¬
larged it with many letters and difeourfes. Thus new
modelled, he offered it to a bookfeller, who undertook
to get it printed ; but our author was betrayed by a
ptetended friend, who acted the part of a fpy, and in¬
formed the archbifhop of Vhtelii, then the Pope’s nun¬
cio at Venice, juft as the work was finifhed at the
prefs : at the fame time, this treacherous friend bought
the whole impreftion ; and upon the nuncio’s com¬
plaint, Pallavicini was imprifoned. In this miferable
condition he tound a friend in one of his miftrefles,
who, feeing him abandoned by moft of his patrons,
not only iupported him, but conveyed letters to him,
by which fhe gave him fuch informations as enabled
him to make a proper defence, and to recover his li¬
berty.
But a war having in the mean time broke out be¬
tween the Barberim and the duite of Parma} Palla-
vicini,
PAL
[ 677 ]
PAL
Fallavicini. vic'ni, in order to revenge himfelf upon the fuppofed in
y ftrumcnts of his imprifonment» wrote a piece mtitled
« The tinkling Inrtrument to call together the Bar-
berini Bees and dedicated }t in terms of th« pro-
foundtll contempt to the nuncio Vitelii. The nuncio
finding that little notice was taken, of his complaints
on the occafion, procured by bribery one Charles
Morfu, a Frenchman of infamous charaSer, who pre¬
tended to pafs for a gentleman, to enfnare Pallavicini:
to which end, the traitor ufed his left endeavours to
inlinuate himfelf into his friendfhip, and at length ex¬
horted him to accompany him to France. He de¬
clared that his fortune would be made by the extraor¬
dinary encouragement which*wfi3 given to men of let¬
ters by Cardinal Richelieu ; and the better to favour
the deceit, he produced feigned letters from the Car¬
dinal, inviting our author to France, and expreulng a
defire he had to eftabliih in Paris an academy for the
Italian tongue, under the dire&ion of Pallavicini. I ne
fnare took ; and now, falcinated by the prolpect ct
gain, Pallavicini fulfered himfelf to be led like an ox
to the daughter, whitherfoever Morfu thought pro¬
per. He left Venice much againft the advice of his
friends, and went firll to Bergamo, where he fpenp a
few days with fome ol his relations, by way or. giving
fome entertainment to Morlu. They then fet oft for
Geneva, to the great fatisfa&ion of our author, wno
pro:rofed to get fome of his works printed there, which
be had not been able to do in Italy. Morfu, how¬
ever, inftead of conducing him to Paris, took the
roai to Avignon 5 where, crofting the bridge o. So-
races, in the county of Venaiffin, they were ieized by
a gang of Jbirri, or fherifFs officers, on pretence ot
carrying contraband goods, and confined. Morfu was
quickly difcharged, and very liberally rewarded ; but
Pallavicini, being carried to Avignon, was impruoned ;
and notwithftanding, on his examination concermag
feme papers found upon him, he made a very rutiui
defence, it was in vain. The fentence was alrea¬
dy brought from Rome, and he was co undergo a trial
merely for form’s fake. For this purpofe being put
into « dark dungeon, he made another effort to elcap^.
He managed matters fo well with his keeper, as to pio-
cure wax candles to be allowed him, under pretence
of amufing himfelf with reading ; and when he had got
a number of thefe, he fet fire one night to the prifou-
door, in order to get oft by that means ; but the dia-
tagem did not fucceed, and he was of comfe confined
much clofer, and treated with great inhumanity. Af¬
ter a year’s fuffering, he was brought to trial, in
which he made an excellent defence, ami ilatteied
himfelf with hopes of relief. He had even begun a
whimficai piece on the fubjedf of melancholy ; but,
contrary to his expe&ations, he was fentenced to die,
and loft his head on a fcaftold in the flower of his age.
He was of fo heedlef, and piofufe a difpolition,
that had he pofieffed an immenfe eftate he would have
fpent it all. Fie was never engaged in a virtuous paf-
fion, being inflamed to a prodigious and unnatural de¬
gree with the love of the meaneft and moil infamous
proftitutes. On the other hand, no one could be more
fincere and faithful in his frieodfhips, nor was ever a
man a greater prey to treachery ; infomuch, that when
releafed from prifon in Venice, he was told that a
wretch had betrayed him, h? could not be prevailed
upon to believe it; faying, “ How can this be, fiuoe
he declared himfelf my friend, and I made him privy Fallav'citu
to all my concerns !” He ufed, while he wore a reli- PaI1j'ltffi>
gious habit, to ftudy or write two or three hours in J
bed every morning. The reft of the day he. fpent
either in the company of idle perfons or elfe with the
ladies: but after he had wholly left the monaftic life,
upon pretence of fecuring himfelf from the fnares of
his enemies, he lived in a very irregular manner. He
was poffeffed of a fine genius, and had a great facility
in writing ; and till he was corrupted by the com¬
merce of mean lewd women, he wrote pieces worthy
of immortality. Fie did not fpend much time ot pains
either in compofition or in reviiion, for he frequently
fentto the prefs the very firft exertions of his genius ;
yet nature had given him fo noble a vein of eloquence,
which he had greatly improved by perufing the beft
authors, that his firit thoughts were often equal to the'
moft laboured compofitions. He was modeft, and
fpoke of himfelf with diffidence ; but his works are
ftfongly tin&ured with envy, malice, and gall. He
made but a poor figure in converfadon ; and when with
perfons of worth and diftin&ion, would often retire to
corner of the room, and feem quite wrapt up in
thought. He never exerted bis wit and humour after
his return from Germany, but when he was in the
company of iome mean women. Upon the whole, it
is difficult to determine whether vice or virtue was
the moft predominant feature in his character. His
death gave birth to a dialogue, intitled, Anima erranti
di Ferrante Pallavkini, or, “ The wandering Ghoft
of Pallavicini.”- Befides his life at the head of his
works in two volumes, there is another prefixed to
the “ Divortio celefte,” at Amfterdam in 1696.
PALLENE, a imall peninfula of Thrace or Mace¬
donia, formerly called Phlegm. It is fituated near the
b;,y ©f Thermae, and contains five cities, the principal
of which is called Pallene. It was famous, according
to fome of the ancients, for an engagement between
the gods and the giants.
PALLET, among painters, a little oval table, or
piece of wood, or ivory, very thin and fmooth ; on
and round which the painters place the feveral colours
they have occafion for, to be ready for the pencil.
The middle ferves to mix the colours on, and to make'
the tints required in the vrork. It has no handle, but,
inftead thereof, a hole at one end to put the thumb
through to hold it.
Pai.let, among potters, crucible-makers, c-.c. a
wooden inftrument, almwft the only one they ufe, for
forming heating, and rounding, their works. They
have feveral kinds: the largeft me oval, with a handle ;
others are round, or hollowed triangularly ; others,
in fine, are in manner of large knives, ferving to cut
off whatever is fuperfluons on the moulds of their work.
Pallet, in gilding, an inftrument made of a fquir-
rel’s tail, to take up°the gold leaves from the pillow,
and to apply and extend them on the matter to be
gilt. See Gilding. . ... r 11 1
Pallet, in heraldry, is nothing but a imall pale,
confifting of one half of it in breadth, and there¬
fore there are fometimes feveral of them upon one
Meld. . . r
Pallet, is alfo a part belonging to the balance oi
h watch or movement. See the article Watch..
PALLIATE, a name which the Romans give to
fuch plays as laid the plot in Greece, and required the
per- -
PAL [ 6
Paihation performers to appear in Grecian habits. It is ufed in
Palm, contradiftinclion to tog to, in which the fcenewas laid at
Rome, and in which the drefles A'ere Roman. The word
palliatas is derived from pallium, which was a part of
drtfs peculiar to the Greeks ; whereas the toga be¬
longed to the Romans only. See Togat^, Come¬
dy, &c.
PALLIA I ION, or a Palliative Cure, in me¬
dicine, is when, in defperate and incurable difeafes,
after predicting the fatal event, the phyfician pre-
fcribes fome remedies for mitigating the pain or fume
other urgent fymptoms, as in ulcerated cancers, or can¬
cerous fiftulas, and the like.
PALL 10 Cooperire. It was an ancient cuftom,
where children were born out of lawful wedlock, and
their parents were afterwards married, that thofe chil¬
dren, together with the father and mother, fhould
Hand pallia cooperti, under a cloth, while the marriage
was folemnizing; which was a kind of adoption, and
had the efleet of a legitimation. Thus Robert Groft-
head, the famous bifhop of Lincoln, in one of his let¬
ters, fays: In Jignum legitimationis, nati ante matrimonium
confuemerunt pom fub pallio fuper parentes eorum extento,
in matrimonii folemni%atione.
Selden, in his notes on Fleta, adds, that the chil¬
dren of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, by Catha¬
rine Swinford, though legitimated by a£t of parlia¬
ment, yet were covered with the pall when their parents
were married.
PALLIUM, a word often mentioned in our old
hiftorians. Durandus tells us, that it is a garment
made of white wool, after the following manner, viz.
The nuns of St Agnes, every year, on the feail day
of their faint, offer two white lambs on the altar of
their church, during the time they fing Agnus Dei, in
a folemn mafs ; which lambs are afterwards taken by
two of the canons of the Lateran church, and by them
given to the Pope’s fubdeacons, who fend them to pa-
ifure till (hearing time, and then they are fhorn, and
the pall is made of their wool mixed with other white
wool The pall being thus made, is carried to the La¬
teran church, and there placed on the high altar, by
the deacons of that church, on the bodies of St Peter
and St Paul; and after an ufual watching, it is carried
away in the night, and delivered to the fubdeacons,
who lay it up iafe. And becaufe it was taken from
the body of St Peter, it hgnifies the plenitude of ec-
clefiaftical power: and therefore it was the prerogative
of popes, who pretend to be the immediate fucceflbrs of
that faint, to inveft other prelates with it ; which at
firll was done nowhere but at Rome, though afterwards
at other places.
Pallium, in antiquity, an upper garment or mantle
worn by the Greeks, as the toga was by the Romans.
Lach of tbefe were fo peculiar to the refpedtive na
tions, that Palliatus is ufed to lignify a Greek, and
Togatus a Roman
PALM, has among almofl all nations been regarded
as an emblem of victory, and afiigned as the reward of
it. 1 he reafon why thib tree was adopted, and made
ufe of to reprefent viAory, i8 faid to be, becaufe it is
fo elafhic, that it preffed by the greateft weight, it
will rife fuperior to the prefTure, and be able to re-
ftore itfelf to its former date, apptaring almolt invin¬
cible.
Palm Sundayt ir. the Chriflian church, the funday
] PA L
next before Eafter; being fo called in memory of
our Saviour’s triumphal entry into Jerufalem, when
the multitude that attended him ftrewed branches on
his way.
I he ancients had other names for this day. For,
I. They called it Dominica Competentium, i. e. Sunday
of the L-ompetentes ; becaufe on that day the cate¬
chumens came to afk the bifhop leave to be admitted
to baptilng which was conferred the Sunday fol¬
lowing. i hey had alfo then given them the fymbol
or credo, to get off by heart, to be repeated to the bi-
ihop in the ceremony of baptifm. 2. They called it
Lapttduvium, the Sunday of walking the head ; becaufs
thofe who were to be baptifed the following Sunday,
were prepared by wafhing their heads on this day.
Some time afterwards they called it Indulgence Sunday,
becaufe the emperors and patriarchs ufed to diftribute
girts on that day.
in botany. See Phoenix,
PALMA, or Palma-Novu, a very ftrong town of
Italy, in the territory of Venice, and m Friuli. It
is a very important place, for the defence of the Ve¬
netians again ft the Auftrians and Turks; and was built
in 1593> ft>r that very purpofe. They have cut a
canal near this place, which is very advantageous. It
is feated on the fea fide, io miles fouth-eaft of Udi-
no, and 55 north-eaft of Venice. E. Long-, n I(r
N. Lat. 46. 2. s 5
Palma, an ifland in the Atlantic Ocean, and one
of the Canaries, 36 miles north-weft of Gomera, and
about 75 in circumference. It abounds in wine and
fugar; and has a handfome town of the fame name,
which carries on a trade in wine to the Weft Indies *
and other parts. Their belt vines grow in a foil called
the Brenia, where they make 12,000 butts of wine
every year, which is well known by the name of palm-
‘ivine. There is plenty of cattle, and all forts of fruits.
In 1625 a volcano broke out in this illand, with a
moft violent earthquake ; the flame was feen for fix
weeks together, and a great quantity of afhes were
thrown as far as Fenetiff. It waa conquered by the
Spaniards in 1460. J
I AL.vLL, Palms. Under this name Linnseus has
arranged feveral genera, which, although capable of a
place in feparate clafles of his fyftem, he choofes ra¬
ther, on account of their lingular ftrudure, to place
apart, in an appendix to the work. —See Areca,
Cham/er.ops, Phoenix, Cocos, &c.; and Corypha.
The fame plants conftitute one of the feven families
or tribes into vvhich all vegetables are diflributed by
Linnaeus in his Philojophia Botanica. They are defi¬
ned to oe plants with Ample Items, which at their fum-
mit bear leaves refembling thofe of the ferns, being a
compofition of a leaf and a branch; and whofe flowers
and fruit are produced on that particular receptacle or
feat called ajpadix, protruded from a common calyx
in form of a iheath or fcabbard, termed by Linnceus
fpatha. 1
Palma is likewife the name of the firft order in
Lmnasus’s Fragments of a Natural Method. See Bo¬
tany, p. 457.
I ALMARIS muscle, in anatomy. See there.
Table of the Mufi /es.
PA-uMAFED, fomething refemf ling the fhape of
the hand: thus we fay, palmgted leaves, roots, ftones.
&c.
1
PAL-
Paimer-
fton
f)
Palmyra.
PAL [ 679
PALMERSTON’S Island, fituated in the South
Seas, which Captain Cook vifited in his fecond and
laft voyages. It confifts of a group of froall iflets,
nine or ten in number, connefted by a reef of coral
rocks, and lying in a circular direction. It admits of
no anchorage, nor are there any inhabitants on it,
though it abounds with cocoa-nuts, fcurvy-grafs, and
the wharra tree. This ifland is not more than a mile
in circumference, and is not elevated above three feet
above the level of the fea. It confifts entirely of a
coral f?.nd, with a fmall mixture of blackifh mould,
which appeared to be produced from rotten vegetables.
« At one part of the reef (fay our navigators), which
bounds the lake within, almoil even with the furface,
there was a large bed of coral, which afforded a moft
enchanting profpeft. Its bafe, which was fixed to
the fhore, extended to far that it could not be feen, fo
that it appeared to be fufpended in the water. Even
this delightful feene was greatly improved by the mul¬
titude of fiflies that gently glided along, feemingly
with the me ft perfeft fecurity. Their colours were
the moft beautiful that can be imagined, blue, yellow,
black, red, &c. far excelling any thing that cm be
produced by art. The richnefs of this fubmarine
grotto was greatly increafed by their various forms;
and the whole could not poflibly be furveyed without
a pleafing tranfport, accompanied at the fame time
with regret, that a work fo aftonifliingly elegant fhould*
be concealed in a place fo feldom explored by the hu¬
man eye.” E. Long. 196. 35. S. Lat. 18. 8.
PALMIPEDES, among ornithologifts, the fame
with web-footed birds. See Ornithology.
PALMISTRY, a kind of divination, or rather a
deceitful art praftifed by gypfiea, who pretend to fore-
tel events by looking upon the lines and marks of the
hand.
PALMUS, along meafure ufed both by the Greeks
and Romans. The Grecian palmus was of tw'o forts ;
the greater, which contained nine finger-breadths, and
the lefs which contained four. The Roman palmus
was alfo of two forts ; the greater, which contained
twelve finger-breadths, or eight inches and an half
Englifh ; and the lefs, which contained four finger-
breadths, or near three inches Englifh.—The great
palmus was taken from the length of the hand or
fpan ; the lefs from the breadth of it. The Greek
palmus was called doron See Measure.
PALMYRA, or Tadmor, a noble city of ancient
Syria, now in ruins, the origin of whofe name is un¬
certain. Neither is it well known by whom this city
was built ; for though, from the identity of the names,
it is thought by many to have been the Tadmor in the
* 1 Kings, 'wildernefs built by Solomon*, this point, however,
ix. iS and [3 much controverted by many learned men. For the
a.Chrcrr. world have been long and juftly allonifhed to find in the
M dius * Defert of Syria, at a diftance from the fea, with a very
- - ’ precarious and fcanty fupply of water only, and without
a particular connexion with any great monarchy, ruins
of a city more extenfive and fplendid than Rome it-
felf, the depofit of all the arts which Greece in its moft
flourifhing periods could afford. The problem is an
intricate one ; yet when we divert: it of many of its
difficulties, we (hall bring this ftupendous prodigy to
no very uncommon magnitude. The coaft of Syria
was in very early ages rich and populous; and either
1
PAL
Palmyra.
Ant. Tad.
fib. i.
from the conveniency of procuring water, or from the
vicinity of India and Egypt, the population, m lead
of increffing on the mountains, extended to Jadea,
and from thence through its plains only to the inter¬
nal parts. The ruins of this numerous people, and
of their habitations, remain ; but as their edifices were
not uncommonly fplendid, or, as the caufes of their
deftru&ion were powerful, they have not attra&ed
much attention. Yet the ruins of more than 30
towns are difcoverable to the fouth eaft of the Dead
Sea, and from thence towards Tadmor or Palmyra:
we know the caufe of the deftrudtion of thefe towns,
and we know that it did not reach Palmyra. This
fplendid city was not, therefore, infulated in a rmfs of
fand : it was probably a link of a continued chain of
population, or perhaps its termination. The fituations
of towns in the Sandy Defert muft neceffarily be de¬
termined by local advantages. Tadmor is fituated
where two hills converge, and beyond the point where
they approach. Thefe hills afforded water, that ne-
ceffary aid to animal life; and the aquedufh through
which it was brought from them were difeovered and
deferibed by Mr Wood. Though the other towns
now in ruins afford fome remains of luxury and opu¬
lence, yet in thefe refpe&s they are much inferior to
Palmyra ; and this deferves to be explained. Palmyra
was undoubtedly very ancient. “ The two fprings
of frefh water it poffeffes (fays Volney f) were, above ‘Travels
alb a powerful inducement in a defert everywhere^™*# ty*
elfe fo parched and barren. Thefe, doubtlefs, were^
the two principal motives which drew the attention
of Solomon, and induced that commercial prince to
carry his arms fo remote from the limits of Judea.”
“ He built ftrong walls there (fays the hirtor an Jofe-
phus), to fecure himfelf in the poffeffion, and named
it Tadmor^ which fignifies the Place of Palm trees.”
Hence it has been inferred that Solomon was its firfl
founder ; but we rtioulj, from this paffage, be rather
led to conclude that it was already a place of known
importance. The palm-trees he found there are not
the trees of uninhabited countries. Prior to the days
of Mofes, the journeys of Abraham and Jacob from
Mefopotamia into Syria, fufficiently prove a commu¬
nication between thefe countries, which muft foon
have made Palmyra flourifh The cinnamon and pearls
mentioned in the time of the Hebrew legislator, derr.on-
ftrate a trade with India and the Perfian Gulph,
which muft have been carried on by the Euphrates
and Palmyra. At this diftance of time, when the
greater part of monuments of thefe early ages have
perifhed, we are liable to form very falfe opinions con-,
cerning the ftate of thefe countries in thofe remote
times, and are the more eafily dec eived, as we admit as
hiftorical fa&s antecedent events of an entirely diffe¬
rent character. If we obferve, however, that men in
all ages are united by the fame interefts and the fame
defires, we cannot help concluding, that a commercial
inteicourfe muft: early have taken place hetwern one
nation and another, and that this intercourfe muft
have been nearly the fame with that of more modern
times,- Without, therefore, going higher than the
reign of Solomon, the invafion of Tadmor-by that
prince is fufficient alone to throw a great light on the
hiftory of this city. The king ot Jerufalem would
never have carried his attention to fo diftant and de¬
tached
/
PAL r 680 1 PAL
Palmyra, tached a fpot, without fome powerful motive of inte-
v reft ; and this intereft could be no other thr.n that of an
extenfive commerce, of which this place was already
• the emporium. This commerce extended itfelf to In¬
dia, aad the Perfian Gulph was the principal point 01
union.”
From the nature of the commodities, from the re-
quifite afiiftance of the Tyrians, and other forcible ar¬
guments, M. Volney fhows that the Pesfian Gnlph
was the centre of the moft ancient commerce of the
eaftern world ; and that it was with a view of ob¬
taining a fhorter route, by means of the Euphrates,
that Solomon turned his attention to Tadmor, diftant
but three days journey from it. Our author goes on,
“ We may even reafonably conjedlure, when we re-
fleft on the revolutions of the following ages, that this
commerce became a principal caufe of thofe various
wars in Lower Afta, for which the barren chronicles
of thofe early times aflign no motives. If, after the
reign of Solomon, the Affyrians of Nineveh turned
their ambitious views towards Chaldea, and the lower
part of the Euphrates, it was with the intention to
approach that great fource of opulence the Perfian
Gulph. If Babylon, from being the vaftal of Nine¬
veh, in a fliort time became her rival, and the feat of
a new empire, it was becaufe her fituation rendered
her the emporium of thjs lucrative trade ; in fhort, if
the kings of this great city waged perpetual wars with
Jerufalem and Tyre, their object was not only to de-
fpoil thefe cities of their riches, but to prevent their
invading their trade by the way of the Red Sea. An
hiftorian who has informed us that Nabuchodonofor,
"before he laid fiege to Jerufalem, took pofteffion of
Tadmor, clearly indicates that the latter city adted
in concert with the two neighbouring capitals. Their
gradual decline became, under the Perfian empire
and the fuccefl'ors of Alexander, the efficient caufe of
the hidden greatnefs of Palmyra in the time of the Par¬
tisans and Romans ; fhe then enjoyed a long peace for
many centuries, which allowed her inhabitants to ereft
thofe monuments of opulence whofe ruins we ftiil ad¬
mire.” If the former obfervations fhovved the con-
ne&iofl of this remote fpot with a more populous
country, thefe remarks explain the caufe of the reno¬
vation, and of the magnificence of this city. Our au¬
thor’s remarks are at leaft probable,-and are, in our
opinion, very convincing. Cairo, in another, pro¬
bably a fubordinate route, never attained the fplendor
ol Palmyra ; but the genius of the Egyptians, perhaps
the laws of Egypt, prevented it.
There is, however, no authentic hiftory of Palmyra
till after the captivity of the Roman emperor Vale¬
rian by the Perfians. It is firft mentioned by the
Roman hiitorians, as a place which Mark Antony at¬
tempted to plunder, upon pretence that it had not ob-
ferved a juft neutrality between the Romans and Par-
thians. Pliny takes notice of it is being fituated in a
rich foil, among pleafant ftreams, and tot .l!y fepara-
ted from the reft of the world by a vaft fandy defert,
which had preferved its independence between Par-
tbia and Rome. I here is ftill a confiderable fpot of
good foil next the town and on the hills ; and evea in
the wildernefs, there were palms and fig-trees, fome
of which remained till the latter end of the 17th cen¬
tury, though not one is now to be found.
N° 257.
After the captivity of Valerian, it was become an Palmyra,
opulent city, to w’hrch its fituation in the vicinity
of the Roman and Parthian empires greatly contri-
bruted ; as the caravans, in going to or returning
from the Eaft, frequented the place, and thus ren¬
dered it a confiderable feat of merchandife. It en-
joyed an independency till the time of Trajan ; who,
having made himfelf mafter of almoft all the Parthian
empire, reduced Palmyra likewife, and it was after¬
wards accounted part of the Roman dominions. But
when the defeat and captivity of Valerian had fo
much weakened the empire, that the Perfiaas feemed
to be in a fair way of becoming maflers of all the ea¬
ftern provinces, the Palmyrenians began to entertain
thoughts of recovering theirliberty. Odenathus, prince
of Palmyra, fent a very refpe£fable letter to Sapor on
his return, accompanied wdth confiderable prefents ;
but by that haughty conqueror his letter and em-
bafty were treated with the moft provoking contempt.
The prefents were thrown into the Euphrates: and to
his letter Sapor replied. That his infolence in prefuming
to write to his lord was inexcufable ; but if he could
atone for it in any way, it would be by prefenting
himfelf before the throne bound hand and foot, in to¬
ken of a confcioufnefs of his crime, and the puniffiment
he deferved. With this injurious treatment Odenathus
was fo provoked, that he fwore either to bring down
the pride of the haughty conqueror, or die in the at¬
tempt. Accordlnglys having afiembled what forces he
could, he fell upon the Perfians, deftroyed a number
of them, took a great part of their baggage, add fome
of the king’s concubines. Of the war of Odenathus
with the Perfians, however, we know very little: only
that though the latter were often vanquifhed, and the
independency of Palmyra eftablifhed for the prefent ;
yet Valerian was never releafed from his captivity,
though Odenathus earneftly wifhed to have the honour
of refeuing him from hia enemies.
Odenathus enjoyed his fovereignty but a very fhort
time ; being murdered by h is nephew, who was fooij
after put to death by Zenobia the wife of Odenathus.
This lady is faid to have been pofTefted of very extra¬
ordinary endowments both of body and mind, being,
according to Mr Gibbon, almoft the only Afiatic woman
who is recorded to have overcome the obftacles arifing
from the confined fituation of the fair fex in that part
of the world. Immediately on taking vengeance for
the murder of her hulband, fhe affirmed the govern¬
ment, and fooa ftrengthened herfelf fo much, that Ihe
refolved to fubmit neither to the Roman nor Perfian
power. The neighbouring ftates of Arabia, Arme¬
nia, and Perfia, dreaded her enmity, and foiicited her
alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which ex¬
tended from the Euphrates to the frontiers of Bitaynia,
Iris widow added the inheritance of her anceftors, the
populous and fertile kingdom of Egypt. The empe¬
ror Claudius acknowledged her merit* and was con¬
tent, that, while he purfued the Gothic war, fire fhould
affert the dignity of the empire in the Eaft. The con¬
duit, however, of Zenobia, was attended with fome
ambiguity ; nor is it unlikely that fhe had conceived
the defign of ereiting an independent and hoftile mo¬
narchy. She blended with the popular manners of Ro¬
man princes the ftately pomp of the courts of Alia,
laid exadted from her fubjedts the lame adoration that
2 wag
/
PAL [ 681 ] P A I,
' $?ahnyra. was paid to tKe fucccflbrR of Cyras, She beftowed on
v-~ her three fons a Latin education, and often fhowedthem
to the troops adorned with the imperial purple. For
herfelf the referved the diadem, with the fplendid but
doubtful tide of Queen of the Eajl.
When Aurtlian paffed over into Afia, againft an
adverfary whofe fex alone could render her an objedt
of contempt, his prefence reftored obedience to the
province of Bithynia, already fliaken by the arms and
intrigues of Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his
legions, he accepted the fubmiflion of Ancyra ; and
was admitted into Ty:rna, after an obftinate fiege, by
the help of a perfidious citizen. The generous, though
fierce temper of L\ urelian, abandoned the traitor to the
rage of the foldiers : a fuperftitious reverence induced
him to treat with lenity the countrymen of Apollonius
the philofopher. Antioch was deferted on his approach;
till the emperor, by his falutary edidfs, recalled the fu¬
gitives, and granted a general pardon, to all who, from
necefiity rather than choice, had been engaged in the
fervice of the Palmyrenian cjueen. The unexpedled
mildnefs of fuch a condudt reconciled the minds of
the Syrians, and, as far as the gates of Emefa, the
wifhes of the people feconded the terror of his arrms.
Zenobia would have ill deferved her reputation, had
fhe indolently permitted the emperor of the Weft to
approach within 100 miles of her capital. The fate
of the Eaft was decided in two great battles ; fo fimi-
lar in almoft every circumftance, that w^e can fcarcely
diftinguifti them from each other, except by obferving
that the firft was fought near Antioch, and the fecund
near Emefa. In both, the queen of Palmyra anima¬
ted the armies by her prefence, and devolved the exe-
'Ciition of her orders on Zabdas, who had already fig-
nalized his military talents by the conqueft of Egypt.
The numerous forces of Zenobia confifted for the moft
part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in
complete fteel. The Moorifh and Illyrian horfe of
Anrelhn were unable to fuftain the ponderous charge
of their antagonifts. They fled in real or affedled dif-
order, engaged the Palmyrenians in a laborious pur-
fuit, haraflfed them by a defultory combat, and at
length difcomfited this impenetrable but unwieldy
body of cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean
time, when they had exhaufted their quivers, remain¬
ing without pro^eftion againft: a clofer onfet, expofed
their naked fides to the fwords of the legions. Aure-
lian had chofen thefe veteran troops, who were ufually
flattened on the Upper Danube, and whofe valour had
been feverely tried in the Allemannic \Var. After the
defeat of Emefa, Zenobia found it impoffible to colleft
a third army. As far as the frontier of Egypt, the
nations fubjedl to her empire had joined the ftandard
of the conqueror ; who detached Probus, the braveft of
his generals, to poflefs himfelf of the Egyptian pro¬
vinces. Palmyra was the laft refource of the widow of
Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capi¬
tal ; made every preparation for a vigorous refiftance;
and declared with the intrepidity of a heroine, that the
laft moment of her reign and of her life fhould be the
fame.
In his march over the fandy defert, between Emefa
and Palmyra, the emperor Aurelian was perpetually
harafled by the Arabs; nor could he always defend his
army, and efpecially his baggage, from thofe flying
Vox.XIII. Part 1L
troops of a&ive and daring robbers, who watched the Palmyra,
momentof lurprife, and directed the flow pnrfuit of the '
legions. The fiege of Palmyra was an objetft far more
difficult and important; and the emperor, who with in-
ceflant vigour ptefled the attacks in perfon, was him.
felf wounded with a dart. “ The Roman people,
(fays Aurelian, in an original letter), fpeak with con¬
tempt of the war which 1 am waging againft a woman.
They are ignorant both of the chara&cr and of the
power of Zenobia- It is impoffible to enumerate her
warlike preparations, of (tones, of arrows, and of every
fpecies of miffile weapons. Every part of the walls is
provided with two or three bffiftaz, and artificial fires
are thrown from her military engines. The fear of
punifliment has armed her with a defperste courao-e.
Yet I truft (till in the protecting deities of Rome, who
have hitherto been favourable to all my undertakings.”
Doubtful, however, of the protection of the gods, and
of the event of the fiege, Aurelian judged it more
prudent to offer terms of an advantageous capitula¬
tion : to the queen, a fplendid retreat; to the citi¬
zens, their ancient privileges. His propofals were
obftinately reje&ed, and the refufal was accompanied
with infult.
The firmnefs of Zenobig was fuppoited by the hope,
that in a very fhort time famine would compel the Ro¬
man army to repafs the defert; and by the reafonable
expectation that the kings of the Eaft, and particularly
the Perfian monarch, would arm in the defence of
their moft natural ally. But fortune, and the perfe-
verance of Aurelian,- overcame every obftacle. The
death of Sapor, which happened about this time, dif-
tra&ed the councils of Perfia ; and the inconfiderable
fuccours that attempted to relieve Palmyra were eafily
intercepted either by the arms or the liberality of the
emperor. From every part of Syria a regular fuccef-
fion of convoys fa?ely arrived in the camp, which was
increafed by the return of Probus with his vitftorious
troops from the conqueft of Egypt. It was then that
Zenobia refolded to fly. She mounted the fleeteft of
her dromedaries; and had already reached the banks of
the Euphrates, about 60 miles from Palmyra, when
ffie was overtaken by the purfuit of Aurelian’s light-
horfe, feized, and brought back a captive to the feet
of the emperor. Her capital foon after furrendered,
and was treated with unexpected lenity. The arms,
horfes, and camels, with an immenfe treafure of gold,
filver, filk, and precious (tones, were all delivered to
the conqueror; who, leaving only a garrifsn of 600
archers, returned to Emefa, and employed fome time
in the diftribution of rewards and puniffiments at the
end of fo memorable a war, which reftored to the obe¬
dience of Rome thofe provinces that had renounced
their allegiance fince the captivity of Valerian.
When the Syrian queen was brought into the pre-
fcnce of Aurelian, he fternly a/ked her, How fh'e had
prefumed to rife in arms againft the emperors of Rome?
The anfwer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture of re-
fpeCt and firmnefs: “ Beeaufe I difdained to conlider
as Roman emperors an Aureolus or a Gallienus. You
alone I acknowledge as my conqueror and my fove-
reign ” But as female fortitude is tommonly artifi¬
cial, fo it is feldom fteady or confident. The courage
of Zenobia deferted her in the hour of trial; fhe trem¬
bled at the angry clamours of the foldiers, who called
4 R aloud
Palmyrs.
PAL [ 68
aloud for tier immediate execution ; forgot the gene¬
rous defpair of Cleopatra, which (he had propofed as
her model; and ignominioufly purchafed life by the fa-
crifice of hef^fame and her friends. It was to their
councils, -which governed the weaknefs of her i'ex, that
{lie imputed the guilt of her obftinate refiftance; it was
on their heads that fhe dire&ed the vengeance of the
cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who was in¬
cluded among the numerous and perhaps innocent vic¬
tims of her fear, will furvive that of the queen who be-*
trayed, or the tyrant who condemned him. Genius and
learning were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered
foldier, but they had ferved to elevate and harmonife
the foul of Longinus. Without uttering a, complaint,
he calmly followed the executioner, pitying his un¬
happy millrefs, and bellowing comfort on his afilidled
friends.
Returning from the conquelt of the Eall, Aurelian
had already crofled the llraits which divide Europe
from Afia, when he was provoked by the intelligence
that the Palmyrtnians had rnaffacrsd the governor and
garrifon which he had left among them, and again
ere&ed the llandard of revolt. Without a moment’s
deliberation, he once mere turned his face towards
Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach,
and the helpkfs city of Palmyra felt the irrefiftible
weight of his refer.tment. We have a letter of Aure¬
lian himfelf, in which he acknowledges, that old men,
women, children, and peafants, had been involved in
that dreadful execution, which Ihould have been con¬
fined to armed rebellion : and although his principal
concern feems diredled to the re-eftablilhment of a
temple of the fun, he difcovers fome pity for the rem¬
nant of the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the per-
miffion of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But
it is eafier to deftroy than to reftore. The feat of
commerce, of arts, and of Zenobia, gradually funk
into an obfcure town, a trifling fortrefs, and at length
a miferable village.
Little is known concerning the fortunes of Palmyra
fince the time of Mahomet, except that it was confi-
dered as a place of ftrength ; and that in the 12th
century there were 2000 Jews in it. With refpedl
to the ruins, they appeared to be of two different and
diftindl periods; the oldeft are fo far decayed as not
to admit of menfuration, and look as if they had
been reduced to that ftate by the hand of time ; the
others appears to have-been broken into fragments by
violence. Of the inferiptions none are earlier than
the birth of Chrift, and none are later than the de-
ftru&ion of the city by Aurelian, except one, which
mentions Diocletian.
Mr Wood is of opinion, that the face of the coun¬
try which furrounds Palmyra was always the fame ;
but though Palmyra was always far’d to be fituated
in a wildernefs, it does not follow that the wildernefs
was always of the fame extent: it is perhaps more
probable, that when Palmyra was firft. fettled, the
rich foil mentioned by Pliny extended much farther;
for whatever were the reafons for making-a fettlement
there, Palmyra can fcarcely be fuppofed to have in¬
vited a greater number of people than it could feed.
The palms and fig trees that were formerly found on
the hills, and in the borders of the defert, that are now
2 ] PAL
totally barren, confirm this opinion. Mr Wood oh- Palmyra.
ferves, that while he was there a whirlwind happened, 1 
which took up fuch quantities of fand as quite darken¬
ed the Iky ; this land therefore might by degrees
encroach upon the fertile environs of Palmyra, and
reduce the number of inhabitants as it reduced their
fuflenance, till the few wretched families only were
left, who found it difficult to furnifh food for Mr
Wood and his company, though they did not continue
longer than a fortnight among them. Tt will alfo
appear from hiftory, that what is fuppofed to have
happened here has happened at other "places, where
fuch an event was much lefs probable. * On the fea * „ .
coaft in the neighbourhood of St Pol de Leon, In off'””'*
Lower Brteagne, there is a confiderable traft of land Acadtmy
whicji before the year 1666 was inhabited, but which/or D1**
was rendered uninhabitable by a fand, which encroach¬
ing every year, covered it to the depth of above 20
feet. In the year 17 18 it had advanced more than fix
leagues, and within one league of St Pol ; fo that it
was then thought probable that the town would of
neceffity be abandoned. ’Phis fand is raifed by the
call or north-eall wind, which drives it in clouds with
great fwiftnefs, and in a prodigious quantity. It was
alfo attdled by the captain of a fhip, and ail on board,
that in the year 1719 there fell in the Atlantic Ocean,
at 15 degrees of north latitude, and at the diftance of
more than eight leagues from any land, a (hower of
land, iome ot which they produced, and depofited in
the academy at Paris f. | 0f
I he company with whom Mr Wood, the pubriihcr ^
of the Ruins ot Palmyra, travelled, arrived at length
at the end of the plain, where a ridge of barren hills,
by which it was divided on the right and left, feemed
to meet; between them there was a vale, through
which an aquedudl formerly conveyed water to Pti'*-
myra. On each fide of this vale thty remarked feve-
ral fepulchres of the ancient Palmyrenes, which they
had fcarce puffed, when the hills opening on a hidden,
they difeovered fuch piles of ruin as they had never
feen. They were all of white marble ; and beyond
them, towards the Euphrates, was a wide level, ffretch-
ing farther than the eye could reach, totally defolate,
without variety, and without bounds. After having
gazed fome time upon this profpeft, which rather ex¬
ceeded than fell ftiort of their expectations, they were
conduced to one of the huts of the Arabs, of which
there are about 30 in the court of the great temple.
I he inhabitants of both fexes were well fhaped, and
the women, though very fwarthy, had good fea¬
tures. I hey were veiled, but did not fo fcrupulouffy
conceal their faces as the eaftern women generally do.
i hey paint the ends of their fingers red, their lips
blue, and their eye-brows and eye la flies black. They
had large riags of gold or brafs in their ears and
noftiils, and appeared to be healthy and robull. The
walls of the city are flanked by fquare towers, into
which fome ancient funeral monuments have been con¬
verted ; but the walls are in moft places level with
the ground, and fometimes not to be traced. It is,
however, probable, by their general diredlion, that
they included the great temple, and are three miles in
circumference. The Arabs {bowed a tra£l which w as
near ten miles in circumference, the foil of which was
raifed
PAL t 883 1 PAL
.ftumjra. a ^tl^e a';r’ve of the def * t: this, they remrtin 129; and, by a moderate computation, there T'atrnrrr
laid, was the extent of the old city; and that by could not originally have been lefs than 560. The
C1 hu10 r In ^a1*' ru^ns were ^ilcovered. upper end of the piazza was fhut in by a row of pil-
ihefe ruins confift of temples, palaces, and porti- lars, handing fomewhat clofer than thofe on each fide,
coes ot Grecian architecture ; and lie fcattered over A little to the left are the ruins of a {lately building,
an extent of feveral miles, d hey were accidentally which appears to have been a banqueting-houfe. It is ,
eiicovered by feme Englifh travellers from Aleppo- built of better marble, and is finilhed with yet greater
lomevvhat more than a century ago. By far the moft elegance, than the piazza. The pillars which fup-
• T^marhablcof them is the 1 emple ot the Sun, of which ported it were, of one entire hone, which is fo flrong,
t e ruins are fpread over a fquare of 220 yards. It that one of them which is fallen down has received
was encompaffed with a {lately wall, built of large no injuiy. It meafares 22 feet in length, and in com-
Iqime {.ones, and adorned with pilafters within and p-ifs S feet 9 inches. In the weft fide of the piazza
without, to the number o{ 62 on a fide. Within the are feveral apertures for gates into the court of the
coui t aie the remains ot two rows of very noble marble palace. Each of thefe W'ere adorned with four > or-
pthars 37 feet high, with their capitals of rrroft exqui- phyry pillars, not {landing in a line with thofe of the
file workmanthip. Of thefe only 38 remain entire ; wall, but placed by couples in the front of the gate
but t.ure muft have been many more, for they appear facing the pahee, two on each fide, t Two of thefe
to have gone round the whole court, and to have fup- only remain entire, and but one {landing in its place,
ported a double piazza. 1 he walks on that fide of They are 30 feet long and 9 in circumference. Ort
toe piazza which is oppofite to the front ot the caftle the eaft fide of the piazza Hands a great number of
icem to have been the moft fp acid us and beautiful, marble piilars, fome perfeft, but the greater part mu-
At each end oi this tine are two niches for itatues, tdated. In one place 1 1 are ranged together in a
with their pedeftals, borders, fupporters, and canopies, fquare: the fpace which they inclofe is paved with
carved with the utmoft propriety and elegance. The broad fEt ftones, but there are no remains of a roof,
face, within this inclofure, which is now filled with At a little diftance are the remains of a final! temple,
the dirty huts of the inhabitants, feeftrs to have been which is alfo without a roof, and the walls are much
■an open court, in the middle of which flood the temple, defaced. Before the entry, which looks to the fouth,
encompafled with another row of pillars of a different is a piazza fupported by fix pillars, two on each fide
order, and much taller, being 50 feet high ; but of of the door, and one at each end. The pedeftals of
theje 16 only remain. The whole fpace contained thofe in front have been filled with infcriptions both
within thefe pillars is 59 yards in length, and near 28 is the Greek and Palmyrene languages, which are be-
rn breadth. Ihe temple is no mere than 33 yards in come totally illegible. Among thefe ruins are many
length, ana 13 or 14 in breadth. It points north and fepulchres : they are ranged on each fide of a hollow
iouth ; and exactly into the middle of the building, on way, toward the north part of the city, and extend
the weft fide, is a moft magnificent entry, on the re. more than a mile. They are all fquare towers, four
mains of which are fome vines and clufters of grapes, or five {lories high. But though they are alike in
carved in the moft bold and mafterly imitation of r.a- form, yet they differ greatly in magnitude and fpien-
airc that can be conceived. Juft over the door are dour. The outfide is of common ftone, but the floors
0deemed a pair of wings, which extends its whole and partitions of each ftory are marble. There is a
breadth : the body to which they belonged is totally walk acrofg the whole building, juft in the middle; and
deitroyed ; and it cadnot now certainly be known the fpace on each hand is fubdivided into fix partitions
whether it was that of an eagle or a cherub, feveral by thick walls. The fpace between the partitions is
lepreJentations of both being vifible on other frag- wude enough to receive the largeft corpfe; and in thefe
ments of the building. It is obfervetl of the window's niches there are fix or feven piled upon one another,
o t ns building, which were not large, that they were Many infcriptions have been found at Palmyra,
3tt0^ t^a.rl ^e^ow* The north end of which have occupied much of the attention of the
t m ding is adorned with the moft curious fretwork learned; and if any thing certain could be derived
and bas-relief; and in the middle there is a dome or from them, there is no doubt but they would tend
cupo a a.;out ten feet diameter, which appears to have very confidcrably to the elucidation of ancient hiftory.
icm eit er hewn out of the rock, or moulded of fome See Barthelemy’s Reflections on the Palmyrene Al-
compohtion which by time is grown equally hard, phabet, publifhed at Paris in 1754; and sin Explua-
ort 1 ot this place is an obelifk, confifting of feven tion of the Infcriptions at Palmyra hitherto publifhed,
arge ones, befldes its capital and the wreathed work by John Swinton of Chrift-church, Oxford. See alfo
h1 w; , .,S ab°Ut 5° f5et h,?h ; snd’ juft a^ove Phil. Tranf. 11*217. and 218. ; the firft volume of the
t c pec e ia , is 12 feet in circumference. There was Ancient Univerfal Hiftory ; and, above all, confult the
pro at y a afue upon it, which the Turks, in their Ruins cf Palmyra, cr Tadmor in the Defert, publifhed by
zea again 1 cola try, deftroyed. At about the diftance Mr R. Wood, who, with M. Bouverieand Mr Dawkins.
0 a quarter ot a mile from this pillar, to the e£ft and travelled thither in 1751. The refult of their obfer-
wti , aie two otheis, befides the fragment of a third ; vations was publiflied in 1753, the form of an atlas.
*° a f1 Per“aP8 1 were originally a continued row. The ruins of this once mighty and celebrated city are
bout ico paces from the middle obelifk, ftraight reprefented in 57 copperplates, 16 by 12 inches, print-
orwarw, is ai magnificent entry to a piaXza, wdiich is ed on imperial paper. They are admirably executed ;
^°,e5t ^ro‘ld’ cnd more than halt a mile in length, the drawing is correft and mafterly; and the graving
me o e with two rows of marble pillars 26 feet hi^h, highly fimfhed : nor can they fail to give fatisfa&iort
*r- eig .t or nine feet in compufs. Of thefe there ftill to thofe who are connoifleurs in the art, or to thofe who
4 R 2 delight
PAL
Palmyra,
Palpable.
delight in the labours of antiquity. In a work like ours,
  however, it is impoffible to give thefe views at length;
we fliall content ourfelves then, after referring to this
Plate fplendid work, with a view of the ruins of the Temple
cccixxu. of the Sun, and of fome other mifcellaneous ruins.
Palmyra was vifited by Mr Bruce before his journey
into Abyffinia ; but, on account of the many publica¬
tions concerning thefe celebrated ruins, he has declined
faying much concerning them. He informs us, that,
before he came in fight of the ruins, he afcended a hill
of wdiite gritty ftone, in a very narrow winding road,
fuch as is called a pafs ; but on getting up to the top
his eyes were ftruck with the molt llupendous fight
which, he believes, ever mortal faw. The whole plain
below, which is very extenfive, was fo covered witli
magnificent buildings, that they feemed to touch one
another. All of them are finely proportioned, agree¬
ably fhaped, and compofed of white ftones, which at
that diftance appeared like marble. in taking a
draught of ihefe ruins, Mr bruce divided the whole
into fix angular views, for which the fituation of the
x place is very convenient. The columns are all unco¬
vered to the very bafts, the ground on which they are
built being hard and folid. The views he lock were
upon large paper; fome of the columns being repre-
fented a foot long, and fome of the figures in the fore¬
ground of the Temple of the Sun (a magnificent build¬
ing which flood at one end of the town) being near
four inches. Before he left Palmyra he obferved its
latitude with a refkfting quadrant of Hadley; but as
the inftrument was out of order, he could not deter¬
mine it exadlly. In his opinion, however, 58' is
not far diftant from truth From fuch obfervations as
he could make on the longitude, he concluded it to be
370 9' eaft from Greenwich. Mr R. Wood makes
the latitude 34° north.
From Palmyra Mr Bruce proceeded to Baalbec,
difiant about 130 miles, where he found ruins Hill
more magnificent. The interior part of the great
temple at this place, according to our author, furpafles
any thing he had feen at Palmyra, or anywhere elfe.
All thefe views of Palmyra and Baalbec (fays he)
are now in the king’s colledlion. They are the moll
magnificent offering, in their line, that ever was made
by one fubjedl to his fovereign.5,~-In the neighbour¬
hood of Palmyra are fome falt-marfhes ; and to the
adjacent country a trade is carried on in kelp from
Tripoli in Syria. There are two Arab tribes, almofl
equally powerful ; one of them, called Annecy', re¬
markable for the fineft horfes in the world. They
poflefs the country to the fouth-weft, at the back of
Liburnus, about Bozrah, and fouthward towards the
borders of Arabia Petraea and Mount Horeb. The
other tribe, named Mowalli, inhabit the plains eafl
from Damafcus, to the Euphrates, and north to near
Aleppo. They are fewer in number than the Annecy,
but much better foldiers; and their breed of horfes not
greatly inferior.
Refpefting the latitude and longitude there are ftill
various opinions : that which appears to be nearefl the
truth is E. Long. 38. 50. N. Lat. 33. 20. It (lands
about 50 leagues fouth-eafl of Aleppo, as much from
Damafcus, and 20 leagues weft of the Euphrates.
PALPABLE, fomething perceivable by the fenfes,
particularly that of feeling.
[ 684 ]
PAL
PALPITATION of the Heart. See Medicine, Palpitatfoa
n° 97. 290. II
PALSGRAVE (John), a learned writer, who * ,
flourifhed in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. v
He received his grammatical learning at London, his
native place. He ftudied Iqjic and philofophy at
Cambridge, at which univerfity he refided till he be¬
came bachelor of arts ; after which he went to Paris,
where he fpent feveral years in the ftudy of philofophy
and other parts of learning, took the degree of mafter
of arts, and acquired fuch excellence in the French
tongue, that in ifM* when a treaty of marriage was
negociated between Louis XII. king of France, and
the piincefs Mary, lifter of Henry VIII. of England,
Mr Palfgrave was appointed to be her tutor in that
language. But Louis XII. dying foon after his mar¬
riage, Palfgrave attended his fair pupil [ ack to Eng¬
land, where he taught the French language to many
of the y oung nobility, obtained good preferment in
the church, and w’as appointed by the king one of his
chaplains inordinary. In 1531 he fettled at Oxford
for fome time, and the next year was incorporated
mafter of arts there, as he had before been in Paris,
and a few days after was admitted to the degree of
bachelor of divinity. At this time he was much
efteemed for his learning ; and, what is very remark¬
able, though an Englifhman, he u^as the firfl who¬
ever reduced the French tongue to grammatical rules,,
or that had attempted to fix it to any kind of ftandard.
This he undertook, and executed with great inge¬
nuity and confiderable fuceefs, in a large work which
he publifhed in that language at London, intitled
L'Eclaircijfement de la Language Frangoije, in three
books in thick folio, 1530, to which he has prefixed
a large Englifh introdudlion ; fo that the French na¬
tion feems to (land originally indebted to England for
that univerfality which their language at prefent pof-
feffes, and on which they fo much pride themfelves.
He tranflated into Englifh a Latin comedy called
Acolajlus, written by one Will. Fullonius, an author
then living at Hagen in Holland.
At what time Mr Palfgrave was born, or how long
he lived, it is not eafy to fay; yet, from the con¬
currence of feveral facts, he appears to have been
much lefs than 60 years of age at the time of his
publifhing the above-mentioned tranfiation, which was
in the year 1540.
PALSY. See Medicine, n° 92. 265, &c. and
269.
PALUDAMENTUM, in Roman antiquity, a ha¬
bit that differed but little from the chlamys, except
that this laft belonged chiefly to the lower clafs of
people. It was worn by the officers and principal
men amongthe Romans in time of war, wdio are there¬
fore called Paludati; which diftinguilhed them from
the common foldiers,. who, becaufe they wore the
fagum, were called the Sagan. The paludamentum
came down only to the navel, was open on the fides,
had fnort fleeves refembhng angels wings, and was
generally white or red. It is femetimes ufed to fignify
the common foldier’s coat.
PALUS meotis, the ancient name of a gulph be¬
tween Europe and Afia, to the north of the Black
Sea, now called the fea of Zabacb, or Afoph.
PALY, or Pale, in heraldry, is when the fhicld ia
divided
■
paly
II
Pan.
PAN [ 685 ]
, . . , vf0 1,., nprnpnrliriilar verfe : for he was their moft ancient god : and we are
divided into four or more equal p , Vp p told by Plutarch t, “That they took the firfl God
lines falling from the top to the bottom- told Ly miai +, _ _ j  
, pALr Bende, is when the efcutcheon is divided by
perpendicular lines, which is paly; and alfo by diago¬
nals, which is called bendy. .
PAMBOUK, the Turkift name of the ruined city
of Hierapolis. See Hikrapolis. _
PAMPELUNA, the capital of the kingdom ot
Navarre in Spain, with a very ftrong citadel and rich
bilhopiic. It is handfome and populous, and carries
on a great trade, feated in a very fertile plain, in E.
Long. 1. 25 N Eat 42. 42. ,
Pampeluna, a town of New Granaua in boutn
America, famous for its gold mines and numerous
flocks of fheep. Vv. Long. 68. 30. N. Lat. 6 30.
PAMPPIILUS, a celebrated painter ot Macedo¬
nia, in the age of Philip. He was founder of
the fchool for painting at Sicyon ; and he made a law
which was obferved not only in Sicyon but all oyer
Greece, that none but the children of noble and dig
nified perfons fhould be permitted to learn painting.
Apelles was one of his pupils.
PAMPHYLIA, the ancient name of a country ot
Natolia, in Afia, now called Carimania and Cay-bay,
between Lycia and Cilicia, on the fouth coafl, to the
north of the Mediterranean fea.
PAN, the god of fhepherds, hunters, and all coun¬
try exercifes. Such he is deferibed by the Greek and
Roman poets ; but he bore a higher charafter among
the earliett Greeks, as well as among the Egyptians;
from whom his worfhip was borrowed by that people.
In Egypt he was known by the name of Mendes,
'-hid., according ,o JaMonfki*, moftfck
Etyptiorum. Hence his fymbol was a living he-goat, the molt iala
cions of all animals : “ Hircum Mendefrum colunt
iEeyptii, eo quod virtuti prolific^ ac gemtivae, con-
fecracus eft.—Nam animal hoc coitus valde cupidum
eft.” His principal temple was a magnificent build¬
ing in a city of lower Egypt, called after his name.
It is well known (fee Polytheism) that from de¬
dicating certain animals to certain gods, the Egyp¬
tians proceeded to confider the animals themfelvea
as adtuated by the divinities to whom they were fa-
cred. Hence the origin of brute worfhip. In the
temple of Mendes was kept a he-goat, to whom facn-
fices of a very monftrous kind were oftered. Herodo¬
tus, fpeaking of the praefedture of Mendes, faysf,
Bytvih S ev tu voua nvla in t/juv tovto to ywaixi Tga.-
yoi luaayiTO ava^ov. T,;Ur0 tCr
Gur readers, learned and unlearned, will forgive us
for not tranflating this paffage, which contains, how¬
ever, nothing that is not confirmed by the teftimony
of other writers; particularly of Plutarch, and Pin¬
dar as he is quoted by Strabo. The moft wonderful
circumftance of this monftrous facrifice is, that it was
made publicly in the prefence of a great concourfe of
men ! But to what divinity was it made To a mere
goat, or to fome fuperior principle animating the
goat ? Doubtlefs to the latter ; for it is faid that the
fair worfhippers were of the firft rank, and of unfpot-
ted fame ; and that if they had borne a different cha-
radler, the deity would not have accepted ot their de¬
votions. . , ,, ,
The deify whom the Egyptian- adored by the name
of Mendes, was no other than the Soul of the Um-
f Lib. ii
ch. 26.
told by l miaicn 4, 2. uat tucy ^ ^
and the Univerfe tor one and the fame thing.” Hence ^
his name n«v among the Greeks : not that either
the Greeks or their matters in theology worfhipped,
as the firft god, mere brute matter, but that ipint
which they "conceived to be coeternal with matter,
and to animate all things, making them one. _ Thus
Orpheus, who imported the Egyptian doctrine into
Greece, declares that all things are one : and after
him Parmtnidas, and other philofophers, taught, £y
£lva.TMav, that “ one is the univerfe and that “ the
univerfe is immoveable.” I hat the ancient Grecian
Pan, or the Egyptian Mendes, was not the corporeal
world, as fenfelefs and inanimate, but the whole fyf-
tem of things, animated and eternal, appears further
from the following teftimony of Macrobius. “ Hunc
deum Arcades colunt, appeiiantes TOY TVS VX«f Y-U^tOV,
non fylvarum dominum, led umverfae fubftantice mate-
rialis dominatorem; The Arcadians worfhip this god,
calling him the lord of Hyle ; i. e. not the lord of
the woods, but the lord of all material fubftance.”
In the fame manner, Pharnutus || deferibes the Pan \T^rGah
of the other Greeks, not as the mere corporeal world, M^res
but as the intellectual principle actuating it and prcfl- \{ythol.
ding over it: and he adds, that “ Pan w 3 reigned to be vet.
lafeivious, lecaufe of the multitude oifpermatic reafons
in the world, and the continual mixtuies and genera¬
tion of things.” T 11 n • l 4
The Egyptians, as we learn from Jablonfki, had
nearly the fame notion with the Greeks ot the fpint
which they worfhipped as the Soul of the Plmverfe ; ,
only they gave to it both fexes. As the maker, go¬
vernor, and bountiful father of univerfal nature, they
confidered it as a suale, whofe fymbol was the he-goat
of Mendes ; and as k female it was adored by the name
of IJis, to whom i\\tJhe-goat was confecrated, though
not held in fuch veneration as the male. From this
view of the Egyptian creed, the facrifice which we
have mentioned appears n@ longer unaccountable. It
was made to a god, believed to be the univevfal fource
of fecundity, and to whom, from the well-known
character of the animal, whom he was fuppofed to ac*
mate, they had reafon to believe it would be moft ac¬
ceptable. .
The Greeks never worfhipped their Pan by the em¬
blem of a living goat; but they painted him with the
lower parts of a goat, for a reafon wnich fliall be af¬
terwards mentioned. How he came to degenerate
among that peoule, from one of the Dii majorum gen-
turn, or rather from the firft principle of all things,
to the rank of a e.temon or demi-god, we cannot pre¬
tend to fay : but that fuch was his fate, is certain ;
for under this laft character mention is made both of
his birth and his death.
Whofe ion he was, is not agreed among them. Ho¬
mer makes him the ion of Mercury, and fays he was call-
ed Pun from *•«*, omne. becaufe he charmed all the gods
with his flute; others fay that he was the fon of Demo-
gorgon, and firft invented the organ, of feven unequal
reeds, joined together in a particular manner: Having on
a time fought with Cupid, that god in fpite made him
fall in love with the coy nymph Syrinx, who, ying
from him to the banks of Fadon, a river of Arcadia,
at the inftant prayers of the Nymphs was turned into
3.
1**1*
* Lib. de
$)racul.
JdtfeSt.
PAN [686
3 r!/^ as l;fr ”arac in Greek Cgnlfies, which the god
grafp.ng xnftead of her, made a pipe of it, and for his
muhc was adored by the Arcadians. The moft com¬
mon opinion was, that he was the fon of Mercury and
Pene.opc. But A/a/. Comes, ouc of Duns Samlus,
makes his birth fcandalous, by faying he was called
Lecauk begot by all Penelope’s fuitors. He was paint¬
ed half-man half goat, having large goats horns, a chap¬
let of pine on his red face, a pleafant laughter, with
t.ie feet and tad of a goat j a motely flcin covering his
bouy, with a crooked flick in one hand and his pipe
m the other. See him nicely defcribed by Sil ItaL
J3; 326. & f<q. a fight enough to fright women and
children, yea, armed men too ; for when Brennus the
Oauiwas about to pillage the temple of Apollo at
.Delphos, he by night firuck fuch a terror into his
army, that he quitted his facrilegious defign : hence
/ anici terrores. \ et, as homely as he was, he pleafed
the gcddcfs Luna, turning himfelf eafily into a white
ram, Virgil, Georg. 111. 392. y deinceps; and the
nymph Dryope alfo, almoft putting off his divinity,
and turning fhepherd for her fike. Neither was he
r.ifplealing to other nymphs, who are generally made
dancing round about him to hear the charms of his
pipe, ff he ufual offerings made him were milk and
honey, in fhepherd’s wooden bowls; aifo they fuoifi-
ced to him a dog, the wolf’s enemy ; whence his ufiuj
epithet is Xu*a‘t,> ; and whence alfo his prietts were call¬
ed Luperci.
His icftival was celebrated on February 15th by
the Romans, brought into Italy by Evander the Ar¬
cadian, and revived afterwards by Romulus, in memo¬
ry of his preferver. He was alfo called by the Ro¬
mans Inuus, ab ineundo. Fid. Liv. I. 5. Macrob. Sat.
I. 22. and Serv. in Virg. JEn. VI. 775. The anci¬
ents, by giving fo many adjunds and attributes to this
idol as we have obferved above, feem to have defiom-
ed him for the fymhol of the univerfe $ his upper parts
being human, bec^ufe the upper part of the world is
fair, beautiful, fmiling, like his face ; his horns fym-
bolize the rays of the fun and of the moon ; his red
face, the fplendor of the fky ; the fpotted /kin where¬
with he is clothed, the ttars which befpangle the fir¬
mament ; the roughnefs of his lower parts, beafts and
vegetables; his goat’s reet, the folidity of the earth ;
his pipe, compad of feven reeds, the feven planets,
which they fay make the harmony of the fpheres : his
crook, bending round at the top, the years circling in
one another. Serv. Jnterpr.
Having faid fo much of Pan, both as a felf-exiflent
god and as a generated daemon, we /hall conclude the
article with fome obfervations on Plutarch’s account
ox the prodigy which happened at his death ; for in
the Pagan creed, daemons were not all believed immor-
ta ' 7** t^ie reign of Tiberius (fays our author *),
certain perfons on a voyage from Afia to Italy, and
fading towards the evening by the Echinedes, were
there becalmed, and heard a loud voice from the fhore
cf in£ .on °1ne Thamus an Egyptian pilot whom
they had on board. Thamus, as may be fuppofed,
liftened w.th attention ; and the voice, after re¬
peating his name thrice, commanded him when he
came to the Pelodes, to declare that the Great Pan
was dead The man, with the advice of his comoa-
mons, refolved, that if they fhould have a quick gale
1 PAN
o.t the PcIo'Ict, he would pafa h.y In filence : hut tint
' the? “r’i ^ he would perform what
the voice had commanded. Adhering to this refolu-
t.on, they foon arrived off the deflined Hands, and
were .mmediately becalmed, there being neither breath
o. wind nor agitation of water. Upon this Thamus
looking from the hinder part of the fhip towards the
liv ’’ Pronounced with a loud voice .u'yxs n«» Ttflmr
The Great Pams dead! and was inflantly anfwered from
the ffore hy numberlefs bowlings and lamentations
ibis flory-, which has fo much the air of impof-
ture has not only been admitted as truth by men of
tne hr ft eminence for learning and acutenefs, but has
been applied to cur Saviour, whole death (fays Cud-
worth) the daemons mourned, not from love, but from
a preiage that it would put a period to the tyranny
and domination which they had fo long exercifed over
the fouls and bodies of men. In fnpport of this opi¬
nion, he quotes feverd paffages of Scripture, fuch as,
tN°w 1S tne prince of this world judged;” and, “ Ha
vmg fpoiled principalities and powers (hy his death
upon the croft), he triumphed over them in it ” He
affirms hkewife, that “ Pan being taken for that rea-
fon or underflanding by which all things were made,
and by which they are all governed, or for that di¬
vine wifdom which diffufeth itfelf throug-h all things,
is a name which might very well fignify God manifej-
ed in the jh'Jh. ’ , J J
The authority of Cud worth is great; but aground-
lels opinion has feldom been propped by weaker rea-
ioning than he makes ufe of on this occafion. Plu-
tarch indeed fays, and feems to believe, that this pro¬
digy jell out during the reign of Tiberius ; but as he
mentions not the year ©f that reign, there is no evi¬
dence that it was at the crucifixion of our Savi¬
our. The daemons who inhabited the Echinedes
knew what had been Iran faffed at Jerufalem fardiftant
irom their Hands ; they knew the name of the pilot
oi a ft range /hip ; they knew that the mariners of that
/nip had refolved to difobey their command, unlefst
becalmed off the Pelodes ; they had power over both
the winds and waves at the Pelodes, and exerted that
power to enforce obedience to their command ; and
yet thefe all-knowing and powerful beings were un¬
der the neceffity of calling in the aid of a man to de¬
liver a meffage to their companions, inhabiting a place
to which the very fame ftory affures us that their own
power and knowledge reached. Should it be faid that
the daiihons were compelled by divine power thus pub¬
licly to make known to man Chrift’s triumph over
the kingdom of darknefs, we beg leave to aik why
they weie not Itkewife compelled to give him another
name, fince it is certain, that at the asra of Tiberius,
and long before, illiterate Pagans, fuch as common
fcamen muff be fuppofed to have been, knew no other
Pan than the fabled fon of Penelope and ^Mercury —
Indeed the other Pan, taken for that reafon or under-
/landing by which all things were made, could not
po/Iibly be the being here meant ; for^erroneous as the
Pagan fyxiem was, there is nothing in it fo completely
abfurd as the death of the foul of the univerie, the
maker of all things : nor do we believe that any Pa¬
gan ever exifted, who dreamed that fuch a death way
poflible.
What then, it will be aiked, are we to underftand
4 by
PAN [ 687 ] PAN
pan by this (lory ? Plutarch was eminent for knowledge
II and integrity, and he relates it without exprefling a
■ *>auama' doubt of its truth. He does fo ; but many a man of
worth has been credulous; and though that was not
his character, this prodigy may be accounted for by na¬
tural means. Gtrmanicus was believed to have been
poifoned, at lead with the knowledge, if not by the
command, of Tiberius ; and there was nothing which
the Romans fo deeply deplored as the untimely death
* Df that accomplilhed prince*. They fancied that his
iflTh' body was animated, not by a human foul, but by a
cap. 7a. 83. fuperior daemon ; and they decreed to him ftatues, re-
tt lib. iii. ligious ceremonies, and even facrifices. His widow
cap.». wati highly honoured, as having been nearly related to
a divinity, and his children were adored as demi-gods.
Thefe faffs being, admitted, nothing appears to us
more probable than the opinion of the learned Mo-
\Cui«j>orth's flieim who thinks that feme Ihrewd flatefman, in
Intel. Syjl. order to excite the popular fury againft Tiberius to
cap. 4. bigheft pitch, invented this ftory, and bribed fo
0tei^Z‘ reign mariners to fpread it among the people, who,
would naturally believe, that by the great Pan was
meant their favourite Gerpaanicus. This hypothefis is
at lead countenanced by what Plutarch tells us ot the
anxiety of the emperor to difeover what perfonage
could be meant by the Pan whofe death was announ¬
ced to the feamen : he confulted the learned men of
Rome, who, in order to reftore peace to the city, de¬
clared that they underftood it of none other than the
fdn of Penelope and Mercury.
PANACEA, among phyficians, denotes an uni-
verfal medicine, or a remedy for all difeafes ; a thing
impofiible to be obtained.
PANADA, a diet confiding of breal boiled in
water to the confidence of pulp, and fweetened with
a little fugar.
PANAMA, the capital city of the province of Da
rien in South America, where the treafures of gold
and filver, and the other rich merchandifes of Peru,
are lodged in magazines till they are fent to Europe.
W. Long. 82. 15. N. Lat. 8. 57.
When Guzman fird touched at this place in 1
it confided entirely of fifirermens huts. Orius
d’Avila fettled a colony here in a few years after, and
in 1521 it was condituted a city by the emperor
Charles V. with the proper privileges. In 1670 it
was facked and burnt by John Morgan, an Englifh
adventurer, who had the preceding year taken Porto
Btllo. This misfortune induced the inhabitants to
remove the city to its prefent fituation, didant about
a league from the place where it dood before. For
the greater fecurity, the new city was inclofed by a
free-done wall, and the houfes were built of done and
brick. Since that time feveral b'adions have been
added, and now there is always a complete garrifon
maintained, and the walls are mounted with large can¬
non. But all thefe precautions could not fave thi-s city
from another misfortune ; it was entirely confumed by
fire in the year 1737* After this accident it was
again rebuilt, in the manner as it now dands, with
neat elegant houfes, but not magnificent. The inha¬
bitants are rather independent in their fortunes than
rich ; there are few of them opulent, and fcarce any m
a date of poverty. As to the harbour, it is conveni-
<SQt, arid well fecured againft ftorms by a number of
furrounding Iflands, and is capable of containing the Panama,
largeft fleets. Here the royal audience is feated, at, i>''nar"
which the governor of Panama reiides; for which reafon
this city is commonly deemed the capital of the province.
This place, a little while after it was founded,
became the capital of the kingdom of Terra Firms.
Some hopes were at firft entertained from the three
provinces of Panama, Darien, and Veragua, which
compofed it; but this profperity vanifhed indanta-
neoufly. The favages of Darien recovered their inde¬
pendence ; and the mines of the two other provinces
were found to-be neither fufiiciently abundant, nor of
an alloy good enough to make it worth while to work
them. Five or fix fmali boroughs, in which are feen
forae Europeans quite naked, and a very fmali num¬
ber of Indians who have come4 to refiie there, form
the whole of this date, which the Spaniards are not
afhamed of honouring with the great name of king¬
dom. It is in genera! barren and unwholefome, and
contributes nothing to trade but pearls.
The pearl fifhery is carried on in the ifl.inds df the
gulph. Tke greated pari of the inhabitants employ
fuch of their negroes in it as are good fwimmtrs.
Thefe flaves plunge and replunge in the fea in fearck
of pearls, till this excrcife has exhaufted their drength
01 their fpirits.
Every negro is obliged to deliver a certain number
of oyders. '1 hofe in which there are no pearls, or in
which the pearl is not entirely formed, are not reckoned.
What he is able to find beyond the dipulated obliga¬
tion, is confidered as his indifputable property : he may
fell it to whom he pleafes ; but commonly he cedes it
to his* mader at a moderate price.
Sea monders, which abound more about the iflands
where pearls are found than on the neighbouring coafis*
render this fifking dangerous. Some of thefe devour-
the divers in an indant. The manta fifh, which de¬
rives its name from its figure, furrounds them, rolls
them under its body, and fuffocates them. In order
to defend themfelves againft fuch enemies, every diver
is armed with a poni .rd : the moment hp perceives any
of thefe voracious fifh, he attacks them with precau¬
tion, wounds them, and drives them away. Notwith-
ftanding this, there are always fome fifhermen deftroy-
ed, and a groat number crippled.
The pearls of Panama are commonly of a very fine
water. Some of them are even remarkable for their
fize and figure : thefe were formerly fold in Europe.
Since art has imitated them, and the paflion for
diamonds has entirely fuperfeded or prodigioufly di-
minifhed the ufe of them, they have found a new mart .
more advantageous than the firll. They are carried
to Peru, where they are iu great eftirnation.
This branch of trade has, however, infinitely lefe
contributed to give reputation to Panama, than the
advantage which it hath long enjoyed of being the
mart of all the produclione of the country of the
Incas that are deftined for the old world. Thefe
riches, which are brought hither by a fmali fleet, were
carried, fome on mules, others by the river Chagre,
to Porto Bello, that is fituated on the northern coaft
of the ilthmus which feparates the two feas. See Da¬
rien.
PANAR1, one of the Lipari iflands, lying in the
Tufcan Sea. It is only five miles ia circumference,
and;
Panaro,
Panathe-
n®a.
Anaclarfu,
vol. ii.
$>• 434-
P A
barren,
N
E.
Long.
15*
and the foil is
39- °-
1 PANARO, a river of Italy, which rifes in the
Apennines, croffes the valley of Frignano, and run¬
ning on the confines of the Modenefe and Bolognefe,
waters Fenal, and falls into the Po at Bondeno, ten
miles above Ferrara.
P i\ N AT FI E N JE A, ^ava^Hwnajin Grecian antiquity,
an ancient Athenian feftival, in honour of Minerva the
prote&refs of Atiiens, and ca.lled Athenaa. Flarpo-
cration and Suidas refer the inftitutien of this feftival
to Erlchthonius IV. king of Athens, who lived before
Thefeus. Theodoret alone fays the feaft was efta-
blilhed by Orpheus. Be this as it will, till '1 hefeus it
was never a particular feaft of the city of Athens, and
[ 688 ] PA
0. N. Lat. called upon to render it fervice.
N
A crown of olive,
and a veftel filled with oil, were the prizes be flowed
upon the vi£tors. Crowns were afterwards conferred
on individuals, who appeared to the people to have
merited that mark of honour by their zeal m the fer¬
vice of their country.
“ A^t the Cerarnicus palled a proceffion, formed
without the walls, and which began at that place to
file off. It was compofed of i»,ifferent claffes of citi¬
zens crowned with chaplets of flowers, and remarkable
for their perional beauty. Among the number were
old men of a mijelbc and venerable appearance, bear¬
ing branches of olive ; middle-aged men, who, armed
with lances and with bucklers, feemed only to refpire
war ; youth from eighteen to twenty, who fang, hymns
was called Amply Athenaa : but that prince, uniting in honour of the goddefs ; beautiful boys, clad in a
all the people of Attica into one republic, they after* fimpie tunic, adorned only with their native graces;
and, laftly, girls, who were of the firft families in
wards all affifted at the feaft ; whence the name Pana-
ttheruca, i. e. the feaft of all Attica. In effeft all At¬
tica was prefent; and each people fent a bullock for
■ the facrifices, and for the entertainment of the vaft
■ multitude of people affembled.
There were two feftivals under this denomination,
the greater and the leffer. The greater panathenaea
were exhibited every five years ; the lefs every three,
or, according to fome writers, annually. Though the
-celebration of neither, at firft, employed more than one
day ; yet in after-times they were protracted for the
fpace of many days, and folemnized with greater pre¬
parations and magnificence than at their firft inftitu-
tion.
The ceremonies were the fame in the great and the
little panathenaea ; excepting for a banner, wherein the
.actions of the goddefs were reprefented in embroidery,
performed by maids, with the names of thofe who had
diftinguiftied thenifelves in the fervice of the republic ;
which was only borne at the greater.
Prizes were eftablifhed there for three different kinds
of combat : the fit ft confifted of foot and herfe races;
the fecond, of athletic exercifes ; and the third, of
poetical and mufical contefts. Thefe Eft are fail to
have been inft'ituted by Pericles. Singrrs of the firft
clafs, accompanied by performers on the flute and
cithara, exercifed their talents here, upon fubje&spre-
fcribed by the directors of thefe exhibitions.
The following is the order obferved in this feftival,
according to M. Barthelemi, who quotes numerous
authorities on the occafion : “ The inhabitants of the
different towns of Attica thronged to the capital, lead¬
ing with them a great number of victims deftined for
facrifices to the goddefs In the firft morning were
the horfe-races, in which the fons of the firft citizens of
Athens contended for the honour of the v.Ctory. In
the ftadium were other young men ftruggling for the
prize at wreftling, and different exercifes of the body;
and in the Odeum were feveral muficians engaged in
gentler and lefs perilous contefts. Some executed
pieces on the flute or cithara; others fang, and accom¬
panied their voices with one of thefc inftruments. The
fubject propofed to them was tbeeulogium of Harmo*
dius, Ariftogiton, and Thrafybulus, who had refeued
the republic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it
was oppreffed : for, among the Athenians, public in-
ilitutions are fo many monuments for the citizens who
have i rved the ftatc, and leffons for thefe who are
N° 258.
Athens, and whofe features, ftape, and deportment,
attracted every eye. With their hands they held
bafkets on their heads, which, under a rich veil, con¬
tained facred utenfils, cakes, and every thing neceffary
for the facrifices. Female attendants, who followed
them, with one hand held over them an umbrella, and
carried in the other a folding chair. This is a fpecies
of fervitude impofed on the daughters of all foreigners
fettled at Athens : a fervitude they fliare in common
with their fathers and mothers, who likewife carried
on their Ihoulders veffeis filled with water and honey,
for the purpofe of libations. They were followed by
eight muiicians ; four of whom played on the flute
and four on the lyre. After them came rhapfodifts
finging the poems of Homer; and dancers armed at
all points, who, attacking each other at intervals, re¬
prefented, to the found of the flute, the battle of
Minerva with the Titans. Next came a {hip that ap¬
peared to glide over the ground by the power of tha
wind, and the efforts of a great number of rowers, but
which really was put in motion by concealed machi¬
nery. The vcffel had a fail of light fluff, on which
young girls had reprefented in embroidery the vidlory
of Minerva over the Titans. On it alfo they had de-
pifted, by order of the government, fome heroes whofe
iiluftrious deeds had merited to be celebrated with
thofe of the gods. This proceflion marched on with
folemn fteps, under the direction of feveral magiftrates;
and traverfed the molt frequented quarter of the city
amidft a crowd of fpedtators, moft of whom were
placed on fcaffolds ere&ed for the occafion. When it
had reached the temple of the Pythian Apollo, the
fail of the (hip was taken down and carried to the
citadel, where it was depofited in the temple of Mi¬
nerva.
“ In the evening, at the academy, was the torch
race. The courfe is only fix or feven ftadia in length.
It extends from the altar of Prometheus, which is at
the gate of this garden, to the walls of the city.
Several young men are ftatiqned in this interval at
equal diftances. When the (bouts of the multitude
have given the fignal, the firft lights his flambeau at
the altar, and, running with it, hands it to the fecond,
who tranfmits it in the fame manner to the third, and
fo fucceffively. He who fuffers it to be extinguiflied
can no more enter the lifts ; and they who (lacken their
pace are expofed to the railleries, and even blows, of
the
PAN
[ 6S9 ]
PAN
Pma*. the populace. To gain the ptize, it is neceffary to
have pafled through the different ftations with fuccefs.
This trial of (kill was frequently repeated, and is
diverfified according to the nature of the feftivals.
“ The candidates who had been crowned at the dif¬
ferent exercifes invited their friends to fupper. Sump¬
tuous repafts ivere given in the prytaneum and other
public places, which lafted till the following day. The
people among whom the immolated vidtims Were dif-
tributed fpread tables on every fide, and gave a loofe
to their lively and tumultuous mirth.”
PANAX, Ginseng : A genus of the dicecia order,
celonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. There are
five fpecies of this plant. I. Quinquefolium. 2. Tn-
folium. 3. Fruticofum. 4. Arborea. 5. Spinofa..
'1 he firit and fecond are native's of North America.
Plate The quinquefolium is generally believed to be the fame
-eccuxui. wjth ^ Tartarian ginfeng; the figures and defcrip-
tions of that plant which have been fent to Europe by
the miffionaries agreeing perfedily with the American
plant. This hath a jointed, flefhy, and taper root, as
large as a man’s finger, frequently divided into two
fmallev fibres downwards. The ftalk rifes near a foot
and an half high, and is naked at the top, where it
generally divides into three fmaller foot-ftalks, each
fuftaining a leaf compofed of five fpear-fhaped lobes,
fawed on their edges: they Are of a pale green, and a
little hairy. The flowers grow on a (lender foot-flalk,
juft at the divifion of the foot-ftalks which fuftain the
leaves, and are formed into a fmall umbel at the top ;
they are of an herbaceous yellow colour, compofed of
fmall yellow petals, which are recurved. Woodville *
fays they are white ; that they are produced in a
roundilh terminal umbel, and are hermaphrodite or
male on feparate plants. The former (fee the Plate)
ft and in clofe Ample umbels : the involucrum cen-
fifts of feveral fmall, tapering, pointed, permanent
leaves ; the proper calyx is tubular, and divided at the
rim into five fmall teeth: the corolla confifts of five
petals, which are fmall, oval, equal, and reflexed : the
filaments are five, fhort, and furniflied with fimple an¬
ther se : the germen is roundifh, placed below the co¬
rolla, and fupports two fhort ere& ftyles, crowned by
fimple ftigmata : the fruit is an umbilicated two-celled
berry, each containing afingle irregularly heart-fhaped
feed. The flowers appear in the beginning of June ;
and are fucceeded by comprefied, heart fliaped berries,
which are firft green, but afterwards turn red; inclofing
two hard, comprefled, heart-fhaped feeds, which ripen
in the beginning of Auguft. The fecond fort grows
naturally in the fame countries: but Mr Miller never
faw mole than one plant, which was fent to him from
Maryland, and did not live beyond the firft year; being
planted in a dry foil, in a very dry feafon. The ftalk
was Angle, and did not rife more than five inches in
height, dividing into three foot ftalks, each fuftaining
a trifoliate leaf, whofe lobes were longer, narrower,
and deeper indented on their edges, than the former.
Vol. XIII. Part II.
* Medical
JBotutiy.
The flower-ftalk rofe from the divifions of the foot- ^ana*f i
ftalk of the leaves; but before the flowers opened, the ^ v
plant decayed.
Ginfeng was formerly fuppofed to grow only in Chi- *
nefe Tartary, affefting mountainous fituations, fhaded
by clofe woods: but it has now been long known that v0^
this plant is alfo a native of North America, whence
M. Sarrafin tranfmitted fpecimens of it to Paris in the
year 1704(A); and the ginfeng fince difcovered in Ca¬
nada, Penfylvania, and Virginia, by Lafiteau, Kalm,
Bartram, and others, has been found to correfpond
exa&ly with the Tartarian fpecies; and its roots are
now regularly purchafed by the Chinefe, who confider
them to be the fame as thofe of eaftern growth, which
are known to undergo a certain preparation, whereby
they affume an appearance fomewhat different. For
it is faid, that in China the roots are wafhed and foaked
in a decoftion of rice or millet-feed, and afterwards
expofed to the fleam of the liquor, by which they
acquire a greater firmnefs and clearnefs than in their
natural ftate(B). The plant was firft introduced into
England in 1740 by that induftrious naturalift Peter
Collinfon. They thrive in thofe places where it hath
a light foil and (hady fituation, and will produce flowers
and feeds; but the latter, though in appearance ripe
and perfect, will not produce any new plants, as Mr
Miller fays he has repeatedly made the experiment,
and waited for them three years without diflurbing
the ground. There are many good fpecimens in the
Royal Botanic Garden at Kew.
The dried root of ginfeng, as imported here, is t
fcarcely the thicknefs of the little finger, about three
or four inches long, frequently forked, tranfverfely
wrinkled, of a horny texture, and both internally and
externally of a yellowifli white colour. On the top
are commonly one or more little knots, which are the
remains of the ftalks of the preceding years, and from
the number of which the age of the root is judged of.
“ To the tafte it difcovers a mucilaginous fweetnefs,
approaching to that of liquorice, accompanied with
fome degree of bitterifhnefs, and a flight aromatic'
vvsrmth, with little or no fmell. It is far fweeter, and
of a more grateful fmell, than the roots of fennel, to
which it has by fome been fuppofed fimilar; and
differs likewife remarkably from thofe roots in the na¬
ture and pharmaceutic properties of its adtive princi¬
ples, the fweet matter of the ginfeng being preferved
entire in the watery as well as the fpirituous extra#,
whereas that of fennel roots is deftroyed or diffipated
in the infpiffation of the watery tindture. The flight
aromatic impregnation of the ginfeng is likewife in
good meafure retained in the watery extra#, and per-
fe#ly in the fpirituoua * Liivht
Properties. The Chinefe aferibe extraordinary v\x-Mat-
tues to the root of ginfeng; and have long confideredP’
it as a fovereign remedy in almoft all difeafes to which
they are liable, having no confidence in any medicine
unlefs in combination with it. It is obferved by Jar-
4 S toux.
(a) Sarrafin was correfpondent of the Royal Academy of Sciences, in the hiftory of which his account
was puhlifhed in 1718.
(b) The Chinefe value thefe roots in fome meafure according to their figure, efteeming thofe very highly
*vhich are regularly forked, or have a fancied relembbnce to the human form.
PAN [6
Fanax, toux, that the moft eminent phyficians in China have
I anay. written volumes on the medicinal powers-of this plant;
afferting, that it gives immediate relief in extreme fa¬
tigue either of fcody or mind ; that it difiblves pituitous
humours, and renders refpiration eafy ; ftrengthens the
flotnach ; promotes appetite; (tops vomitings; removes
hyfterical, hypochondriacal, and all nervous affections;
and gives a vigorous tone of body even in extreme old
age. Thefe, and many other effefts of this root equally
improbable and extravagant, are related by various au¬
thors ; and Jartoux was fo much biaffed by this eaftern
prejudice in favour of ginfeng, that he feems to have
given them full credit, and confirms them in fome
rneafure from his own experience. He fays, “ Nobody
can imagiite that the Chinefe and Tartars would fet
fo high a value upon this rost, if it did not condantly
produce a good effcCt.”—“ I obferved the ftate of
my pulfe, and then took half of a root raw: in an
hour after I found my pulfe much fuller and quicker;
I had an appetite, and found myfelf much more vigo¬
rous, and could bear labour much better and eafier
than before. But 1 did not rely on this trial alone,
imagining^that this alteration might proceed from the
reft we had that day : but four days after, finding my¬
felf fo fatigued and weary that I could fcarcely fit on
horfeback, a Mandarin who was in company with us
perceiving it, gave me one of thefe roots : I took half
of it immediately, and an hour after I was not the leaft
fenfible of any wearinefs. 1 have often made ufe of it
fince, and always with the fame fuccefs. I have obferved
alfo, that the green leaves, and efpeeially the fibrous
parts of them, chewed, would produce nearly the fame
* Phil. efteft*.” We know, however, of no proofs of the
T™’/- _ efficacy of ginfeng in Europe ; and from its fenfible
'° xxvu,‘ qualities we j'udge it to poflefs very little power as a
medicine. Dr Cullen fays, “ We are told that the
Chinefe confider ginfeng as a powerful aphrodiliac;
but I have long neglected the authority of popular
opinions, and this is one inftance that has confirmed
my judgment. 1 have known a gentleman, a little
advanced in life, who chewed a quantity of this root
every day for feveral years, hut who acknowledged he
never found his faculties in this way improved bv
t Mat. » J r i
A dram °f th6 ginfeng root may be fliced and boiled
in a quarter of a pint of water to about two ounces ;
then a little fugar being added, it may be drank as
foon as it is cool enough. The dofe mull be repeated
morning and evening ; but the fecond dofe may he
prepared from the fame portion of root which was
ufed at firft, for it may always be twice boiled.
PAN AY, an ifiand of Afia, and one of the Phi-
bppines, lying between thofe of Paraguay and Negro,
It is 250 miles in circumference, and is the moft po¬
pulous and fertile of them all. It is watered by a
great number of rivers and brooks, and produces a
Modern Un. great quantity of rice. Its ffiape is triangular. The
v'ii Dame8 it8 principal capes are Potol, Nafo^and Bn-
lacabi. The coaft from Bulacabi to Potol lies eaft
and weft; from Potol to Nafo, north and fouth ; from
Bulacabi to Iloilo, another cape, lefs than the great
ones, is allb north and fouth ; from Iloilo to Cape
Nafo, eaft and weft. The middle of the ifland is in
the latitude of ten degrees. On the north fide, slmoft
k the middle between the two capes of Potol and Bu-
1° ] PAN
lacabi, the famous river Panay falls into the fea; and P»nay,
the month of the harbour is covered by a fmall ifland *>a:IcarPl!*"
called Lutaya, in which port the Spaniards had a fafe ' 
retreat before they difeovered and conquered Manilla
and Cavite. The fertility of Panay is caufed by the
many rivers that water it, for there is no travellincr a
league without meeting a river; but more particularly
by the Panay, which gives its name to the ifland, and
runs a courfe of 40 leagues. The ifland, for the better
adminiftering of juftice, is divided into jurifdiidions :
the fir If, called Fanay, contains all that lies between
Cape Potol and Bulacabi; the reft of the ifland is
fubjeft to the alcayde of Otton, who refides at Iloilo,
a point of land running out into the fea, on the fouth
fide, between the two rivers of Tig Bavan and Jaro,
and, with the iflaud Imaras, forms a ftrait not above
half a league over, or rati-er an open harbour. On
this point the governor Don Gonzaio Ronquillo caufed
a fort to be built in the year 1681. The ifland con¬
tains about 16,360 tributary Indians, partly belonging
to the king and partly to particular encomienderos
or lords ; but they all pay in rice, the ifland producing-
100,000 bulhels, Spanilh meafure, and but little other-
grain. The inhabitants are flout, lufty, and induftri-
ous farmers, and expert huntfinen, the country being
full of wild boars and deer. The women make cloth
of feveral colours. There are in the ifland 14 pariffies^
belonging to the fathers of the order of St Auguftin^
three benefices of fecular priefts, and formerly one
college of the focicty of Jefus, where they adminiller
the lacraments to the garrifon of Iloilo. Befides the
tributary Indians, there are here thofe blacks the
Spaniards call Negrilloes, who were the firft inhabitants
of the ifland, and afterwards driven into the thick
woods by the Bifayas who conquered it. Their hair
is not fo ftiff curled, n©r are they fo flout and ftrong,
as the Guinea blacks. They live in the moft uncouth
parts of the mountains with their wives and children,
all naked like beads. They are fo fwift that they
often overtake wild boars and deer. They flay about
the dead beaft as long as it lafts; for they have no
other fubfiftence but what they acquire w-ith their
bow and arrows. They fly from the Spaniards, not
fo much through hatred as from fear. Among the
iflands about Panay lies Imaras, oppofite to Iloilo,
and about a quarter of a league diflant. It is long
and low, ten leagues in compafs and three in length,
the foil fertile, abounding in farfaparilla, and exceed-
ing good water. On the mountains there are wild
boars, deer, and good timber. It has alfo in it the
port of St Anne, three leagues from Iloilo.
PANCARPUS, in Roman antiquity, a kind of
fhovv which the Roman emperors frequently exhibited
to the people. The word is formed from the Greek
■x** all, and fruit. Whence the name was alfo
given by the Athenians to a facrifice wherein all kinds
of fruits were offered. In this fpe£lacle, the Circus
being all fet over with large trees, reprefented a foreft,.
into which the bealls being let from the dens under¬
ground, the people, at a fign given by the emperor,
purfued, fhot, and killed all they could lay hold of,
which they afterwards carried away, to regale upon at
home. The beafts ufually given on thefe occafions
were boars, deers, oxen, and fheep.
Cafaubon, Ci jas, Pithou, &,c. make the pancarpus
and
PAN [691] PAN
Tancirollus and fy'lva the fame thing ; Salmafiu* will have them
it . different. The fylva, according to him, was fuch a
|»andataria. j-verfiQn as t}]at aboVe defcribed; but the pancarpus a
tJ ,-y _ combat, wherein robuft people, hired for that purpofe,
fought with wild beafts ; which opinion he confirms
from Caffian, Juftinian, Claudian, Firmicus, Manilius,
and Cafiiodorus.
PANC1ROLLUS (Guy), a famous lawyer of
Rhegium, was a perfon of an excellent genius, which
he cultivated with the greateft care in the principal
univerfities of Italy; and was afterwards ordinary pro-
feffor of law at Padua. Philibert Emanuel, duke of
Savoy, invited him to his univerfity in lyyi* where
he compofed his ingenious treatife De rebus inventls et
■deperdith. But the air of Turin not agreeing with
him, he there loft an eye ; and, for fear of lofing the
other, returned to Padua, where he died in 1591*
PANGRAS, a town of England, in the county of
Middlefex, on the north-weft fide of London, in the
highway to Kentifh-town. Its church is one of the
prebends of St Paul’s, of which cathedral fome call it
the mother, it being thought to he as old as that church
even in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when it is re¬
presented as weather-beaten and ftanding alone, with¬
out any company, though it had formerly many build¬
ings about it. In its church yard lie many Roman
Catholics. At a public-houfe on the fouth fide of the
church is a medicinal fpring.
PANCRATIUM (compounded of C7«1' al/, and
Hfttnu I overcome)t among the ancients, a kind of inter¬
mixed exercife, confifting of the lueba or wreftling, and
the boxing or pngilate: but it differs in this, that as the
athletre are not to feize the body, their hands are not
armed with traumlets, and give lefs dangerous blows.
The pancratium was the third gymnaftic exercife,
and was not introduced till long after the others. The
people who were engaged in thefe exercifes were call¬
ed pancratiajlee ; which#name was alfo given to fuch as
did not confine themfelves to one exercife, but fuc-
ceeded in feveral different ones.
Barthelemi, in his Travels of Anacharfis, gives us a
Ihort account of one of thofe at which he fuppofes
Awchar/ts, him to have been prefent in thefc words ; “ The action
Vol. ill. was foon terminated: a Sicyonian named Sojlratus, a
champion celebrated for the number of prizes he had
won, and the itrength and fkill which had procured
them, had arrived the preceding day. The greater
part of the combatants yielded up all pretenfions to
the crown as foon as he appeared, and the others on
the firft trial; for in thofe preliminary effays, in which
the athleta? try their ftrength by taking each others
hands, he fqueezed and twilled the fingers of his ad-
verfaries with filch violence as inltantly to decide the
victory in his favour.”
PANCREAS, in anatomy. See there, n°95.
PANDA, in mythology, a goddefs who was in¬
voked and honoured as the protedtrefs of travellers and
navigators. 'Hie goddefs of peace was alfo called
Pandabecaufe file opened the gates of cities which
were fhut in time of war. According to Varro, Pan¬
da is a fr.rnarr.e of Ceres, derived a pane dando, becaufe
fne gave bread to mankind.
PANDATA RIA (Suetonius, Pliny, Strabo);
Pandateria (Mela, Tacitus): An ifiand in theTuf-
can £ea ; a-place of banilhment for the more illuftrious
exiles. Hither Julia, the daughtet of Auguftus, was INtuleA*
baniihed for her incontinence. To this ifland Tibe- paiJon)
rius banifhed Agrippina, his daughter-in-law (Sueto-,
nius). It was the place of confinement of Odtavia the
daughter of Clodius, married to Nero ; a fight that
affedted every eye (Tacitus). Now Santa Maria, fi-
tuated between Pontia and Ifchia (Holftenius).
PANDECTS, pandects, in jurifprudence, the
digeft or colledtion, made by Juftinian’s order, of 534
decifions or judgments of the ancient lawyers, on fo
many queftions occurring in the civil law ; to which
that emperor gave the force and authority of law, by
the epiftle prefixed to them.—-The word is Greek,
navjfXTuu, compounded of ii all,” and Si^ouai capio,
“ I takei. e. a compilation, or a book containing
all things.—Though others, as Bartoli, will have it
formed from and as if thefe books con¬
tained the whole dodtrine of the law.
The pandedts confift of 50 books, and make the firft
part of the body of the <sivil law.
They were denoted by two but the copifts ta¬
king thofe ** for Jf, thecuftom arofe of quoting fhera
hyJ-
In the year 1137, the pandedts of Juftinian, which
had been brought by an Amalfitan merchant from the
eaft, fell into the hands of the Pifans. Angelus Poli-
tianus believes this copy to be that which had been
compiled by- order of the emperor. However that be,
it is certain that all other copies are taken from it, as
being the moft ancient. The Pifans having obtained
their requefl: from the emperor, carried the volumes to
Pifa, and for near three centuries they were known by
the name of the Pandebhe Pifanx. But, about the
year 1416, Pifa being taken by the Florentines, they
were tranfported from thence to Florence, where they
are now preferved in the library of the Medici, and
known by the name of the PandeQx Florentinx. Some
authors allege, that Lotharius ordained by an edict
that the Pandedts Ihould be publicly read and explain¬
ed at Bologna, and pleaded in the tribunals; but Cor-
ringius and Lindenbrogius fully refute their opinion.
Papias extends the denomination of Pandetls to the
Old and New Teftament.
There are alfo JPandecta Median#, “ Pandedts o£
Medicine a kind of didtionary of things relating to
medicine, compiled by Mat. Sylvaticus of Mantua,
who lived about the year 1297. Leunclavius has pub-
lifhed PandeQs of Turkey; and biftiop Beveridge, Pan-
dccla canonum.
PANDICULATION, a ftretching ; or that vio¬
lent and tenfive motion of the folids, which ufually ac¬
companies the act of yawning.
PANDORA, in fabulous hiftery, a woman formed
by Prometheus, to whom each of the gods gave fome
perfection. Venus beftowed upon her beauty; Pallas,
wifdom; Juno, riches; Apollo, mufic; and Mercury,
eloquence: but Jupiter being difpleafed at Prometheus
for having ftolen fire from heaven to animate the mafs
he had formed, gave Pandora a box, which fire was
ordered not to open ; and then fent her to the earth
with this box, in which were inclofed age, difeafes,
peftilence, war, famine, envy, difeord, and all the evils
and vices that could afflidt mankind. This fatal box
was opened by Epimetheus, Prometheus’s brother,
when inftantly all the difeafes and mifehiefa with which
4 S 2 H
PAN- [69
PancUurs it was filled fpread over the earth, and Hope alone re¬
mained at the bottom. Hefiod fays fhe was the firfl:
woman.
PANDOURS,are Hungarian infantry: they wear
a loofe garment fixed tight to their bodies by a girdle,
with great fleeves, and large breeches hanging down to
their ancles. They ufe fire-arms, and are excellent
markfmen: they have alfo a kind of fabre near four feet
long, which they ufe with great dexterity.
PANDOSIA (Livy, Juftin, Strabo), an inland
town of the Brutti, and a place of ftrength on the ri¬
ver Acheron, where Alexander of Epirus, deceived
by the oracle of Dodona, met his fate and perifhed.
Now Mendicino (Holflenius). Another of Epirus
(Strabo) ; fituated on the river Acheron (Livy) ;
v/hich Alexander of Epirus was advifed to avoid as fa¬
tal, but which he met with in Italy. This latt is faid
to have been the refidence of the CEnotrian kings,
(Strabo).
PANDURA, or Pandorov, a mufical inftrument,
ufed among the ancients, refembling the lute. 1'he
word is faid to be formed from the Greek and
<?«pov, i. e. “ all gifts, all forts of gifts.” Ifidore de¬
rives the name from its inventor Pandorus; others from
Pan, to whom they attribute its invention, as well as
that of the flute, it has the fame number of firings
with the lute ; but they are of brafs, and of confe-
quence give a more agreeable found than thofe of the
lute. Its frets are of copper, like thofe of the ciftre ;
its back is flat, like thofe of the guittar; and the rims
of its table, as well as its ribs, are cut in femicircles.
Du-Cange cbferves, that Varro, Ifidore, and others of
the ancients, mention it as having only three firings;
whence it is fometimes alfo fpoken of under the deno¬
mination trichordam.
PANEAS (Pliny, Jofephus) ; the apparent fpring
from which the Jordan rifes, on the extremity of the
weft fide of the Trachonitis (Pliny).
Pan eas (Coins, Pliny, Jofephus), the name of a
diftridt adjoining to the fpring Paneas, with a cogno-
minal town, either enlarged and adorned, or originally
built, by Philip fon of Herod, and called Cafarea by
Jofephus ; and in St Matthew, Cafarea of Philip; with
a t&mple erefted to Auguftus his bp^efa<5tor, who con¬
ferred the Trachonitis upon him (Coin). It wras af¬
terwards called Neronias, in honour of Nero (Jofe¬
phus).
P ANEGYRIC, an oration in praife of fome extra¬
ordinary thing, perfon, or virtue.
The name is Greek, *wyvgn', formed of “all,”
and “ I affemble;” becaufe anciently held in
public and folemn affemblies of the Greeks, either at
their games, their feafts, fairs, or religious meetings.
To make their panegyrics the more folemn, the
Greeks ufed to begin with the praifes of the deity in
whofe honour the games, &c. were celebrated ; then
they defeended to the praife of the people or country
where they were celebrated ; then to the princes or
magifirates who prefided at them ; and at length to
the champions, efpecially the conquerors, who had
gained the prizes in them. .
PANEGYRICUM, in church hiftory, an ecckfia-
ftical book, ufed by the Greek church, containing the
panegyrical orations of various authors, on the folem-
nities of Jefus Chiift and the faints. It is found in MS.
2 1 PAN
in moft churches, but is not the fame in all; each Panel,
church having its particular faints and’the compilers Pangolin,
of this kind of books ufually.fuited their colleftions to *
the tafte of their own devotion. They are difpofed ac¬
cording to the order of months, and frequently confift
of twelve volumes, anfwering to the twelve months of
the year.
Among the principal authors of this work are Atha-
nafius, Cyrill, Bafil, Chryfoftom, &c.
PANEL f Panella, Panellum), according to Sir Ed*
ward Coke, denotes “ a little part;” but the learned
Spelman fays, that it fignifies fcheaula vel paglna, “ a
fchednle or rollas a panel of parchment, or a coun¬
terpane of an indenture : but it is ufed more particu¬
larly for a fchedule or roll, containing the names of
fuch jurors as the fiieriff returns to pafs upon any trial.
And the Impanelling a jury is the entering their names1
in a panel or little fchedule of parchment.
Panel, in Scots law, iignifies the prifoner at the
bar, or perfon who takes his trial before the court of
jufticiary for fome crime.
PANGOLIN, a fpecies of the manis peculiar to Plate
Hindoftan. It is certainly a remarkable variety, if not a ,'-'CCLXXiyil
difterent fpecies, of the pangolin of Buffon. According
to a paper in the firft volume of the Afiatic Refearches,
“ it has hardly any neck ; and, though fome filaments
are difcernible between the feales, they can fcarce be
called briftles. But the principal difference is in the tail j
that of Buffon’a animal being long, and tapering al-
moft to a point; while that of ours is much firorter,
ends obtufely, and refcmbles in form and flexibility
the tail of a lobfter. In other refpedts it feems to
have all the charatfiers of Buffon’s pangolin ; a name-
derived from that by which the animal is diftinguifhed
in Java, and confequently preferable to Manis, or
Pholidotus, or any other appellation deduced from an
European language. We are told that the Malabar
name of this animal is alungu. The natives of Bahar call-
it hajar-cit, or, as they explain the word, jlone vermlne ;
and in the ftomach of the animal before us was found’
about a teacupful of fmall ftones, which had probably
teen fwallowed for the purpofe of facilitating digeftion
but the name alludes, we believe, to the hardnefs of
the feales: for 'vajracita means in Sanfcrit the diamond
or thunderbolt reptile; and vajra is a common figure iti¬
the Indian poetry for any thing exceffively hard. The
vajracita is believed by the Pandits to be the animal
which gnaws their facred ftone called falgramajila:
but the pangolin has apparently no teeth; and the
falgrams, many of which look as if they had been
worm-eaten, are perhaps only decayed in part by ex-
pofure to the air.
<s This animal had a long tongue fhaped like that of
a cameleon ; and if it was nearly adult, as we may con¬
clude from the young one found in it, the dimenfiona
of it were much lefs than thofe which Buffon affigna
generally to his pangolin ; for he deferibes its length-
as fix, feven, or eight feet, including the tail, which
is almoft, he fays, as long as the body when it has
attained its full growth : whereas ours is but 34 inches
long from the extremity of the tail to the point of the
fnout, and the length of the tail is 14 inches; but,
exclufively of the head, which is five inches long, the
tail and body are indeed nearly of the fame length ;
and the fmall difference between them may (how, if
Buflbn
PAN
L 693 ]
PAN
Buflcn be correft in this point, that the animal was
youn^. The circumference of its body in the thickett
part is 20 inches, and that of the tail only 12. ere
are on each foot five claws, of which the outer anc
inner are fmall when compared with the other three.
There are no diftinft toes; but each nail is moveab e
by a joint at its root. This creature is extreme y in-
offenfive. It has no teeth, and its feet are unable to
rrrafp. Hence it would appear, that nature, having
furnifhed it with a coat of mail for its protf ftion, has,
with fome regard to juftice, denied it the powers o
a&ing with hoftility againft its fellow creatures, the
nails are well adapted for digging in the ground ; and
the animal is fo dexterous in eluding its enemies by con¬
cealing itfelf in holes and among rocks, that it is ex¬
tremely difficult to procure one. .
“ The upper jaw is covered with a crofs cartilaginous
ridge, which, though apparently not at all feted to
any purpofes of maftication, may, by increasing e
furface of the palate, extend the fenfe of tafte. i h
cefophagus will admit a man’s forefinger with eaie.
rl he1 tongue at the bottom of the mouth is nearly about
the fize of the little finger, from whence it tapers to a
point. The animal at pleafure protrudes this member
a great way from the mouth. The tongue anfes from
the enfiform cartilage and the contiguous mufcles ot
the belly, and pafl'es in form of a round diftniT mufcle
from over the ftomach, through the thorax, immedi¬
ately under the fternum ; and interior to the windpipe
in the throat. When difieded out, the tongue could
be eafily elongated fo as to reach more than the length
of the animal exclufive of its tail There is a clutter
of falivary glands feated around the tongue, as it en¬
ters the mouth. Thefe will neceffunly be compreffed
by the adion of the tongue ; fo as occafionaily to iup-
ply a plentiful flow of their fecretion.
‘‘ The ftomach is cartilaginous, and analogous to that
of the gallinaceous tribe of birds. When difleded,
it is generally found full of fmall ftones and gravel,
which in India are almoft univerfally calcareous. J he
inner furface of the ftomach is rough to the feel, and
formed into folds, the interfticea of which are h led
with a frothy fecretion. The guts are filled with a
fandy pulp, in which, however, are intertperfed a few
diftind fmall ftones. No veftiges of any animal or
vegetable foed have been traced in the whole prim®
vise. The gall bladder is commonly diftended with a
fluid refembling in colour and ccnhftence the dregs of
beer. It is a viviparous animal
“ From the contents of its fton ach and primse v se,
the pangolin has been fuppofed by Mr Burt, a very
eminent furgeon in Bengal, to derive its nounffiment
from mineral fubftances. Tho’ we have perhaps no clear
idea of the manner in which vegetables extrad their
Bourifhment from earth, yet the fad being fo, it may
not be unreafonable to fuppofe, that fome animal may
derive nutriment by a procefs fome what iimilar.
When other fubftances (fays our author) fhall
have been deteded in the ftomach of this animal,
my inference, from what I have feen, muft neceffarily
fall to the ground. But if, like other animals with
mufcular and cartilaginous ftomachs, this Angular qua¬
druped confume grain, it muft be furprifing that no
vettige of fuch food was found prefent m the who.e
alimentary canal, iince in that thinly inhabited eoun-
Paugolhi
trv, the wild animals are free to feed without intru
fion from man. Nor can it be inferred from the ftruc- PaniC(
tore of the ftomach, that this animal lives on ants or  —
on infeds. Animals devoured as food, though of
confiderable fize and folidity, with a proportionally
fmall extent of furface to be aded on by the ga^ic
juice and the adion of the ftomach, are readily difl U
ved and digefted by animals poffeffing not a cartilagi¬
nous but a membranaceous ftomach, as, for initance,
a fr»g in that of a fnake. . , , ,
“ In the ftomach many minerals are foluble, and the
moft adive things which we can fwailaw. Calcareous
fubftances are readily aded on. Dr Pr.eftley has alk-
ed, ‘ May not phlogiftic matter be the moft eikntial
part of the food and fupport of both vegetable and
animal bodies ?’ I confefs, that Dr Pneftly s find¬
ing caufe to propofe the queftion, inclines me to lup,
pofe, that the affirmative to it may be true. Earth
feemsto be the bails of all animal matter. 1 he growth
of the bones mull be attended with a conftanthupply,
and in the human fpecies there is a copious difeharge
of calcareous matter thrown out by the kidneys and
falivary glands. May not the quadruped 111 queftiom
derive phlogifton from earth ; fait, from mineral fub¬
ftances ? And, as k is not deprived of the power of
drinking water, what elfe is neceffary to the fubfiftence
of his corporeal-machine ? # . .
“ Confidering the fcaly covering of this animal, we
may conceive, that it may be at leaft neceffary for its
exiftence, on that account, to imbibe a gteater pro¬
portion of earth than is neceffary to other animals. It
may deferve confideration, that birds are covered with
feathers, which, in their conftituent principles, ap¬
proach to the nature of horn and bone. Of thefe ani¬
mals, the gallinaceous tribe fwallow ftones; and the
carnivorous take in the feathers and bones of their
prey : the latter article is known to be foluble in the
membranaceous ftomachs ; and hence is a copious fup-
ply of the earthy principles. In truth I do not know
that any thing is foluble in the ftomach of animals,,
which may not be thence abforbed into their circulating,
fyftemj; and nothing can be io al fori ed without affec¬
ting the whole conftitution. Thefe conjedures me
not a little confirmed by the experiments of M. Bru-
quatelli of Pavia, on the authority of M. Crell, by
which we learn, that fome birds have fo great a diflbl-
vent power in the gaftric juice, as to diffolve in their
ftomachs flints, rock cryttal, calcareous ftones, and
fhells.” See Man is.
PANGONI A, in natural hiftory, the name of a ge¬
nius of cryftals, confifting of fuch as are compofed of
many amdes. The word is derived from numerous*
and yo'v an angle or lending: The bodies of this genus
are fingle-pointed or impel fieft cryftals, compofed of
dodecangular or twelve-planed, columns, terminated by
twelve-planed pyramids, and the whole body therefore
m:ide up of twenty-four planes. Of this genus there
are only three known fpecies.
PANIC, denotes an ill-grounded terror or fright.
Polysenus fays, it originates from Par.y one of the cap¬
tains of Bacchus, who with a few men put a numerous-
enenw to rout, by a noife which his foidiers railed in
a rocky valley, favoured with a great number of echoes.
This hratagem.making their number appear far great¬
er than it was, the enemy quitted a very .commodious
^ encampment,..
Panicle,
Panicuni.
being- beloved by the god Pan. Others derive the
origin of it hence ; that in the wars of the Titans
againft the gods, Pan was the firfl who (truck terror
into the hearts of the giants. Theon on Aratus fays,
he did it by the means of a fea-fhell, which ferved him
for a trumpet, whereof he was the inventor.
PANICLE, in botany, denotes afoft woolly beard,
on which the feeds^i fome plants hang pendulous ; as
in millet, reeds, and hay.
PAN CUM, in botany ; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triamiria clafs of plants. The
calyx is triv..lred; the third valvule being very i'mall.
The Jpecies are, i. Polyftachion ; 2. Verticillatum ;
3- Glaucurn ; 4. Viride ; 5. Italicum ; 6. Crus corvi ;
7. Crus galli ; 8. Coronum ; 9. Brifoides ; 10. Dimi-
diafum; 11. Hirtellum; 12. Conglomeratum; 13. San-
guinale ; 14. Dadtylon ; 15. Filiforme ; 16. Lineare;
17. Diftachion ; 18. Elatum; 19. Compofitum ; 20.
Halvoium; 21. Dichotomum; 22. Ramofum; 23. Co-
loratum ; 24. Repens ; 25. Miliaceum ; 26. Capillarc;
27 GrofTarinm ; 28. Latiiolium ; 29. Clandeltinum ;
30. Arborefcens ; 31. Curvatum ; 32.Virgatum; 33.
Patens; 34. Brevifobum ; 35. Divaricatum.
At this place it is proper to take notice of the
Guinea grafs. By fome authors it is clafTtd as a pa-
nicum ; but by expert botanifts, who have lately ex¬
amined the plant, it is the hohus polygamutn. It is i
native of Africa, and brought from thence to the
Well Indies. About 70 years ago Mr John Ellis
got fome birds from the coaft of Guinea, and with
them fome feeds for their fupport: The birds dying
ioon alter, the feeds were thrown out of doors as ufe-
lefs. From thefe feeds a new luxuriant grafs fprung
up, which attracted the notice of Mr Ellis and his fa¬
mily. He had a horfe, and afterwards a cow, brought
■where it was; both of them eat of it greedily. It was
then tranfplanted into a garden, and gradually culti¬
vated : at this day it is common all over Jamaica ;
and next to the fugar-cane and plantain-tree, the great-
ell blefling fco that illand. It agrees with every foil
and lituation ; and in many of the rocky and barren
parts of Jamaica, which formerly could not fupport a
goat, may now be ften large herds of cattle, (beep, and
horfes, in excellent order, and fitted for all the pur-
pofes of rural ceconomy or the market. Since Guinea¬
grafs became fo common, failed beef and pork is but
little ufed by the white people in Jamaica. Freih beef,
mutton, pork, and poultry, are ill abundance ; and on
the whole cheaper than failed meats from Ireland or
America : By thefe means, too, people live better, and
enjoy as good health as others in Europe.
Guinea-grafs is bed propagated by the roots, and
planted about three feet afunder. In fix months it
grows very tall, fo as often to be fix feet high. At
this time horfes and cattle are turned in to eat what
they pleafe of it ; and while they plough up the fur-
face of the ground with their feet, they (hake the ripe
feed. The rank grafs is afterwards cut down, burned
off, and the old (locks rooted up and thrown away.
The feeds vegetate and throw up a plentiful cr*p ;
-which with common attention will lad many years.
N [ 694 ] PAN
Hence all ill-grounded fears For this purpofe a Guinea-grafs pallure requires^to be Panin!
kept clean, and fupplied in particular places as may be II
neceffary from time to time. The fields ought to be Paru,aria’
P A
encampment, and fled,
have been called panics, or panic fears ; and it was this
that gave occafion to the fable of'the nymph Echo’s
divided into parks by fences, and the cattle Ihifted
from one mclofiire to another occallonally.
PANIN! (Paolo), a painter of peifpeflive and ar¬
chitecture. He was born at Placentia in 1691, with
a moll happy genius to painting, which he cultivated
by fludying at Rome, where he defigned every veftige
of ancunt magnificence, the ruins of fuperb Roman
edifices, cenotaphs, columns, baths, arches, and obe-
lilks, as alfo fome of the moll entire buildings, the or¬
naments of m»dern Rome.
He lludied the works of Ghifolfi with peculiar plea-
fure 5 he formed his tafte, ftyle, and manner, by the
compofitions of that elleemed artill; and his flron«eft
ambition was to imitate him ; fo that he foon became
eminent in that flyle beyond all his cotemporaries.
His compofition is rich ; the truth of his perfpe&ive
is critically exa£t ; and his paintings are univerfally
elleemed for the grandeur of the archite&ure, for the
clearnefs of his colouring, for the beautiful figures
which he generally introduced, and alfo for the elegadt
taile with which he difpofed them. He always" de¬
figned them corredlly, and fet them off with Eatable
attitudes and exprelfion.
However, this de£cription of his merit mull befup-
pofed to allude to his early and prime performances 5
for in his latter time, his piflures were dillinguilhable
by a free and broad touch, but they are feeble in their
colouring and effedi. At all times, indeed, he was too
apt to defign his figures rather too large for the ar-
chitedlure, which diminilhed the grandeur of the moil
magnificent parts of his compofition, and was quite
contrary to the pradliceof Ghifolfi; wdiofe works muit
perpetually afford a pleafing deception to the eye, by
the perfpedlive proportions obferved between the fi¬
gures, buildings, and dillances.
At Rivoli, a pleafurc-houfe belonging to the king
of Sardinia, there are feveral of Panini’s paintings,
which are views of that fine retreat and its environs.
They are beautifully coloured, well handled, and with
a touch full of fpirit ; though in fome parts the yellow
feems a little too predominant, and the lights are ru>t
always diftributed in fuch a manner as to produce the
moll llriking effedl.
PaNIONIA, in antiquity, a fellival celebrated in
honour ol Neptune by a concourfe of people from all
the cities of Ionia. It is remarkable in this fellival,
that if the bull offered in facrifice happened to bellow,
it was accounted an omen of divine favour; tsecaufe
that found was thought to be acceptable to Neptune.
P ANN ARIA, one of the Lipari iflands. See Lr-
fara, and Lipari.—The ancients called it Thernijra,
from the hot waters which they found in it. It may
be about eight or nine miles in circumference. It
bears wheat, and grapes from which the inhabitants
make wine. Pannaria, like the other adjacent illands,
appears to be a volcano ; its original having been de-
llroyed by continued eruptions. It is now no longer
of a conical figure. It contains about 100 inhabitants,
reckoning every foul, men, women, and children. It
is, like Stromboli, governed by a curate, who depends
on the priell of the parilh of St Jcfeph in Lipari; and
6 whea»
\
PAN
Pannaria. when any couple in the ifland determine to marry, they
'    muft crofs the fea to Lipari to receive the nuptial be-
nediftion in the pariih of St Jofeph, or pay a fum for
a licence to impower the curate of Pannaria to perform
the ceremony. All the other adjoining iflands are
fubjeft to the fame regulation.
The inhabitants of Pannaria live by fifhing, and by
taking fmall quantities of game on this and the little
contiguous iflands. They bring up and tame thofe
birds known by the name of gulls, which are feen in
tempeftuous weather dying near the furface of the fea.
They are here called corraccio. The body of the bird
and the tips of its wings are white ; but the head, the
tail, and the reft of the wings, are grey : they are
of the iize of Indian hens: their wings are prodigiouf-
ly large : they have their nefts on the fteep inacceffible
cliffs of the feveral iflands. When the iflanders bring
thefe birds up tame, they feed them with fifh, which,
though of fuch fize that you would think it impoflille
for their ftomachs to receive them, they eagerly ftretch
their necks and fwallow rapacioufly. Theie birds are
thus brought up to be as tame as pullets or pigeons:
and fuch an attachment do they often acquire to the
places in which they are reared, that fome of them
have been known to return to thefe iflands after being
conveyed to Melazzo and Meffina.
On the fummit of a hill in this ifland, which pro-
jetts over the fea, the inhabitants pretend to fhow a
caftle and an infcriptioa. But their caflle is only an
elevated peak of the rock, which nature Teems to have
prepared as a retreat for birds. It confifts of puzzo-
lana ; and has been actually formed by the a&ion of
winds and rains, for a long courfe of time, into a fan-
*aftic figure, which may appear, when carelefsly viewed
from a diftance by an undiftinguifhing eye, the remains
of fome ancient ftrudfure. The good people of the
ifland, not being able to judge of it otherwife than
from appearance, are perfuaded, that it can be nothing
but a caftle, which muft have been reared for the de¬
fence of the ifland again(l the Turks and the corfairs
of Barbary. Thefe they confider as the moft dread¬
ful fcourge with which mankind can poffibly be af-
flifted, and fear them much more than the eruptions
of the volcano. When they feel their ifland lhaken,
they embark with all their wealth, which a Angle floop
eafily contains ; and on board they are fafe from both
the (baking of the earth and the eruptions of the lava,
but not from an hoftile fleet.
In this ifland there appear various remains of ancient
buildings, but very ruinous and very fcanty. In plough¬
ing the field#, many remains of fepulchres, in different
modes of conftru&ion, are found; fome of rough ftones,
tiles, or bricks; others confifting each of a Tingle ftone.
Vafes of various forts and fizes are alfo fuid to have
been found in the fame fields, utenfils of different kinds,
money, chains, and medals of lead. But none of thefe
relicks of antiquity have been preferved : the good
people who found them were ignorant of their value,
and therefore negledled them as trifles. In places along
the fhore of the ifland, where the fea appears to have
encroached, there are fome hewn ftones to be feen :
they feem to be remains of walls, which muft have been
very ftrong and of elegant architefUire. In other
places farther diftant from the fhore, there likewife ap-
* pear fragments of walls funk in the ground, and appa-
r 695 1
PAN
rently overwhelmed with mud, which the winds and Panrrsls
rains have brought down from the mountain above. pani’)rpa>
Thefe remains fhow, that Pannaria, either under the
Greeks, or in that period when all the demes'cs were
taxed for the gratification of Roman luxuiy, muft have
been adorned with fuperb buildings, as well as the ad¬
jacent iflands of Lipari, Stromboli, and Bafiluzzo.
PANNELS of a Saddle, are two cuftiions or bol-
fters, filled with cow s, deer, or horfe’s hair, and placed
under the faddle, on each fide, to prevent the bows and
bands from galling the horfe.
PANMICULUS carnosus, in comparative ana¬
tomy, a robutl ffefhy tunic, fituated in beafts between
the fkin and the fat; by means of which they can move
ther fkin in whole or in part. It is altogether wanting
in mankind.
PANNONIA (Pliny, Strabo, Dio), an extenfive
country of Europe, having the Danube on the north,
Dalmatia on the fouth, Noricum on the weft, and
Moefia on the eaft. It is divided into Superior and In-
ftrior ( Ptolemy, Dio). The common boundary be¬
tween both were the river Arabo and mount Cetius,
having the Superior to the wail, and the Inferior on
the eaft fide. This divifion is thought to be no older
than the times of the Antonines. Pannonicui the epi¬
thet (Martial).
PANQMPHiEUS, in antiquity, a defignation gi¬
ven to Jnpiter, becaufe he was faid to be the original
author of all forts of divination, having the books of
fate, md out of them revealing either more or lels, as
he pleafed, to inferior dcemons.
PANOPOL1S. See Achmim.
PANORMUS (Polybius, Paufanias), a town of
Achaia, in Peloponnefus, near the promontory Rhium.
— Another (Ptolemy, Pliny), a town on the north
fide of Crete.—A third (Ptolemy), in Macedonia, cu
the iEgean fea, near mount Athos.—A fourth, of Sa¬
mos (Livy).—A fifth, of Sicily; an ancient city, built
by the Phoenicians (Thucydides); a principal town of
the Carthaginians (Polybius) ; fituated between Lily-
baeus and Pelorus (Mela): a Roman colony. Now
Palermo, capital of the ifland, on the north fide. E.
Long. 13. N. Lat. 38. 30.—A fixth Panormus of the
Thracia CTierfoncfus, placed by Pliny on the weft fide
of the peninfula, and mentioned by no other writer.
Panormus (Ptolemy), a port of Attica; its name
denoting it to be capacious.—Another, of Epirus
(Strabo, Ptolemy); a large harbour in the heart of the
Montes Cerauni, below the citadel Chimaen; A third,
of Ionia (Strabo) ; near Ephefus, with the temple of
the Ephefian Diana.
PANORPA, the Scorpion-fly, in zoology, age- Platt?
nus of infeefts belonging to the order of neuroptera.CCt“LX-u;:
The roftrum is horny and cylindrical; there are two
pappi, and three ftemonata; the feelers are longer
than the thorax. The body of this infeft is of a black
brown colour, yellow on the fides, with a few fpots of
the fame on the top. Its tail, formed by the three
laft fegments of the abdomen, is of a maroon colour ;
of thole three fegments, the laft is larger, almoft round,
and terminates in two hooks, which conftitutes a tail
like that of the fcorpion. The wings as long as the
body, are diaphanous, reticulated, with fibres and ftripts
of fpots of a brown colour. Sometimes we meet with
different vaiictiesof this infect, confifting in the co’our
of
PAN f 696 1 PAN
Tuntaiaria of the "Wings. Some, inftead of feveral flripes of fpots buffoons ufuatly wear ; which is made precifely t© the Patifsrbs
Pantaloon uPon t^e‘r w‘n^s> have only a Angle black ftripe, tranf. form of their body, and all of a piece from head to f* .f
sa, — ■■ j—‘‘i verfe and irregular, fituated on the middle of the wing, foot. , ant 161 m
the extremity whereof is alfo black': others have their
wings entirely white, excepting the extremity, which
is black. The kind of forceps that is feen at the hin¬
der part of this infeed is ufed by the males to lay hold
t>f their females in their amorous embraces: the threat¬
ening tail of the male does no mifehief. This infedl is
found in meadows, by the fide of ditches. There are
four fpecies, diftinguifhed by the colour and fhape of
their wings.
PANTALARI A, an ifiand in the Mediterraneart
fca, between Sicily and the main land of Africa, about
•3 7 miles in circumference. It is near the coafl of Tu¬
nis, and abounds in cotton, fruits, and wine ; hut the
inhabitants are obliged to bring all their corn to Sicily,
ss it belongs to the king of the two Sicilies. E. Long.
12. 25. N- Lat. 36. 55.
PANTjENUS, a ftoic philofopher, born in Sicily
tthoughfome have erroneoufiy fuppofed him to beaHe-
fcrew) about the beginning of the reign of Commodus.
'He prefided over the celebrated fchool of Alexandria,
where, from the time of St Mark, the founder of that
church, they had always a divine that was eminent for
his learning and piety, to explain the Holy Scriptures,
and to inftru<d them in human learning. This employ-
Tnent he was obliged to leave ; for when the Indians
required of Demetrius bifhop of Alexandria to fend
them one to inflruft them in Chriftianity, he fent
Pantaenus, who undertook the million with joy, and
behaved himfelf very properly in it. We are told, that
the Indians had been tin&uted with Chriftianity by
St Bartholemew the apoftle ; and that Pantaenus met
with the Hebrew original of St-Matthew’s gofpsl,
which the apoftle had left there. St Jerome fays that
Pantaenus brought it with him ; and that it was, in
his time, preferved in the library of Alexandria. But
we fufpeft St Jerome to be miftaketl in this refpedl.
When Pantaenus returned to Alexandria, he realfumed
the government of the fchool of that city, which, it is
probable, he had, during his abfence, committed to
the care of St Clement, a prelbyter of Alexandria.
He explained the feriptures publicly, under the reign
of Severus and Antoninus Caracalla; and Was, in St
Jerome’s opinion, more ferviceable to the church by
his difeourfes than by his writings. He publilhed fome
commentaries upon the Bible, which are loft. “ That
the prophets often exprefs themfelves in indifferent
terms, and that they make life of the prefent time in-
ftead of the paft and future,” is a rule of Pantsenus,
which has been followed by all fucceeding interpreters.
Thecdorus has related this rule ; but he fpeaks of it
as if Pantsnus had rather faid than written it.
We may have fome notion @f Pantacnus’s manner of
explaining the feriptures by the like performances of
St Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and others who
were brought up in that fchool.
PANTALOON, a fort of garment confifting of
breeches and ftockings all of one piece; faid to have
been firft introduced by the Venetians.
Pantaloon, on the theatre, is a buffoon or mafk-
cd perfon, who performs high and grotefque dances,
arid fliows violent and extravagant poitures and airs.
The wwd is likewife ufed for the habit or drefs thefe
N° 258.
And hence thofe who wear a habit of this kind,
for conveniency, undef their other clothes, are called
pantaloons of Venice.
PANTARBE, in natural hiftory, a name given to
an imaginary ftene, the effedls of which upon gold
were fimilar to thofe of the loadftone upon iron. The
ancients, as well as fome modern writers, feem to have
had an opinion that there tvas fuch a ftone ; and the
amphitane of Pliny is deferibed as poffeffing this re¬
markable quality ; but neither they nor we have ever
found reafon, from any experiment well afeertained,
to believe that there ever was filch a ftone.
PANTHEA, in antiquity, were fingle ftatues,
compofed of the figures, or fymbols, of feveral dif¬
ferent divinities together. Father Joubert, who calls
them panthea, and who has remarked them fometimes
on medals, fay* their heads are moft commonly adorn¬
ed with the fymbols or attributes belonging to feveral
gods. An inftance of this appears in a medal of An¬
toninus Pius ; which reprefents Serapis by the bufhel
it bears ; the Sun by the crown of rays ; Jupiter Am¬
mon by the rams horns; Pluto by the large beard ;
and iEfculapius by the ferpent twifted in his hand.
M. Baudelot, in a diftertation on the Lares, obferves,
that the panthea had their origin from the fuperftition
of thofe, who, taking feveral gods for the protedfors
of their houfes, united them all in the fame ftatue,
by adorning it with the feveral fymbols proper to each
of thefe deities.
PANTHEISM, a philofophical fpecies of idolatry
leadingto atheifm,in which the univerfe was confi lered
as the fupreme God. Who was the inventor of this
abfurd fyftem, is, perhaps, not known ; but it was of
early origin, and differently modified by different phi-
lofopbers. Some held the univerfe to be oneinimenfe
animal, of which the incorporeal foul was properly
their God, and the heavens and earth the body of that
God } whilft others held but one fubftance, partly
adtive and partly paffive ; and therefore looked upon
the vifible univerfe as the only Numen. The earlieft
Grecian Pantheift of whom we read was Orpheus*
who called the world the body of God, and its feveral
parts his members, making the whole univerfe one di¬
vine animal. According to Cudworth, Orpheus and
his folio wets believed in the immaterial foul of the
Vvorld ; therein agreeing with Ariftotle, who certainly
held that God and matter are coeternal ; and that
there is fome fuch union between them as fubfifts be¬
tween the fouls and bodies of men. See Metaphy*
sics, nQ 264.
In the ancient Orphic theology, we are taught,
that “ this urliverfe, and all things belonging to it*
were made w/V/j/n God; that all things aie contained
together in the womb of God ; that God is the head
and middle of all things ; that he is the bajis of the
earth and heaven ; that he is the depth of the fea, the air
we breathe, the force of the ^intameable fire; that
he is the fun, moon, and fiars ; that there is one divine
body ; for,
ntcvla J'af fv fa Je cu/uah r.inxt
“ all thefe things lie in the great body of God.”—But
further, to prove that the moft ancient Greek philo^
fophtrs
PAN
t <>97 ]
PAN
Pantlieifm, fophe™ reftjlved all thinga into made God
ipanthcon. ajj we {^gll cite a moft rematkable panage trom i ui~
tarch’s Defea of Oracles. “ Whereas there are two
caufes of all generations, the divine and the human,
the moft ancient theologers and poets attended only
to the more excellent of thefe two ; refolvmg all things
into God, and pronouncing this of them umverfally ;
ZfWf a^X”’ Zfuc H-iaa'a'> eK Tav^ rttMilctt
« that God Is both the beginning and middle, and that
all things are out of God;’ infomuch, that they had
no regard at all to the other natural and neceffary caufes
of things : but on the contrary, their juniors, who were
czWtd naturali/ls, deviating from this moft excellent and
divine principle, placed all in bodies, their paltions, col-
lilions, mutations, and commixtures.
That by the moft ancient thcologers here mention¬
ed Plutarch meant Orpheus and his immediate follow¬
ers, is plain from the Orphic verfe by which he proves
their antiquity. By their juniors, whom he calls natu-
rnlifts, he could mean no other than the firft Jewifh
philofophers, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Hippo,
who were followed by the atheiftical atomifts, Leucip¬
pus, Democritus, Protagoras, and Epicurus. But with
refpedt to the univerfe being God, and all things di¬
vine and human being modifications of mere matter,
the ftoics undoubtedly agreed with Anaximander and
his followers ; for the fchool of Zeno fheld but one
fubftance. See Metaphysics, n° 265. This impious
do&rine, that all things are God, and that there is
but one fubftance, was revived in modern times by
Spinoza, an apoftate Jew. As we (hall give a life of
him and a view of his principles, we muft icfer the
reader for a fuller account of Pantheifm to Spinoza.
See alfo Pan.
PANTHEON, a beautiful edifice at Rome, anci¬
ently a temple, dedicated to all the gods; but now
converted into a church, and dedicated to the Virgin
and all the martyrs. *
This edifice is generally thought to have been built
by Agrippa fon in-law to Auguftus, becaufe it has the
following infeription on the frieze of the portico.
M. AGRIPPA L. F. COS. TERTIUM FECIT.
Several antiquarians and artifts, however, have fup-
pofed that the pantheon exifted in the times of the
commonwealth ; and that it was only embellifhed by
Agrippa, who added the portico. Be this^as it will,
however, the pantheon, when perfefted by Agrippa,
was an exceedingly magnificent building ; the form of
wh®fe body is round or cylindrical, and its roof or
dome is fphencal: it is 144 feet diameter within ; and
the height of it, from the pavement to the grand aper¬
ture oiTits top, through which it receives the light, is
juft as much. It is of the Corinthian order. The inner
circumference is divided into feven grand niches,
wrought in the thicknefs of the wall: fix of which are
fiat at the top; but the feventh, oppoiite to the entrance,
ts arched. Before each niche arc two columns of an¬
tique yellow marble fluted, and of one entire block,
making in all 14, the fineft in Rome. The whole waft
ef thc temple, as high as the grand cornice inclufive, is
cafed with divers forts of precious marble in compart¬
ments. The frieze is entirely of porphyry. Above the
grand cornice anfes an attic, in which weie wrought, at
equal diftances, 14 oblong fquare niches : between each
afiche were lour marble pilafters, and between the pila-
Vol. XIII. Part II.
fters marble tables of various kinds. Phis attic had a rantlteon.
complete entablature; butthe cornice projefted lefs than
that of the grand order below. Immediately from thecor-
nice fprings the fpherical roof, divided by bands, which
crofs each other like the meridians and parallels of an ar¬
tificial terreftrial globe. The fpaces between the band*
decreafe in lize as they approach the top of the roof g
to which, however, they do not reach, there being a
confiderable plain fpace between them and the great
opening. That fo bold a roof might be as light as pof-
fible, the archite& formed the fubftance of the fpacea
between the bands of nothing but lime and pumice-
ftones. The walls below were decorated with lead and
brafs, and works of carved filver over them ; and the
roof was covered on the outfide with plates of gilded
bronze. There was an afeent from the fpringing of
the roof to the very fummit by a flight of feven flairs.
And if certain authors may be credited, thefe flairs
were ornamented with pedeftrian ftatues ranged as an
amphitheatre. This notion was founded on a paflage
©f Pliny, who fays, “ That Diogenes the fculptor de¬
corated the pantheon of Agrippa with elegant ft at lies';
yet that it was difficult to judge of their merit, upon
account of their elevated fltuation.’, The portico is
compofed of 16 columns of granite, four feet in dia¬
meter, eight of which Hand in front, with an equal
intercolumniation all along, contrary to the rule of
Vitruvius, who is for having the fpace anfwenng to
the door of a temple, wider than the reft. Of thefe
columns is a pediment, whofe tympanum, or flat, was
ornamented with bas-reliefs in brafs; the crofs beams
which formed the ceiling of the portico were covered
with the fame metal, and fo were the doors. The afeent
up to the portico was by eight or nine fteps. #
Such was the pantheon, the richnefs of which in¬
duced Pliny to rank it among the wonders of the
world. < , .
Thijf eruption of Vefuvius, in the reign 0. Tiberius,
damaged the Pantheon very confiderably ; it was re¬
paired by Domitian; which occafioned fome writers to
mention that prince as the founder of the building.. The
emperor Adrian alfo did fomething to it. But it ap¬
pears, that the pantheon is more indebted to Septimiu*
Severus, than to any one fince its ereaion. The moft,
perhaps, that any of his predeceffors had done, was the
adding fome ornament to it: Septimius beftowea eflen-
tial reparations upon it. The following infcnption ap¬
pears upon the architrave:
IMP. CAES. SEPTIM1VS. SEVERVS.
PIVS. PERTINAX.
ARABICVS. PARTH 1CVS. PONTIF.
MAX. TRIB. POT.
KI.-COS. III. P. P. ET. IMP. CAES.
MARCVS.
avrelivs. antoninvs. PIVS.
FELIX. AVG. TRIB.
POT. V. COS. PROCOS. PANTHEVM.
VETVSTATE. *
OBRVPTVM. CVM. OMNI. CVLTV.
RESTITVERVNT.
It is really a matter of aftoniftiment, that a ftruc-
ture, which, granting it to have been built by Agrip¬
pa, was not more than 200 years old, ftiould have
fallen into decay through age. This fmgle coniiiera-
tion feems fuificient to confirm the opinion of thofe
a T
pan
Pd&thcon, who believe it to have flood in tbe time of the com-
w—>v—m0Dweaith.
The temple fubfifled in all its grandeur till the in-
cmfion of Alaric in the time of Honorius. Zozymus
relates, that the Romans having engaged to furnifh
this barbarian prince with 3000 pounds weight of gold
and 5000 pounds weight of Giver, upon condition that
he fhould depart from their walls ; and it proving im-
poiiible to raife thofe films either out of the public
treafury or private purfes, they were obliged to drip
the temples of their flatues and ornaments of gold and
filver. It is probable that the pantheon fuppiied a good
part, as that of Jupiter Capitolin us was the only one in
Rome that could vie with it for riches.
Alaric carried off nothing from the Romans befides
their precious metals. Thirty-nine years after this,
Genferic king of the Vandals took away part of their
marbles; and whether from a greedinefs of plunder,
or from a relifh of the produdions of art, loaded
one of his Grips with ftatues. It cannot be queftion-
ed, but that on this occafion the pantheon was forced
to part with more of its ornaments, and that the in-
edimable works of Diogenes became the prey of this
barbarian.
Before thefe unwelcome vifits of the Goths and Van¬
dals, the Chritlian emperors had iffued edi&s for demo-
liihing the Pagan temples. But the Romans, what¬
ever were their mouves, fpared the pantheon, which is
known to have fuffered no damage from the zeal of the
pontiffs, or the indignation of the faints, before the firft
fiege of Rome by Alaric. It remained fo rich till
about the year 655, as to excite the avarice of Conflan-
tine II. who came ironr Conftantinople to pillage the
pantheon, and executed his purpofe fo far as to Grip it
both of its inffde and outfide brazen coverings, which
he tranfported to Syracufe, where they foon after fell
into the hands of the Saracens.
About fifty years before this, pope Boniface IV.
. bad obtained the pantheon of the emperor Phocas, to
make a church of it. The artifts of thefe days were
totally ignorant of the excellence of the Greek and
Roman architecture, and fpoiled every thing they
laid then hands upon. Po this period certain alte¬
rations are to be referred, of which we firall fpeak
by and by.
After the devaffatioss of the barbarians, Rome was
contracted within a narrow compafs: the feven hills
were abandoned ; and the Campus Martius, being an
even plain, and near the Tyber, became the. ground-
plat of the whole city. The pantheon happening to
Hand at the entrance of the Campus Martins, was pre-
fently furrounded with houfeg, which fpoiled the fine
profpeCi: ol it ; and it was yet more deplorably difgra-
ced by fome of them which flood clofe to its walls.
I edlars fiiades were built even within its portico, and
the intercolumniations were bricked up, to the irrepa¬
rable damage of the matchlefs pillars, of which fome
lofl part of tneir capitals, fome of their bafes, and
others were chiffeled out fix or feven inches deep,
and as many feet high, to let in polls. Which excava-
tions are to this day half filled up with brick and mor¬
tar ; a fad monu«ent of the licentioufnefs of the
vulgar and of the flupid avarice of thofe who fold
them the privilege to ruin the nobleft piece of art in
the world 1
This diforder continued till the pontificate of Eu.
C 698 ]
PAN
gene IV. whofe zeal for the decency of a confecra- Pantheon*
ted place, prevailed upon him to have all the houfes'
cleared away that incumbered the pantheon, and fo
the miferable barracks in the portico were knocked
down.
, Fro^ the time Conftantius carried off the brafs pla¬
ting pi the external roof, that part was expofed to the
injuries of the weather, or at bed was but flightly
tiled in, till Benedict II. covered it with lead, which
Nicholas V. renewed in a better ffyle.
It does not appear that from this time to Ur¬
ban VIII. any pope did any thing remarkable to the
pantheon.
^ Raphael Urban, who had no equal as a painter, and
■who as an architecl had no fupenor, left a confiderable
fum by his will for the reparation of the pantheon,.,
where his tomb is placed. Perino de la Vagua, Jaco-
mo Udino, Hannibal Carracci, Flamingo Vacca, and
the celebrated Archangelo Corelli, did the fame. AH
the ornaments within, that have any claim to be called
good, are ox ^ the later times; the paintings merit
elleern ; and the llatues, though not mafterpieces, do
honour toTculpture, which alone is a proof that they
are pofterior to tha 15th century.
But, with all the refpedl due to a pontiff, who was
otherwife a protedor, and even a praftifer of the arts,
it were much to be wifhed that Urban VIII. had not
known that the pantheon exifted. Fhe mfcnptions cut
at the fide of the door inform us, that he repaired it;
yet, at the lame time that he built up with one hand,
he pulled down with the other. He caufed two bel¬
fries of a wretched tafte to be ereded on the ancient
front work, and he divelted the portico of all the re¬
mains of its ancient grandeur, viz. the brazen cover¬
ture of the crofs beams, which amounted to fuch a
prodigious quantity, that not only the vaff baldaquin
or canopy of the confeffional in St Peter’s was caff out
of it, but likewife a great number of can ion for the
callle of St Angelo. This pope, who wa_. of the fa¬
mily of Barbarini, prefented alfo as much of this me¬
tal to his nephew, as was fufficient for the decoration'
of his new palace; on- which occafion this remarkable,
pafquinade was ftuck up :
Quod non fecerunl Barlari fee ere Barbarini,
If ever giugle added force to wit, it was certainly in
this inftance.
It is furpriiing, that whilft all thefe operations were
carrying on in the portico, he never once thought of
repairing the damages which time had wrought in it!
Of the 16 pillars which fupported this magnificent pile,
there were no more than 13 left; the three next the
temple of Minerva had disappeared ; with thefe the
entablature and an angle of the front had tumbled,
down. There were not wanting in Rome fragments
enough of antique columns that might have been put
together, and fet up, to have prevented the downfall
of a pile which deferved to ftand as long as the world
endured.
Alexander VII. did what Urban VIII. had neglec¬
ted to do. At the fame time that Bernini was con-
ftrudting the colonnade of St Peter, this pontiff order¬
ed fearch to be made for pillars to match thofe of the
portico of the pantheon ; and fome were found not far'
from the French church of St Lewis of the very fame
model. They were granite of the ifle of llva, and
thofe
.PAN F
pantheon thofe of the portico were Egyptian gran=te 5 ^ie c°lou^
II however, was the fame, fo that the efFea was equal.
Panting. The ,6 zcal did nQt ftop here ; he cauled all the
V‘,'~V", old houfes before the portico to be pulled down, and
the foil and rubbilh to be cleared away which covered
the fteps, and even the bafes of fome of the pillars.
He began covering the roof wit marble, and raifed a
lantern over the aperture, to keep out rain ; but death
took him off before his projeft was completech Cle¬
ment IX. his fucceffor, inclofed the portico within iron
rails. Several later popes have added to its decorations,
which were all in the tafte of the times they were
done in ; and the body of the edifice and as architec¬
ture gained nothing from them. The main objeft oi
their holinefTes liberality was the embelhlhment ot the
grand altar. One gave purple curtains, another be¬
llowed filver tabernacles; others again vafes, anu lupero
dreffes, fuited to the folemn ceremonies of religion.
All thefe might be called rich; but they had in no fenle
a tendency to retrieve the ancient majefly or original
fplendor of the temple. The true gufio of the orna¬
ments was a little imitated at the revival of the arts.
Good fiatues took place of the fkeletons and fquat
figures that ridiculoufiy difgraced the altar* for the
r r • » .  rrVi« rvalnlirura of PerilCrinO.
Panzac-
chia.
(pace of eight centuries. The paintings of Perugino,
Cozza, and Greffi, covered the dull mofaics with
which the Greeks of Conftantinoplc had loaded toe
walls of molt of the churches in Rome. 1 he porphy¬
ry and the green and yellow antique found among the
old ruins^were employed to much advantage.
There was befidea at Rome another pantheon, de¬
dicated to Minerva as the goddefs of niedicine*-- ft
was in the form of a decagon, and the didance from
one angle to another mealured about 22 Ret and an
half. Between the angles there were nine round chin-
pels, each of which was defigned for a deity ; and over
the gate there was a llatue ot Minerva. The pan¬
theon of Athens was in many refpebls little interior
to the Roman one built by Agrippa. T he Greek
Chriltians alfo converted it into a church, dedicated
it to the Virgin, under the name of Panrgia; and the
Turks changed it into a mofque. The pantheon of
Nifmes was a temple in that city, wherein were 12
niches or ftatues, fuppofed to have been deftined for
the 12 great gods. In the Efcurial is a mod. magnifi¬
cent chapel, called pantheon, 35 in diameter, and 3d
feet high from the pavement, which is compofed of
marble and jafper inlayed. 1 be whole infide ol the
chapel is of black marble, except the lutbern, and fome
ornaments of jaiper and red marble. In this chapel
are depoiited the bodies of the kings and queens;
there are only places for 26, and eight of them are
already filled.
PANTHER, in zoology. See Felis.
PANTING, confitls in a rapid fucceffion of in-
699 1 PAN
fpirations and expirations, which happens when we Pantomime
run or perform any violent motion.
PANTOMIME, Tiavi.t>y.tf*.oct among the ancients,
a perfon who could imitate all kind of aflions and '«
charadlers by figns and geftures without fpeaking.
The pantomimes made a part in the theatrical en¬
tertainments of the ancients ; their chief employment
was to exprefs, in geftures and aftion, whatever the
chorus fung, changing their countenance and behavi¬
our as the fubjeft of the fong varied. They were very
ancient in Greece, being derived from the hsroic
times, according to fome; but however this may be,
they were ceitainly known in Plato’s time. In Rome,
it was fo late as the time of Auguftus before they
made their appearance. As to their drefSi it was
various, bemg always fuited as near as poffibie to that
of the perfon they were to imitate. The crocota was
much ufed among the Roman pantomimes, in which
and other female dreffes they perfonated women.
We have this account of them in Gibbon’s hiftory;
<( The pantomimes (a), who maintained their reputa¬
tion from the age of Auguftus to the fixth century,
expreffed, without the ufe of words, the various fables
of the gods and heroes of antiquity ; and the perfe&ion
of their art, which fometimes difarmed the gravity of
the phiiofopher, always excited the applaufe and won¬
der of the people. The vaft and magnificent theatres
of Rome were filled by $300 female dancers, and
by 3000 fingers, with the mailers of the reflec¬
tive choruffes. Such was the popular favour which
they enjoyed, that in a time of fcarcity, when all ftran-
gers were baniftied from the city, the merit of contri¬
buting to the public pleafures exempted them from a
law which was ftri&ly executed againft the profeffors
of the liberal arcs (b }/’
Pantomimes are ftill very common in England: they
differ indeed in fome refpeas from thefe of antiquity ;
but they retain the name, and like thefe they confift
in the reprefentations of things merely by geftures..
PANUCO, a town and province of North America,
in New Spain, lying to the north of Mexico, with a
bilhop’s fee. There aie veins of gold, and fait works,
which are the principal revenue df the inhabitants.
It is feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name,
at a fmall diftance from the Gulph of Mexico. W.
Long. 100. 5. N. Lat 24.0.
PANZACCHIA (Maria Helena). This paintrefs
was born at Bologna in 1668, of a noble family, and
appeared to have an extraordinary genius for painting.
She learned defign under the direction of Emilio Ta-
ruffi, and in a fhort fpace of time made an aftonifhing
proficiency ; fo that in the compafs of a few years Ihe
acquired great readinefs in ccmpofition, correblnefs of
outline, and a lovely tint of colouring.
She alfo excelled in painting landfcapes ; and by
4 T 2 '« the
(*) “ See the dialog of Lucian. btUUd, 2> tom. E. p 265-3'7-e/It-Thre P1"'"'
mimes obtained the honourable name of ; and i, was teqmrcd that they ftonld be convcrfant »uth
almoll every nrt and fcience. Burette (in the Mamins de l’Academic da Ljcnptwns, tom. i. p. i-7> •)
1 * T 6. Ccotpfls, with decent indignation, that the ftreees of Rome were filled
with crowds of females, who might have given children to the Hate, but whofe only occnpat.on
end drefs their hair ; wd jaZari mhbilibus gym, dum exprmuntmnumsrajfmulacra, qu* fnxere fabulx thcafraU*
PAP [ 700 ] PAP
Pao the beauty of her fituations and diftances allured and
il entertained the eye of every judicious beholder. The
, PaP‘ figures which (he inferted had abundance of grace }
" v Jefjgned them with b|coming attitudes, and gave
them a lively and natural exprefixon. Her merit was
inconteftably acknowledged, and her works were ex¬
ceedingly prized and coveted.
PAO-ting-fou, in China, where the viceroy refides,
is the molt confiderable city in the province next to
Pekin. It has 20 others under its jurifdidtion, three
of the fecond and 17 of the third clafs. The coun¬
try around it is pleafant, and inferior in fertility to no
part of China. It is neceflary to pafs this city in go¬
ing from Pekin to the province of Chan-fi.
PAOLO (Marco). See Paulo.
PAPA, a fmall but ftrong town of Lower Hun¬
gary, in the county of Vefprin. It was taken from
the Turks in 1683, after raifing the fitge of Vienna,
and is fubjedl to the houfe of Auftria. It is feated on
a mountain, near the river Marchaez, in E. Long.
18. 10. N. Lat. 47. 20.
PAP-castle, in England, inBridekirk parifh, Cum¬
berland, floodtwomiles fromCockermouth,on the other
fide of the Darwent, whofe Roman antiquity is proved
by feveral monuments ; and a large green ftone vefiel
found here, with little images upon it, is fuppofed to
have been formerly a Danifh font for dipping of in¬
fants ; and has been fince ufed at Bridekirk in the
neighbourhood for their fprinkling.
The name of Pap-cajlle feems to be contra&ed from
Pipard its owner: it is faid to have been demolifhed, and
the materials employed to build Cockermouth cattle.
Mr Houch, in a letter to Mr Gale, thus deferibes
the ruins difeovered at Pap-caltle, Jan. 16. i74t*
Camden's “ I made particular inquiry of the man in whofe
Britannia, grounds they were difeovered, and of fome of the
Gough's neighbours prefent at the difeovery. The clofe in
which they lay is a little to the fouth of the fort, on
the declivity of the hill to the river, and bounded on
the welt by a narrow lane, probably' the via militaris
continued; and is ufually fhown to ftrangers as the moft
• remarkable here for finding Roman coins. They are
the largell ruins ever known to be difeovered in thefe
parts : for they met with three walls befides the pave¬
ment ; the firft lay eaft and well, and was covered
with earth near a foot high ; parallel to it at feven
yards, they found a fecond ; and between thefe two,
about two yards deep (the height of the walls, which
were fix yards broad, and llrongly cemented), they
came to a pavement curioufly laid with large flags,
three quarters of a yard fquare. and two or three
inches thick, as I meafured them : but imagining there
mull be money under it, they covered it up till night,
and then tore it all up. It was compofed of flags of
different thicknefs : under the thinner was a coarfe
flrong cement, which caufed them to be broken in’ta¬
king up ; but the thicker are pretty entire. Part of
the wall flood on the floor, and the edge was fecured
by a fine red cement two inches thick, fuppofed to
be intended to keep the floor dry. They imagined
themfelves at the corner of the building, the third wall
Handing at right angles with the fkft, and the fecond
parallel to the Itony lane, on which was an old hedge.
On the floor they found a flone trough, or rather bafe
of a pillar, about a foot high, and the hollowed part
fquare, and two inchea deep. They likewife found a Pap,
fmall earthen patera, which I procured, of the fine red Papaver,
clay, beautifully fmooth, with’ letters insprefled on the ' v 1
bottom ; but fo defaced as not to be intelligible  
Some years a^o, the man’s father who found thefe
ruins dug up a conduit. The owner had no coins, nor
knew of any. One of his neighbours Ihowed me a
large brafs one defaced.” -
Mr Routh, in another letter to Mr Gale, April 13.
1743, deferibes a fibula, a coin of Trajan, .. . IANO
AVG. . . . P. M. Rev. the emperor feated on a pile
of arms, a trophy before him, S. P. Q^R, OPTI . .
. . S. C. and two oaken pieces of the adjoining tim¬
ber of a houfe which appeared to have been burnt, in
the gardens of Jerom 'Fully, Efq; of Carlifle. The-
earth as far as they dug was artificial, and antiquities
are only found at a confiderable depth.
Dr Stukeley fays, t:he Roman caftrum lies on the
top of the hill above the village, and he traced its whole
circumference, a bit of the Roman wall by the river
fide going to Wigton, and there the ditch is plainly
vifible, though half filled up with the rnbbifli of the
wall. A fubterraneous vault, floored with large flabs
of free-ftone, was found in the pafture of the fouth-
eall angle. The name of Boroughs includes both clofes
where it flood ; and they find ftones and Hates with
iron pins in them, coins, &c. on the whole fpot be¬
low it, towards the water-fide. It was a beautiful'
and well chofen plan, on the fouth-weft fide of a hill,
a noble river running under, and pretty good coun¬
try about it. Coins of Claudius, Adrian, and a filver
Geta, font. rev. peunceps ivventvtis. He fuppofes
its ancient name Derventio, derived from the Derwent.
PAP AVER, the Poppy : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
27th order, Rhoeada. The corolla is tetrapetalous;
the calyx dipbyilous ; the capfule bilocular, opening
at the pores below a perfilling lligma.
Species. I. The fomniferum, or fomniferous com¬
mon garden-poppy, rifes with an upright fmooth ftalk,
dividing or branching a yard or more high : garnifhed *^ate
with large, deeply jagged, amplexicaule, fmooth leaves;
and terminated by large, fpreading, dark-purple, and
other coloured flowers, in the varieties, having fmooth.
cups and capfules. There are a great many varieties,
fome of them extremely beautiful. The white offici¬
nal poppy is one of the varieties of this fort. It
grows often to the height of five or fix feet, having
large flowers, both Angles and doubles, fuccecded by
capfules or heads as large as oranges, each containing
about Sooa feeds.
We are told, that in the province of Bahar in the
Eaft Indies, the poppy-feeds are fown in the months
of October and November, at about eight inches
fiance, and well watered, till the plants are about half Opium.
a foot high, when a compoll of dung, nitrous earth,
and allies, is fpread over the areas; and a little before
the flowers appear, they are again watered profufely
till the capfules are half grown, at which time the
opium is colle£led ; for when fully ripe, they yield
but little juice : two longitudinal incifions from below
upwards, without penetrating the cavity, are made
at funfet for three or four fucceffive evenings; in the
morning the Juice is feraped off with an iron fcoop.
PAP [ 7° i 1
r . v rtill it is Mr Arnot; and a firnilar one is now received in the
Papavcr. and worked in an iron pot in the 0f about Edinburgh Pharmacopceia. It is found very conve-
of a confiftence to be formed into thick ca^ of about the ^ from thIs extraft by d.f-
four pounds weight; thele are covert to folvjng one dram in two pounds and a half of fimp.e
leaves of poppy> tobacco, or ome o er ,? Lf. ’j Q < fyrUp^ The fyrupus papaveri* albt, as directed by hot
prevent their flicking together, and m this fituauon iyrup ^ jy and often fucceeds m
thev are dried. . , • • nmiimino- fleeo where opium fails ; it is more efpeci-
The fomniferous quality T^Kuice V^4^ ^’children- WhIte P°PPy head3 ^
well known. This quality refries m the mi ky juice tJcn^y iri fomentations, either alone, or more
of the capfule containing the fee"a» n‘ . , fldeg frequently added to the decoftion pro foment o.
rated by drying the juice ; hence tbe dned caplules q Qr wild globular.headed poppy, rifes
are preferved in the (hops for making the fyrup. i he _ - l. ftalk. branching
• r • n-  i • ;c a kind of opium ; and
Papaver,
Papaw.
tuny
The
infpkted juice itfelf is a kind of op,urn; and for an
account of its virtues fee the article Opium The
feeds alfo make a very agreeable emulfion, but have
n°U grots in" England, generally in negleaed gar-
dens, or uncultivated rich grounds, and flowers m July
Woodville's and AuguLl. This fpecies is faid to have been named
Medical Bo- p0ppy from the whitenefs of its feeds; a vane y
of it, however, is well known to produce blac^eeds ’
the double-flowered white poppy is alfo another va-
rietv ; but for medicinal purpofes, any of theL may
be employed indiferiminately, as we are not aok to
difeover the leall difference in their fenfible qua hues
or effeas. The feeds, according to fome authors,
poflefs a narcotic power ; but there is no foundation
for this opinion : they confift of a Ample farinaceous
matter, united with a bland oil, and in many countries
are eaten as food. As a medicine, they have been
ufually given in the form of emulfion, in catarrhs,
' • » rrL^ v,oo^c nr ranfnles of the poppy*
2. 1 lit 1 ilvlCatJj n 11 1 U*
with an upright, hairy, multiflorous ftalk, branching
a foot and an half high ; garnifhed with long, CCclxxih.
tified, deeply cut, hairy leaves ; the ftalk terminated
by many red and ether coloured flowers in the varie¬
ties, fucceeded by globular fmooth capfales.
This plant is common in corn-fields, and flowers in
fane and July. It may be diftinguhhed from p. du- iVoodvill*
bium, to which it bears a general refemblance, by its
urn-fhaped capfules, and by the hairs upon the pedun¬
cles (landing in a horizontal direftion. The capfules
of this fpecies, like thofe of fommferum, contain a
milky juice, of a narcotic quality, but the quantity is
very inconfiderable, and has not been applied to any
medical purpofe ; but an extra# prepared from them
has been fuccefsfully employed as a fedative. I ne
flowers have fomewhat of the fmell of opium, and a
mucilaginous tafte, accompanied with a (light degree,
of bitternefs. A fyrup of thefe flowers is directed m
the London Pharmacopoeia, which has been thought
„ , .   a ginrl is thererore
,he foro, of emiilflon, j" -.arrh,, ’pefloral, and i» therefore
ftranguries, &c. The heads or ca^ u es o p pp>> , rcrjbe(j ;n COUghs and catarrhal affedions ; but it
which are direded for ufe in the pharmacopmias, 1 P S the beau of it8 colour thaa
the flalks and leaves, have an uopWant fme^fame- as a mediciae.
what like that of opiurn, and an acrid buterfih tatte^ Cambricum, or Welih poppy, has a per-
Both the fmell and talle refiae in a ^ky juice, ^ pinnated cut leaves, fmooth, upright,,
which more efpecially abounds in the cortl^1Bart muitiflorous ftalks, a foot and an half high ; garmihed
the capfules, and in its concrete (late conftitutes the u ;nnated leave8j and terminated by many
officinal opium. Thefe capfules are powerfuUy n«r, p fllcceeded by fmooth capfules.—
cotic or anodyne ; boiled in water, they impar to the ^eytUo^ ^ ^
menftruum their narcotic juice, toge ler 1 The orientalis, »r oriental poppy, hath a large,
other juice, which the, have j? —«ge- 4- 1^0^.^ ^(^ pillnaUd, fawed le.ves ,
table matters in general. Phe hquor, ttrongly pr ’ F ph 'unifloroiis ftalks, terminated by one.
out, fuffered to fettle, danfied wr.h ^s^of ^ uprrght, rough, b? ovalj fmoothj capfulM,.
and evaporated to a due confiLie ’Y • . r flowers appearing in May.
which is about one-fifth or one-fixth of the ^gbt of p . tionV? A11 the kinds are hardy, and will,
the heads. This pofteffes the virtues of opium, but , ^ ' here> The two firfl fpecies being an-
requires to be given in double its dofe to aniwer the P P J propagated only by feed? ; but the two-
fame intention, which it is faid to perform withou a8 .,^1 as the feeds,
occafioning a naufea and gidd.nefs, the ufual eftefts ^ pAPA.TREE. Carica.
of opium. This extra# was firft recommended by
A
PAPER is a word evidently derived from the Greek
■ttoLxvpos papyrus, the name of that celebrated Egyp
tian plant which was fo much ufed by the ancients in
all kinds of writing. It would be unneceffary particu¬
larly to deferibe the different expedients which men in
every age and country have employed for giving lia¬
bility to their ideas, and for handing them down to
their children. When the art of writing was once dii-
covered, (tones, bricks, leaves of trees* the exterior and
E R*
interior bark, plates of lead, wood wax, and Tvory,
were employed. In the progrefs of foc.ety, men have,
invented the Egyptian paper, paper of cotton, paper,
manufactured from the bark of trees, and m our times
fr°Th^ inhabitants of Ceylon, before the Vutch made
themfelves mailers of the ifiand, wrote on the leaves ot
the talipot. The manufeript of the bramins, fent
Oxford from Fort St George, is written on the leaves
702
1
%yptian
paper.
r , PAP
of a pairn of Malabar. Herman fpeaks of another
palm in the mountains of that country which produces
kaves of feveral feet in breadth. Ray, in his Hiftory
ot Iiants, Vol. II Book xxxn. mentions fome trees
bota in India and America, the leaves of which are
proper for writing. From the interior fubftance of
thefe leaves they draw a whitifh membrane, large, and
fomevvhat like the pellicle of an egg ; but the paper
a<Je by art» cven of the coarfeft materials, is much
more convenient in ufe than any of thefe leaves.
1 he biamefe, for example, make two kinds of paper,
the one black and the other white, from the bark of a
tree wh.cfrthey call P/ioM/,;. Thefe are fabricated in
the coarfeft manner; but they can be ufed on both
fides with a bodkin of fullers earth.i
, v ,latl?ns beyond the Ganges make their paper of
w-tl °^man5r tree8* The other Afiatic nations
,,n. the Ganges, excepting thofe toward the fouth,
make it of old rags of cotton cloth ; but from their
ignorance of the proper method, and the neceffary ma-
chinery, their paper is coarfe. This, however, is by
no means the cafe with that made in China and Ja
pan, which deferves attention from the beauty, the re-
gulanty, the ftrength, and fintnefs of its texture. In
Furope they have dffcovered, or rather carried to per-
tection, the ingenious art of making paper with old
rags, originally either from flax or hemp; and fince
this difeovery the paper produced from our manufac¬
tures is fufficient for every purpofe. And though
efe materials have been hitherto abundant, feveral
phi ofophers have attempted to fubftitute other vege¬
table fubftances in their place. In the 6th volume of
the i ranfaflions of the Society for the Encourage,
ment of Arts, we have an account of paper made by
Mr Gieeves near Warrington from the bark of willow-
twigs ; and it has been obferved by a fociety of able
critics, that hop-buds would probably anfwer this pur-
pole better. The rags in common ufe for paper-
xnakmg are a texture of fupple and ftrong fibres fepa-
rated by a lee fr< m the bark of the plants. It would
be m vain to employ the whole body of the plant, as
this fubftance forms a very improper fluff for the ope¬
rations of the paper mill. From thefe principles we
are directed in the choice of vegetable fubftances fit
tor the prefent purpofe. The greater or lefs degree
of purity m the materials is not abfolutely neceflary •
for flax itfeif, without any preparation, could be made
into paper; but it would be extremely coarfe, and the
Hark of nettles or malices would not bear the expence
of labour. Although cotton be ufed in the fabrication
of paper in the Levant, and perhaps in China, we are
not to conclude that the down of plants in Europe,
without the ftrength or fupplenefs of cotton, will un-
iwer the fame purpofe.
History.
E R
growing in Egypt on the banks of the Nile. Ac '
cording to 1 fidorus, this paper was firft ufed at Mem-
phis, and Lucan feems to be of the fame opinion,
Nondum jlamineai Memphis connexere biblos
Noverat. Pharsal. lib. iii. ver. 222.
.Thu chief kinds of paper which merit attention in
th,S work are, The Egyptian paper; 2. The paper
made from cotton ; 3. Pepet trom the interior balk
of tree, or l.bcr ; 4. Chinefe paper; 5, japantfe pa¬
per ; 6 Pape, made from albeit; and, 7. Paper made
from linen rags.
This is the famous paper ufed by the ancients,
which was made of a kind of reed called papyrus,
all ihel- T fUt l mayrne m thlS’ h i8certain> that of
all the kinds of paper ufed by the ancients, the papyrus
flom ,hm rCOnfVern;ent’ bothfr°m its flexibiiitv'and
nawrc °- f;!br,«tion- ^ was a prefent from
nature, and required neither care nor culture.
• “ l[ not certa,'n1at "'hat particular period the an¬
cients began to make paper of papyrus; but there are
feveral authorities which prove the ufe of it in E^ypt
long before the time of Alexander the Great.
hb. Sin. cap. ir. gives a full defeription of
the method of making this paper in Egyptf They
divide, fays he, with a kind of needle the item of the
papyrus into thin plates or /lender pellicles, each of
them as large as the plant will admit. Thefe are the
elements of which the (beets of paper are compofed.
1 be pellicles in the centre are the belt; and they di-
tmnifh in value as they depart from it. As they were
feparated from the reed, they were extended on a table,
and laid acrofs each other at right angles. In this
ftate they were moiflened by the water of the Nile,
and while wet were put under a prefs, and afterwards
expofed to the rays of the fun. “ It was fuppofed that
toX rb ° ft' Ni‘le * had 3 2ummy quality neceffary * ^
we m, K t0?ether* Thi-’ Mr Bruce, lih xS:
e may be affured 13 without foundation, no fuch <ma-c-
l.tv being found in the water of the Nile; on the
tTITh f !t °f ^ °thers the improper,
till it had fettled and was abfolutely divefted of all the
earth gathered in its turbid ftate. I made feveral
pieces of this paper both in Abyffinia and Egypt; and
v etrS tP ,nie> tbat tb*e l"ug«r or fweetnefs with
which the whole juice of this plant is impregnated, is
the matter that caufes the adhefion of thefe ftripes to-
fn He<Viand^at the ufe of the water is no moie
Mo,' ” mS’ a>nd PUt !t Perfeal>' a"d in
, 'Vhen there was not enough of fursr In the
plant, or when the water did net fufficiently diffolve it,
tne pellicles were united by a pafte made of the fineft
wheat flour, mixed with hot water and a little vinegar,
and when dried they were flattened and fmoothed by
the beating of a mallet. 3
rpPihA ^ °r this paPer varied mHch 5 ^ feidom ex-
u Hdr«'tW° feCt’ DUt: 11 W3‘s 6ftent>me3 fmaller. It
had different names, according to it: flze and quality:
he hi ft was called Imperial, which was ot the fineft
n ‘•rgy. t kind, and was ufed for writing letters by
the great men amongfi the Romans. The fecond fort
vi as ca e oy the Romans the Livian paper, from Li-
via the wife ot Auguflms; each leaf ot this kind was
12 inches. he third fort was called the Sacerdotal
paper, and was 11 inches in fize.
i he paper ^ ufed in the amphitheatres was of the di-
0f nine .inchcs* But what was efteemed ot
Hfb Tb11 ^i1" u’ WaS ,tS ilrenbrth, whitenefs, and po-
noS<b T " however» funk Itfs in paper highly
pohfhed; and therefore the charafters were more liable
to oe effaced. When it was not carefully foaked in
^ e hrif preparation, the paper brought a lefs price;
becaufe
i
,Sy./i ,V/■ A< r /.n/rttfit .
feecaufe letters were with difficulty formed upon it,
and it fent forth a difagreeable fmell. To remedy this
defeft, the paper went through a new courfe ot tizmg
and hammering ; and the fize ufed on_ that occafion
was made of light bread fteeped in boiling water, and
paffed through a filtering cloth. By this means the
paper became in the higheft degree united, and fmooth-
er than the fineft linen. It was this paper which gave
fo long a duration to the works of the Gracchi, Ti¬
berius, and Caius, in their own hand-writing. “ I
have feen them (fays Pliny) in the library of Pompo-
nius Secundus, a poet and citizen of the firft rank,
near 200 years after they were written.” We may-
add, that mtnuferipts of this paper ftill remain, which
have undoubtedly been written tooo or 1200 years
aPo. It appears from Pliny, that the Egyptians patted
together the pellicles of the papyrus by means of the
water of the Nile ; but that the polishing with ivory,
and the operations of the hammer and the prefs, were
added by the invention and induftry of the Roman
artitts. The Egyptians feem to have known the ufe
of fize ; but it is evident from the fame author, that
the Romans ufed a ftronger frze in the making of paper.
Notwithftanding the care which was taken to give
ftrength and confiftency to the paper of Egypt, the
leaves, although colledled into a book, were too weak
to fuppart themfelves ; and for this reafon it was a
common pra&ice, after every five leaves, to infert a
leaf of parchment. There ftill remains in the abbey
de St Germain de-pres a fragment of the epiftles of
St Auuuftine written in this manner. The manufenpt
is at leaft 1100 years old, and in a high ftate of pre-
feivation.
This paper was an important branch of commerce
to the Egyptians, which continued to increafe towards
the end of the Roman republic, and became ftill moreex-
tenfivein the reign of Auguftus. The demand from foreign
nations was often fo great, as to occafion a fcarcity at
Rome ; and we read in the reign of Tiberius of a tu¬
mult among the people in confequence of this fcarcity.
In a letter of the Emperor Adrian, the preparing of
the papyrus is mentioned as one of the principal occu¬
pations at Altxsndria. “ In this rich and opulent
city (fays he) nobody is feen idle: Some are em-
ployed in the manufaftory of cloth, feme in that of
writing paper,” &c. During the time of the Anto-
nines, this commerce continued equally to flourifti.
Apuleius fays, that he wrote on the paper of Egypt
with a reed of the Nile prepared at Memphis.
The demand for this paper was fo great towards
the end of the third century, that when the tyrant
Firmus conquered Egypt, he boafted that he had
feized as much paper"and fize as would fupport his
whole army.
St Jerom informs us, that it was as much in ufe in
the fifth century when he flouriftied. The duty on the
importation of this commodity had grown excefiive
towards the end of this or the beginning of the fixth
century; and being aboliftied by Theodoric king of
Italy, Cafliodorus, in the 38th letter of his 1 xthbook,
congratulates the whole world on the difeharge of an
xmppft on a merchandife fo effentially neceffary to man-
» mi • r
The fathers Montfaucon and Mabillon mention fe-
veral fragments written on this paper in tho* fixth ceu-
» E R. 7°3
tury. One of them was a charter of the Emperor
Juftinian, intitied, Charta pknaria fecuritatii. Father
Montfaucon faw in 1698, in the library of Julio Jufti-
niani, three or four fragments of paper of Egypt of
the fame antiquity. An* Mabillon fpeaks oi fome
books of the Jewith antiquities by Jofepbus tranfhted
into Latin, which feemed to have been written in the
fame century, and which were preferved in the library
of St Ambrofe of Milan, but he had not feen the ma-
nuferipts. The fame father mentions to have feen in
the library of St Martin of Tours the remains of an
old Greek manufetipt of the paper of Egypt, and
which appeared to him to be of the feventh century.
He alfo believes, that the copy of St Mark’s gofpel pre¬
ferved in the regifter-office of Venice is written on the
fame paper, that it is the moft ancient of any of the
evangelical manuferipts, and may be fuppofed to be
written at the lateft in the fourth century.
According to the fame antiquarian, the paper of
Egypt was ufed in France, and Italy, and other Eu¬
ropean countries, both for books of learning and pub¬
lic records ; and there ftill remains, adds he, a great
number of thefe in the archives of the church at St
Dennis, at Corbie, in the abbey de GrafTe, and in^
other convents.
It is probable, that the invention of paper made of
cotton, of which we are afterwards to treat, infenfibly
deftroyed the reputation and manufafture of the paper
of Egypt; but it is ftill a queftion at what particular
period the fabrication of the latter totally ceafed. Eu-
ftachius, the learned commentator on Homer, affures us,
that in his time in 1170 it was no longer in ufe; but
father Mabillon maintains, that many of the popifti
bulls were written on the papyrus in the nth cen-
tury.
The Count Mafici, in his IJlor Diplomat, lib. ii.
Biblioth. Ital. tom. ii. p. 251. is decidedly of opinion,
that the paper of Egypt was not in ufe in the fiftk
century. He confiders all records written on this
paper dated pofterlor to this period as not authentic ;
and the popifti bulls mentioned by father M billon ap¬
pear to this learned perfon, as well as the copy of St
Mark’s gofpel, to be written on paper manufadured
from cotton. To reconcile in fome meafure thefe con¬
tradictory accounts, it may be obftrved, that on fome
particular occafion, and by fome particular perfons,
the paper of Egypt might have been employed for
feveral hundred years after it ceafed to be of general
ufe. Whoever wilhes for a fuller account of the paper
of Egypt, may confult among the ancients Pliny,
lib. xiii. and Theophraftus, lib. iv. chap. ix. and among
the moderns, Guillaudinus, Scaliger, Saumaife, Kerch-
mayer, Nigrifoli ; Father Hardouin in his edition of
Pliny ; Father Mabillon in his work De re Diplo¬
mat ; Montfaucon in his Paleography, and in his Col¬
lections ; the illuftrious Maffei in his IJlor. Diplomat.
the Count de Caylus in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Infcriptions ; and Mr Bruce in his Travels to dif-
cover the Source of the Nile. »-
It is generally fuppofed that the invention of the 3erffom.
paper, called c/wta bombycina, fupplanted the Egyp* cotton.
tian paper in Greece. This paper is incomparably
more lafting, and better calculated for all the purpofes
of writing. It is not precifely known at what period
this art, which fuppofes a great variety of previous
expe*
?04 PAP
CKperimeim, was fir ft reduced to praaice. The ap.
plication ol cotton to the purpofes of paper-making’
requires as much labour and ingenuity as the ufe of
linen rags ; and for this reafon, if we could determine
the precise time when paper was made from.cotton,
we fhould alfo fix the invention of the art of paper-
making as it is prefently praftifed in Europe. Father
Montfaucon proves, by inconteftable authorities, that
paper from cotton was in ufe in 1100. This paper
in the Greek language is called (Iv^Gviuv®-, or
; for although is the Greek word for
filk, yet in thofe times it was applied, as well as
flccM-Ccct, to cotton ; and hence the Italians to this day
call cotton lambaccio.
The mod ancient maaufeript of this paper which
Father Montfaucon faw with the date, was that in the
1’rench king’s library, written A. D. iojo; but as
the manuferipts without date are infinitely more nu¬
merous than thofe which are dated, and as fome con-
jefture can be formed concerning them from the
manner of writing, this father believes fome of thefe
to have been written in the tenth century.
T. he refearches of the fame learned antiquarian
amount almoil to a proof that this paper was difeo-
vered towards the end of the ninth century or begin-
ning of the tenth ; for before the twelfth century it
was commonly ufed in the eaftern empire, and even in
Sicily. .Roger king of Sicily fays, in a diploma writ¬
ten in 1145, that he had renewed on parchment a
charter which had been written on paper of cotton,
in the year 1100, and another which was dated in the
year 1112. About the fame time the emprefs Irene,
in the ftatutes for fome religious houfea at Conftan-
tinople, fays that ihe had left three copies of the fame
ftatutes, two in parchment and one in paper from cot¬
ton. From that period this paper was ftill more in
life through all the eaftern empire; and innumerable
Greek manu'fcripts are found written on it in all the
great libraries.
This difeovery happened at a time when there feems
to have been a great fcarcity of parchment-; for it
was about this period that the Greeks erafed the-wri¬
tings of Polybius, Ihodorus of Sicily, and many va¬
luable ancient authors, for the fake of the iparchment.
It was the invention of this paper of cotton which
deftroyed the manufafture of the paper of Egypt;
for, if we may believe Euftathius, who wrote towards
the end of the twelfth century, the latter paper had
gone into difufe but a little before his time. We may
ealiiy believe, however, that this new invention, al¬
though of great advantage to mankind, was introduced
by degrees.
The manufadlureof this kind of paper has flourifhed
in the Levant for many ages, and is carried on with
great fuccefs even to this day. It is not neceflary to
fay any thing farther, than that the paper produced
from cotton is extremely white, very ftrong, and of a
3 fine grain.
Paper from phig paper of the ancients was made from the white
bark of P^lhcle ot inner coat found in many trees between the
trees or bark and the wood. 1 he trees commonly in ufe
*ber. were the maple, the plane-tree, the elm, the beech,
the mulberry, and moil frequently the lindin-tree. The
ancients wrote on this inner coat after they had fepa-
rated it from the bark, beat, and dried it.
N° 258.
E R, Hiftonr'
The‘-fathers Mabillen and Montfaueon fpeak fre¬
quently of manuferipts and diplomas written on paper
made from bark; and pofitively diftinguifh it from
the Egyptian paper, becaufe it was thicker, and com-
poled of parts lefs adhering together.
There are many palm trees in India and America
to which botamfts have given the name papyraceous,
becaufe the natives have written with bodkins either
on the leaves or the bark. Such is the American
palm, called tal by the Indians ; and of the fame kind
is the guajaraba of New Spain. Every palm, the bark
ot which is fmooth, and the leaves large and thick
may be ufed for this purpofe.
The art of making paper from vegetables reduced Chinefc
was known in China long before it was prac-l,aPer-
tiled in Europe ; and the Chinefe have carried it to
a degree of perfedion hitherto unknown to the Euro¬
pean artifts. The fine paper in China is fofter and
fmoother than that of Europe ; and thefe qualities are
admirably adapted to the pencil, which the Chinefe
ule in writing. Several kinds of their paper difeover
the greateft art and ingenuity, and might be applied
with much advantage to many purpofes. They are
capable of receiving, for example, the impreffion of
types; and both maps and prints have been executed
with fuccefs on the Chinefe paper.
The different forts of paper vary in China according
to the materials of which they are compofed, and to
nie different manner of manufaduring thofe materials.
Every province has its peculiar paper. That of Se-
chwen is made of linen rags as in Europe ; that of
Fo-kion, of young bamboo; that of the northern pro¬
vinces, of the interior bark of the mulberry; that of
the province of Kiang-nan, of the Ikin which is found
in the webs of the filk-worm ; finally, in the province
of Hu-quang, the tree chu or ko-chu furniflies the
materials with which they make paper.
1 he method of fabricating paper with the bark of
different trees is aearly the fame with that which is
followed in the bamboo. To give an idea, therefore,
of the manner of manufaduring the interior barks of
the mulberry, the elm, and the cotton-tree, it will be
fufficient to confine our obfervations to the bamboo.
The bamboo is a kind of cane or hollow reed, divided
by knots; but larger, more elaftic, and durable than
any other reed.
The whole fubflance of the bamboo, compofed of
filaments, and a great abundance of fibrous materials,
is employed in this operation. The ftioots of one or
two years, nearly the thicknefs of a man’s leg, are
preferred. I hey ftrip the leaves from the ftem, cut
them into pieces of four or five feet long, make them
into parcels, and put them into water to macerate.
As foon as they are foftened, which generally happens
in five days; they wafh them in pure water; put them
into a dry ditch ; cover them with lime for fome days,
which they .water for the purpofe of flacking: they
waih them carefully a fecond time; cut every one of
the pieces into filaments, which they expofe to the
rays of the fun to dry and to bleach them. After
this they are boiled in large kettles; and then reduced
to fluff In mortars of wood, by means of a hammer
with a long handle, which the workman moves with
his foot.
The fluff .being thus prepared, thej take fome fhoots
of
Hiftory. P. Af 1
of a plant named koteng, which, fteeped in water four
or five days, is reduced to an unftuous or glutinous
fubfiance ; and when they proceed to make the paper,
this is mixed with the fluff in certain exadt quantit-es,
for on this mixture depends the gcodnels ot the
paper. . . . ,
When the extract from the koteng is mixed with
fluff of the bamtoo, the whole mixture is beat toge¬
ther in mortars till it becomes a thick and vifcous
liquor. This is poured into large tubs or refervoirs,
fo exadlly framed as that no part of the liquor can
efcape.
The workmen after this plunge their forms into the
liquor ; take out what is fufficient for a fheet of paper;
which immediately, from the glutinous fubllaiv'e, be¬
comes firm and fhining; and is detached from the form
by turning down the fheet on the heap of paper al¬
ready made, without the interpofition of pieces of
woollen cloth, as in Europe.
In order to dry this paper, they have a hollow wall,
the two fronts of which are fmooth and extremely
white. At the extremity of this wall is placed a (love,
the pipes of which are carried in a circular manner
through the whole empty fp ice. The fhects of paper
are laid on the furface, to which they adhere till they
come over them with a foft brufh ; and after they are
dry, it is eafy to diflinguifh the fide w^hich received
imprtffions from the bruih from that which adhered to
the wall. By means of this flove the Chinefe dry
their paper as faff as they can make it ; but it is only
in cold fer.fons, or in certain provinces, that they find
this expedient necefiary.
The Chinefe paper muff be dipped in a foluti®n of
alum before it can take either ink or colours. They
call this operation faner^ from the Chinefe word fan,
which fignilies alum. The following is the manner of
preparing this folution : Six ounces of ifinglafs cut
very f.nall is put into boiling water, and conllantly
flirted, that it may diffolve equally. When the ifin¬
glafs is wholly diffolved in the water, they throw in
twelve ounces of calcined alum, which is alfo ffirred
till it is completely diffolved and mixed with the iffn-
glafs. This compofition is afterwards poured into a
large and deep bafon, at the mouth of which is a little
round piece of wood ; the extremity of every fheet of
paper is fixed in another piece of wood, with a flit
n ade to receive it; by means of this equipage they
plunge the flieet of paper into the compofition of alum
and ifinglafs ; and when it is fully penetrated, they
draw it out, making it over the l'ule r°und
piece of wood. The long piece of wood which holds
lire fheet by <?ne end, and keeps it from tearing, is
afterwards fufpended with it on a wall till it is fuffi-
ciently dry.
The Chinefe give the paper intended for different
purpofes different preparations. - We fhall confine our
ol fervations to the filver colour which they give to
fome paper. They take two fcruples of paile made
of cows hide, one fcruple of alum, and a pint of water:
the whole is boiled on a flow fire till the water be
evaporated. The {beets of paper are then ftretched
on a fmooth table, and covered over with two or three
'layers of this pafle. They take afterwards a certain
quantity of talc, waihed and boiled in water, witn the
proportion of-onc-third of alum i this is dried, reduced
Vol XIII. Part U.
» E R. 7°i
to a powder, pafied through a fieVe, boiled a fecond
time in water, dried in the fun, and again paffed
through the fieve. This powder is fpread equally
over the fheets of paper, prepared as we mentioned
above ; and then they are dried flowly in the fhade.
The fheets of paper, covered in this manner with
talc, are laid upon a table, and rubbed with a little
cotton ; which faxes a certain quantity of the talc in
the paper, and carries off the overplus to be ufed on
another occafion. By means of this compofition the
Chinefe draw all manner of figures on their paper.
Formerly the Chinefe wrote with a bodkin of iron
on tablets of bamboo ; afterwards on faiin with a
pencil; and during the dynaffy of their tyrants, about
160 years before Chritt, they difeovered the art of
making paper.
The paper made from the bamboo is fufficiently
white, foft, clofely united, without the leaf! inequa¬
lity on the furface to interrupt the motion of the
pencil, or to occafion the rifing of the materials w hich
compofe it. Meanwhile every kind of paper made
born the bamboo or the bark of trees, is readier to
crack than that made in Europe ; 1.elides, it is more
fufeepti! le of moiflure, and fooner deb roved wdtli
duff and worms. To obviate this laft inconveniency,
they are obliged frequently to biat their books in
China, and to expofe them to the fun. It maybe
obferved, how'ever, that the Chintfe paper, employed
for various purpofes in Europe, has been preferved for
a long time without receiving damage cither from
moifturt: or infecls. 5
According to Kempfer, the bark of the mornsJaranefe
plfera fativa, or true paper-tree, is chiefly employed
for making papier in Japan. Every year after the fall
of the leaves, which happens in the tenth month,
ccrrtfpondirig to our December, the Japanefe cut the
young fhoots of this tree into pieces of about three
feet, collcbl them into par.els, which they boil in
water into which they have caff a certaiftiquartity of
afhes. If the wood is dry, they take care to fleep it
23 hours in water before it is boiled. The parcels
are kept in a clofe copper till the bark ?t the extre¬
mity of the fhoots is feparated from the fiem about
half an inch ; they are then cooled ; and the bark
alone is fit for making paper. ’1 hey begin by a pre¬
paration which confijs of cleaning the l ark, and fe-
parating the good from the bad. For this purpofe
they deep it in water three or four hours ; and as foon
as it is foftened they ferape off with a knife whatever
is blackilh or green, and at the fame time feparate
the llrong bark of a year's growth from the fl.eder
which covers the young fhoots. The firft of thefe
gives the .whiteff and beff paper, if there is any of
the bark of more than a year s growth, it is hid all !e
for the coarfefl.
After the bark has been culled and cleaned in this
manner, it is boiled in a clear ley till the matter is of
that confiffency, that, being touched gently with the
finger, it draws off in the form of hairs, or like a
coliedtion of fibres. During the time of boiling it is
conftantly ftirred with a ffreng reed, and the evade
by evaporation fupplied from time to time with addi¬
tional quantities of the clear ley. To make this ley,
they put two pieces cf wood acrofs the mouth of
tub, cover them with draw, on which they lay a bed
4. U
7°S PAPE
ofafhes a little moiftened ; and pouring boiling water
on the afhes, the falts contained in them are carried
down to the tub. This is what is called a. clear ley.
After the b:.rk is in the condition we have juft
now ftated, it is wafhed with great care ; for on this
wafting depends in a great meafure the goodnefs of
the paper. It is put into a kind of fxeve through
which the water can flow freely ; and great care is
taken to turn it with the hand till it is fufliciently di¬
luted, and reduced to foft and tender fibres. For the
fineft paper a fecond Wafting is requifite, and a piece
of cloth is ufed inilead of a fieve.
When the bark is wafted, it is laid on a ftrong and
fniooth table, and beat with a kind of baton of hard
wood till it is reduced to a proper confiftency. It be-
• comes indeed fo foft, that it refembles paper fteeped •
in water.
The bark prepared in this manner is put into a
narrow tub, with a glutinous extradl from rice and
the root oreni, which is very vifcous. Thefe three
fubftances, mixed together, are llirred with the reed
till they form a liquor of an equal and uniform con-
fiftency. This compofition is poured into tubs fimilar
to thofe ufed for filling the forms in our paper-mills.
As focn as the fheets are made and detached from
the form, they are laid in a heap on a table covered
with a double mat. A fnfc|j^ chip of cane is placed
betwixt every flieet. This piece of cane jutting out,
ferves to diftinguift the fteets, and afterwards to raife
them. Every one of the heaps is covered with a plate
or thin board of the exa£l fize of the paper. In pro¬
portion as the paper dries, or is able to bear it with¬
out danger of being comprefled into one mafs, they
lay on additional weights. This preflure, intended
to carry off any unneceffary moifture, is continued for
24 hours, when the fteets are fufpended," by means of
the little piece of reed, to long plants, in the. open air,
•till they are completely dried.
The extract from rice is made in an unvarnifted
earthen pot. The pot is agitated at firft gently, then
more brifkly : new water is poured in, and then it is
filtered through a linen-cloth. The finifting of the
procefs is determined by the vifeofity the fub-
ftance.
The infufion of the root oreni is made in the follow,
ing manner: The root, peeled and cut into fmall
pieces, is infufed into water for one night, during
which time it communicates a vifeofity fuflicient for
the purpofe to which it is applied.
The Japanefe paper is of fo prodigious a ftrength,
that the materials of which it is compofed might be
manufadiured into ropes. There is fold at Serige,
the capital city of the province of Japan of that name,
a kind of it fit for bed-hangings and wearing apparel;
refembling fo much fluffs of wool and filk, that it is
often taken for them. The following is Kempfer’a
catalogue of trees ufed in Japan for the manufadtory
of paper. 1. The true paper-tree, called in the Ja¬
panefe language Kempfer charadlcrizes thus:
Papyrus fru3u mori cel/a. Jive morus fativa foliis urtiae
mortua cortice papifera 2. The falfe paper-tree, called
by the Japanefe katji ladfire ; by Kempfer, papyrus
procumbens iaEtefcens folio longo lanceata cortice chartaceo.
3. The plant which the Japanefe call oreni is named
by Kempfer aha radke vifcofajlgre ephemera magno pu-
Hiflory,
nico. 4. The fourth tree ufed for paper is the futo-
kadfura, named by Kempfer frutex vifeofus procumbens
folio telephii vulgaris cemulo frudu ractmofo.
The defeription of thefe trees, given more particu¬
larly by Kempfer than the limits of this work will
permit, may be of great fervice to lead botaniils to
difeover the European plants and ftrubs adapted, like
the Japanefe, for the fabrication of paper.
Before finifting our refledlions on this part of the
fubjedl, it will be proper to give a juft idea of the at¬
tempts which have been made to increafe the original
materials of paper in Europe.
A flight attention to the procefs in China in redu¬
cing the bamboo to a pafte, by a careful and ingeni¬
ous analyfis, and to the long and proper method of the
Javanefe of feparating the principal fibres of the bark
of the mulberry, will ftow the abfurdity not only of
taking plants without any kind of choice, but of
giving them no preparation except that of pounding
them with mallets.
With a proper feledfion, and good principles, it ap¬
pears not improbable that many of the European plants
might be ufed with great advantage in conttrudting
feveral kinds of paper.
It is evident that the materials ufed by the Chinefe
require lefs labour and preparation than the fluff of
linen rags. The fteets of the Chinefe paper are eafily
detached from the form ; they are laid in heaps with¬
out the interpofition of pieces of woollen cloth ; the
fuperfluous water is immediately difeharged ; and they
require not, as in Europe, the vigorous aftion of
preffes to unite the parts more clofely together. ^
The afbeftos is a fibrous fubftance of little ftrength, paper mafe
the threads of which are eafily broken. This fub-from albcfl-
ftance has the peculiar quality of fupporting the a6liontos'
of fire without receiving any damage ; whence pieces
of cloth and garters made of it are incombuffible.
From the knowledge of this property paper has been
made of the albeftos. Dr Brukmann, profeffor at
Brunfwic, publifted the natural hiflory of this foffil;
and four copies of his book, in the library of Wolfen-
bottle, are on this paper.
The manner of fabricating this paper is deferibed by
M. Lloyd in the Philofophical Tran factions, N° 166-.
A certain quantity of the afbeftos is pounded in amor-
tar of Hone till it be reduced to a fubftance like cot¬
ton. All the parts of earth er ftone remaining in the
afoeftos are then taken off by means of a fine fieve, and
it is formed into fteets of paper by an ordinary paper-
mill. Mixing it with water reduces it to fluff; only,
as it is heavier than that from linen rags, it requires
to be continually ftirrtd when they are taking it up
with the frames. The only excellence of this paper
is, that the writing difappears when it is call into the
fire. It muff be obferved, at the fame time, that as it
is of a flender confiftency, and eafily torn, it is more
an objeft of curioiity than ufe.
This paper is manufactured through all Europe of paper made
linen rags collected in the citip and in the country.from rags.
This kind of paper was utterly unknown to the an¬
cients. The libri lintei mentioned by Livy, I. lib. iv.
Pliny, XIII. c. xi. and by other Roman writers, are
demonftrated by Guilandin, in his commentary on
Pliny, &c. to have been written on pieces of linen
cloth, or eanvafs prepared in the manner of painters.
But
Hi ft or y\ P A
But it Is not fufficlent to be certain that paper from
linen is a modern invention ; it is neceffary to know
by what nation, and at what period, it was difcovered.
Polydore Virgil, De Inventoribus Rerum, C. II. c. viii.
confefies his ignorance of thefe fads. Scaliger, with¬
out any kind of proof, gives the glory to the Ger¬
mans ; and Count Maffd to the Italians. Other wri¬
ters afcribe this honour to fome Greek refugees at
Bafil, to whom the manner of making paper from
cotton in their own country had fuggefted the idea.
Du Halde is perfuaded that Europe derived this in¬
vention from the Chinefe, who, in fcveral provinces,
make paper of rags nearly in the fame manner that we
do. But this invention was pradifed by the Euro¬
peans before they had any communication with China,
and before the taking of Conftantinflple, at which
time the Greek refugees were fuppofed to have retired
to Bafil. The precife time of this difcovery in Europe
is not exadly known. Father Mabiilon believes that
it was in the twelfth century ; and cites a paffage of
Pierre de Clugny, born A. D. lioo, to prove it.
The books which wre rea 1 every day, fays that Abbe
in his treatife againft the Jews, are written on {beeps
and call's Ain ; or on oriental plants ; or, finally, ex
rafuris veterum pannurum. If thefe lall words fignity
paper, fuch as we ufe, there were books of it in the
twelfth century. But this citation is the more to be
fufpeded, as Montfnicon himfelf, after the minuteft
fearch in France and Italy, could find no book on this
paper antecedent to the death of St Louis, A. D.
1270.
The epocha of this invention was not determined
till 1762, M. Mierman having propofed a reward to
the perfon who could procure the molt ancient manu-
fcri; t written on this kind of paper. The colledion
of all. the memoirs rent to him along with the rr.anu-
fcripts was publilhed at the Hague in 1767 ; and it
appeared that this paper had been ufed in Europe be¬
fore the year 1 300.
In 1782 the Abbe Andrez publifhed a work intitled
DeW Origine, ProgreJJi e Stato attuale d’Ogni letteratura;
wherein he fpeaks f the difcovery of many kinds of
paper, and particularly of that made of rags. The
Abbe Andrez maintains, that paper made from filk
was very anciently fabricated in China, and in the
ealfern parts of Alia ; that the art of making this
paper w ;s carried from China to Perfia about the year
652, and to Mecca in 706. The Arabs fubftituted
cotton, the commodity ofAeir own country, in place
of filk, or rather bamboo. This paper of cotton was
carried into Africa and Spain by the Arabs. The
Spaniards, from the quantity of linen to be found in
the kingdom of Valencia, feem firfl to have adopted
the idea of ufing linen rags ; and the moll ancient
paper of this kind is-of Valencia and Catalonia. From
Spain it palled into France, as may be learned from
a letter of Joinville to St Louis about the vear 1260.
It is dilcovered to have been in Germany in 1312,
and in England in 1320 and 1342. In confequence
of the paper made from cotton in the Levant, the
paper from linen was introduced much later into Italy.
See the work of Abbe Andrez, printed at Parma,
1782, in 8vo ; and Mierman’s Collection, publifhed at
the Hague, 176
PER, 707
Art of Ma-
Sect. I. Art of Making Paper in Europe,
To give a concife view of this fubjedt, it will be
neceffary to proceed with all the important parts of
the operation in their order. g
The feledtion of the rags, is the arranging of them The feleo-
into different lots, according to their quality and totionofrags.
the demand of the paper-mill. In general this felec-
tion is very much neglected : The degrees of finenefa
and whitenefs, diftinguifhed with little care, are thought
to be the only objects of importance ; whereas the
hardnefs and foftnefs, the being more or lefs worn, arc
much more effential in this feledlioa. It is certain,
that a mixture of foft and hard rags occafions much
more lofs in the trituration than a difference in point
of finenefs or of colour. This exafrnefs in the (elec¬
tion is flill more neceffary where cylinders are ufed
inftead of mallets. We cannot do better than to give
the method praitifed in Holland as worthy of imita¬
tion.
They begin by a general reparation of the rags into
four lots ; fuperfine, fine, middle, and coarfe. Thefc
lots are given to feledtors, who fubdivide each of them
into five chefts. They have befides a bench, on which
is fixed vertically a hook, and a piece of fcythe which
is terminated by a crooked point.
The perfon, for example, who has the charge of
the fine lot, puts into one of the chefts the hard rags,
or thofe which are little ufed, into another the foft,
into a third the dirty, into a fourth thofe which are
Hitched or hemmed, and, finally, into the fifth the fu¬
perfine rags which happen to be among the fine.
After this procefs, the women who have the charge
of it are at extreme pairs to pick out every kind of
fewing, and efpecially the knots of thread aad the
hems, by means of the hook or fcythe which they
have under their hands. They take care alio by the
fame means to cut and reduce the rags exactly by the
warp and th-e woof into fmall pieces. It is of great
advantage to cut or tear the pieces of rags by a thread,
whether it he by the warp or woof; becaufe if it is
done obliquely, many of the ends are loft in the ope¬
ration.
When they have feledtcd a certain quantity of each
of thefe fubdiviiions, they are placed on an iron grate,
which covers a large cheft where they are beat, and
otherwife turned, till the filth and duft pais through
the bars of the grate and fall into the cheft.
The number of lots in the feleHion of rags muft be
proportioned to the mafs from which the (election is
made, and to the kinds of paper produced by the mill.
Some mills, the work of which is confiderable, make
nine lots of their rags, five of which refpeft the fine-
nefs, and the reft the cleannefs and the colour. In
ordinary mills there are only four lots, and in fome
two.
We have already obferved, that the feledlion which
regards the hardnefa of the materials is the moft elfen-
tial ; becaufe it is of great importance to obtain fluff
compofed of equal parts, and without any lofs. But
it is neceftary to add, that the finenefs and beauty of
the paper depend in fome cafes on a feledtion not ri¬
gorous. Thus, tor example, it is of great fervice to
. 4 U 2 allow
7osr p a i
Art of Ma-allow the middle to retain fume part of the fine, and
Uine Paper ^ filie f051!e part 0f the faperfine ; for without this
in Europe.^ the inferior kind3 0f paper can never be of great va-
v *' lue. The moft common fault is to mix the rags of
the inferior lots with the fuperior; which, though it
augments the quantity of paper, is extremely injurious
to the quality. It does much better to mix part of
the fuperior lots with the inferior. It ;s the want of
attention to this mixture which makes ibme paper-
mills excel in the fuperior forts of paper, while the
inferior kinds are of a very bad quality.
The feleclion of rags being made with exa&nefs,
however, ami the lots being fermented and triturated
feparately, the mixture may be made with much Lrre t-
w advantage when they are both ic .uced to ftuff. al¬
ways taking care that it be in the fame proportion as
5^ it were in the flate of rags, and only in the manner
which we juil now mentioned ; for the inferior forts
gain more in beauty and quality by this mixture than
is loft in ftuff; whereas if the line ftuff receives a cer¬
tain quantity of the inferior, the papei is more da¬
maged in its value than mere .fed in quantity. In tins
manner the intereft of the manufafturer, as in all cafes,
is intimately connected with the goodnefs of his com-
o modities. .
The walk* In fome mills the place for fermentation is divided
ing and fer- into two parts, one of which ferves for wafting away
mentation ^ fi!th from t})e ragS. After allowing them to fteep
for fome time in a large ftone vat, they ftir them, and
pour in freft water till the impurities connect'd with
the rags run over. When they are as clean as they
pofiibiy can be made by this kind of wafting, they
are laid in a heap to putrefy. In this condition they
experience a degree of fermentation, which is. firft dit-
covered by a mouldinefs of the different pieces of
cloth. Afterwards the mafs grows warm ; and then
it is of great confequence to attend to the progrefs of
this heat, in order to moderate its effe&s : for this
purpofe, the middle.of the heap, where the fermenta¬
tion is llrongelt, is turned out, and vice verfa. In
mills where mallets are uied, the piitretadfion is ca,-
ried to a great height, which is frequently attended
with two inconveniences. The firft is, that a part of
the rags is reduced to an earthy fubffance, whi-h is
found in great abundance about the cutting-table, as
we Ihall afterwards have occafion to fee. But belides
this walle, »xcefiive fermentation makes the ftuft in¬
capable of fuftaining the a&ion of the mallets till it is
equally pounded. A paper made from ftuff too hard
and too little fermented, is coarfe and ill compadted ;
that made from rags too much fermented is compofed
of fibres without foftntfs and without ffiength.
The fecond inconvemency is, that the rags turn
s>reafv by too much fermentation, and of confequence
it is very difficult to feparate and reduce them by ad
the waftings of the trituration.
We ftall not deferibe the form of the place for fer¬
mentation, becaufe in different paper-works thefe places
are of different eonftruclions : it is fufficient to fay,
that they are all placed in low fituations and made
very clofe. The felefted rags are placed in them in
heaps, and watered from time to time to bring on tne
fermentation. Jn different paper-mills they pra&ife
different methods in the putrefaction of their rags.
In certain provinces in France, they lay in the place
E R. Sea.I.
for putrefaftion a heap equivalent to what the mill Art of Mj-
can triturate in a month. When this is equally and
fufficiently moiltened by means of moveable pipes, ~^ro‘u h
they cover it with an old heap, which has Iain a
month in a ftate of fermentation. When this old heap
is exhaulltd by the mill, the new one becomes a co¬
vering to another, and fo on. Fiom this detail it is
eafy to perceive, that theie muft be near three weeks
difference of putrefadlion in the fame heap, and alfo
that in this method there is no allowance for thofe fea-
fons in which the fermentation advances mure ra-
pidly.
In general the putref .dtion goes on more (lowly in
proportion to the finenefs of the rags. But when,
on any occafion, it advances more rapidly thin the
demand from the mill, the rags are turned over and
watered, 10 Hop the fermentation and prevent the bad
eft'e&s.
All the inconveniences attending the excefs of pu¬
trefaction are remedied in Holland by machines which
tricurate the rags without having recourfe to it ; and
their fuccefs in this manner of preparing the fluff has
attrafted the notice of the French artifts, fome of
whom have adopted with advantage the Dutch ma¬
chinery.
Meanwhile, it is poffible to carry the method of pu¬
trefaction to much greater perfedlion ; and feveral ma¬
nufacturers have made attempts fo well concerted, as to
deferve the attention of thofe who ftudy the fubjedt.
In.the neighbourhood of Bruffels fome paper-manu-
fafturers, who have conllrufted their mills after the
Dutch plan, have ftiil found it neceffary to putrefy
their rags ; but, at the fame time, they have an excel¬
lent method for moderating the effedts of this putre-
fadtion. In the great galleries connedted with the
buildings of the paper-mill, they have conftrudted a
continuation of cheits, capable each of them of con¬
taining a certain quantity of rags ; for example, the
quantity which the cylinder can triturate in one day.
The number of cheits is equal to the number of days
which the rags in any feafon require for putrefadtiun;
and the number adtualiy employed is greater or lets ac¬
cording to the feafon. In profecuting this plan, they
lay a he*p of rags in one cheft, as often as they take
one from another. It ftould alio be obfervtd, that,
for the fake of the fermentation, the rags are firft
moiftened in a large hollow itone before they are ar¬
ranged into the chefts.
The peculiar advantages of this method are, the
equal fermentation of the rags, wuthout any part of
them being weakened ; great cafe in wafting them ;
and it is even pretended, that a Itfs degree of fermen¬
tation renders the impurities and the difcoloured parts
both of hemp and linen more foluble, and confequently
the ftuff of a purer white. 10
When the rags are reduced to a proper ftate of pu- Cutting-
trefa&ion, they are carried to the cutting table, whichtable-
is placed on folid treffels, and inclofed on three files
to contain the rags cut on it. Before the table is fix¬
ed vertically a part of the blade of a fey the, the edge
of which is turned from the operator. This workman,
in a fituation rather elevated, takes from the left fide
a handful of the putrefied rags, and arranging them the
long way, gives them a gentle twift, preffee the half-
formed rope againft the blade of the feythe, and, in
Se&. r.
A P
E R.
709
Art of Ma
king I’aj'er
in fc.urope.
Ae manner offawmg.cut. it into three orfour pieces hty ^tfmenme^ro.tded the foft be
which he throws to the right fide of _ ■ • fomewhat later into the engine.  y 
this operation the rag, lofe part of thenrfflth. nnd Thc .„e tlnt part of the mill wh.ch pe,forms ,,
Mills for
tnturating
the rags.
;;^td by to°
““wh^here been fobmitted to al, the for,
going operations, they are m a condition to be re
?ed into a fibrous ftufF, of which the paper is made.
To obtain thi, ftuff, mills are eonftrnaed on d.feent
rsrin-inles rrhofe which have been ufed lor a long
C ter all Europe, and which by a ftatement
the Encyolopedit M'thodiqm, pubhlhed at 1 am in 7 9>
are ftiu Ufed in France, arc mills w.th mallet.. But
the mills invented by the Dutch, and ufed m the
newtiat later into tuc engine.
The engine is that part of the mill wmch performs
the whole aftion of reducing the rags to paue, 01’a\)f a piper,
it may he termed, of trituration, i he number o. the
engines depend on the extent of the paper-work, on
the force of water, or on the conftruaion of the ma-
ClUJt will afford a fufficient idea of the work, to give
in detail a defeription of the different parts of the en-
gine. See Plate CCCLXXV1. Figure i.reprefents tne
chapiter which covers the roller. It is four feet three
inches in length, and two feet eight inches m brea it u
. Dutch, and ufed in the wfth two openings run-
neighbouring provinces, and, excepting one 'n * * crofswlfe, x, 2, 3* 4» iRto which eat^r^he ch*Atl
are. mili8 W ta cy;, fio-ures 6. and 7- 5 tHe hrft, made of
thefe, the mallets
are raifed fey notches fixed at convenient diftances in
a large arculav beam of wood. The teeth fixed on
the end of the mallet fall into a corrtfpondmg gap
made the whole breadth of the plate, and the ftrokes
are repeated till the rags are reduced to a proper con-
fiftency. On fupplying the vat with water, and carry¬
ing off all the impurities, the operat.on is nearly fiou-
lar to that in the mills with cylun'ers.
Such is the nature of what m ay be called the 0 c
mthod of making paper. It was proper to fpeak of this
old method, becaufe at one time, and tnat not very
dlftant, it univerfaliy prevaile 1. That it was inferior
ning croiswue, 1, a, , r r, 1 nc
or wicker-frames, figures 6. and 7.; the hrft, mad or
wire-doth, enters into the opening 3 and 4 ; tae ie-
cond, made of hair-cloth, and ftrengthened with feve-
ral crofs-bars of wood, enters into the opening 1, ...
ferves to retain the fmall pieces of rags which efcaps
through the fir ft, and prevents them from falling into
the dalot or hole-fcupptr, tig. 2. _ I ms hole-fcuppv
is placed aerofs the vat of the engine, parat.el to cue
axle of the roller ; the part 9 enters into the notch c
of the chapiter; and the extremity h enters into the
opening k of the tunnel hi (fig. 3:)? ^ which means
the water dathed through the wicker-frames by eve-
rv revolution of the roller, is precipitated into the
7 , s-1 _ hplnw the en rme. 1 he
dilladt, it univerfally prevuiiel. Ihrt ttwJ.i.OTor , bfc. itfelf helcnv the e».p«. Fhe
,0 that now in praa.ee, f^ems very evident , and that ^ ^ ^ reprefcnt the roller m perfpec-
the rotting of the^rags war peculiarly a rnrJ- c 8 ; ^ ,9 and in profile. It is two feet in oia
be denied, a. **»*'«% ? h«l^i ‘ ”
n'eitheTbe fo 'Kgdw'ro ^ M «h«jhich i.
made in the common way without putvetaa.on, I e
only kind of paper that, with any propriety, couk.
be made from putrefied ftuff, was pafteboard ; but we
^ „ , , .t   a naner-makers in
12
The duller
are informed by the molt intelligent paper-makers m
Britain, that they feldom or never even putrefy ^
ta rs or ropes of which pafteboard is ma le. Itudl
now be reejuifite to ftate the method prefectly m prac¬
tice, with the impiovements lately mane m the ar
The duller is made in the form of a cylinder, four
‘and an half feet in diameter, and five feet in kngt .
It is altogether covered with a wire net, and put in
motion by its connection with feme part o tne ma
chinerv. A convenient quantity of rags before toe
feledion are indofed in the dufter, and the rapidity c
its motion feparates the duft from them, and forces it
through the wire. It is of confioerable aovantage to
nfe the dufter before felcftion, as it makes tnat opera¬
tion left, pernicious to the fcleftois.
The felcaion is performed much m the Came man¬
ner as we have already deferibed ; only it is found
more convenient to have the tables for cutting oft the
knots and Hitching, and for forming them into a pro¬
per ftiape, in the fame place w.th the cutting table.
The furface both of thefe and of the cutting table is
compofed of a wire net, which m every part of the
operation allows the remaining dull and refufe of t\.ry
Irin/' tn efcane. . •
The rags, without i ny kind of putrefadion, are again
carried from the catting table back to the c.utter, aic
from thence to the engine, where, in geneial, they a -
in The fpace of fix hours reduced to the ftnft proper
for making paper. The hard and foft o: the fame qua-
meter, and two feet three inches m length. I he
trundle head A is 16 inches in diameter, about half
as much in length, and furnished w.th ieven fpmd es
of iron, which are ferewed to the end of the trundle
head, made alfo of iron. The teeth or blades of the
roller are 27 in number, and fitted ftrongly into the
wood which compofes its body, parallel to its axis.
Thev are of that thicknefs as to leave as much empty
f .ace as they occupy. The exterior face of each of
the blades fhould be made round, and divided into two
parts, with a longitudinal motion, as ip the profile
a ' The'fxis AB of the rollerffig.q- and 9.) has two parts
perfectly rounded in A and in B, winch perform t.ie
office of pivots. Thefe pivots refi m the foexets A
and B (fig. B.) in the middle of the levers OAH and
OuH 1 It is bv means of thefe levers tnat they raife
« pi«ru,e, or lower the axis of the roller, and itt .t
cxaiflv. and in a parallel manner to the pate i 1 e
l b,- MVe c.) are made of fteel cut into channels,
,0 correfpond with the. blade, of
the roller. Their channels are not perpendicular, but
oblioue ; and there are tvs o rows of them, jx,x d, con-
fifting of feven or eight blades each on one phte.--
Thofe in **, for the purpoie of changing the pla e,
He in an oppofite diredion to thofe in x d. ^ I he le¬
vers are kept in their pofition near the vat by bands of
iron, MN and mn ; between which they are made
hioher or lo ver by the cogged wheel H, wn.ch fup-
ports one of the extremities. Wedges N « areTAe-
Ufe employed to fix the levers at a convenient height
above the plates. Finally, every vat is fupphe^ with
a finall ilide-door, which is o^fionaliy mied to carry
‘2i -
, x.4
w oi king
of the en¬
gine.
S- °f *he fcuPPers o^wood ^of bra^s and hopper.
   ,rYlS- 5\ls Placfd in vat %. 8.; the roller
(hg. 4.) is placed above It in fuch a manner that
the pivots reft in the fockets of the levers ; the fcup-
per (hg. 2.) and the chapiter are difpofed in the
manner above-mentioned. The vat is charged with
a proper quantity of rags, and frefh water is admit-
tf<T hy a fpigot placed at one of the corners. In
this fituation, when the engine is put in motion, the
roller turning upon its axis draws the water and the
rags by the leaft inclined plane, and making them pafs
bet ween its blades and the channels of the plate,
caihes them again ft the chapiter and the wicker-
Jxames; and, in ftiort, part of them falls back into
the vat, and returns into the circulation. * The caufe
ot this circulation is evidently the continual void oc-
cauoned by the movement of the roller on the one
hde, and the return of the water and the ftuff on the
other.
As all the rags are not thrown towards the part
of the chapiter, from whence they might fall back
into the vat, but a part of them to a greater diftance ;
it is neceflary to have the wicker-frames formerly de-
Icnbed, not only to prevent their lofs, but to allow the
duty water to efcape. The fpigot at the corner of
the vac continually fupplies this wafte of water. This
operation would be fufficient to whiten the rags, al¬
though the rollers were raifed confiderably from the
plate ; and therefore the force and a&ion of the rol¬
lers reducing them to ftuff mull be much more effec¬
tual It> requires great fldll to condmft the engine,
whether it be with regard to the firft quantity, to the
proper time for adding the fofter rags, to the aurr-
menting or diminilhing the water in proportion to the
trituration ; or, finally, to knowing exa&ly when the
ium 13 reduced to a proper conliftency.
In the paper-manufatftory at Montargis, it was at¬
tempted to introduce rollers of the greateft ftrength
and the leaft weight pofiible, in order to give them the
greater raptdity ; but the experiment did not fucceed :
the rollers of prodigious rapidity were found to pro¬
duce ftuff neither in greater quantity nor of fuperior
quality. . I he moll experienced artifts have eftablifhed
a proportion between the motion of the roller and the
greater or left refiftance of the rags. And the Dutch,
who have arrived at very great perfedion in this art,
have followed a method totally different from that
practifed at Montargis. A roller in Holland com¬
plete in all its parts weighs nearly 30 hundred weieht;
and they find this neceffary for cutting the rags, efpe-
. y the.y have not been putrefied In proooition-
Jng the rapidity to the refiftance, they have alio difeo-
vered, that a flow motion is preferable to a rapid one.
I he rollers at Saardom, by calculation made from the
dilierent parts of the machinery, make about 68 revo-
i.t 0,15 m a minute ; thofe at Montargis about 166.—
In rioliand, too, this trituration of the rags is divided
a T dl j-lr61 °Pcrations> performed by rollers con-
flrucled on different principles : the firft of them, for
ouctmg the rags and preparing for the other, is furnifh-
ed with blades of fteel without any moifture, and with
a coniiderable fpace between them ; the fecond, in¬
tended to reduce the ftuff to the proper confiftency,
has a greater number of blades, compoied of » mixture
--- The mills with rollers are in Art of Ma.
try idpect fupenor to thofe formerly in ufe with l>aPer
mallets. Two Dutch rollers of the conitruaion wem £uiope-
have juft now deferibed will prepare as much ftuff in
the fame time as 24 mallets; they require infinitely
lefs room ; they do it without putrefaaion, and as they
'-e. and with left water, they occahon
much lefs wafte of the ftuff.
When the ftuff is brought to perfeaion, it is con¬
veyed into a general repofitory, which fupplies the vat
from which the fheets of paper are formed. This vat
is mane of wood, and generally about five feet in dia¬
meter, and two and an half in depth. It is kept in
temperature by means of a grate introduced by a hole
and furrounded on the infide of the vat with a cafe of
copper. For fuel to this grate, they ufe charcoal or
wood ; and, frequently, to prevent fmoke, the wall of
tne building comes rn contacft with one part of the
vat, and the fire- has no communication with the place
where they make the paper. r
• -Fvre7-V3t 18 furninied on the upper part with planks,
mclofed inwards, and even railed in with wood, to pre¬
vent any of the ftuff from running over in the opera¬
tion. Acroft the vat is a plank which they call the
pierced with holes at one of the extremities,
a rrireft'nff on the Planks which furround the vat.
1 he forms or moulds are compofed of wire-cloth,
and a moveable frame. It is with thefe that they
fetch up the ftuff from the vat, in order to form the
flieets of paper. The fides of the form are made of
oak, which is previoufly fteeped in water, and other-
wile prepared to prevent warping. The wire-cloth is
mace larger than the fheet of paper, and the excefs of
it on all hdes is covered with a moveable frame. This
frame is neceffary to retain the ftuff of which the pa¬
per is made on the cloth ; and it mull be exactly adapt¬
ed to the form, otherwife'the edges of the paper will
be ragged and badly finiihed. The wire-cloth of the
form is varied in proportion to the finenefs of the pa¬
per and the nature of the ftuff.
x he felts are pieces of woollen cloth fpread over
every fheet of paper, and upon which the fheets are
aid, to detach them from the form, to prevent them
from adhering together, to imbibe part of the water
with which the ftuff is charged, and to tranfmit the
whole of it when placed under the adion of the prefs
I he two hdes of the felt are differently raifed : that
°f which the hair is longeft is applied to the fheeta
which are laid down ; and any alteration of this difpo-
iition would produce a change in the texture of the
paper The ftuff of which the felts are made fliould
be xumciently ftrong, in order that it may be ftretched
exactly on the fheets without forming into folds ; and,
at the lame time, fufficiently pliant to yield in every
direction without injury to the wet paper. As the
felts have to refill the reiterated efforts of the prefs it
appears neceflary that the warp be very ftrong,’of
combed wool, and well twitted. On the other hand,
as they have to imbibe a certain quantity of water,
and to return it, it is neceffary that the woof be of
carded wool, and drawn out into a flack thread—
Ifieie are the utenfils, together with the prels, which
are uied in the apartment where the fheets of paper are
The vat beiug furnilhed with a fufficient quantity ofTh-e fahrl*
r j cation ot
iluiF paper*
is
Se&. I* ^ ^
Art of Ma-;(luff and of water, two Inftruments are employed to
king Paper mjx . the one of which is a hmple pole, and the
in Europe. other g je arrned with a piece of board, rounded and
full of holes. This operation in repeated as often as
the fluff falls to the bottom. In the principal writing
mills in England, they ufe for this purpofe what is
called a hog, which is a machine within the vat that,
bv means of a fmall wheel on the outfide, is made to
turn conftantlv round, and keep the fluff in perpetual
motion. When the Huff and water are properly mix¬
ed, it is eafy to perceive whether the previous operations
have been complete. When the fluff floats elefe, and in
regular flakes, it is a proof that it has been well tritu¬
rated ; and the parts of the rags which have efcaped
the rollers alfo appear.
After this operation the workman taxes one ot the
forms, furnifhed with its frame, by the midd.e of the
fhort Tides, and fixing the frame round the wire-cloth
with his thumbs, he plunges it obliquely four or five
inches into the vat, beginning by the long fide, which
is nefereft to him. After the mmemon he raiks
it to a level: by thefe movements he fetches up on the
form a fufficient quantity of fluff ; and as foon as the
form is raifed the water efcapes through the wire-
cloth, and the fuperfluity of the fluff over the fides
of the frame. The fibrous parts of the fluff arrange
themfelves regularly on the wire-cloth of the form,
not only in proportion as the water efcapes, but alio
as the workman favours this effett by gently (baking
the form. Afterwards, having placed the form on a
piece of board, the workman takes off the frame or
deckle, and glides this form towards the coucher ; who,
having pi evioufly laid his felt, places it with his left
hand in an inclined fituation, on a plank fixed on the
edge of the vat, and full of holes. During this ope¬
ration the workman applies his frame, and begins a fe-
ednd (beet. The coucher feizes this, inftant, takes
with his left hand the form, now fufficiently dry, and
laying the (beet of paper upon the felt, returns tne
form by gliding it along the trapan of the vat.
They proceed in this manner, laying alternately a
fheet and a felt, till they have made fix quires of pa¬
per, which is called a poji ; and this they do with fuch
fwiftnefs, that, in many forts of paper, two men make
upwards of 20 pofts in a day. When the laff (fleet of
the poft is covered with the laft felt, the woikmen
about the vat unite together and fubmit the whole
heap to the aftion of the prefs. They begin at jirft
to prefs it with a middling lever, and aiterwards with
a lever about fifteen feet in length. After this opera¬
tion another perfon feparates the (beets of paper from
the felts, laying them in a heap ; and feveral of thefe
heaps collefted together are again put under the
^The fluff which forms a (heet of paper is received,
as we have already faid, on a form made of wire-clotn,
which is more or lefs fine in proportion to the fluff,
and furrounded with a wooden frame, and fupported in
the middle by many crofs bars of wood. In confe-
quence of this conftruaion, it is eafy to perceive, that
the (heet of paper will take and preferve the impref-
fions of all the pieces which compefe the form, and of
the empty fpaces between them.
The traces of the wire-cloth are evidently perceived
cn the fide of the (heet which was attached to the
16
Grain of
paper.
PER.
form, and on the oppofite fide they form an affem-
blage of parallel and rounded rifings. As in the pa- in Europe,
per which is raoff highly finifhed the regularity ot theie
irr.preffions is ftill vifible, it is evident that all the ope¬
rations to which it is fubmitted have chiefly in view
to foften thefe impreflions without deftroying them.
It is of confequence, therefore, to attend to the com¬
bination of labour which operates on thefe impreffions.
The coucher, in turning the form on the felt, flattens
a little the rounded eminences which are in relievo on
one of the furfaces, and occaflons at the fame time the
hollow places made by the wire-cloth to be partly idl¬
ed up. Meanwhile the effort which is made in de¬
taching the form, produces an infinite number of fmall
hairs on every protuberant part of the (heet.
Under the a&ion of the prefs, firft with the felts and
then without them, the perfefting of the grain of pa¬
per ftill goes on. The veftiges of the protuberances
made by the wires are altogether flattened, and of con¬
fequence the hollows oppoflte to them difappear alfo |
but the traces formed by the interftices of the wire, in
confequence of their thicknefs, appear on both flues*
and are rounded by the pi'efs.
The rifings traced on each fide of the paper, and
which can be difeovered by the eye on that which is
mod highly finilhed, form what is called the grain of
paper. The different operations ought to foften but
not deftroy it ; which is effedually done by employ¬
ing the hammer. This grain appears in the Dutch
paper ; which is a fufficient proof, that though they
have brought this part of the art to the greateft per-
feaion, they have not employed hammers, but more
fimple and ingenious means. The grain of paper is
often disfigured by the felts when they are too much
ufed, or when the wool does not cover the thiead.
In this cafe, when the paper is fubmitted to the prefs,
it takes the additional traces of the warp and the woof*
and compofes a furface extremely irregular.
The paper, the grain of which is highly foftened,
is much fitter for the purpofes of writing than that
which is fmoothed by the hammer t on the other
hand, a coarfe and unequal grain very much oppofes
the movements of the pen ; as that which is beat ren¬
ders them very uncertain. 1 he art of making paper,
therefore, (hould confift in preferving, and at the fame
time in highly foftening, the grain : the Dutch have
carried this to the highefl perfedlion- T7
The exchange fucceeds the operation laft defenbed. Exchange
It is conduced in a hall contiguous to the vat, fupplied
with feverai preffes, and with a long table. The
workman arranges on this table the paper, newly fa¬
bricated, into heaps ; each heap containing eight or
ten of thofe laft under the prefs, kept feparate by a
woollen felt. The prefs is large enough to receive
two of them at once, placed the one at the other’s fide.
When the compreffion is judged fufficient, the heaps
of paper are carried back to the table, and the whole
turned (heet by (heet, in fuch a manner that the fur-
face of every (heet is expofed to a new one ; and
in this fituation they are again brought under the
prefs. It is in conducing thefe two operations feme-
times to four or five times, or as often as the nature
of the paper requires, that the perfeftion of the Dutch
plan confifts. If the fluff be fine, or the paper flen»
der, the exchange k lefs frequently repeated. In this
’ operatic©
712
Art of Ma¬
king- Paper
in Europe.
P
18
Of the dry¬
ing of pa¬
per.
operation it is neceffary to alter the fituation of the
heaps, with regard to one another, every time they
_ are put under the prtfs ; and alfo, as the heaps are
higheft toward the middle, to place fmall pieces of
felt at the extremities, in order to bring every part
of them under an equal preffure. A Angle man with
four or five prefies may exchange all the paper produ¬
ced by two vats, provided the previous prefiing at the
vats be well performed. The work of the exchange
generally lafts about two days on a given quantity of
paper.
When the paper has undergone thefe operations, it is
not only foftened in the furface, but better felted, arid
rendered more pliant in the interior parts of the (luff.
In Ihort, a great part of the water which it had im¬
bibed in the operation of the vat is diffipated. By
the felting of paper is underfiood the approximation
of the fibres of the duff, and their adhering more clofe-
ly together. The paper is felted in proportion as the
water efcapes ; and this effedt is produced by the ma¬
nagement and reiterated a<3ion of the prefs. Were it
net for the gradual operation of the prefs, the paper
would he porous and compofed of filaments adhering
clofely together. The fupenoiity of the Dutch over
the French paper depends almolt entirely on this ope-
TOtion.
If the (heets of paper are found to adhere together,
it is a proof that the hufinefs of the prefs has been
badly conduced. To avoid this inconveniency, it is
Jieceflary to bring down the prefs at firft gently, and
by degrees with greater force, and to raife it as fud-
denly as pofiible. By this means the water, which is
impelled to the fides of the heaps, and which has not
yet cfcaped, returns to the centre ; the fheets are
equally dry, and the operation executed without diffi¬
culty.
According to the ftate of drynefs in which the pa¬
per it found when it comes from the apartment of the
vat, it is either prefied before or after the firft ex¬
change. The operation of the prefs fhould be reitera¬
ted and managed with greet care ; otherwife, in the
foft ftate of the paper, there is a danger that its grain
and tranfparency be totally deftroyed. Another efien-
tial principle to the fuccefs of the exchange is, that
the grain of the paper be originally well raifed. For
this pur pole the wire-cloth of the Dutch forms is com¬
pofed of a rounder wire than thofe ufed in France, by
which they gain the greateft degree of tranfparency,
and are in no danger of deftioying the grain. Befides
this, che Dutch take care to proportion the wires even
where the forms are equal to the thicknefs of the pa¬
per.
/'Imoft every kind of paper is confiderably improved
by the exchange, and receives a degree of perfeftion
which renders it more agreeable in the ufe. But it is
needfary to obferve at the fame time, that all papers
are not equally fufceptible of this melioration ; on the
contrary, if the {tuff be unequal, dry, or weakened
by the deftru&ion of the fine parts, it acquires no-
thing ot that luftre and foftnefs, and appearance cf
vervet, which the exchange gives to ftuff properly pre¬
pared.
. The fheds for drying the paper are in the neigh¬
bourhood of the paper-mill ; and are furnifhed with a
vaft number of cords, on which they hancr the flieets
N° 258. *
P E R- Sea.l,
both before and after the fixing. The fheds are fur-Art of Ma!
rounded with moveable lattices, to admit a quantity !<ir!E Paper
of air fufficient for drying the paper. The cords of"' EuroPe*
the {bed are ftretched as much as poffible ; and the'
paper, four or five Iheets of it together, is placed on
them by means of a wooden inftrument refembling a
pick ax. 1 he principal difficulty in drying the paper,
confifts in gradually admitting the external air, and in
preventing the cords from imbibing moifture. With
regard to the firft of thefe, the Dutch ufe very low
fheds, and conftruft their lattices with great exa&nefs.
By this means the Dutch paper is dried equally, and
is extremely fupple before the fixing. They prevent
the cords from imbibing the water by covering them
with wax. In ufing fuch cords, the moifture does not
continue in the line of contadf between the paper and
the c®rd, which prevents the fheet from ftretching in
that particular place by its weight, and from the folds
which the moifture in the fubfequent operations might
occafion. The Dutch alfo employ cords of confider-
alle thicknefs, and place fewer of them under the
fheets ; by which means they diminilh the points of
contaft, and give a freer and more equal circulation to
the j»ir. |
The fixe for paper is made of the fhreds and pair-Of the
mgs got from the tanners, curriers, and parchment-flzin£
makers. All the putrefied parts and the lime are care-pai)er*
fully feparated from them, and they are inclofed into
a kind of bafket, and let down by a rope and pully
into the cauldron. This is a late invention, and ferves
two valuable purpofts. It makes it eafy to draw out
the pieces of leather when the fixe is cxtra&ed from
them by boiling, or eafy to return them into the boiler
if the operation be not complete. When the fuhftance
is fufficiently extraffed, it is allowed to fettle for fome
time ; and it is twice filtered before it is put into the
vdTcl into which they dip the paper.
Immediately before the operation, a certain quantity
of alum is added to the fixe. The workman takes a
handful of the ftieets, fmoothed and rendered as fupple
as poffible, in his left hand, dips then, into the veftld,
and holds them feparatc with his right, that they may
equally imbibe the fixe. After holding them above
the veffel for a ftiort fpace of time, he feizes on the
other fide with his right hand, and again dips them
iniO the veffel. When ne has finilhed ten or a dozen
of theie handfuls, they are fuhmitted to the aftion of
the prefs. i he fuperfluous fixe is carried back to the
veftel by means of a fmail pipe. The veffel in which
the paper is fixed is made of copper, and furnifhed with
a grate, to give the fixe when neceflury a due tempe¬
rature ; and a piece of thin board or felt is placed
between every handful as they are laid on the table of
the prefs.
The Dutch are very careful in fixing their paper to
have every fheet in the fame handful of equal drynefs;
becaufe it is found that the dry iheets imbibe the fixe
more flowly than thofe which retain fome degree of
moifture. They begin by fele&ing the in the
dryjng-houfe; and after having made them fupple, and
having deftroyed the adherence between the Iheets,
they reparate them into handfuls in proportion to the
drynefs, each of them containing that number which
they can dip at one time. Befides this precaution,
they take care to apply two {beets of brown paper of
au
Sefl. I.
Art of Ma-an equal fize to every handful.
in'jiuro'e* ^rm, an^ already fized, is of ufe to fupport the
As foon as the paper is fized, it is the pra&ice of
fome paper mills to carry it immediately to the drying
houfe, and hang it before it cools fheet by Iheet on the
cords. The paper, unlefs particular attention be paid
to the lattices of the drying-houfe, is apt to dry too
fait, whereby a gre.-t part of the iize goes olf in eva¬
poration ; or, if too flow, it falls to the ground. The
Dutch drying-houfes are the bell to prevent thefe in¬
conveniences :—But the exchange after the fizing,
which is generally pradtifed in Holland, is the bed
remedy. They begin this operation on the handfuls
of paper, either while they are ftill hot, or otherwife
&s they find it convenient. But, after the exchange,
they are careful to allow the heaps to be altogether
cold before they are fuhrrJtted to the prefs. Without
this precaution, the fize would either be wholly fquee-
xed out by the prefs of the exchange, or the furfaceof
the paper become very irregular. It is of confequence
that the paper, ftill warm from the fizing, grow gra¬
dually firm, under the operation of the exchange, in
proportion as it cools. By this method it receives that
varnilh which is afterwards brought to perfe&ion un¬
der the prefs, and in which the excellency of the paper
either for writing or drawing chiefly confifts. It is
in confequence of the exchanging and prefiing that
the Dutch paper is foft and equal, and that the fize
penetrates into the body of it, and is extended equally
over its furface.
The exchange after the fizing ought to be conduc¬
ted with the greateft (kill and attention, becaufe the
grain of the paper then receives imprelfions which can
never he eradicated. When the fized paper is alfo ex
changed, it is pofiible to hang more flieets together on
the cords of the drying-houfe. The paper dries better
in this condition, and the fize is preferved without any
fenfible wafte, becaufe the Iheets of paper mutually pre¬
vent the rapid operation of the external air. And as
the fize has already penetrated into the paper, and is
fixed on the furface the infenfible progrefs of a well
conducted drying houfe renders all the good effects
more perfeft in proportion as it is flowly dried.
If to thefe confiderations he added the damage done
to the paper in drying it immediately after the prefs
of the fizing room, whether it be done in raifing the
hairs by feparating the flieets, or in cracking the fur¬
face, it is evident that the trouble of the fecond ex¬
change is infinitely overpaid by the advantage.
When the paper is fufficiently dry, it is carried to the
finifhing room, where it is prefled, fele&ed, examined,
folded, made up into quires, and finally into reams.—
It is here put twice under the prefs ; firft, when it is
at its full fize, and fecondly, after it is folded.
The principal labour of this place confifts in affort-
ing the paper into different lots, according to its qua¬
lity and faults ; after which it is made up into quires.
The perfon who does this muft poiTefs great ikill, and
be capable of great attention, becaufe he a6ls as a
check on thofe who feparated the paper into different
lots. He takes the fiieets with his right hand, folds
them, examines them, lays them over his left arm till
he has the number requifite for a quire, brings the
lides parallel to one another, and places them in heaps
under the table. An expert workman, if proper care
' Vot.XlII. Part II.
PAPER. 713
This brown paper, has been taken in afforting the lots, will finifh in this Art of Ma¬
king Paper
in I'mrope.
20
Of the fi
nilhing
Toom.
manner near 600 quires in a day.
The paper is afterwards colledled into reams of 20
quires each, and for the laft time put under the prefs,
where it is continued for iq or 12 hours, or as long
as the demand of the paper-mill will permit. 2r
A method has lately been difeovered of bleaching a new me-
the rags or ftuff, which will undoubtedly be adopted thod of
everywhere in the preparation of writing paper, Pro_
vided the expence of the procefs be not too great. or
This difeovery was made by Scheele, M, Berthollet,
and M. Chaptal. The firft of thefe illuftrious writers
communicated to the Swedifli Academy of Sciences an
Effay on Manganefe, containing a numerous feries of
experiments, intended to invetligate the nature and
properties of that fubftance. Among thefe experi¬
ments were feveral which pointed out a new ftate of
the muriatic acid, or the acid diftilled from fea-falt,
otherwife known under the name of the acid or Jpirit
hf fea-Jalt. This ftate of the muriatic acid was pro¬
duced by Mr Scheele, in confequence of putting the
faid acid into a retort or diftilltng veffel, along with
the above-mentioned fubftance called manganefe, and
diftilling over the acid into a proper receiver; it was
found to have changed its nature and properties in a
very remarkable manner, while at the fame time the
manganefe remaining in the retort had fuffered a very
material alteration.
To the new ftate of the acid thus produced, in con¬
fequence of certain theoretic ideas which Mr Scheele
entertained refpefting the mutual aftion of the original
muriatic acid and the manganefe on each other during
the procefs of diftillation, he gave the name of deph/o-
gijlicated muriatic acid. Since the time of this original
difeovery, in confequence of certain changes which
have occurred in the theory or philofophy of chemi-
ftry, this new ftate of the acid of fea-falt has been
called the oxygenated muriatic acid. Among many other
properties of it difeovered by Mr Scheele, the moft re¬
markable was, that it deftroyed the colour of every vege¬
table fubftance which was expofed to its action; or, in
other words, it bleached them; or, in the language of
the dyers, it difeharged their colours ; that is to fay,
whatever happened to be the colour of any vegetable
body that was fubmitted to the action of the oxyge¬
nated or dephiogifticated muriatic acid, it always be¬
came white, or loft its colouring matter.
In the year 1786, Dr Bedoes, now profeffor of che-
miftry in the univerfity of Oxford, publilhed an Eng-
lifh tranfiaticn of the Chemical Effays of Mr Scheele ;
and thereby made known to the chemifts of Great
Britain the power of the oxygenated or dephiogiftica¬
ted muriatic acid, to bleach or whiten vegetable fub-
ftances, or to difeharge or decompofe their colours.
But M. Berthollet, a celebrated chemift in France, and
one of the members of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, appears to have been the firft who thought of
rendering the above recited difeovery fubfervient to
the purpofes of manufadlure.
In 17H9, he publilhed in the Annales de Chimie an
effay calculated entirely for the ufe of manufadlurers,
by being divefted of theoretic difeuflions ; of which
the title is, “ Method of bleaching linen or cotton
cloths, threads, and yarns, by means ®f oxygenated
muriatic acid, and of fome other properties of that li¬
quor which may be ufeful in manufa&ures.”
4X In
714 PAP
Art of Ma- jn fam^ work, and in tl;£ fame year, M. Chap-
Ji ng^ Paper ta| gnother French chemift, pubiiihed an account of
in Europe. . . .... 7 1 .
. fome experiments, in whicn,among many otherapphea-
tions of the oxygenated muriatic acid to purpofes ufe-
ful in the (economical arts, he gives information of
having bleached or whitened coarfe rags ufed by the
paper-makers, fo as greatly to improve the ’quality of
the paper int® whit h they were afterwards manufactu¬
red. His preparation of this bleaching liquor differs
not from Berthollet’r, which is as follows : “ Take fix
ounces of manganefe and fixteen ounces of fea-falt,
both reduced to a fine powder ; mix thefe accurately,
and introduce them into a retort or diftilling veflel :
Then take twelve ounces of oil of vitriol and eight
ounces of water, mixed together, and allowed to cool;
add thefe to the other ingredients in the retort, and
connect the retort with a caflc or receiver capable of
holding twenty feven gallons and a half of water, but
only containing twenty five gallons, which is to be im¬
pregnated with the*gas or vapour of the oxygenate!
muriatic acid; and proceed to diflillation, firft with¬
out and afterwards with afire gradually raifcd, till the
whole acid comes over.’>
Experiments have been made with this liquor both
by fome of the principal paper-makers in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh and by Meflfrs Clement and
George Taylors of Maidflone in Kent. By the for¬
mer it was found, that paper made of rags and pulp
■whitened in this manner, was fuperior to any other
made of fimilar materials, not only in colour but in
finenefs of texture. By the latter, the excellence of
the liquor was found to be fo great, that probably
having never heard of Scheele, Berthollet, andChaptal,
and conceiving themfelves to be the firft inventors of
it, they obtained a patent for its exclufive ufe, which
other manufacturers will doubt'iefs difregard. It is
not to be concealed, however, that, even with all the
precautions which can pofiibly be taken at firft, va¬
rious citcumftances of imperfedtioiv muft neceflarily re¬
main to be removed by means of farther experience,
both in the perfection of the bleaching procefs and the
ceconomy of its application to ufe ; but for the attain¬
ing of this experience a (hort time will rarely be fuf-
ficient.
iz
Writing
Jjaper.
Sect. II. Of the different Kinds of Paper.
Thu paper proper for writing fhould be without
knots, without any puts of the fluff not tritura¬
ted, without folds, and without wrinkles, of a fnpple
texture, its grain uniform and regular, foftened in the
exchange, and not deftreyed by fmocthing. The
ground of this paper muft be extremely white, or (ha¬
ded with a very light blue, which adds to its natural
fplendor. It is of great importance that it be fully
and equally fixed, otherwife the writing cannot be well,
iinifhtd, and the turnings of the letters will be very
irnperfeCt. This paper ihould be made from fluff rot
putrefied, which takes a better grain, receives more
benefit from the exchange, is more equally fixed, and
finally, is kfs fir jeCt to folds and wrinkles in the dif¬
ferent operations. To make paper peculiarly fit for
fclewriti) g. durable writin, , 1 ?r Lewis recommends the impregna¬
tion of it with aftringent materials. '■* It is obfervable
(fays he) that writings firft begin to fade or change their
*3
For dura
E R. Sea. IT.
colour on the back of the psper, where the larger Different
ftrokes have funk in, or are vifible thro’ it ; as if part of
the irony matter of the vitriol was in a more fubtik or
difiblved ftate than the reft, and funk further, on ac¬
count of its not being fully difengaged irom the acid,
or fufficiently combined with the aftringent matter of
the galls. Hence, it fhould item probable, that it the
paper was impregnated with altringeut matter, the co¬
lour of the ink would be more durable. To fee how far
this notion was well founded, 1 dipt lome paper in an
infufion of galls; and, when dry, repeated the dipping
a fecond and third time. On the paper thus prepared,
and fome that was unprepared, I wrote with different
inks; feveral of which, that the effeCts might be more
fenfible, had an over-proportion of vitriol. The wri¬
tings being expofed to the weather till the belt of the
inks on the unprepared paper had faded and changed
their colour, thofe on the prepared paper were all
found io retain their bheknefs. it is therefore re-
cormnended to the confideration of the paper-makers*,
whether a particular kind of paper might not be pre¬
pared for thofe ufes where the long duration of the
writing is of principal importance, by impregnating it
with galls «r other altringents, in iome of the opera¬
tions it paffes through before it receives the glazing;
as for inftance, by uilng an aftringent mfufion, inftead
of cofnmou water, in the laft operation, when the
matter is reduced into a pulp for being formed into
fheets. The brownilh hue which the paper receivea
from the galling, would not perhaps he any great ob-
fiacle to its ufe ; and, if the propofal ihould be
thought worthy of being carried into execution, fur¬
ther inquiries may pollibly difeover the means of ob¬
viating the imperfection, and communicating aftringen-
cy without colour.”
The paper u-fed for drawing, or for coloured maps, is Paper fit
in fome mills made from one kind of white fluff, either far draw-
fine or middling; in others, from a mixture of three or mK
four kinds of fluff of different colours. The Dutch
were not long ago alsioft wholly in pofieffion of this
manufacture. The fame qualities are necefiary in this
paper as in that for writing. The grain, however, muff
be a little more raifed, although foftened by the ex¬
change ; for, without this grain, the pencil would leave
with difficulty the traces of the objedls. Great care
is alfo neceffary in the fixing of this paper, that the
drawing be neatly performed, and alfo that the linking
of the ink or colours into the irregularities of the Hurt*
be prevented.
This paper is alfo made in greateft perfe&isn by0<ffurn|w
fluffs not rotted. Thefe take a more even glofs, and ture paper1*
are in better condition to receive all the imprellions of
the painter. It is alfo neceffary that furniture paper
be well foftened, and fubmitted to the exchange, to
take more exactly the outlines of the figures. The
, French have carried this part of the manufacture of pa¬
per to the higheit ftate of perfection. ^
The Britifh and Dutch have hud the greateft fuc- pafichoard
cefs in manufacturing pafteboard, which they make ufed in the
either from a fingie mais of fluff on the form, or from manufao
a collection of fevcral fireets pafted together. In both
cafes, the ffitets of pafteboard are made of fluff not
roUed, and triturated with rollers furnifhed with blades
of well tempered fleel. By the operation of the exr
change, and fmoothing continued tor a long time, the
Batiih-
or for
coloured
maps.
hinds of
Paper.
a7
Printing
faper.
Sect. IT. P A
Different Brltifh and DatA obtain Jolid and fmooth fluffs,
which neither break under the folds of cloth nor ad¬
here to them. The fluffs not putrefied have another
advantage in this fpecies of palleboard, namely, that
of refifling the affion of heat, which they experience
between the folds of cloth, without walling or tarnifhing,
and of confequence they may be ufed for a long time.
In England they have at lead equalled any other
nation in the manufafture of this paper ; and even
in Scotland they have arrived to fuch a degree of
perfection in this art, that great part of what they
inanufa&ure is fent into England. It requires to bo
made of a foft and equal fluff, without toids or
wrinkles, of a natural whitenefs, and w;th a fhade of
blue. It muft be fized lefs flrongly than writing paper,
but fufficiently well to give neatnefs to the characters.
The paper, thus properly prepared, yields calify to
the printing prefs, and takes a fufficient quantity of
ink- The ituff muft be without greafe, and wrought
with that degree of flownefs as to make it fprtad equal¬
ly over the form, and take a neat and regular grain ;
without this the characters will not be equally marked
in every part of the page ; and the fmalleft quantity of
greafe renders the fuzing unequal and imperfect. Some
artills with coniiderable fuccefs, both to meliorate the
grain, and to reduce the inequalities of the furface,
have fubmitted this paper to the exchange. And it
is proper to add, that a moderate degree ot exchanging
and of prefling may be of great fervice after the iheets
are piinted, to deftroy the hollow places occafroned by
the prefs, and the relievo of the letters.
Engraving requires a paper of the fame qualities
engraving with the laft mentioned, with refpeft to the fluff, which
muff be pure, without knots, and equally redu¬
ced ; the gr^in uniform, and the fheets without
folds or wrinkles. To preferve the gra-in, it is ne-
ceffary that it be dried flowly in the lowed, place
of the drying-houfe. If it is fubmitted to the ex¬
change, the effeds of it muff be moderated with the
greatell care, and the aCtion of the two firff preffes
muff be equally diflributed over the whole mafs, other-
v. ife the inequality of the moifture at the middle and
fdts will txpofe it to wrinkles in the drying. The
fizing of this paper muff alfo be moderate. Thefe cir-
cumffancts are neceflary to make it receive with neat¬
nefs all the foft and delicate touches of the plate.—
rl he loft and yielding paper of Auvergne poflelfcs all
thole advantages ; and accordingly a great quantity
of this an 1 of printing paper were formerly imported
into Britain and Holland from France, where they
Hill continue to roc the materials from which they
make engraving paper. The wire wove frame, though
but lately invented, is, we are told, peculiarly adapted
to this kind of paper.
, Paper for cards muff be manufactured from a pretty
firm fluff, in order to take that degree of fmoothnels
which makes the cards glide eaiily over one another m
of pamting ll^inff ^or t‘1is reafon the cardmakers rejeCt every
on. afmoo h kmd ot paper which is foft and without ftrength-
furface. 1 his paper requires to be very much fized, fince the
fizing holds the place of varnifh, to which the fmooth-
ing gives a glazed and fhining furtace. To aniwer all
thtfe purpofes, the rags require to be little rotted,
and the malices ilrongly armed with iron finds. At
prtfent Angoumois is aimoff the only province in
&8
S’aper for
*9
iPaper for
cards; r
ary kind
P E It 7*5
France which fells card-paper to the Dutch and tire MifceHano
other northern nations. The rags of Angoumois have qU
the peculiar quality of not turning too folt in the pu- j>aj,cr>
trefaClion, and the mills of that province reduce them  
to fluff though they be not much putrefied. The
French, we believe, excel, every other nation in this
branch of the manufacture of paper.
Sect, III. Mifcellanems Obfervations e>n Paper.
3°
To hinder paper from finking, take about the fuze To preferve
of a nut of rock alum, diffolve it in a glafs of char wa- °U1
ter, and apply it to the paper, which has net been luf-
ficiently fized, with a fine fpenge. It is in this man¬
ner that the paper-manufacturers ofTaris prepare the
paper for drawing calledpapiers laves. When there is
octal)on to write on a printed book, or on paper too
frefh, it is iufhcient to mix a little gum with ordinary
ink. .
To give to writing paper a brilliant varnifh, take Paper vaf-
that which is of an ordinary finenefs, very fmooth,ndhed for(
without any kind of flain or hairs on its furface ;wru‘nS*
fi retch it on a fmooth plank, and by means of a hare’s
foot cover it with a thin and equal Lycr or fasdarac
finely powdered. Afterwards, if a whole ream is toTe
varnifhed, take eight ounces of rock alum and one ounce
of white fugatcandy ; bring them to I oil in fix pints
of water ; and wi-en the liquor is lukewarm, wet that
fide of the fheet which has been covered with the fan-
darac with a fine fponge ; lay the fheets in a heap,
one fheet exadlly above another; and tub in it* the ream
to the prefs for the fpace oi twelve hours: hang tnem
afterwards fheet by fheet dn the cords of the drying-
houfe ; put them again under the prefs for fome clays
to flretch them ; and, finally, beat them with a book¬
binder’s mallet. This paper can only be ufed for three
or four months after it is prepared.
Painters prepare their paper for drawing, and give Paper pre-
it a dark .around, which {pares them muen labour of pared.fot
the pencil afterwards in thofe places where fhade is'hawing,
neceffary. For this purpofe, they take white paper
and pafi a fponge over it, which has imbibed water
impregnated with foot, leaving the light places to be
formed afterwards, i hey ufe alfo a kind ot paper for
drawing, which is called tainted paper. A light colour
is pafied over the whole ground, which deprives' the
paper of its original brightnels, and makes the light
places of the print appear more in relievo, and more
luminous. '
The method moft common and mofl convenient foi'Paper pre-
copying a print, is to ufe oiled paper. The manner p ed for
of preparing this paper is to take that which is thin copyinS ^
and fmooth, known commonly by the name of ferpent l1 ai,t*
paper, and mv;iften it with a compcfition, two parts of
the oil of walnuts and one part of the oil of turpen¬
tine mixed weil together. A fheet of paiieboard and
a fheet of paper are laid on a fmooth table ; above
them are placed two iheets of paper to be prepared ;
and a layer of the oil applied to the uppermofl is fuf¬
ficient to penetrate both. This may be done to any
number of fheets, and a flrong (heet of pafteboard is
placed over the whole. The heap is afterwards fub-
miited to the prefs, under which it remains for t wo or
three days til! t le oil 1 e completely dry. Paper pre¬
pared in tfiifa manner ferves to copy very readily nd
4 X i exattly
PAP
Mifcdlane-exa&Iy all kinds of figures and plans; becaufe being
eu* Qbfer- ^together tranfparent, all the parts of the drawing,
Paper! ^ whether of light or (hade, are eafily diflinguifhed.
» , iLy. i Befidea the paper made from the afoellos, it is ne-
.^4 cefiary for wrapping up gunpowder and valuable wri-
IncombufK- tings, to have a p 'per that wdl not eahly take fire.
J he manner in which this is prepared is extremely
fimple. Ordinary paper is dipped into boiling liquid,
confiding of three-fourths of water and one fourth of
diffolved alum. This fait, which is not inflammable,
covers the furface of the paper, and renders it in fome
meafure incombuff ible.
In the feafon of verjuice, a little of it diluted with
water is fufficient for obliterating any fovlh Ipot of
ink. The fait of the verjuice difiblved in water an-
fwers the purpofe equally well, and the fait of the for-
rel is alfo employed, though with lefs effedf. If the
fpots be dry, and the above acids are infufficient to
eradicate them, a little aquafortis diluted in water and
applied with the feather of a quill or a fine hair pencil
will make them entirely difappear.
Books and manufcripts are fometimes defaced by
accidental {tains with oil. To remove Inch blemifhes,
burn fheeps bones and reduce them to a fine powder ;
lay a quantity of this powder on each fide of the ftain;
place it between two fheets of white paper, and fub-
mit it for twelve hours to the prefs. If the flains have
not difappeared, it will be necelfary to reiterate the
procefs.
j\ mecnou i ° make oiled papers take colours ; mix with the
of making eoleurs a very fmall quantity either of the gall of a
oiled paper pjke or carp; and as thefe fubftances are of the nature
of foap, they diffolve the greafe that is in the paper,
and permit the colours to be fpread over the furface.
Emery paper, which is employed for taking the ruft
from iron without walling it, is made by impregnating
coarfe paper with gummed water or any other tena¬
cious fubftance, and then covering it over with the
finett emery.
Staining or The colours proper for paper are not different from
colouring thofe ufed for other fubftances, and are enumerated
under the article Colour-Making. T. hey are applied
with foft brufhes, after being tempered to a due de¬
gree with fize or gum-water. If the paper on which
they are to be laid is foft, fo that the colours are apt
to go through, it muft alfo be fixed before they are
laid on, or a proportionably larger quantity mull be
ufed along with the colours themfelves. If a confi-
derable extent of the paper is to be done over wich one
colour, it muft receive feveral coatings, as thin as pof-
fible, letting each coat dry before another is put on,
otherwife the colour will be unequal.
Take yellow ochre, grind it with rain-water, anu
lay a ground with it upon the paper all over ; when
dry, take the white of eggs, beat it clear with white
fugarcandy, and ftrike it all over: then lay on the leaf-
gold ; and when dry, polifh it with a tooth. Some
take faffron, boil it in water, and diffolve a little gum
with it; then they firike it over the paper, lay on the
gold; and, when dry, they polifh it.
lllVw Take two fcruples of clear glue made of neats lea-
paper after ther, one fcruple of white alum, and half a pint of
the Chinefec|ear water. fimmer the whole over a flow fire, till the
without fil water confumed» or the fteam ceafes : Then, your
ver. ftxeets of paper being laid on a fmooth tabic, you dip
hie paper.
35
A method
of erafing
ink from
paper.
36
A method
for taking
oil flains
out of pa¬
per.
37
A method
take co
lours.
38
To make
emery pa
per.
ef paper.
40
T® gild
paper.
41
To filver
E R. Sea. Ill*
a pretty large pencil into that glue, and daub it over vrifrellano
as even as you can, repeating this two or three times:
then fift the powder of talc through a fine fieve, made
of horfe-hair or gauze, over it ; and then hang it up y—^
to dry ; and, when dry, rub off the fuperfluous talc,
which ferves again for the fame purpofe. The talc
you prepare in the following manner: Take fine white
tranfparent Mufcovy talc ; boil it in clear water for
four hours ; then take it off the fire, and let it fland
fo for two days : then take it out, wafh it well, and
put it i»to a linen rag, and beat it to pieces wich a
mallet : to 10 pounds of talc add 3 pounds of white
alum, and grind them together in a little hand-mill;
fift it through a gauze-fieve ; and being thus reduced
to a powder, put it into water, and juft boil it up :
then let it fink to the bottom, pour off the water from
it, place the powder in the fun to dry, and it will be¬
come a hard confiftence. This beat in a mortar to an
impalpable powder, and keep it, for the ufe above*
mentioned, free from duft. ^
The common grounds laid in water are made by white and
mixing whiting with the common glovers fize, and coloured
laying it on the paper with a proper brufh in the
even manner. This is all that is required, where the
ground is to be left white ; and the paper being then ^ '
hung on a proper frame till it be dry, is fit to be
painted. When coloured grounds are required, the
fame method muft be purfued, and the ground of
whiting firft laid; except in pale-colours, fuchasftraw-
colours or pink, where a fecond coating may fome¬
times be fpared, by mixing fome ftrong colour with
the whiting. > . 45
There are three methods by which paper-hangings Method o£.
are painted ; the firtt by printing on the colours ; i£llUing
the fecond by ufing the Jlencil; and the third by
laying them on with a pencil) as in other kinds of
painting.
When the colours are laid on by printing, the im-
preflion is made by wooden prints; which are cut in
fuch manner, that the figure to be expreffed is made
to project from the furface by cutting away all the
other part; and this, being charged with the colours
tempered with their proper vehicle, by letting it gent¬
ly down on a block on which the colour is previoufly
fpread, conveys it from thence to the ground of the
paper, on which it is made to fall more forcibly by
means of its weight, and the effort of the arm of the
perfon who ufes the print. It is eafy to conclude, that
there muft be as many feparate prints as there are
colours to be printed. But where there are more than
one, great care muft be taken, after the firft, to let
the print fall exaftly in the fame part of the paper
as that which went before; otherwife the figure of the
defign would be brought into irregularity and confufion.
In common paper of low price, it is ufual, therefore,
to print only the outlines, and lay on the reft of the
colours by ftencilling; which both faves. the expence
of cutting more prints, and can be pradlifed by com¬
mon workmen, not requiring the great care and dex¬
terity neceffary to the ufing feveral prints.
The manner of Jlencilling the colours is this. f he
figure, which all the parts of any particular colour make
in the defign to be painted, is to be cut out, in a piece
of thin leather or oil cloth, which pieces of leather or.
oil-cloth are called Jlencils ; and being laid flat on the
ftreets
Se$ III. P A P
Mifcelllne- fheets of paper to be printed, fpread on a table or floor,
OUS obfer- are to be rubbed over with the colour, properly tem
Yati ns on er€(i by means of a large brufti. I'he colour pafling
over the whole is confequently fpread on thofe parts of
^ the paper where the cioth or leather is cut away, and
oive the fame effeft as if laid on by a print, i his is
neverthelefs only prafticable in parts where there are
only detached maffes or fpots of colours : for where
there are fmall continued lines, or parts that run one
into another, it is difficult to preferve the conneftiofl
or continuity of the parts of the cloth, or to keep the
fmaller corners clofe down to the paper; and therefore,
in fuch cafes, prints are preferable. Stencilling is in¬
deed a cheaper method of ridding coarfe work than
printing: but without fuch extraordinary attention and
trouble as render it equally difficult with printing, it
is far lefs beautiful and exa£t in the effedt. for the
outline of the fpots of colour want that lharpnds and
regularity that given by prints, beflles the fre
quent extralineations, or deviations from the jult ngui e,
which happens by the original mifplacing of the Iten-
cils, or the ffiifting the place of them during the ope¬
ration. ... ,
Pencilling is only ufed in the cafe of nicer work,
fuch as the better imitations of the India paper. It is
performed in the fame manner as other paintings in
water or varniffi. It is fometimes ufed only to fill the
outlines already formed by printing, where the price
of the colour, or the exaftnefs of the manner in which
it is required to be laid on, render the ftencilhng or
printing it lefs proper ; at other times, it is ufed
for forming or delineating fome parts of the defign,
where a fpirit of freedom and variety, not to be
had in printed outlines, are delired to be had in the
Manage- The p?.per defigned for receiving the flock is firfl;
ment of prepared with a varnilh-ground with fome proper co-
:he flock lour, or by that of the paper itfelf. It is frequently
paper. J
E R. . . 7r7
praftifed to print fome Mofaic, or other fmaU running Mifcellane^
figure in colours, on the ground, before the flock b<5 vation8 on
laid on ; and it may be done with any pigment or the paper.
colour defired, tempered with varniffi, and laid on by    
a print cut correfpondtntly to that end.
The method of laying on the flock is this. A woouen
print being cut, as is.above deferibed, for laying on
the colour'in fuch manner that the part of the defign
which is intended for the flock may projed beyond
the reft of the furface, the varniffi is put on a block
covered with leather or oil-cloth, and the print is to
be ufed alfo in the fame manner, to lay the varniffi on
all the parts a here the flock is to be fixed. I lie fln.ct,
thus prepared by the varniffied impreffion, is then to
be removed to another block or table, and to be itrew-
ed over with flock ; which is afterwards to be gently
comprelled by a board, or fome other flat boay, to
make the varniffi take the better hold oi it: and then
the fficet is to be hung on a frame till the varniffi be
perfe&ly dry ; at which time the fuperfluous part of
flock is to be bruffied off by a foft camel’s hair bruffi;
and the proper flock will be found to adhere in a vciy
ftrong manner. „ , . ,
The method of preparing the flock is, by cutting
woollen-rags or pieces of cloth with the hand, by-
means of a large bill or chopping knife ; or by means
of a machine worked by a horfe-mill
There is a kind of counterfeit flock paper, which,
when well managed, has very much the lame effed to
the eye as the real, though done with lefs expence.
The manner of making this fort is, by laying a ground
of varniffi on the paper ; and having afterwards print¬
ed the defign of the flock-in varmfli, in the fame man¬
ner as for the true; inftead of the flock, fome pig^
ment, or dry colour, of the fame hue with the flock
required by the defign, but fomewhat of a darker lhade,
being well powdered, is ftrewed on the printed varniffi*
and produces nearly the fame appearance.
Paper-
Money.
PAP
PjpFR-Money is a term frequently made ufe of for
bank-bills, which pafs currently in trade inftead of
gold and filver. .
Concerning this fpecies of currency, the national
utility of which has been controverted by fome, we
have the following obfervations in Dr Smith’s Treatife
on the Wealth of Nations: “ The fubftitution of paper
in the room of gold and filver money replaces a veiy
expenfive inftrument of commerce with one much lefs
collly,and fometimes equally convenient. Circulation
comes to be carried on by a new wheel, which it cofts
lefs both to erect and maintain than the old one.
i( When the people of any particular country have
fuch confidence in the fortune, probity, and prudence
of a particular banker, as to believe that he is always
ready to pay upon demand fuch of his promiffoiy notes
as are likely at any time to be prefented to him, thofe
notes come to have the fame currency as gold and fil¬
ver money, from the confidence that fuch money can
at any time be had for them.
“ A particular banker lends among his cuftomers
his own promiffory notes, to the amount, we fhall fup-
P A P
pofe, of 100,0001. As thofe notes ferve all the pur- Paper-
pofes of money, his debtors pay him the fame intereft
as if he had lent them fo much money. 1 his intereft.
is the fource of his gain. Though fome of thofe notes
are continually coming back upon him tor payment,
part of them continue to circulate for months and years
together. Though he has generally in circulation,
therefore, notes to the amount of ioo,oool. 20,0001.
in gold and filver may frequently he a fufficient pro-
vifion for anfwering occafional demands. By this ope¬
ration, therefore, 20,0001. in gold and filver perform
all the fun&ions which 100,0001. could othenvife have
performed. Eighty thoufand pounds of gold anu In¬
ver can therefore, in this manner, be fpared from the
circulation of the country ; and if different operations
of the fame kind ffiould at the fame time be carried on
by many different banks and bankers, the whole circu¬
lation may be thus conduced with a fifth part only of
the gold and filver.
“ Let us fuppofe, for example, that the whole cir¬
culating money of fome particular country amounted^
at a particular time, to j,000,0001. fterling, thatfurn,
1 being.
PAP [ 7
M t^en for circulating tlie wliole annual
’, ' ^n! y' , produce af their land and labour. Let us fuppofe too,
that, fome time thereafter, diffetent banks and bankers
iffued promifTory notes, payable to tire bearer, to the
extent of i ,ooo,cool. reserving in their different coffers
200,0001. for anfwering occahonal demands. There
would remain, therefore, in circulation 8co,oco 1. in
gold and filver, and r,000,000]. of bank-notes, or
i,8oo,ocol. of paper and money together. But the
annual produce of the land and labour of the country
had before required only i,oco,oool. to circulate and
diflribute it to its proper conftuners, and that annual
produce cannot be immediately augmented by thofe
operations of banking. One million, therefoie, will
be fufficicnt to circulate it after them. The goods to
be bought and fold being prec.fely the fame as before,
the fame quantity of money will be fufficient for buy¬
ing and felling them. The channel of circulation, if
I may be allowed fuch an expreffion, will remain prs>*
eifely the fame as before. One million we have fup-
pofed fuffieient to dill that channel. Whatever, there¬
fore, is poured into it beyond this fum, cannot rua in
it, but muff overflow. OTie million eight hundred
tlioufand pounds are poured into it. Eight hundred
thoufahd pounds, therefore, mult overflow, that fum
being over and above what can be employed in the cir¬
culation of the country. But though this fum cannot
be employed at home, it is too vai#ble to be allowed
to he idle. It will therefore be f. nt abroad, in order
to leek that profitable employment which it cannot
find at home. But the paper cannot go abroad ; be-
caufe, at adiftance from the banks which iffue it, and
from the country in which payment of it can be ex¬
acted by law, it will not be received in common pay¬
ments. Gold and filver, therefoie, to the amount of
800,000 1. will be fent abroad, and the channel of home
circulation ftill remain filled with 1,000,000b of paper
milead of 1,000,000 1. of thofe metals which filled it
before.
®ut though fo great a quantity of gold and fil¬
ver is thus fent abroad, we mull not imagine that it is
Lnt abroad for nothing, or that its proprietors make a
prefent of it to foreign nations. 1 hey will exchange
it foi foreign goods of fome kind or another, in order
to fupply the confumption either of fome other foreign
country or of their own.
If they employ it in purehafing goods in one fo¬
reign country in order to fupply the confumption of
another, or in what is called the carrying trade, what¬
ever profit they make will be an addition to the neat
revenue of their own country. It is like a new fund,
created for carrying on anew trade; domeflic bufinefs
being new tranfa&ecbby paper, and the grid and filver
being conveited into a fund for this new trade.
It they employ it in purchafing foreign goods for
home-confumption, they nriy either fii ft purch fe fuch
goods as are likely to be confumed by idle people who
pioduce nothing, fuch as foreign wines, foreign filks,
See. i or, fecondly, they may purchafe an additional
itcck of materials, tools, and provifions, in order to
employ an auditional number of induflrious people,
who reproduce, with a profit, the value of their annual
coniumption.
“ So far as it is employed in the fi ft way, it pro¬
motes prodigality, mcreafes expencc and confumption,
4
18 ] PA P
without increafin-'- fttodudlion, or eftahlilhing any per- Ps*tr.
manent fund fc upporting that expence, and is in Money,
every refpett hurtful to the fociety. '—-r—
So tar as it is employed in the fecond way, it
promotes induftry ; and though it increafes the con-
fumption °f the fociety, it provides a permanent fund
f• -r fupporting that confompticn, the people who con-
fume, reproducing, with a profit, the whole v lue of
tneir annual confumption. The grofs revenue of the
fociety, the annual produce of their land and labour,
is increafed by the whole value which the labour of
thoft workmen adds to the materials upon which they
are employed ; and their neat revenue by what re¬
mains of this value, after deducting what is neceffary
for fnpporting the tools and inftruments of their trade.
“ That the greater part of the gold and filver
which, being forced abroad by thofe operations of
banking, is employed in purchafing foreign goods for
home-confumption, is and mult be employed for pur*
cnafing thofe of this fecond kind, feems not only pro-
la. le, but almoft unavoidable. Though fome parti-
cular men may fometimes increafe their expence very
confiderably, though their revenue does not increafe at
all, we may be affured that no clafs or order of men
.ever does fo ; becaufe, though the principles of com¬
mon prudence do not always govern the condudf of
every individual, they always influence that of the ma¬
jority of every clafs or order. But the revenue of idle
people, concdered as a clafs or order, cannot in the
irnailelt degree be increafed by thofe operations of
banking. . iheir expence in genera], therefore, cannot
be much increafed by them, though that of a few in¬
dividuals among them may, and in reality fometimes
is. he demand of idle people, therefore, for foreign
goods, being the fame, or very nearly the fame, as be¬
fore, a very imall part of the money, which being for¬
ce 1 abroad by thofe operations of banking, 'g employ¬
ed in purchafing foreign goods for home-confumption,
is likely to be employed in purchafing thofe for their
ufe. i he greater part of it will naturally be deftined
for the employment of induftry, and hot for the main¬
tenance of idlenefs.
^ When we cempute the quantity of friduftry w'hich
tne circulating capital of any fociety can employ, we
muft - Iways have regard to thofe parts of it only which
confilt in provifions, materials, and fimfhed work : the
other, which confifls in money, and which ferves only
to ciiculate thofe three, muft always be dedufted. In
order to put indultry into motion, three things are re-
quiiite ; materials to work upon, tools to work with,
and ^the wages or recompence for the fake of which the
work is done. Money is neither a material to work
upon, nor a tool to work with ; and though the wages
of the workman are commonly paid to kim in money',
his real revenue, like that of all other men, confifls, not
in the money, but in the money’s worth ; not in the
metal pieces, but in what can be got for them.
I he quantity of induftry which any capital can
employ, muft evidently be equal to the number of
workmen whom it can fupply with materials, tools,
and a maintenance fuitable to the nature of the work.
Money may be requifite for purchafiog the materials
and tools o; the work, as well as the maintenance of
the workmen But the quantity of iuduftry which the
whole capital can employ, 13 certainly not equal both
to
Paper.
Mf'ney.
PAP
to the money which purchafesf t
tools, and maintenance, which are purchafed with it ;
but only to one or other of thofe two values, and to
the latter more properly than to the former.
“ When paper is fubftituted in the rrtom of gold and
filver money, the quantity of the materials, tools, and
maintenance, which the whole circulating capital can
fupply, may be increafed by the whole value of gold
and filver which ufed to be employed in purchafing
them. The whole value of the great wheel of circula¬
tion and diftribution is added to the goods which are
circulated and diftributed by means of it. The opera¬
tion, in fome meafure, refembles that of the undertaker
of fome great work, who, in confequence of fome im¬
provement in mechanicp, takes down his old machi
nery, and adds the difference between its price and
that of the new to his circulating capital, to the fund
from which he furmfhes materials and wages to his
woikmen.
“ What the proportion is which the circulating mo¬
ney of any country bears to the whole value of the an¬
nual produce circulated by means of it, it is perhaps
impolfible to determine. It has been computed by
different authors at a fifth, at a tenth, at a twentieth,
and at a thirtieth part of that value. But how fmall
foever the proportion which the circulating money may
bear to the whole value of the annual produce, as but
a part, and frequently but a fmall part, of that pro¬
duce, is ever deftrfted for the maintenance of induftry,
it muft always bear a very confiderable proportion to
that part. When, therefore, by the fubliitution of
paper, the geld and iilver neceffary for circulation is
reduced to perhaps a fifth part of the former quantity,
if the value of only the greater part of the other four-
fifths be added to the funds which are deftined for the
maintenance of induftry, it muft make a very confider-
abie addition to the quantity of that induftry, and
confequently to the value of the annual produce of land
and labour.
“ That part of his capital which a dealer ia obliged
to keep by him unemployed, for anfwering occafional
demands, is fo much dead flock, producing nothing ei¬
ther to him or to his country. The judicious opera¬
tions of banking enable him to make it adive and
produdive. The gold and filver money which circu¬
lates in any country, and by means of winch the pro¬
duce of its land and labour is annually circulated and
diftrihuted to the proper confumers, is, in the fame
manner as the ready money of the dealer, all dead
flock. It is a very valuable part of the capital of the
country, which produces nothing to the country. The
tudicious operations of banking, by fubftituting paper
in the room of a great part of it, enables the country
to make a great part of this dead flock adive and
produdive. The gold and filver money which circu¬
lates in any country, may very propeily be compared
to a highway, which, while it circulates and carries to
market all the grafsand corn of the country, produces
itfelf not a Angle pile of either. The judicious opera¬
tions of banking, by providing, if I may be allowed fo
violent a metaphor, a fort of waggon-way through the
air, enable the country to convert, as it were, a great
part of its highways into good paftures and corn¬
fields, and thereby to increafe very conliderably the an-
sual produce of italand and labour. The. commerce
[ 719 1 PAP
to the materials, and induftry of the country, however, it muft be ac¬
knowledged, though they may be fomewhat augment¬
ed, cannot be altogether fo fecure, when they are thus,
as it were, fufpended upon the Daedalian wings of pa- v.
per-money, as when they travel about upon the folid
ground of gold and filver.
“ The whole paper-money of every kind which can
eafily circulate in any country, never can exceed thev
value of the gold and filver, of which it fupplies the
place, or which (the commerce being fuppofed the-
fame) would circulate there if there was no paper-mo¬
ney. If twenty-lhilling notes, for example, are the
loweft paper-money current in Scotland, the whole of
that currency which can eafily circulate there cannot
exceed the fum of gold and filver which would be ne¬
ceffary for tranfa&ing the annual exchanges of twenty
{hillings value and upwards, ufually tranfadted within
that country. Should the circulating paper at any
time exceed that fum, as the excefs could neither be
fent abroad, nor be employed in the circulation of the
country, it muft immediately return upon the banks to
be exchanged for gold and filver. Many people would
immediately perceive that they had more of this paper
than was neceffary for tranfatling their bufinefs at
home, and as they could not fend it abroad, they would
immediately demand payment of it from the banks.
When this fuperfluous paper was converted into gold
and filver, they could ealily find a ufe for it by fend¬
ing it abroad ; but they could find none while it re¬
mained in the fhape of paper. There would immedi¬
ately, therefore, be a run upon the banks to the whole
extent of this fuperfluous paper, and if they ftiowed any
difficulty or backwardnefa in payment, to a much -
greater extent; the alarm which this would occa»
lion nectffarily increafiug the run. See Bank and
Trade,
PAPER-OJfice, an office in the palace of Whitehall,.,
in which all the public writings, matters of ftate and
council, proclamations, letters, intelligences, negocia-
tions abroad, and generally all difpatches that pafs
through the offices of the fecretaries of ftate, are lodged,
by way of library.
PAPIER mache. This is a fubftance made of
cuttings of white or brown paper, boiled in water,,
and beaten in a mortar, till they are reduced into a
kind of pafte, and then boiled with a folutton of gum
arabic or of fize, to give tenacity to the pafte, which
is afterwards formed mto different toys, &c. by pref--
fing it into oiled moulds. When dry, It is done over
with a mixture of fize and lamp-black, and afterwards,
varniffied. The black varniffi for thefe toys, accord--
ing to Dr Lewis, is prepared as follows ; Some colo-~
phony, or turpentine boiled down till it becomes black
and friable, is melted in a glazed earthen-veffel, and
thrice as much amber ia fine powder fprinkled in by
degrees, with the addition of a little (pint or oil of
turpentine now and then : when the amber is melted,
fprinkle in the fame quantity of farcocolla, continu¬
ing to ftir them, and to add more fpirit of turpentine,
till the whole becomes fluid ; then Itrain out the clear
through a coarfe hair-bag, preffing it gently between
hoc boards. This varnilh, mixed with ivory-black in
fine powder, is applied, in a hot room, on the dried
paper-pafte ; which is then fet in a gently heated
oven, next day in a hotter oven, aad the third day in
Paper-
Money
'll
Papier.
^iiphlagrj-
n.;a,
Pa] hos.
PAP t 750 1
a very hot one, and let ftand «ach tune till the oven earthquake,
grrows cold. The pafte thus varnifhed is hard, durable,
gloffy, and bears liquors hot or cold.
PAPHLAGONIA (anc. geog.), acountryof the
Hrther Alia, beginning at Parthenhis, a river of
Bithynia, on the wed, and extending in length to the
Halys eaftward, with the Enxine to the north, and
Galatia to the fouch. Pliny enlarges the limits on the
weft fide to the river Billis, on this fide the Parthenius.
It is called Pylammia by feme (Pliny). Paphlagonay
the people, mentioned by Homer, and therefore of no
{mail antiquity. A fuperftitious and filly people (Lu¬
cian); a brave people (Homer); taking their name
from Phaleg (Bocchart).
PAPHOS (anc. geog.), two adjoining iflands on
the weft fide of the ifland of Cyprus ; the one called
Halt Paphos (Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny) ; the other iVea
Paphos; and when mentioned without an adjunct,
this latter is always underftood. Both dedicated to
Venus, and left undiftinguilhed by the poets (Virgil,
Horace). Hence Venus is furnamed Paphia, Paphii
the people (Coins, Stephanus). It was rertored by
Auguftus, after a Ihock of an earthquake, and called
Augujla (Dio).
The Abbe Mavitf, in his Travels through Cyprus,
gives the following account of the illandof Paphos. “ It
is fituated (fays he) on the fouthern fide : it contained
the celebrated temple of Venus ; which, together with
the city, was defttoyed by an earthquake, fo that the
lead veitige of it is not now to be feen. A lake in the
neighbourhood, which even in fummer overflows with
ftagnant and corrupted water, renders the air in fome
degree unwholefome. On the weftern coaft is the new
Paphos, called by fome of the modern geographers
Bajfos ; a name which is unknown in the ifland of Cy¬
prus. That we may not pofitively aferibe to the lat¬
ter every thing that hiftory tells us of Paphos in ge¬
neral, it may not be here improper to mention that it
has been feveral times deftroyed. This city had a
port, where veflels trading upon that coaft ftill call
anchor; but this happens only in fummer; for,
being expofed to every wind, it is extremely dange-
>rous.. The bottom of it is full of fharp rocks ; which
fometimes deftroy the cables fo much, that mariners
are obliged to keep them afloat on the furface of the
water, by means of empty calks fixed to them at cer¬
tain diftances. In the neighbourhood there are two
caftles; one on the borders of the fea, and the other
on the fummit of a little hill: but the latter is at
prefent in ruins. The government of Paphos confifts
of a digdaban or commiHary ; a cadi ; and an aga, who
prefides over the cuftomhoufe. Of all the Chriftian
edifices, there is none remaining but the church of
St George, in which fervice is performed by the
Greek minifters The produftions of this part of the
ifland, which are all of an excellent quality, are filk, bar¬
ley, and other kinds of grain. To difeover the origin
of the old and new Paphos, would be carrying light
into the midft of the thickeft darknefs. When we
have added conjedure to conje&ure, we are ftill in the
fame fituation. As this is an attempt fuperior to my
abilities, I fhall leave it to the divining, though un¬
certain, knowledge of our antiquaries. I muft, how¬
ever, obferve, that there was here foimerly a temple de¬
dicated to Venus, which was entirely deftroyed by an
PAP
In this ifland St Paul by his eloquence
converted Sergius, a Roman proconful. He here like-
wife conferred the deaconihip on his difciple and col¬
league Titus, who foon after fuffered martyrdom.
Paphos was an epifcopal city in the time of the Lu-
fignians; and it is ftill the feat of a bifliop, who is a
fuffragan to the archbiihop of Nicofia. On the weft¬
ern fide of the ifland there are a great number of Mat¬
tered villages : but they are not worthy of notice,
being either abandoned or in ruins.’*
Mr Bruce informs us, that in the neighbourhood of
this place many filver medals of excellent workmanfliip
are dug up ; they are, however, but of little eftimationf
among the antiquarians, being chiefly of towns of the
fize of thofe found at Crete and Rhodes, and in all the
iflands of the Archipelago. There are fome excellent
Greek Intaglios ; generally upon better Hones than
tifual in the iflands. This illnftrious traveller informs us,
that he has feen fome heads of Jupiter, remarkable for
bufhy hair and a beard, which were of excellent work-
manftup, and worthy of any price. All the inhabitants
of the ifland are fubjedt to fevers, but efpecially thofe
in the neighbourhood of Paphos. The fame traveller
obferves, that Cyprus was very long undifeovered 5
for though fliips had been failing on the Mediterranean
1700 years before Chrift, and though the ifland is only
u„>„ r_— . 1,     \ r__ __
a day’s failing from the continent of Afia on the north
and call, and little more from that of Africa on the
fouth, it was not known at the building of Tyre, a
little before the Trojan war, that is, '500 years after
the neighbouring feas had been navigated. It w’as co¬
vered with wood at its firft difeovery ; and our author is
of opinion, that it was not well known even at the time
of building of Solomon’s temple; becaufe we do not find
that Hiram king of Tyre, though juft in its neighbour¬
hood, ever had recourfe to it for wood : though the
carriage would undoubtedly have been eafier from
thence than to have brought it down from the top of
Mount Lebanon. Eratofthenes informs us, that in
ancient times the ifland was fo overgrown with wood,
that it could not be tilled; fo that they firft cut down
the timber to be ufed in the furnaces for melting lilver
and copper ; that after this they built fleets with it j
but finding even this infufficient, they gave liberty to
all ftrangers to cut it down for whatever purpofe they
pleafed ; and not only fo, but they gave them after¬
wards the property of the ground they had cleared*
Matters are now quite altered ; and the want of wood
is a principal complaint in moft parts of the ifland.
About Acamas, however, on the weft fide of the ifland,
the wood is ftill thick and impervious, inhabited by
large ftags and wild boars of a monftrous fize. Mr
Bruce was informed, that a live elephant had lately
been feen there, but gave no credit to the account.
PAPI AS, bifhop of Hieropolis, a city of Phrygia,
was the difciple of St John the Evangelift, and the
companion of Polycarp, as St Jerome obferves, and
not of John the Ancient, as fame other authors have
maintained. He compofed a work in five books,
intitled Expofitlom of the Difcourfes of our Lord, of
which there are only foine fragments now remaining.
He it was who introduced the opinion of the Milie-
n aria ns.
PAPILIO, the Butterfly, in zoology; a genus
of inlefts belonging to the order of lepidoptera. It
has
PAP [ 721 ] PAP
pnptlift' ^.as four wing?, imbricated with a kind of downy
—v  feales ; the tongue is convoluted in a fpiral form ;
and the body is hairy. The antenna; grow thicker
towards their extrenv'ty, and are in moft fubje&s ter¬
minated by a kind of capitulum or head. The wings,
gurbut on when fitting, are ereft, infomuch that their extremi-
Iti/ttts. ties meet or touch one another above the body. They fly
in the day-time. There are 273 fpecies, principally di-
ftingWtflied by the colour of their wings. Mr Barbut
has divided them into four fedlions, which he thus cha-
ra&erizes. 1. The equites, or riders, the upper wings
being longer from the hindermoll angle to the point
than to the bafe : their antennee are often filiform.
They are divided into 'Trojans ; which for the molt
pait are black, with blood-like fpots on the bread :
and Greeks, whofe bread: has no fuch marks ; the
{mail eye being placed at the angle of the anus ; and
of thefe fome aie without bands or fillets,' others with
bands or filkts. 2. The heliconians, whofe wings are
narrow throughout, often bare; the upper oblong, the
under ones very fhort. 3. The Danai, whofe wings
are entire; the candidi, with whitifli wings; the
fellivi, with variegated wings. 4. The nymphals,
whofe wings are denticulated : divided into the gem-
mati, whofe wings ha/e eyes ; fubdivided into thofe
which have eyes on all the wings ; thofe which have
them on the tipper wings ; thofe which have them on
the under ones; and the phalerati, whofe wings are
without eyes. 5. The plebeians, whofe larva is often
contrafled: divided into the rurales, with darkilh fpots
on their wings ; and the urbicola;, with fpots gene¬
rally tranfparent on their wings.
'The beauties of this elegant part of the creation are
well known ; and there are few who can contemplate
them without aftonilhment. We have the following
* Ibid, account of their various ftages of exiftence in Barbut*.
“ The caterpillar (fays he) informs us in what manner
it prepares for the lethargic fleep, which is to ferve as
a tranfition to its metamorphofis. The period of its
reptile life being accomplifhed, it changes its form to
become an inhabitant of the air. The chryfalis is at
once the tomb of the caterpillar and the cradle of the
butterfly. It is within a lilken cod, or under a tranf¬
parent veil, that this great miracle of nature is daily
wrought. But how does the weak defencelefs butter¬
fly, fcarce unfolded into exiilence, go about to make
its way through the impenetrable walls that prefer-
\red it from infult during its torpid ftate ? How
will it bear the effulgence of the light, and keennefs
of the air? Take one of their cods, make an aperture
in it with a pair of feiffars, fix it againft a glafs ; ob-
ft-rve the infeft, you will perceive the organs gradually
difplaying themfelves: follow his operations with your
eye ; he llniggles to break loofe from his epnfinemert.
Obferve the frothy liquor which it difgorges ; that
liquor ferves to foften the end of the cod, which at
length yields to the butting of the infeft’s head. By
degrees the bar is removed, and the butterfly fprings
forth ; the impreflion of the air adds upon its wings,
•flightlv apparent at firfl, but which afterwards expand
with remarkable rapidity. The diipiay of them is
fometimes checked by drought, in which cafe the in-
fedb is deprived of the faculty of flying. The roltrum,
extended under the covering of the 'chryfalis, is in this
laid fiate rolled up into fpiral, and lodged in a recefa
Vol.XHI. Part II,
prepared for it. The fly Is now perfedlly formed ; it Papdkt. ^
gently flutter?, then takes its flight, and purfues its *
mazy wanderings over the enamelled meads, plunging
its roltrum into the cups of neddareous flowers.,>
Of papilio, N0 1. Barbut gives the following account.
“ The ground colour of the infedt is a beautiful gloflfy
black, the fuperior wings are ornamented with white
forked clouds; the inferior ones are adorned with fpots
of a blood-colour, thofe neareft the extremities being
of a lunular form, and are indented, terminating in an
extended tail, and are edged with white. The apex,
or crown of the head, is tipt with the fame red colour
which encircles the {boulders, and terminates the abdo«
men the fpace of about five rings.”
Of NJ 2. he fpeaks thus : <$ The form of the wing?
refembles the preceding infebls. They are beautifully
vanegated with black and yellow; the inferior ones
terminate in a tail, and, according to the charafter of
the fedlion, are adorned with an eye of a yellowifh red
colour, encircled with blue, which is fituated at the
edge, neareft. the extremity of the abdomen. This is
the largeft, and one of the moft beautiful infeffs Eng¬
land produces. The caterpillar is large and fmootk,
of a bright green colour, with traniverfal bands, of a
deep glofly purple upon every ring, which bands are
enriched with yellow fpots ; it feeds on wild fennel
and other umbelliferous plants; changes into the chry-
falis in July, aflumes the winged ftate in Auguft, and
frequents meadows. It fometimes appears in May.”
AndofN° 3. we have this account: “ The peacock,
or peacock’s eye, is ealily known by the peacock’s eyes
which it bears above, four in number, one upon each
wing, which has givendt the name it has. Its wings,
very angulous, are black underneath ; above they are
of a reddiih dun colour. The upper ones have on their
fuperior edge two black oblong fpots, with a yellow
one between the two. At their extremity is found
the eye, large, reddiih in the middle, furrounded with
a yellow circle, accompanied by a fmall portion of blue
towards the exterior fide. On that fame fide, follow¬
ing the divedtion of the margin, there are five or fix
white fpots, fet in order. The inferior wings are
browner, and have each a large eye of a very dark blue
in the middle, furrounded by an alh-colour circle. The
caterpillar of this butterfly is of a deep black, clotted
with a little white.”
We cannot conclude this article without noticing
fome very Angular fpecies; of which Mr Reaumur has
given an account, and which deferve particular re¬
gard.
One fpecies of thefe he has called the buncUe of dry
leaves. This, when it is in a ftate of reft, has wholly
the appearance of a little clufler of the decayed leaves
of-fome herb. The petition and colour of its wings
greatly favour this refemblance, and they have very
large ribs; wholly like thofe of-the leaves of plants,
and are indented in the fame manner at their edges as
the leaves of many plants are. This feems to point
out the care of nature for the animal, and frequently
may preferve it from birds, See.
The tkiill butterfly is another Angular fpecies, fo
called from its head refembling in fome degree a
death's head or human Ikull. This very remarkable
appearance is terrible to many people ; but it has an¬
other yet greater Angularity attending it, which is,
^ Y that,
PA* [ 722 ] PAP
apilio t^at, when frighted, it has a mournful and harfh voice,
p Jl. This appeared the more furprifirg to Mr Reaumur, as
t -^1 ia' * no other known butterfly had any the leaft voice at all;
and he was not ready of belief that it was a real voice,
but fufpe&ed the noife, like that of the cicadae, to be
©wing to the attrition of fome part of the body; and,
in fine, he, by great pains, difcovered that this noife
was not truly vocal, but was made by a hard and brifle
rubbing of the trunk againft two other hard bodies
between which it is placed.
Another butterfly there is, fo fmali that it might
be miftaken for a fmall fly. This is certainly the ex¬
treme in degree of fize of all the known butterflies,
and cannot but have been proportionably fmall in the
flate of a caterpillar and chryfalis: this creature fpends
its whole life in all the three ftages of caterpillar, chry¬
falis, and butterfly, on the leaf of the celandine. It
lives on the under fide of the leaf; and though in the
caterpillar ftate it feeds on it, yet it does no damage.
It does not eat the fubftance of the leaf, but draws
from it only a fine juice, which is foon repaired again,
without occafioning any change in the appearance of
the leaf. This fpecies is very fhort-lived ; and pafies
through its three ftates in fo fliort a time, that there
are frequently ten generations of it in one year ;
whereas, in all the other butterflies, two generations
in the year are all that are to be hacl. Thefe two
generations are fufficient to make a prodigious increafe:
in a large garden, if there are twenty caterpillars in
fpring, tb,;fe may be overlooked, and there may be
^afily concluded to be none there, even on a narrow
fearch ; but if thefe twenty caterpillars afterwards be¬
come twenty butterflies, ten of which are male and
ten female, and each female lay the fame number of
eggs that the common filk-worm does, that is, four
hundred; if all the caterpillars hatched of thefe be¬
come butterflies, and thefe lay eggs in the fame pro¬
portion, which remain the winter, and come to be
hatched in the fucceeding fpring; then from thefe
twenty, in only one year, you will have eight hundred
thoufand ; and if we add to this the increafe of thefe
in a fucceeding year, the account mull appear terrible,
and fuch as no art could guard againft. The great
Ruler of the world has put fo many hinderanocs in the
way of this over-abundant produftion, that it is very
rare fuch years of deftru&ion happen. Some fuch
have happened, however; and much mifchief has been
dreaded from them, not only from their eating all the
« herbage, but from themfelves being eaten with herbs
in fallads and otherwife : but experiments have proven
this to be an erroneous opinion, and they are found
to be innocent, and eatable as fnails or oyfters.
PAPILIONACEOUS, among botanifts, an ap¬
pellation given to the flowers of plants belonging to
various clafles, from their refembling the wings of a
butterfly.
PAPIN!AN, a celebrated Roman lawyer of the
third century, under the Emperor Severus; who had
fo high an opinion of his worth, that he recommended
his fons Camcalla and Geta to his care. Caracalla
having firft murdered his brother, ordered Papinian to
compofe a difcourfe to excufe this murder to the fenate
and people ; which when he refufed to undertake, the
brutal emperor ordered him to be beheaded ; and his
body was dragged through the ftreets of Rome. Pa¬
pinian wrote feveral treatifes in the line of his profef- Papiflr
iion. ii
PAPISTS, are thofe who believe the pope or bifhop PaP>rru?J
of Rome to be the fupreme paitur of the univerfal
church, who profefs to believe all the articles of pope
Pius’s creed, and who promife implicit obedience to
the edifts of the church, efpecially the decrees of the
council of Trent. See Pope ar,d Tren f,
PAPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and capital ©f a county of the fame
name, with a caftle, where the counts refide. It is
feated near the river ^Itmal, 17 miles north-weft of
Neuburg, and 32 fouth of Nureraburg ; is fubjedt to
its own count. E. Long. >0.51. N. Lat. 48.58. The
count of Pappenheim is hereditary marfhal of the em¬
pire, and performs his office at the coronation of the
emperor.
PAPPUS, an eminent philofopher of Alexandria,
faid by Suidas to have flouriihed under the Emperor
Theodofius the Great, who reigned from A. D. 379
to 395* writings flrow him to have been a con-
fummate mathematician : Many of them are loft ; the
reft continued long in manufeript, detached parts ha¬
ving only been occafionally publilhed in the laft cen¬
tury, until Carolus Manolefiius publiflied his remains
entire at Bologna in 1660, in folio-
Pappus, in botany, a foft downy fubftance that
grows on the feeds of certain plants, as thiftles, hawk-
weed, &c. ferving to fcatter and buoy them up in the
air.
PAPYRUS, the famous reed from which was made
the far-famed paper of Egypt. Before entering on
the defeription of the papyrus, it is natural to fay a,
word or two on the opinion generally received in Eu-*
rope concerning the lofs of this plant. Suppofing this
lofs poffible, the date of it muff; be fixed at no diftant
period ; for it is not 200 years fince Guillandin and
Profper Alpin obferved the papyrus on the banks of
the Nile. Guillandin faw the inhabitants of the coun¬
try eating the inferior and fucculent part of the Item
in the manner of the ancients; a fad which alone
fhows it to be the papyrus, and of which other travel¬
lers feem not to have availed themfelves. This prac¬
tice, together with thofe related by Profper Alpin,
are fufficient to convince us, that this plant is not
wholly ufelefs, although it is not now employed in the
fabrication of paper. The alteration on the foil of
Egypt, and on the methods of agriculture, have in all
probability rendered this plant lefs common; but caufea
altogether local could not occafian the deftrutftion of
the papyrus, efpecially as its refidence in the mar flies
would prevent their operation. But it is needlefs to
reafon from probabilities or analogy: Mr Bruce not
only faw the papyrus growing both in Egypt and A-
byffinia, but aftually made paper of it in the manner
in which it was made by the ancients. He tells ua
likewife, that, fo far from any part of it being ufdefs,
the whole plant is at this day ufed in Abyflinia for
making boats, a piece of the acacia tree being put in
the bottom to ferve as a keel. That fuch were the
boats of ancient Egypt, we know from the teftimony
of Pliny, who informs us, that the plants were firft
fewed together, and then gathered up at ftem and
ftern, and tied faft to the keel; “ Conferitur bibula
Memphitis cymba papyro.”
5 * The
PAP
C 723 ]
?i A P
Papym.
Bruce
Travels.
The bottom, root, or woody part of this plant,
was iikewife of feveral ufes before it turned abfolutely
* 10 hard ; it was chewed in the manner of liquorice, ha¬
ving a confi Jerable quantity of fvveet juice in it. This
we learn from Diofcorides; it was, I fuppofe, chewed,
and the fweetuefs fucked out in the fame manner as is
done with fugar-cane. This is ftill ptaftifed in Abyf-
-finia, where they likewife chew the root of the Indian
corn, and of every kind of cyperus ; and Herodotus
tells us, that about a cubit of the lower part of the ftalk
was cut off, and roafted over the fire, and eaten.
** From the fcarcity of wood, which was very great
in Egypt, this lower part Was likewife ufed in making
cups, moulds, and other necefiary utenfils : we need
not doubt, too, one ufe of the woody part of this
plant was, to ferve for what we call boards or covers
for binding the leaves, which were made of the bark ;
we know that this wss anciently one ufe of it, both
from Alcaeus and Anacreon.”
The papyrus, fays Pliny, grows in the marfhes of
Egypt, or in the ftagnant places of the Nile, made by
the flowing of that river, provided they are not beyond
the depth of two cubits. Its roots are tortuous, and
in thicknefs about four or five inches; its item is tri¬
angular, riling to the height of ten cubits. Profper
Alpin gives it about fix or feven cubits above the wa¬
ter ; the Idem tapers from the bottom, and terminates
in a point. Theophraltus adds, that the papyrus car¬
ries a top or plume of finall hairs, which is the thyrfus
of Pliny. Guillandin informs us, that its roots throw
to the right and left a great number of fmall fibres,
which fupport the plant againtt the violence of the
wind, and againft the waters of the Nile. According
to him, the leaves of the plant are obtufe, and like the
typha of the marlhes. Mr Bruce, on the other hand,
allures us, that it never could have exilted in the Nile.
“ Its head (fays he) is too heavy; and in a plain coun¬
try the wind mull have had too violent a hold of it.
The ftalk is fmall and feeble, and withal too tall; the
root too Ihort and flender to ftay it againft the violent
preftiire of the wind and current ; therefore I do con-
ftantly believe it never could be a plant growing in the
river Nile itfelf, or in any very deep or rapid river
but in the califhes or places where the Nile had over¬
flowed and was ftagnant.
The Egyptians made of this plant paper fit for
writing (feePaper), which they call or philuria,
and alfo *«pT»r, and hence the Latin charta; for in
general the word charta is ufed for the paper of E-
gypt-
i he papyrus was produced in fo great quantities
«n the banks of the Nile, that Caffiodorus (lib. xi. 38.)
compares it to a foreft. There, fays he, rifes to the
view, this foreft without branches, this thicket without
leaves, this harveft. of the waters, this ornament of the
marlhes. Profper Alpin is the firft who gives us a
plate of the papyrus, which the Egyptians call berdi.
Plowever badly this may be executed, it correfponds in
fome degree with the defeription of the plant mentioned
by Theophraftus ; but by much the bell drawing of it
has been given by Mr Bruce, who has very obliging¬
ly permitted us to give a copy of it. See Plate
CCCLXXV.
The ancient botanifts placed the papyrus among
the graminous plants or dog-grafs; ignorant of the
particular kind to which it belonged, they were con- Papyni*-
tented to fpecify it under the name of papyrus, of -v—
which there were two kinds, that of Egypt, and that
of Sicily. The moderns have endeavoured to Ihow,
that thefe two plants are one and the fame fpecies of
cyperus. It is under this genus that they are found
in the catalogues and deferi^tions of plants publilhed
fince the edition of Morrifon’s work, where the papyrus
is called cyperus niloticus vel Syriacus maximus papyracens.
In the manuferipts of the letters and obfervations
of M. Lippi phyfician at Paris, who accompanied
the envoy of Louis XIV. to the emperor of Abyf-
finia, we find the defeription of a cyperus which
he had obferved on the banks of the Nile in 1704.
After having deferibed the flowers, he fays that many
ears covered with young leaves are fupported by a
pretty long pedicle ; and that many of thofe pedicles,
equally loaded and coming from one joint, form a
kind of parafol. The dilk of this parafol is fur-
rounded with a quantity of leaves which form a crown
to the ftem which fupports it. The Item is a pretty
long prifm, the corners of which are a little rounded ;
and the leaves, not at the top but at the fide, are
formed like the blade of a fword; the roots are black
and full of fibres ; and this plant is called cyperus Ni-
leacus major, umbella multiplies.
The fame Lippi deferibes another kind which rifes
not fo high ; the ftem and leaves correfpond with the
former, but the ears form rather a kind of head than
any thing like the fpreading of an umbrella ; this head
was very foft, fhining, and gilded rich and airy, much
loaded, fupported by pedicles which were joined to¬
gether at the bottom like the knitting of a parafol.
It is called by him cyperus Nileacus major aurea, divipx
pannicula. Thefe two kinds of cyperus have a marked
refemblance in their leaves, their ftem, their foliage,
and the marfhy places where they grow. The only
difference confifts in their fize, and in the pofition of
the ears, which ferve to diftinguifh them ; and they
feem to bear a refemblance to the papyrus and the fan',
deferibed by ancient authors. The firft is perhaps the
papyrus, and the fecond the fari; but this is only con¬
jecture.
The papyrus, which grew' in the waters, is faid to
have produced no feed ; but this Mr Bruce very pro¬
perly calls an abfurdity. “ The form of the flower
(fays he) fufficientiy indicates, that it was made to
refolve itfelf into the covering of one, which is certainly
very fmall, and by its exalted fituation and thicknefs
of the head of the flower, feems to have needed the
extraordinary covering it has had to protedl it from the
violent hold the wind muft have had upon it. For the
fame reafon, the bottom of the filaments compofing
the head are fheathed in four concave leaves, which
keep them clofe together, and prevent injury from the
wind getting in between them.” Its plume wTas com-
pofed of flender pedicles, very long, and fomewhat like
hair, according to Theophraftus. The fame peculiarity
exifts in the papyrus of Sicily ; and the fame is found
to exift in another kind of papyrus lent from Madagaf-
car by M. Poivre, correfpondent of the academy of
fciences.
It is impoffible to determine whether the papyrus of
Sicily was ufed in any way by the Romans. In Italy
it is called paperoy and, according to Cefalpin, pipero.
4 Y 2 This
PAP
Papyrus. This papyrus of Sicily has been cultivated in the gar-
den of Pifa ; and if we can depend on the authority of
Cefalpin, who hitnfelf examined the plant, it is diffe¬
rent from the papyrus of Egypt. •
The papyrus, fays he, which is commonly called
plpero in Sicily, has a longer and thicker ftem than the
plant cyperus. It rifes fometimes to four cubits; the
angles are obtufe, and the flem at the bafe is fur-
rounded with leaves growing from the root ; there are
no leaves on the ftem even when the plant is at the
greatell perfeftion, but it carries at the top a large
plume winch refembles a great tuft of difhevelled hairs;
this is compofed of a great number of triangular pedi-
cles, in the form of reeds ; at the extremity of which
nre placed the flowers, between two fmall leaves of a
reddifh colour like the cyperus. i he roots are woody,
about the thicknefs of reeds, jointed, and they throw
out a great number of branches which extend them-
felves in an oblique direction. Thefe are feented fome-
what like the cyptrus, but their colour is a lighter
brown ; from the lower part iffue many fmall fibres,
end from the higher a number of Hems fhoot up,
which in proportion as they are tender contain a fweet
juice.
The plume of the papyrus of Sicily is pretty well
deferibed in a fhort account of it in the fecond part
of the Mufttum de Boccone. This plume is a tuft
or aflemblage of a great number of long flender pe¬
dicles, which grow from the fame point of divifion,
are difpofed in the manner of a parafol, and which
carry at the top three long and narrow leaves, from
which iflue other pedicles, ftiorter than the former, and
terminating in feveral knots of flowers. Micheli, in his
Nova Plantarum Genera., printed at Florence 1728,
has given an engraving of one of the long pedicles in
its natural length : it is furrounded at the l>«fe with a
tafe of about one inch and a half in height ; towards
the extremity it carries three long and narrow leaves,
and four pedicles, to which are fixed the knots of
Bowers. Every pedicle has alfo a fmall cafe furround¬
ing its bafe. In fhort, we find in the Grojlo Graphla
of Schenchv.er a very particular defeription of the
plume of a kind of cyperus, which appears to be the
Sicilian plant. From this account it appears that the
papyrus of Sicily is well known to botanifts. It were
to be wiftied that we had as particular a defeription
of the papyrus of Egypt; but meanwhile it may be
obferved, that thefe two plants have a near affinity to
one another ; they are confounded together by many
authors; and according to Theophraftus, the fari and
the papyrus nilotica have a decided charadter of refem-
blance, and only differ in this, that the papyrus fends
forth thick and tall ftems, which being divided into
fiender plates, are fit for the fabrication of paper;
whereas the fari has fmall ftems* eonfiderably fhorter,
and altogether ufelefs for any kind of paper.
j he papyrus, which ferved anciently to make paoer,
muft not be confounded with the papyrus of Sicily,
found alfo in Calabria ; for, according to Strib'on,
the papyrus was to be found in no place excepting E-
gypt and India. I he greateft part of* botanifts have
believed that the Sicilian plant is the fame with the
lari of -Theophrallus; others have advanced that 'the
papyrus o! Egypt and the fari were the fame plant in
Jwo different llages of its exiftcnce, or confidered with.
r 7h 1
PAP
refpedt to the greater or lefs height-, which, according Papyrus,
to them, might depend on the qualities ef the foil,1—-v"—^
the difference of the climate, or other accidental caufes.
In proof of this, it is maintained, that there is an
efiential difference between the papyrus gro ving in the
waters and the fame plant growing on the banks of
rivers and in marftres. The firft of thefe have thick
and tall ftems, and a plume in the foim of a tuft of
hair very long and flender, and without any feedt
the fscond differs from the firft in all thtfe particu¬
lars ; it has a fhorter and more flender ftem, its plume
is loaded with flowers, and of confequence it produces
feed. In whatever way we confider thefe fails, it is
fuffieient for us to know, that the difference between
the papyrus and the fari neither depends on climate,
nor foil, nor on fit nation. The plants whofe diffe¬
rence depended on thefe circumftanees, both grew in
Egypt, and were both employed in the manufafture of
piper. But it is an eftabltfhed fa&, that the fari can¬
not be employed for this purpofe.
Finally, the papyrus of Sicily began to be known
by botanifts in 1570, 1572, 1583, at which periods
the works of Lobct, .of Gffillandin, and of Cefalpin,
firft appeared. The ancients had no manner of know¬
ledge of this plant. Pliny makes no mention of it in
his Natural Hiftory ; from which it is evident that it
was neither ufed in Rome nor in Sicily. If he had
feen this plant, he muft have been ftruck with its re-
femblance to the papyrus and the fari, as they w^ere
defciibed by Theophraftus ; and fince he gives a par¬
ticular defeription of thefe lalt mentioned, he would
have moft naturally hinted at their conformity to the
Sicilian papyrus.
_ Among many dried plants colle&ed in the Eaft In¬
dies by M. PoivrCj there is a kind of papyrus very dif¬
ferent from that of Sicily. It carries a plume dbm-
pofed of a confiderable tuft of pedicles, very long,
weak, flender, and delicate, like Angle threads, termi¬
nating moft frequently in two or three fmall narrow
leaves, without any knot of fiovers between them;
hence this plume mull be altogether barren. Thofe
pedicles or threads are furniihed with a pretty long
membranous cafe, in which they are inferted; and
they iffue from the fame point of direflion, in the man¬
ner of a parafol. The plume, at its .firft appearance,
is furrounded with leaves like the radii of a cm
The ftem which fupports it is, according to M. P e*
ajout ten feet in height, where there is tw-offeet u $
water; it is of a triangular form, but the angles
roundeu ; its thicknefs is about the lize of a walkings
ftaff which fills the hand.
The interior fubftance, althongh foft and full of
fibres, is folid, and of a white colour. By this means
the ftem poffeffes a certain degree of ftrength, and is
capable of-reiiftance. It bends without breaking; and
a> it is extremely light, it ferns in fome fort for a cane:
The fame M. Poivre ufed no other during a refidence
of feveral months at Madagafcar. This Item is not of
equal thicknefs in its whole length ; it tapers infen-
fibly from the thickeft part towards the top. It is
without knots, and extremely fmooth. When this
plant gro A's out of the waters, in places Amply moift,
it is much fmalier, the ftems are lower, and the plume'
is compofed of Ihorter pedicles or thread's, terminating
at the top in three narrow leaves, a little longer than
thofe
I
PAR
F 725 1
PAR
T 'hokT
Paralllfu?.1^ ^e°m ran ed ag they are in the cyperus ; but fic. He afterwards travelled into France,, bpa.n^lta.y, paralff.
'•—» Ifc k„o.’5 are not ^e-tel above the pedicle,, they and Gerotany in order to become aequa.n.ed wtAt,«
ntrp nf the three leives between which mofl celebrated phyficians. At his return to S.vua
.tvTre p a: d land, he floppedht Baft!, where he read leanres on
Thl have, which fpring from the root and the lower phytic in the German tongue. He was one of Ae fiat
r *1 Rr»m rpTemhle exaftlv thofe in the cyperus. who made ufe of chemical remedies witn fuc s> J
PA".0plan« which Ae inhabihnts call /&*£>*». which he acquired a vet, great reputation P...cdf»»
i ms piam, wuicu 1.1 . ■' ^ J - _mr:P i :n AeR,ovinp the method eftabhlhed by Lralen,
prows in great abundances then nvers and o^thnr glorted tn ^ ; J b ^
of thefe means drew upon himfelf the hatred of the ounn pu>-
plant tor mats; they make ficians. It is faid, that he boafted of being able, by
Kfo into tml, i^daf for their fi^ng-honfes, “ ^
and into cords for their nets. a^s • uul- r - • • •
L W iay i ■* » • — ~
Geneva in i6s8, in 3 vols folio.
PARACENTESIS, an operation m lurgery, com-
to what ptfrpofcVthe inhabitants of the places where ^“'A name given to
they grow have made themfubfervient; or, bn the other, PARACEL l, the Comforter, g
its nowers, inorwb, uuu. t.iit.i>- “iv- -" ” '
pet us which might e-.fily be confounded with the pa¬
pyrus of Egypt; whethei we confider, on the one hand,
they grow nave mauc   ^ .
thei>AR5ADEf'in a military fenfe, the place -here
points in which they refemhle each other, d his com-
parifon can be eaSIy made from the accounts wnich
Pliny and Theophraftus gave of the papyrus of Egypt,
and by the -figure and defeription given by Profper
Alpin, after having obferved the plant on the banks
of the Nile. But if we can depend on the teftimony
of Strabo, who affirms that the papyrus is found no¬
where but in Egypt and in India, it is perhaps po.-
fible that the pipyrus of the ifle of Madag dear, fi-
tuated at the mouth of India, is the fame with that of
Jvrypt.
"Whatever truth mry bp in this conjetture, the inha¬
bitants of this ifland hav^ never derived from it thofe
advantages which have immortalifed the papyrus of
Egypt. ’ They have not made that celebrated paper
quo ufu maxhve hamanitas, vita, conjlat ei memoria. Phis
remarkable expreffion of Pliny not only characterizes
th6Egyptian paper, but every kind which art and in-
duftry have’fubftituted in its place.
PAR, in commerce, fignifies any two things equal
in value. See Exchange.
PARABLE, a fable or allegorical inftrufction,
founded on fomething real or apparent in nature or
hhtory, from which a moral is drawn by comparing it
with fomething in which the people are more imme¬
diately concerned ; fuch are the parables of Gives and
Lazarus, of the Prodigal Son, of the 1 en Virgins,
&c. Dr Blair obferves, that “ of parables, which form
n part of allegory, the prophetical writings are full ;
and if to us they fometimes appear obfeure, we nuift
remember, that in thofe early times it was univtrfiilly
the mode throughout all the eaftern nations to convey
troops affemble or draw together, to mount g ird, or
for any other purpofe.
Parade, in fencing, implies the aft on of parrying
or turning off any thruft. _ «
PARADIS (Francis Augufiine) de Moncrif. See
Moncrif. . . „ r 1 c
PAR.ADISE, a term principally ufed for the gar¬
den of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed
immediately upon their creation.
As to this terreftrial paradife, there have been many
inquiries about its fituation. It has been placed in the
third heaven, in the orb of the moon, in the moon it-
felf, in the middle region of the air, above the earth,
under the earth, in the place pofieffed by the Cafpian:
fea, and under the arilic pole. The learned Huetms
places it upon the river that is produced by the con-
jun&ion of the Tigris and Euphrates, now called tue
rimr of the Arabs, between this conjunaion and trie
divifion made by the fame river before it falls into the
Per fun fea. Other geographers have placed it in Ar¬
menia, between the fources of the Tigris, toe Eu¬
phrates, the Araxis, and the Phafis, which they fup-
pofe to be the four rivers defenbed by Moles. But
concerning the exaft place we muft neceffmly be
very uncertain, if indeed it can be thought at all to ex-
i’d at prefent, cor.fidering the many ch mges which have
takenXplace on the furface of the earth fince the crea-
<< Learned men (fays Mr Miln ^) have laboured p}.^f,ca
find out the fituation of Para hie, which fee ms to be Tteol
but a vague and uncertain inquiry ; for the Mofaic de- LeXunr,
all the eaftern nations to convey ^ not fait any place on the prefect
facrel truths under my ft e nous igures an repre en a- ^ mentions two rivers in its vicinity, wz. Px-
trons.” o — - • • «  n.:  
PARABOLA. See Consc Seffions.
PARABOLE. See Oratory, it3 84.
PA KACELSU3 (Aurelius Philip d heophraftus
Bombaftus de Hohenheim), a famous phyfician, born
at Einfidlen, a town in the canton of Schweitz in Swif-
ion and Gihon, of which no veftiges can now be found.
The other two ftill remain, viz. the Hiddekel, fuppo-
fed to be the Tigris, and the Euphrates, whole ftreums
unite together at a confiderable diftance a.;ovc the
Periian gulph ; in fome part of which, it^is highly
ferland.
cn, a town in tne cavnon 01 ocuwcit/. u. own- - D „„„„ ia,T / , r
He was educated with great care by bis fa- probable the happy garden once lay (. )
This gulph
is
0) “ Cod («re »« toU) tfaeJ at tit <f &t* tknimt and ojlamins/■word,
PAR
?aradife. i3 eaftward both of the land of Midian and Wll.
dernefs of Sinai; in one of which places Mofes wrote
his hiftory. But fmce the form ition of this earth, it
has undergone great cnanges from earthqnakea, inun¬
dations, and many other caufes. The garden, how¬
ever, feems to have been a peninfula, for the way or
entrance into it is afterwards mentioned. We are told
tnat a ‘ river went out of itwhich, according to
fome, ihould be rendered ‘ run on the outfide of it,’
and thus gave it the form of a horfe-fhoe : for had the
Euphrates run through the middle of the garden, one
half of it would have been ufelefs to Adam, without a
bridge or boat wherewith to have crofied it.”
The learned authors of the Univerfal Hiftory, in
their account of rarities natural and artificial in Syria,
mention “ a fpot which i-s ftill ftiown as the place where
once flood the garden of Eden, or Terreftrial Pnradife.
And indeed it is in all refpe&s fo beautiful and rich,
and yields fo delightful a profpeft from the adjacent
hills, that there is hardly another place in the world
that has a fairer tide to the name it bears. Its proxi¬
mity to Damafcus, the capital of Syria, near the foun¬
tain head of the Jordan ; its fituation between the Ti-
giis or Hiddekel, the Euphrates, the Phafisor Phifon,
t .c Araxes or Gihon (which laft has thofe names from
its yaft rapidity above all other known rivers), its bor¬
dering upon the land of Chus, famed for its fine gold ;
’ dil thefe and many other marks fpecified by Mofes,
together with its charming and furprifmg fruitfulnefs*
and conftant verdure, have induced a great number of
commentators to fettle that celebrated and fo much
* fought after fpot here, and to deem it the molt valuable
ol all die natural rarities of this country.”
Chriftians, however, need not be told, that however
curious or amufing this inquiry may be, the determi-
nation of it is of no^ importance, fince we are all well
. ed tnat the celeftial paradife is that place of pure
and refined delight in which the fouls of the blefled
enjoy everlafting happinefs.
^ It may not be improper, however, in this place to
give a dtfcnption of the paradife of the Mohamme¬
dans. The fenfuality and abfurdity of that impoftor
muft be apparent to all men. Their religion has no
coniiftency in its parts, and the deferiptions of the fu¬
ture enjoyment of the faithful are miferable inftances
of human weaknefs and folly.
“ The paradife of the Mohammedans is faid by
diem to be fituated above the feven heavens, or in the
feventh, and next under the throne ©f God ; and toex-
prefs the amenity of the place, they tell us that the
earth of it is of the fineft wheat-flour, or of the pureft
n;uIk, or ol faffron ; and that its (tones are pearls and
jacinths, the walls of its buildings enriched with gold
and filver, and the trunks of all its trees of gold, amongft
t 726 ] PAR
the wil- which the moft remarkable Is the tree /uta, or tree of
happinefs. They pretend that this tree (lands in the
palace of Mohammed, though a branch of it will reach
to t.ie houfe of every true believer, loaded with pome¬
granates, dates, grapes, and other fruits of furprifin*
bignefs, and delicious taftes, unknown to mortals. If
a man denies to eat of any particular kind of fruit it
wnl immediately be prefented to him ; or if he choofe,
floh, birds ready dreifed will be fet before him, and
fuch as he may wifli for. They add, that this tree
will fupply the blefled, not only with fruit, but with
(ilk garments alfo, and beads to ride on, adorned with
nch trappings, all which will burft forth from the
fruit ; and that the tree is fo large, that a perfon
mounted on the fleeted horfe would not be able To gal¬
lop from one end of its ftiade to the other in 100
years. Plenty of water being one of the gteateft ad¬
ditions to the pleafantnefs of ayy place, the Alcoran
often fpeaks of the rivers of paradife as the principal
ornament. Some of thefe rivers are faid to flow with
water, fome with milk, fome with wine, and others
with honey : all of them have their fources in the root
of this tree of happinefs ; and, as if thefe rivers were
not fufficient, we are told that the garden of this para-
dife is alfo watered by a great number of leffer fpringa
and fountains, whofe pebbles are rubies and emeralds,
their earth of camphor, their beds of muik, and their
fu,es of faffron. But all thofe glories will be eclipfed
by the refplendent and exquiiite beauty of the girls of
paradife, the enjoyment of whofe company will con-
ititutc the Drmcinnl fplirMtxr t'i r
Paradi
ititute the principal felicity of the faithful. Thefe
(they fay) are not formed of clay, as mortal women,
but of pure mufk ; and are, as their prophet often af¬
firms in his Alcoran, free from all the natural defetfs
and inconveniences incident to the fex. Being alfo of
the flrideft modefty, they keep themfelves fecluded
from public view in pavilions of hollow pearls, fo large,
that, as fome traditions have it, one of them will be
no lefs than 16, or, as others fay, 60 miles long,
and as many broad. With thefe the inhabitants of
paradife may tafte pleafures in their height; and for
this purpofe will be endowed with extraordinary abi¬
lities, and enjoy a perpetual youth.”
Paradise-Lojly the name of a modern epic poem,
the fird and fined of thofe compofed by Milton.
j. ne fubjedft of this poem is extraordinary; it had
never before been attempted, and feemed to be above
the efforts of human genius. Angels and devils are
not the machinery, but the principal adors in it; fo
that what would appear marvellous in any other com-
polition, is in this only the natural courfe of events.——
The poet s intention was, as he expreffes it himfelf, to
vindicate the ways of God to men. How far Milcon
was happy in the choice of his fubjed, may be
queftioned.
1 -
ryZT\!v\r'P the~ ry !fthe trre °f nfe' In ScriPture> the extraordinary judgments of God are faid to be
: . orZillSlb.; l“e C0Tred,t0 T °‘ f,re- Thcref°re lh‘ cherubim aad thl at
. , 1 . ^ . nothing more than that a large portion of ground on the eaftward of Para-
•„r - a diftance appe^re j6^^ f0”’ and C°"tinUed burning with fuch violence, that the flame
hituminonsP!Ilke that ' a f “I,d,l,lccl fw"r,?> c«ty way with the »ind. Now if the foil of
tummous l,ke that of Gomorrah (which was once fo fertile a. to be compared to the “ garden
turned 1 IT “ r '' P™doced the ^ effea In the one place as it did in
h.. r s the ^oi thofc
FAR [ 727 1 PAR
faradife, queftioned. It has led him into difficult ground, the legs is, that the birds are more eafily preferred Paradifea.
Paradifea though Jt certainly fulled the daring fublimity of without them ; befides that the Moors wanted the
^ his geiiiug. It is a fubjeft for which he alone was birds without legs, in order to put them on in their
fitted; and, in the conduft of it, he has ffiovvn a mock fights as ornaments to their helmets. The.in-
ftretch both of imagination and invention which is habitants of Aroo, however, have brought the birds
perfeftly wonderful. with legs for 80 or 90 years ; and Pijafetta, ffiipmate
Bird of Paradise. See the following article. of Ferdinand Magellan, proved, about the year 1525,
PARADISEA, in ornithology ; a genus of birds an eye-witnefs that thefe creatures were not without
Plate belonging to the order of pics. The beak is covered legs. However, the peculiar length and ftrufrure of
eccLXXiv. with J be{t or cojjar of downy feathers at the bafe ; their fcapular feathers hinders them from fettling, in
and the feathers on the fides are very long. high winds, on trees ; and when they are thrown on
“ Birds of this genus (fays Latham) have the bill the ground by thefe winds, they cannot rife again. If
flightly bending ; the bafe covered with velvet-like fea- taken by the natives, they are immediately killed, as
thers. The noftrils are fmall, and concealed by the their food is not knovyn ; and they defend themfeives
feathers. The tail confiils of 10 feathers; the two with great courage with their formidable bills,
middle ones, and fometimes more in feveral of the fpe- Latham enumerates eight fpecics, but fufpe&s there
cies, are very long, and webbed only at the bafe and may be more. We lhall faiisfy ourfelves with the
tips. The legs and feet are very large and ftrong: following :
they have three toes forward, one backward, and the 1. The largeft bird of Paradife is commonly two
middle connefted to the outer one as far as the feet four inches in length ; the head is fmall; the bill
fkft joint. The whole of this genus have, till lately, hard and long, of a pale colour. The head and back-
been very imperfe&ly known ; few cabinets poffeffing part of the neck is lemon-coloured, a. little black about
more than one fpecies, viz. the Greater, or what is the eyes ; about the neck, the bird is of the brighteil
called the common bird of Paradife; nor has any fet of gloffy emerald green, foft like velvet; as is alfo the
birds given rife to more fables, the various tales con- bread, which is black : the wings are large, and chef-
cerning which are to be found in every author; fuch nut-colouted; the back-part of the body is covered
as, their never touching the ground from their birth with long, ftraight, narrow feathers, of a pale brown
to death ; living wholly on the dew; being produced colour, fimilar to the plumes of the rjfirich. Thefe
without legs; and an hundred fuch {lories, too ridi- feathers are fpread when the bird is on the wing ; for
culous even to mention. This laft error is fcarcely at which reafon he can keep very long in the air. On -
this moment wholly eradicated. The circumftance both fides of the belly are two tufts of ftiff and fhorter
which gave rife to it did not indeed at firft. proceed feathers, of a golden yellow, and ffiining. Fiom the
from an intention to deceive, but merely from accident, rump proceed two long lliff ftiafts, which are feather-
In the parts of the world which produce thefe birds, ed on their extremities.
the natives made ufe of them as aigrets, and other or- Thefe birds are not found in Key, an ifiand fifty
naments of drefs ; and in courfe threw away the lefs Hutch miles eaft of Banda ; but they are found at
brilliant parts. The whole trouble they were at on the Aroo iflands, lying 15 Dutch miles farther call
this occafion, was merely to flein the bird, and, after than Key, during the wefterly or dry monfoon ; and
pulli'ig off the legs, coarfer parts of the wings, &c. they return to New Guinea as foon as the eafler-
thruft a ttick down the throat into the body, letting ly or wet monfoon fets in. They come always in a
an inch or two hang out of the mouth, beyond the flock of 30 or 40, and are led by a bird which
bill; on the bird’s drying, the fkin collapfed about the the inhabitants of Aroo call the king. This leader is
flick, which became fixed, and fupported the whole, black, with red fpots ; and conftantly flies higher than
They had then no more to do than to put this end of the reft of the flock, which never forfake him, but
it into a focket fitted to receive it, or fallen it in fome fettle as foon as he fettles : a circumftance that fre-
manner to the turban, See. By degrees thefe were qucntly proves their ruin when the king lights on the
imported into the other ifies for the fame ufes, and ground, whence they are not able to rife on account
afterwards were coveted by the japanefe, Chinefe, and of the lingular ftructure and difpofition of their plu-
Perfians, in whofe countries they are frequently feen, mage. They are likewife unable to fly with the wind,
as well as in many parts of India ; the grandees of which would ruin their loofe plumage ; but take their
thefe laft parts not only ornamenting themfilves with flight conftantly againft it, cautious not to venture out
thefe beautiful plumes, but adorning even their horfes in hard blowing weather, as a ftrong wind frequently
with the fame.” „ obliges them to come to the ground. During their
The Portuguefe firft found thefe birds on the ifland flight they cry like ftarlings. Their note, however,
of Gilolo, the Papua iflands, and New Guinea; and approaches more to the croaking of ravens ; which is
they were known by the name of birds of the fun. The heard very plainly when they are in diflrefs from a
inhabitants of Ternate call them manuco denvata, the frclh gale blowing on the back of their plumage. In
bird of God;” whence the name manuco diatay ufed Aroo, thefe birds fettle on the higheft trees, efpe-
by fome naturalifts, is derived. According to fome fa- daily on the ficus benjamina of the bonus malaba-
bulous accounts, this bird has no legs, lives conftantly ricus, commonly called the waringa tree. The natives
on wing, and in the air ; and, in confirmation of thefe catch them with bird-lime or in noofes, or fhoot them
accounts, the legs of all the dead birds offered to f?.le with blunt arrows; but though fome are ftill alive
were cut off. But the inhabitants of Aroo, who refort when they fall into their hands, the catchers kill them
yearly toBanda, undeceived the Dutch, and freed them immediately, and fometimes cut the legs off; then
from thofe prejudices. Another reafoo for cutting off they draw out the entrails, dry and fumigate the bo¬
dies
PAR
faradifca, J'es witli j^ulphur or fmoke only, anJ fell them, at
Banda for half a rlxdollar each; but at Aroo they may
be bought for a fpike-nail or a piece of old iron.
Flocks of thefe birds are often feen flying from one
inland to the other againfl the wind. In cafe they
find the wind become too powerful, they fly ftraight
up into the air, till they come to a place where it is
lefs agitated, and then continue their flight. During
the e.'ftern rnonfoon their tails are moulted, fo that
they l ave them only during four months of the weftern
monfoon.
2. The fmaller bird of Paradife is about 20incheslong.
His beak is lead colotired, and paler at the point. The
eyes are fmall, and inclofed in black about the neck. The
head and back of the neck are of a dirty yellow ; the
back of a greyifh yellow; the breail and belly of a dufky
colour; the wings fmall, and chefnut-coloured. The
long plumage is about, a foot in length, and paler than
in the large fpecies ; as jn gem ral the colours of this
fcird are lefs bright than the former. The two long
feathers of the tail are conftantly thrown away by the
natives. This is in all refpefts like the greater fort ;
and they likewife follow a king or leader, who is,
diowever, blacker, with a purplish call, and finer in
colour than the reft. The neck and bill are larger in
the male than in the female. They rood on the tops
of the higheft trees, and do not migrate like the other
kind. Some fav, that the birds of this fpecies, find¬
ing themfelves weak through age, foar ftraight to¬
wards the fun till they are tired, and fall dead to the
ground. The natives draw the entrails, fear the birds
with a hot iron, and put them in a tube of bamboo
for prefervation.
3. and 4. The large black bird of Paradife is
brought without wings or legs for fale; fo that no ac¬
curate dtfeription of it hath yet been given. Its fi¬
gure, when fluffed, is narrow and round, but ftreteh-
cd in length to the extent of four fpans. The plu¬
mage on the neck, head, and belly, is black and vel¬
vet-like, with a hue of purple and gold, which ap¬
pears very ftrong. The bill is blackiih, and one inch
in length. On both fides are two bunches of fea¬
thers, which have the appearance of wings, although
they be very different, the wings being cut offby the na¬
tives. This plumage is foft, broad, fimilar to pea¬
cocks feathers, with a glorious glofs and greenifh hue,
and all bent upwards ; which Valentine thinks is occa-
iioned by the birds being kept in hollow bamboo-reeds.
The feathers of the tail are of unequal length; thofe
next to the belly are narrow', like hair ; the two up-
permoft are much longer, and pointed ; thofe imme¬
diately under them are a fpan and a half longer than
the upper ones ; they are (tiff, on both fides fringed
with a plumage like hair, black above, but gloffy be¬
low. Birds of this kind are brought only from one
particular pBce of New Guinea. Befides the large
black bird of Paradife, there is hill another fort, whofe
plumage is equal in length, but thinner in body, black
above, and without any remarkable glofs, not Having
thofe inking peacock-feathers which are found on the
greater fpectes. This wants likewife the three long
pointed feathers of the tail belonging to the larger
black fpecies.
5. The white bird of Paradife is the mofl rare, and
has two varieties; one quite white, and the other black
N° 2$9.
PAR
and white. The former is very rare. The fecond has ParaTfcs,
the fore-part black, and the back part white; with Paiacfj*-
12 crooked wiry ihafts, which are aim oft naked, tho’,
in fome places, covered with hairs.
6. in the year 1689 a new fpeefes of the black
bird of Paridife was feen in Amhoyna. This v:as
only one foot in length, with a fine purple hue, a
fimll head, and a ftraight bill. On its back, near the
wings, a-e feathers of a bine and purple colour, as on
the other birds of Paradife ; but under the wings and
over all the belly they are yellow coloured, as in the
common fort: on the back of the neck they are
moufe-coloured mixed with green. It is remarkable
in this fpecies, that there are before the wings two
roundiui tufts of feathers, which are green-edged, and
may be moved at pleafure by the bird, like wings.
Inilead of a tail, he has 12 or 13 black, naked, wire-
hke fliafts, hanging promifeuoufiy like feathers. His
legs are Itrong, and have iharp claws. The head in
remarkably fmall; and the eyes are alfo fmall, and fur-
rounded with black.
7. The laft fpecies we (hall mention is the king’s bird.
This creature is about feven inches long, and fomewhat
larger than a titmoufe. Its head and eyes are fmall ;
the bill ftraight ; the eyes included in circles-of bhek
plumage; the crown of the head is flame-coloured; the
back of the neck blood-coloured ; the neck and breaft
of a chefnut colour, with a ring of the brightell eme¬
rald-green. Its wings are in proportion ftrong; and
the quill-feathers dark, with red ihining plumes, foots,
and ftripes. The tail is ftraight, fhort, and brown.
Two long naked black drafts projed from the rump,
at leall a hand-breadth beyond the tail ; having at
their extremities fenrilunar twilled plumage, of the
moil glaring green colour above, and dulky below.
The belly is white and green fprinkled ; and on each
fide is a tuft of long plumage, feathered with a broad
margin, being on one fide green and on the other
dulky. The back is blood-red and brown, Ihining
like filk. The legs are in lize like thofe of a lark,
three fore-toes and one back-toe. This bird afio-
ciates not with any of the other birds of Paradife ;
but Hits folitary from bulh to bufh, wherever he fees
red-berries, without ever getting on tall trees.
Thofe who wilh for minuter information refpefting
this curious genus, we mull refer to Latham’s Synop-
fis, and Buffon’s Birds, vol. ix. &e.
PARADOX, ™e«Wev, in philofophy, apropofition
feemingly abfurd, as bsing contrary to fome received
opinions, but yet true in fad:.
The vulgar and illiterate take almoft every thing,
even the moll important, upon the authority of others,
without eyer examining it themfelves. Although this
implicit confidence is feldom attended with any bad
•confequences in the common affairs of life,- it has ne-
verthelefs, in other things, been much abufed ; and in
political and religious matters has produced fatal effeds.
On the other hand, knowing and learned men, to avoid
tin’s weaknefs, have fallen into the contrary extreme:
lome of them believe every thing to be-unreafonable,
or irnpofiible, that appears fo to their firlt apprehen-
fion ; net adverting to the narrow limits of the human
underftanding, and the infinite variety of objeds, with
their mutual operations, combinations, and affedions,
that may be prsfented to it.
[ 72S ]
n
PAR t 5
Paradox. It mutt be owned, that credulity has done much
L—V-—' more mifchief in the world than incredulity has done,
or ever will do ; becaufe the influences oF the latter
extend only to fuch as have fome fhsre of literature,
or aflfedt the reputation thereof. And fince the human
mind is not neceffarily impelled, without evidence,
either to belief or unbelief, but may fufpend its aflent
to, or diflent from, arty propofition till after a thorough
examination ; it is to be wiflied that rrien of learning,
cfpecially philofophev , would not haftily, and by firft
appearances, determine themfelves with refpeft to the
truth or falfehood, pofllbility or impofiibility, of
things.
A perfon who has made but little progrefs in the
mathematics, though in other refpe&s learned and
judicious, would be apt to pronounce it impoffible that
two lines, which were nowhere two inches afunder,
may continually approach toward one another, and
yet never meet, though continued to infinity : and yet
the truth of this propofition may be eafily demonftra-
ted. And many, who are good mechanics, would be
as apt to pronounce the fame, if they were told, that
though the teeth of one wheel fhould take equally
deep into the teeth of three others, it fliould affeft
them in fuch a manner, that, in turning it any way
round its axis, it fhould turn one of them ^he fame
way, another the contrary way, and the third no way
at all.
No fcience abounds more with paradoxes than geo¬
metry : thus, that a right line ihould continually ap¬
proach to the hyperbola, and yet never reach it, is a
true paradox ; and in the lame manner a fpiral may
continually approach to a point, and yet not reach it
in any number of revolutions, however great.
The Copernican fyltem is a paradox to the common
people; but the learned are all agreed as to its truth.
Geometricians have of late been accufed of maintain¬
ing paradoxes ; and fome do indeed ufe very myfterious
terms in expreffing themfelves about afymptotes, the
fums of infinite progreflions, the areas comprehended
between curves and their afymptotes, and the folids
generated from thefc areas, the length of fome fpirals,
&c. But all thefe paradoxes and myfleries amount to
no more than this; that the line or number may be
continually acquiring increments, and thofe increments
may deereafe in fuch a manner, that the whole line or
number fhall never amount to a given line or number.
The necefiky of admitting it is obvious from the na¬
ture of the moll common geometrical figures : thus,
*vhile the tangent of a circle increafes, the area of the
correfponding feiftor increafes, but never amounts to a
quadrant. Neither is it difficult ta conceive, that if a
. figure be concave towards a bafe, and have an alymp-
tote parallel to the bafe (as it happens when we take""
a parallel to the afyuvutote of the logarithmic curve,
or of the hyperbola, for a bafe), that the ordinate
in this cafe always increafes while the bife is produced,
Vol.XIII. Part II.
19 1 PAR
but never amounts to the diltance between the afymp- Paradox!
tote and the bafe In like manner, a curvilinear area ,, rJj/uay.
may increafe while the bafe is produced, and approach ^ a ^ ■
continually to a certain finite fpace, but never amount
to it; and a folid may increafe in the fame manner,
and yet never amount to a giv^n folid. See M'Laurins
Fluxions. See LoajRirnMic-Cur’ve.
PARADOXI, a fort of mimes or buffoons among
the ancients, who entertained the people with extem¬
pore tffufions of drollery. They were aifo called Pa-
radoxologt, Orcionarii, Neanicologi> and Aretalogi. See
Mimi.
PARAGAUDjE, among the Romans, were
wreaths of gold, or filk and gold, interwoven in, not
fewed to, their garments. The garment was fometimes
of one colour, with one paragauiae ; fometimes of two
colours, with two paragaudae ; or three colours, with
three paragaudas, &c. They were worn both by men
and women.
PARAGOGE, in grammar, a figure whereby a
letter or fyllable is added to the end of a word; at
med, for me ; dicier^ for dici, 8cc.
PARAGRAPH, in general, denotes a fe&ion or
divifion of a chapter ; and in references is marked
thus,
PARAGUAY, or La Plata, a province of Spa-
nifli America, bounded on the north by the river of
the Amazons; on the eaft, by Brazil; on the fouth,
by Patagonia; and on the well, by Chili and Peru.
This country was firft: difeovered by Seballion Cabot,
who, in x 526, palled from Rio de la Plata to the river
Parana in finall barks, and thence entered the river call¬
ed Uruguay. It was not, however, thoroughly reduced
till the Jefuits obtained poffelfion of it. A few of thefe
went to Paraguay foon after the city of Affumptioft
was founded, and converted about 50 Indian families,
who foon induced many others to follow their example,
on account of the peace and tranquillity they enjoyed
under the fathers. They had long refilled the Spa¬
niards and Portuguefe ; but the jefuits, by learning
their language, conforming to their manners, &c. foon
acquired great authority among them ; till at laft, by
fteadily purfuing the fame artful meafures, they arrived
at the highell degree of power and influence, being in
a manner the abfolute fovereigns of a great part of this
extenfive country ; for above 350,000 families are faid
to have been fubjeft to them, living in obedience and
awe bordering on adoration, yet procured without the
leall violence or conllraint.
We have the following particular account of the mif- ge)lt
fions of Paraguay, in the words of Don Jorge Juan, &c. 1753.
“ The territories of the mil^ons of Paraguay compre¬
hended not only the province of that name, but alfo
a great part of the provinces of Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Tucuman, and Buenos Ayres. The temperature (a)
of the air is good, though fomewhat moiil, and in
fome parts rather cold : the foil in many places is fer-
4 Z tile ;
(a) The climate of Paraguay differs but little from that of Spain ; and the diftin&ions between the feafons
are much the fame. In winter, indeed, violent tempefts of wind and rain are very frequent, accompanied
with Fuch dreadful claps of thunder and lightning as fill the inhabitants, though ufed to them, with terror and
confttination. In fummer, theexceffive heats are mitigated by gentle breezes, which conftantly begin at eight
wr nine in the morning.
PAR l 73o
Paraguay, tile(b)snd produces in great abundance not only the
*-■ v fruits and vegetables peculiar to America, hut alfo
thofe of Europe which have been introduced there.
The chief articles of their commerce are cotton, to¬
bacco, fome fugar, and the herb called Paraguay. Every
town gathers annually more than 2000 arrobas of cot¬
ton, of a quarter of an hundred weight each, which
the Indians manufacture into (luffs. There are alfo
great quantities of tobacco produced. But the chief
arti le is the herb Paraguay : for it grows only in the
diltiidts of the millions; and there is a vail confump-
lion of this herb in all the provinces of Chili and Peru,
efpecially of that called earning which is the pure leaf;
the inrufion of which is called mate, and is diank by
the inhabitants of Lima twice a day in lieu of tea or
chocolate. The mate which is made by the infufion of
the (lalk is not fo much tileemed.
“ ’Tis now aimed; two centuries fincethefe millions
were firft fet on foot by the jefuits. The bad ma¬
nagement of the Portuguefe greatly favoured the views
of thefe fathers. There was a nation ot Indians called
Guaranies, fome whereof were fettled upon the banks
of the rivers Uruguay and Parana, ^nd others sn hun¬
dred leigues higher up in the country to the north-
well of Guayra. The Portuguefe frequently came
upon them, and by force carried away as many as they
thought proper to their plantations, and made (laves
of them. Offended by fuch treatment, the Guaranies
refeived to quit their fettlements in the neighbourhood
of the Portuguefe, and to remove into the province
of Paraguay. Accordingly a migration of 12,000
perfons, great and fmall, enfued. Thefe the Jefuits
focn converted; and having had the like fuccefs in
converting shout an equal number of the natives of
Tape, a didridl in Paraguay, they united the two
nations, and laid the foundation of their future domi¬
nion. Thefe fathers feem to have trode in the (teps of
the firll Incas, and to have civilized nations and con¬
verted fouls in order to acquire fubjedts. According
to a very exadt account taken in the year 1734? there
were then 32 towns of the Guaranies, which were
reckoned to contain above 30,000 families; and as
] PAR
the new converts were continually incrcafmg,- they Paraguav,
were then ; bout laying the foundations of t! * e new' 
towns. Fhere were alfo then feven very populous
towns inhabited by tire converted Chiquito Indians,
and they were preparing to build others for the recep¬
tion of the new converts of that nation which were
daily made.
“ The millions of Paraguay are furrounded on all
hides with wilder unconverted Indians; fome of whom
live in fnemhhip with the towns, hut others harafs
them by frequent meuriions. 1 ae father-miflionaries
frequently vilit thefe Indians, and preach to them ;
and from thefe expeditions they feldom return without
bringing along with them fome new converts to incor¬
porate with their civilized fubjedls. In the perform¬
ance ot this duty they fometimes penetrated 100
leagues into thofe uncultivated tradle where wild In¬
dians range ; and it is obferved that they meet vykh
the lead fuccefs amongd thofe nations with whom anv
fugitive Meflizos, or Spanifh criminals, have taken re¬
fuge. The diligence of thefe fathers is certainly worthy
the imitation of the proteflant clergy. „
“ Every town has its curate, who is affiiled by one,
and very often by two priefts of the fame order, ac¬
cording to the largenefs and extent of the town and
its diftridl. Thefe two or three priefts, together with
fix boys who affift them in the fervice of the church,
form a fmall college in every town, wherein the hours
nnd other exercifes are regulated with the fame forma¬
lity and exaclnefs as in the large colleges in the cities
of Peru and Chili. The mod troublefome part of the
duty of the affiftant priefts are the perfanal vifitacions
which they are obliged to make to the Indians to pre¬
vent their giving themfelves up to idlenefs; for fuch
is the (lothfulnefs of the Guaranies, that if they were
not very carefully looked after, the fociety would re¬
ceive no benefit or advantage from them. They alfo
attend the public (hambles, where the cattle neceffary
for the fullenance of the Indians are daily flaughtered,
and dillribute the (lefti amonglt all the families in the
town, in ptoportion to the number of perfons whereof
each family conliils; fo that all may have what is ne-
ceftary.
(b) It produces maiz, manioc, and potatoes, befides many fruits and fimplcs unknown in Europe. "Vines,
however, do not thrive, except in fome particular places. Wheat has alfo been tried ; but it is only uftd for
cakes, and other things of that kind. There are great numbers of poifonous ferpents, and others of enormous
(Ize, many of which live on fifn. It produces alfo abundance of fugar, indigo, pimento, ipecacuanha, and
variety of other drugs ; and above all the herb Paraguay, which it exports to the value of 100,0^01. annually
to the provinces of Chili and Pern. It is the leaf of a middle-llzed tree, refembliag an orange tree, in take
not unlike mallows. There are three gatherings : firft, the buds before it unfolds its leaves, which is the belt,
but fooneft fubjeft to dec% ; the fecond gathering is the full-grown leaves at the firft expnnfion ; the third is
when the leaves have remained on fome time after they are full blown. The leaves are roafted, and then kept
in pics dug in the ground to be ready for fale. Thefe trees grow principally in the morafles on the call fide
of Paraguay, but now *' £ diftributed all over the country. The manner of ufing it is, to dry and reduce it
alraoll to powder, then put it into a cup with lemon-juice and fugar; boiling water is then poured on it, an l
the liquor drank as foon as may be. It is fuppofed to be ferviceable in all diforiers of tne head, bread, and
(lomacb ; it preferves the miners from the noxious mineral (learns with which they would otherwife be (ufto-
cated ; is a fovereign remedy in putrid fevers and the feurvy ; allays hanger; and purifies ali kind of water,
by infufing it therein. The country is diverfified with forells, mountains, lowlands (great part of the yeai
under water), fertile meadows, and moraffes. Almoll every foreft abounds with bees, which have their hives
in hollow trees. Befides cotton, the country produces hemp, (lax, corn, rice, and wool; and there are fuch
numbers of wild cattle, that they are killed only for their hides. The natives differ not materially from riicic
deferibed under the article America. 7
PAR
Faraway* ceffary. none v .t '‘s fuperfluous. They alfo vifit the
I——V— fi.'k, and fee th -V th<y are properly taken care of.
They are generally employed the whole day in thefe
affairs, fo that they h-.ve feldom time to afiift the
curate in his fpiritual iundions. All the boys and
girls in the pariff, go to church every day in the week
(except on feftivals and Sundays), where they are in-
ftrudte’d ly the curate. On Sundays the whole pariih
gets to church to be inftruhted. ri he curate is belides
obliged to go to confefs the lick, nnd to adminifter
the viaticum to thofe who defire it, and alfo to perform
all the other fundions peculiar to this office. In
flridnefs the curate fhould be appointed in this man¬
ner. The fociety Ihould nominate three perfons to
the governor of Buenos Ayres (in whofe government
the miffions of Paraguay are included), as being vice¬
patron of the milfions, that he may choofe one of them
for curate ; and the curates Ihould be inftrudted in the
duties of their office by the biflrop : but as the pro¬
vincials of the order can heft judge who are properly
qualified for the office, the governor and bifirop have
ceded their rights to them, and by them the curates
are always appointed. The miffions of the Guaranies
and the miffions of the Chiquitos, into which the
miffions of Paraguay are divided, have each their di-
ftindt father-fuperior, by whom the coadjutors or
affidant-curates of the feyeral towns in their refpeftive
diviiions are appointed. Thefe fuperiors are continu¬
ally vjfiting the towns, to fee that they he well go¬
verned, and to endeavour to improve and augment
them. They like wife from time to time take care to
fend out fome fathers of the order into the countries
of the wild Indians to make new converts. The bet¬
ter to enable him to difeharge thefe duties, the fuperior
of the Guaranies is affilted by two vice fuperiors; one
of whom rtfides in Parana, the other upon the banks
of the river Uruguay, and the fuperior himfelf refides
in the town of Candelaria. The poll of fuperior of
the Chiquitos is not near fo troublefome as that of the
fuperior of the Guaranies; for the Chiquitos are not
only lefs numerous, but much more docile and indultri-
ous than the Guaranies, fo that they need not be con¬
tinually watched and attended in order to prevent their
idlenefs. - The king allows an annual ftipe.-J of 300
pezas to each curate of the Guaranies, for the mainte¬
nance of himfelf and his affiftants. The money is paid
to the faperior, who iffues out monthly to each curate
as much as is neceffary for his fubfiftence ; and when
they want any thing extraordinary, their wants are
fupplied upon application to him. But the Chiquitos
maintain their own curates. In every town there is a
plantation fet apart for the maintenance of the curate,
which is cultivated by the joint labour of all the inh^-
bitants. The produce of thefe plantations is generally
more than Efficient for the fubfiilence of the curates,
and the furpius is fold to buy ornaments for the
P A R
churches. Nor are^he curates the fplritual re&ors of Paraguay,
the towns only; they are alfo in effeeb the civil go-
vernors. It is true there are in every town of the
miffions a governor, regidores, and alcaldes, as there
are in the other towns and cities under the Spanifh
government. But though the governor is elected by
the Indian®, he mull be approved by the curate before
he enters upon his office ; nor can he ebattize or puniffi
delinquents without the curate’s permiffion. The cu¬
rate examines thofe who are accufed of offences ; and,
if he finds them guilty, delivers them to the governor
to be punifhed, according to the nature and quality
of the offence committed. He fometimes orders them
to be imprifoned for a few days, fometimes to fait,
and, when the fault is confiderable, to be whipped,
which is the fevered puniffiment that 13 ever inflidted ;
for the regulations and inftrudtions of the curates have
been fo efficacious, that murder and fuch like heinous
crimes are never here committed. And even before
they undergo thefe gentle corredtions, the curate dif-
courfes the offenders in a mild friendly manner; and
endeavours to excite in them a due furfe of their
crime, and of the ill confequences that might flow
from it, and to convince them that they meric a much
greater punilhment than is inflidfed. This mild treat¬
ment prevents tumults and infut rediions, and acquires
the curates univerfal veneration and efteem. The al¬
caldes are chofen annually by the regidores. The go¬
vernor, regidores, and alcaldes are all Indians of the
heft capacities; and are in effedi only fo many over- 1
feers appointed by the curate, and dignified with thtfe
empty titles (c).
“ Every town has its armory or magazine, in which
are lodged the fire arms and other weapons wherewith
the militia are armed when they take the field to repel
the irruptions of the Portuguefe and wild Indians.
The militia are very dexterous and expert in the
man»gem#nt of their arms; and are exercifed on the
eves of fefiivals in the fquares or public places of the
towns. The militia is compofed of all thofe who are
able to bear arms : they are formed into companies,
which have each a proper number of officers chofen
from amongft thofe' who are moft diftinguilhed for
judgment and condudl. The drefs of the officers is
rich, adorned with gold and filver, and the device of
the town to which they belong : they always appear
in their uniforms on feftivals, and on the days of mi¬
litary exercife. The governor, alcaldes, and regidores
have alfo proper robes and drefl'es fuitable to their re-
fpe&ive offices, in which, they appear on public ocej-
fions. There ate fchools in every town, in which the
common people are taught reading and writing, and
alfb malic and dancing; in which arts they become
very fldiful. The Jefuits are very careful in confulting
the natural bent and genius of their fcholars, and in
directing their ftudies and application accordingly.
4 Z 2 The
(c) We rail them empty titles; becaufe in all caufes the Jefuit or curate of the pari fir was a kind of fovereign,
regarded as a petty prince, and obeyed as an oracle. Whatever forms might take place in the choice of the
•chiefs of the fevtral departments, their fuccefs ultimately depended on him. The cacique held of him ; the
general received his commiffion and inftrudtions from him ; and all his decifions were without appeal. There
were, we are informed, not lefs than 60,000 pariftves on the banks of the rivers Uruguay and Parana, not
exceeding the ciftance of 30 miles from each other ; in each of which was a Jefuit or curate.
[ 731 1
PAR [ 73:
Paraguay. The lads of the moa protnifxog genius are taught the
—v~—' Latin tongue with great fuccefs. Itt one of the court,
yards of every curate’s houfe are various Chops or
workhoufes of painters, carvers, gilders, iilverfmiths,
carpenters, weavers, and clockmakers, and of feveral
other mechanics and artizans, who daily work for the
public under the ditedion of the coadjutors, and at
the fame time teach the youth their refpe&ive arts
and occupations. ,
The churches are large, well built, finely decorated
and enlightened, and not inferior to the richeft m
Peru. Each church has a choir of mufic, compofed of
inftruments of all forts, and very good voices ; fo that
divine fervice is celebrated here with as much pomp
and folemnity as in cathedrals: nor are the public
proceffions lefs fplendid, efpecially that of the holt ;
which, whenever it is carried abroad, hi attended by
the governor, alcaldes, and regidores, in their robes,
and alfo by the militia'in a tody. The homes of the
Indians are as well built and as well furnilhed as molt
of the Spanilh boufes in Peru. The greateft part
indeed have mud walls, others are built with brick, and
feme with Itone, but all are covered with tiles. In
every town there is an houfe where gunpowder is made,
that they may never want it when they are obliged to
take arms, and always have it ready to make artificial
fire-works on rejoicing days: for all feitivals are here
obferved with as great ceremony and exaftnefs as in
the greateft cities. Upon the proclamation ot a new-
king of Spain, the governors, alcaldes, regidores, am
officers of the militia, appear dreffed in new robes and
uniforms of a different falhion from thofe they wore
before. There is a fort of a convent in ev.ry town ;
in one part whereof are confined women of an ill dfe,
and the other part is deftined for the reception of
married women who have no family, and wuo retire
thither when their hufbanda are abfent. Por the
maintenance of this houfe, and for the fupport of or¬
phans, and of old and infirm people, all the inhabi¬
tants of the town work two days in every week ; and
the profits of their labour, which is called the labour of
the community, are fet apart for this purpofe. If the
produce of this labour be more than is neceffary for
their fubfiftence, the furplua is laid out to buy orna¬
ments for the churches, and clothes for the orphans
and aged and infirm people; fo that here are no beggars,
nor any who want the neceffanes of life. In ffiort, by
the wife policy and prudent regulations of the Jtfmts,
the whole community enjoys peace and happinefs.
« The Guaranies are fo profufe and ..-gligent, that
the curates are obliged to take into their hands all
their goods and ftuffs as foon as they are manufactured
and made ready for fide ; otherwife they would wafte
and deftroy them, and not be able to maintain them-
felves. The Chiquitos, on the contrary, are diligent
and frugal; fo that the curates have no other treuble
with them than the affifting them in the difpofal ol
their goods, and procuring returns for them. her
this purpofe the fociety keeps a factor or procurator
at Santa Fie and Buenos Ayres, to whom the mer-
char.dife of the miffions is fent to be difpofed of; and
thefe fadfors return the value to the fathers in fuch
forts of Europei n commodities as are wanted. I he
aoods of every town are kept ieparate ; and the royal
taxes are taken out of them without any other dif-
O.
! 1 PAR
counts or allowances, fave the (Upends of the curates of Paraguay
the Guaranies and the penfions of the caciques.. The 'J'~¥ "
fathers choofe to manage the commerce of their fub-
jc£ts themfelves, left they ftiould contract vices by
their communication with other people in this re-
fpedt the fathers are fo careful, that they will not fuf-
fer-any of the people of Peru, whether they be Spa¬
niards, Mtftizos, or Indians, to enter into the terri¬
tories of the miffions. They fay that the Indians are
but juft recovered from a barbarous and diffolute way
of life, and that their manners are now pure and inno¬
cent ; but that if ftrangers were fuffered to come
among them, the Indians would foon get acquainted
with people of loofe lives: and as the Guaranies efpe¬
cially are very prone to vice, wickedneis, diforder,
and rebellion would foon be introduced ; the fociety
would lofe all the fouls they have converted; and their
little republic would be utterly fubverted. However,
there are fome who fufpe£t that thefe are all fpecioua
pretences ; and that the fociety’s real motive for pro¬
hibiting all intercourfe with ftrangers, is the fear of
rivals in the beneficial commerce of Paraguay, which
is now entirely in their hands.”
Such is the account they themfelves have given us
of their own condudl : but others have treated their
charadlers with more feverity ; accufing them of pride,
haughtinefs, and abuling their authority to the greateft
degree ; infomuch that they would have caufed the
magiftrates to be whipped in their prtfence, and obli¬
ged perfons of the higheft diftindlion within their.ju-
riididion to kifs the hem of their garment, as the
greateft honour at which they could poffibly arrive.
To this might be added, the utter abolition of all ideas
of property ; which indeed was rendered ufelefs by
the general magazines and ftore-houfes which they
eitablifhed, and from which, together with the herds
of cattle kept for the public ufe, they fupplied the want
of individuals as occafion required ; yet ftill it wa» ob¬
jected to the charader of the fraternity, that they
pofieffed large property themfelves, and claimed the
abfolute difpofal of the meaneft effeCts in Paraguay.
All manufactures belonged to them ; every natural
commodity was brought to them ; and the treafures
annually remitted to the fuperior of the order were
thought to be a proof that zeal for religion was not the
only motive by which they were influenced.
Befides the parochial or provincial governments,
there was a kind of fupreme council, compofed of an
annual meeting of all the fathers, who concerted the
meafures necellaiy for promoting the common concerns
of the miffion, framed new laws, 'corrected or abohfh-
ed old ones, and, in a word, adapted every thing to
circumftances. It is faid to have been one of the
great objeCts of the annual councils to take fuch mea-
ftires as (hould effeChially deprive ftrangers of all in¬
telligence concerning the ftate of the miffion. Hence
the natives were reftrained from learning the Spamih
tongue, and were taught, that it was dangerous for
their falvation to hold any converfation with a fubjeef
of Spain or Portugal. But the circumftance that ren¬
dered their defigns moft fufpicious, was the eftabliih-
ment of a military force. Every parifh had its corps
of horfe and foot, who were duly exercifed every
Sunday ; and it was faid, that the whole amounted
to a body of 70,000 cr 80,000 troops, well difeiplined.
Such
PAR
[ 733 1
PAR
paralipo-
mena*
d
Parallax.
Such was the (late of this country fome time ago;
but af to its fituation fince the abolition of the iect or
Tefuits we can fay nothing, as very little authentic
intelligence is permitted to pafs from that countiy to
^PARALIPOMENA, in matters of literature, de¬
notes a fupplement of things omitted in a preceding
work.
PARALEPSIS. See Oratory, n° 87.
PARALLACTIC, in general, fomething relating
to the parallax of heavenly bodies.. See Parallax.
PARALLAX, in aftronomy, is the difference be¬
tween the places of any celeftial objeft as feen from
the furface, and from th? centre of the earth at the
fame inftant. • _
fflulhation. Let E in figure of parallax, PIate
reprefent the centre of the earth, O th^- place or
an obferver on its furface, whofe vihble horizon
ig OH, and true horizon EF : Now let ZDT. be
a portion of a great circle in the heavens, and A
the place of any object in the vifible horizon ; join
EA, and produce it to C ; then C is the true place of
the objeft, and H is its apparent place, and the angle
CAH is the parallax ; or, becaufe the object is in the
horizon, it is called the hari%ontal parallax. But
QAE the angle which the earth’s radius fubtends at
the objeft, is equal to CAH : Hence the horizontal
par»llax of an objedl may be defined to- be the angle
which the earth’s fetnidiameter fubtendsat that objcdl.
For the various methods hitherto propofed to find the
quantity of the horizontal parallax of an object, fee
Astronomy, n* 384—399 inclufive. «
The whole efiedt of parallax is in a vertical din >
tion : For the parallaaic angle is in the plane pair ig
through the obferver and the earthy centre ; which
plane is neceflarily perpendicular to the horizon, the
earth being confidered a fphere.
The paral- The more elevated an object is above the horizon,
lax decrea- the lefs is the parallax, its diitance from the earth s
f s with thethe lame. When the objeft is in
fheohieA the zenith, it has no parallax ; but when in the hon-
from the zon, its parallax is greateft. I he horizontal parallax
zenith. being given, the parallax at any given altitude may
^ be found by the following rule : .
The fine of To the logarithmic coline of the given altitude, add
the parallax the i0„ fine 0f t^e horizontal parallax, the fum, rejec-
the fiue*of ting 10 from the index, will be the log. fine of the pa-
thchor.par. rallax in altitude. „
as the co. Demonjlratton. Let B be the place ot an object
fine of ap- prociUCe OB, ED to F aad D ; then the angle BOZ
parent aid Wjj be the apparent altitude of the objeft, BEZ the
radius.0 1 ie true altitude, and OBE the parallax in altitude. Now
in the triangle AOE,
R : fine OAE : : EA : EO.
And in the triangle OBE
BE ( = EA): EO : : fine BOE : fine OBE.
Hence R : cofine BOA : : fine OAE : fine OBE.
As the two lad terms are generally fmall quantities,
the arch may be fubllituted in place of its fine without
any fenfible error.
Example. Let the apparent altitude of the moon’s
centre be 39* 23', and the moon's horizontal parallax
56’ 34'b Required the parallax in altitude :
Moon’s apparent alt. 390 25' cofine 9.8879260
Moon’s horizontal par. 56' 54 fine 8.2188186
Moon’s par. in altitude 43 57' ^ne 8*10674+6
Parallax.'
from the
earth’s
centre.
S
, Parallax ina
creafes the
As the apparent place of an objedl is nearer the ho- ,
rizon than its true place, the parallax is therefore to
be added to the apparent altitude, to obtain the true
altitude. Hence alfo an object will appear to rife
later and fet fooner. _ 4
The fine of the parallax of an objeft is inverfely as The fine of
its diftance from the earth’s centre. of'anTb ^
Demonjlration. Let A be the place of an je(ft in^the
and H the place of the fame objetl at another time, ,nVerfc ra-
or that of another objeCl at the fame inftant; join EH, tio of its
then in the triangles AOE, HOE. dmance
R : fine OAE : : AE : OE
fine OHE : R : : OE : EH
Hence fine OHE : fine OAE ; : AE : EH.
The parallax of an objeft makes it appear more di-
flant from the meridian than it really is. apparent
Demonjlration. The true and apparent places of andhlance 0f
obje£t are in the fame vertical, the apparent place be an objedt
ing lower than the true ; and all verticals meet at the from tn-j
zenith : hence the apparent place of an object is more meu ‘aa“
diftant from the plane of the meridian than the true
place. .
The longitude, latitude, right afeenfion, and deck-
nation of an objeCl, are affeaed by parallax. The dif- lati:7udet '
ference between the true and apparent longitudes is right alcen-
called parallax in longitude ; in like manner, the dif- fion, and
ference between the true and apparent latitudes, right declinauo&r
afeenfions, and declinations, are called the parallax in
latitudey right afeenjion, and declination^ refpeilively —
When the obje£t is in the nonagefimal, the paral¬
lax in longitude is nothing, but" that in latitude is
greateft: and when the objeft is in the meridian, the
parallax in right afeenfion vanifhes, and that in decli¬
nation is a maximum. The apparent longitude is
greater than the true longitude, when the objed is
eaft of the nonagefimal, otherwife lefs ; and when the
objedl is in the eaftern hemiiphere, the apparent right
afeenfion exceeds the true, but is lefs than the true
right afeenfion when the objedl is in the weftern hemi-
fphere. The apparent place of an objeft is more dt-
ftant from the elevated poles of the ecliptic and equa¬
tor than the true place : hence, when the latitude of
the place and elevated pole of the ecliptic are of the
fame name, the apparent latitude is lefs than the true
latitude, othenviie greater ; and the apparent declina¬
tion will be lefs or greater than the true declination,
according as the latitude of the place, and declination
of the objedl, are of the fame or of a contrary denomi-
nation.
The parallaxes in longitude, latitude, right afeen¬
fion, and declination, in the fpheroidal hypothefis, may
be found by the following formulae ; in which L repre-
fents the latitude of the place, diminifhed by the angle
contained between the vertical and radius of the given
place ; P the horizontal parallax for that place ; a the
altitude of the ncnagefimal at the given inftant; d the
apparent diflance of the ofejedt from the nonagefimal.
lx the true and apparent latitudes of the objeft ; D £
the true and apparent declinations refpe&ively ; and
m its apparent diftance from the meridian.
Then par. in long. = P. fine a. fine <7. fecant /, to
radius unity ; and par. in lat. xx: P. cofine a. co¬
fine xz^zp. cofine d. fine a. fine x.
The fign — is ufed when the apparent diftance of
the objedt from the nonagefimal and from the elevated
pole of the ecliptic are of the fame afie&ion, and ths
ftorr* -d.
Para!Jay
I!
Para !e
Joi'ij tdia.
accord* as ,.,e truedifhn^ Zfe“„d ^ T^T' *** T' ^
elevated pole of tl.e ecliptic Is greater or lefs than go". fllht blow 6sma, m ba,« b,oken witl1 »
p’r. in right <«fccn. ~ P. cofine L.. fine m PRAT Or1 • t ■ f
keant D, to radius unity ; and par. in declination faultcommttu?m d^monf "£0^ 1 °r a
= ?• fine L. cofine «f===P. cofine I fine r m t, rtraw / • demonilraUon, when a confequcnce
fine 771, ^ ^ line ^ C°- lsdrawn frorn principles that are falfe; or, though true
^r,t^.cStT7p"h:fd^;-rd
!« to, or a"pARAMeUNrlarly obl“ns f«r-.
in oechnation, according as the true diftance of the words par i e +'r ^°n'fioundeJ ot two French
S ^i^'xrjsrin
nomy, NJ?8a and rP! : 1 7 “ ■ ^STRO’ nements, and lleredltaments.,, As there nrw 1 e a lord
• 7 V A3 f and 3^5- -t here is al,fo a curious paper rnefne where lands arr k^Td A nuy t c a ioid
111 the fi)ft volume of Afiatic Rtfearches, p. 2 2c1 &c holds tknm nf f H ^ f an .1'lfenor lord> w'™
on the fame fubjefl, to which we refer ou£eaders W io 1 ^ Under CertaIn 5 ^ this
»/* „W OcKt, 'is the dWe. chieflbrJ oflord f dPA, kinK “
r* ,hc ?!ac“ of » pl™« .s Veen from the kAdom ’ Co J, ^ °f *B *he ‘“ds ^
b„a;“,de7\hf lVt"‘7fi'ffCrm'e f PARANYMPH, among the ancients, the perfon
fim am! ccrth ,'a called the^L in lonSiJt!™ he .'’’htM XT'“z* dir'fe:’ ?*
tl^rence between ,» latitudes is the ^ in «. caufe the ceredon^t^ C7„ “1,^’ £
Parallax, is alfo ufed to denote the rk.nrrp r 1 ^ paran>'mPh offic'fte<l only on the part of the bride-
pb-e in an object arilrug from viehnfitth Ldf ffTb~ ^
d ?AP?fET’ an elevation of earth
n , . ,    vyt_tcu me inuanrs
Inown , y it, when viewed diredly and obliquely, is the
quantify of parallax in time.
PARALLEL, in geometry, an appellation given to
. nes, funaces, and bodies, everywhere equidiftant from
cacti other. See Geometry.
PARAPHERNALIA, or Parapherna, in the
ctvd law, thofe goods which a wife brings her hufband
belides her dower, and which are {till to remain at
her difpofal exclufive of her hufband, iinlefs there is
lome provifion made to the contrary in the marria ge-
P^,t Sphtre, that fituaticn of the fphere wherein comraaSome oionrEn^lilh'’“'rry "1 **
the equator coincides with the horizon and the noL, , k r' 1‘T / Lngiiai civilians define the para-
With the zenith and nadir P S f“ch good, as a wife cKallenget! over
S^. ' See NatigatioNs Book I. Ch. d^h 7 Vhi: c£mh7^ “ 1
^."iiei totbT? ^ '-L a FS“
.oJ;ars through every degree and mi„L ^'7 ^
lures.
Par all ri. s. of Altitude, or Almucantars, are circles
parallel to the horizon, imagined to pafs throuo-h eveiy
degree and minute of the, meridian between the hori-
xon,and zenith, having their poles in the zenith.
i JkALi.f.ls oj Declination, in. agronomy, are the
{.-.me r.'ith parallels of latitude in geography.
I^aKALLLLOPIPED, in geometry, a regular
Lmg comprehended under fix parallelograms, the oP-
porte ones whereof are fimilar, paraileL and equal to
each other.
r'ARALLELOPIPEDIA, in natural hifiory, a
* n,:f> < , Asrs> externally of a determinate and regular
Ihgure, always found loofe, detached, and feparate from
• ali ^hcr bodies, and in form of an oblique parallclo-
pipe., with hx parallelogram fides and eight folid
j , JO 111 i 1 '■Jvu*u
tiie creditors, wnen fhe renounces the fucceflion of her
nufbtnd.
. PARAPHIMOSIS, a diforder of the penis, where¬
in t::e piepuce is Ihrunk, and withdrawn behind the
gLns, fo as not to be capable of being brought to co¬
ver the fame ; which generally happens in venereal dif-
orders. See Surgery.
PARAPHRASE, an explanation of fbrne text in
clearer and more ample terms, whereby.is fupplied
what the author might have faid or thought on the
fubjeft. Such are eheemed Erafmus’s paraphrafe on
the New Teftament, the Chaldee Paraphrafe on the
Pentateuch, &c.
PARAPHREN1TIS, an inflammation of the dia¬
phragm. See Diaphragm, and Index to Medicine.
angles ; eafily fiifile ^it)7r in m k Np111 1',*lu ^ rlROSYNE, a word uled by medical wri-
pendicular dh-edtion • beirm- Com*r> for'zontal or Per* Jets'to denote a delirium, or an alienation of mind in
* LlieCUGn J Janff coniP^fi of. numbers of fevers, or from whatever other caufe.
Paraju.
gifm
Paraph.-o-
Pile.
PARA-
I
PAR [ 735 1 PAR
Paraple- PARAPLEGIA, a fpecies of palfy. See Medi-
K!a cine, n° 268.
I! PAR^-SANG, an ancient PerGan meafure, diffe-
^ rent at different times, and in different places ; being
ufually 30, fometimes 40, and fometimes 50 ftadia, or
furlongs.—The word, according to Tittleton, has its
rife from parofch angarius, q. d. the fpace a pofl-man
rides from one ftation, angaria, to another.
PARA SCENIUM, in the Grecian and Roman
theatres, was a place behind the fcenes whither the ac¬
tors withdrew to drefs aird undrefs themfeives. Tfie
Romans more frequently called it Pojifcenium. See
Theatre,
PARASELENE, in natural philofophy* a mock
moon ; a meteor or phenomenon encompaffing or ad¬
jacent to the moon, in form of a luminous ring ; where¬
in are obferved fometimes one and fometimes two or
more images of the moon.
PARASEMON, among the Greeks, was the figure
' carved on the prow of the (hips to diftinguifh them
from each other. This fig.;ye was generally that of a
bull, lion, or other animal; fometimes the reprefenta-
tion of a mountain, tree, flower, &c.
PARASITE, among the Greeks, was originally a
very reputable title; the parafites being a kind of
priefts, atleafl minifters, of the gods, in the f*me man¬
ner as the epulones were at Rome. They took care
of the facred corn, or the corn deftined for the fervice
of the temples and the gods, viz. ficrifices, feafis, .&'•
They had even the mtendance over facrlfices; and took
care that they were dulv performed. At Athens there
was a kind of college of 12 parafites ; each people of
Attica furnifhing one, who was always chofen out of
the bell families. Polybius adds, that a parafite was
nlfo an honourable title among the ancient Gauls, and
was given to their poets. But of late it Iras been made
a term of reproach, and ufed for a flatterer or mean
dependent.
PARASITES, or Parasitical Plants, in botany,
fuch plants as are produced out of the trunk or
branches of other plants, from whence they receive
their nourilhment, and will not grow on the ground.
Such are tbe Miflctoe, &c.
PARAS PATiE, in anatomy. See Prostate.
PARATALASSIA. See Primorie.
PARBUNCLE, in a Ihip, the name of a rope al-
rnoil like a pair of flings : it is feized both ends to¬
gether, and then put almoll double about uiny heavy
thing that is to be hoifted in or out of the Ihip ; “ha¬
ving the hook of the runner hitched into it, to hoilt
it up by.
PARC/E, in heathen mythology, goddeffes who
were fuppofed to prefide over the accidents and events,
and to determine the date or period of human life.
The Parcae were three, Clotho, Lachtfis, and Atro-
pos; beenufe, forfooth, all things have their beginning,
progrefs, and end. Hence the poets tell us, the Fame
fpun the thread of mens lives; that Clotho held the
ditUff, r.nd drew the thread; Lachefis twirled tire
f; indie, and fpun it ; and Atropos cut it. Clotho cer¬
ium rttinety Lacbefis net, Atropos occat.
The ancients reprefent the Parcae divers ways : Lu¬
cian, in the fliape of three poor old women, having
large locks of wool, mixed with daffodils on their
beads; one of which holds a diftaff, the other a wheel,
and the third a pair of feiffars, wherewith to cut the
thread of life. Others reprefent them otherwife : Clo-Parchment,
tho appearing in a long robe of divers colours, wear-
ing a crown upon bet head adorned with Even liars,
and holding a diftaff in her hand ; Lachefis in a robe
befet with liars, with feverrl fpindles in her hand; an:!
Atropos, clad in black, cutting the thread with a pair
of large feiffars.
The ancients imagined that the Parcse ufed white
wool tor a long and happy life, and black for a fhort
and unfortunate one. See Necejfity in Mythology.
PARCHMENT, the Ikins of Iheep or goats pre¬
pared alter fuch a manner as to render it proper for
writing upon, coveting books, &c.
The word comes from the Latin pergamena, the an¬
cient name of this manufacture ; which is faid to have
been taken from the city Pergatnos, to Eumenes king
whereof jts invention is ufually aferibed ; though, in
reality, that prince appears rather to have been the
improver than the inventor of parchment. For the
Perfians of old, according to Diodorus, wrote ail
their records on Ikins; and the ancient Ionian?, as
wm are told by Herodotus, made ufe of fheep-fkins
and goat-lkins in writing, many ages before Eumenes’s
tune. Nor need we doubt that fuch Ikins were pre¬
pared and drtffed for that putpofe, after a manner
not unlike that of our parchment; though probably
not fo artificially.—-The manufacture of parchment is
begun by the Ikinner, and finilhed by the parchment-
maker.
■ The flein having been dripped of its wool, and pla¬
ced in the lime-pit, in the manner deferibed under the
article Shammy, the Ikinner ftretches it on a kind of
frame, and pares off the flefli with an iron inftrument ;
tins done, it is moilfened with a rag ; and powdered
chalk being fpread over it, the Ikinner takes a large
pumice-done, flat at bottom, and rubs over the flein,
and thus Lowers off the flelh ; he then goes over ic
again with the iron inftrument, moiltens it as before,
and rubs it again with the pimnee-ftone without any
chalk underneath : this fmooths and foftens the flelh.
fide very confiderably. He then drains it again, by
palling over it the iron inftrument as before. The fkftr .
fide being thus drained, by feraping off the moifture,
he in the fame manner paffes the iron over the wool or
h:.ir-fide: then ftretches it tight on a frame, and ferapes
the flclh-lide again : this finiilhes its draining ; and the
more it is drained the whiter it becomes. The Ikinner
now throw's on more chalk, fweeping ic over with a
piece of lamb-fkin that has the wool on ; and this
fmooths it ftill farther. It is now left to dry, and
when dried, taken off the frame by cutting it all round.
The Ikjn thus far prepared by the Ikinner, is taken out
o; his hands by the parchment-maker, who firll, while
it is dry, pares it on a fummer, (which is a calf-flein
ft retched in a frame), with a lharper inftrument than
that ufed by the fkinner ; and working with the arm
from the top to the bottom of the Ikin, takes away
about one half of its thickuefs. The flein thus equally-
pared on the flelh-fide, is again rendered fmooth, by
being rubbed with the pumice-ftone, on a bench co-
vered with a fack fluffed with flocks; which Raves the
parchment in a condition fit for 'writing upon. The
parings thus taken off the leather, are ufed in making
glue, fize, &c. See the article Glue, &c.
What is called vellum is only parchment made of
the Ikins of abortives,-or at leaft fucking calves. This
iii A-
‘ Pardalis
Pardon-
^Beaarla on
Crimes and
J’unijb-
•mtnts.
PAR [ 736 ] PAR
has a much finer grain, and is whiter and fmoother
t'lan parchment ; but is prepared in the fame manner,
except its not being paflcd through the lime-pit.
PzVRDALIS, in natural hiftory. See Felis.
PARDIES (Ignatius Gallon), an ingenious and
learned French Jefuit, born at Paris in 1636. He
taught polite litrrature for feveral years; during which
time he compofed feveral fmall pieces, both in profe
and verfe, with peculiar delicacy of thought and ityle.
At length he devoted himfelf entirely to mathematics
and natural philofophy, and read all authors, ancient
as well as modern, in thofe branches of knowledge. He
died in 1673, of an infedtious diforder contrafked by
confefiing and preaching to the prifoners in the Bicetre
during the Ealler holidays. Father Pardies publilhed
feveral works; of which his Elements of Geometry are
well known in this country, where a tranflation of them
has gone through feveral editions. In 1672, he had a
difpute with Sir Ifaac Newton refpedliag his Theory
of Light and Colours; which may be feen in the Phi-
lofpphical Tranfadtions for that year.
PARDON, in criminal law, is the remitting or for¬
giving an offence committed againft the king.
Law (fays an able writer), cannot be framed on
principles of compaflion to guilt ; yet juftice, by the
conftitution of England, is fcound to be adminiftered
in mercy : this is promifed by the king in his corona¬
tion oath ; and it is that a£l of his government which
is the moft. perfonal and moll entirely his own. The
king condemns no man; that rugged talk he leaves to
his courts of jultice: the great operation of his feeptre
is merev. His power of pardoning was faid by our
Saxon anceftors to be derived a lege fua dignitatis :
and it is declared in parliament, by Hat. 27 Hen. VIII.
c. 24. that no other perfon hath power to pardon or
remit any treafon or felonies whatfoever ; but that the
king hath the whole and foie power thereof, united
and knit to the imperial crown cf this realm.
This is indeed one of the great advantages of mo¬
narchy in general above any other form of govern¬
ment, that there is a magiflrate who has it in his
power to extend mercy wherever he thinks it is defer¬
red ; holding a court of equity in his own breaft, to
{often the rigour of the general law, in fuch criminal
cafes as merit an exemption from punilhment. Pardons
(according to fome theorifts) Ihould be excluded in a
perfeftlegiflation, where punifhmentsare mild, but cer¬
tain ; for that the clemency of the prince feems a tacit
difapprobation of the laws. But the exclufion of par¬
dons mull neceffarily introduce a very dangerous po.ver
in the judge or jury ; that of conllruing the criminal
law by the fpirit inllead of the letter ; or elfe it muft
be holden, what no man will ferioufly avow, that the
fituation and circumftances of the offender (though
they alter not the effence of the crime) ought to make
no diftindtion in the punilhment. In democracies,
however, this power of pardon can never fubfift ; for
there nothing higher is acknowledged than the magi-
flrate who adminifters the laws: and it would be im¬
politic for the power of judging and of pordoning to
centre in one and the fame perfon. This (as the pre-
fident Montefquieu obferves) would oblige him very
often to contradidl himfelf, to make and to unmake his
decifions: it would tend to confound all ideas of right
frmong the mafs of people; as they weuld find it dif-
N° 253.
ficult to tell, whether a pnfoner were difeharged by
his innocence, or obtained a pardon through favour.
In Holland, therefore, if there be no fta lthoider, there
is no power of pardoning lodged in any other member
of the Hate. But in monarchies the king aits in a fu-
perior fphere; and though he regulates the whole go¬
vernment as the liril mover, yet he does not appear in
any of the difagreeable or invidious parts of it. When¬
ever the nation fee him perfonaliy engaged, it is only
in works of legiflature, magnificence, or compallion.
To him therefore the people look up as the fountain
of nothing but bounty and grace ; and thefe repeated
a£ls of goodnef?, coming immediately from his own
hand, endear the fovereign to his fubjedls, and contri¬
bute more than any thing to root in their hearts that
filial affedtion and perfonal loyalty which are the fure
eflablilhment of a prince.
The king may pardon all offences merely againft the
crown or the public ; excepting, 1. That, to preferve
the liberty of the fubjeft, the committing any man ta
prifon out of the realm, by the habeas corpus add,
31 Car. II. c. 2. made a preemunire^ unpardonable
even by the king. Nor, 2. can the king pardon, where
private juftice is principally concerned in the profecu-
tion of offenders ; Non potejl rex gratiam facere cum in¬
juria et damno aliorum. Therefore, in appeals of all
kinds (which are the fuit, not of the king, but of the
party injured), the profecutor may releafe ; but the
king cannot pardon. Neither can he pardon a com¬
mon nuifance, while it remains unredrefled, or fo as to
prevent an abatement of it; though afterwards he may
remit the fine: becaufe though the profecution is veil¬
ed in the king to avoid the multiplicity of fuits, yet
(during its continuance) this offence favours more of
the nature of a private injury to each individual in the
neighbourhood, than of a public wrong. Neither, laft-
ly, can the king pardon an offence againft a popular
or penal ftatute, alter information brought; for there¬
by the informer hath acquired a private property in hb
part of the peaalty.
There is alfo a reftriftion of a peculiar nature, that
affe&s the prerogative of pardoning, in cafe of parlia¬
mentary impeachments, viz. that the king’s pardon
cannot be pleaded to any fuch impeachment, fo as to
impede the inquiry, and flop the profecution of reat
and notorious offenders. Therefore, when, in the reign
of Charles II. the earl of Danby was impeached
by the houfe of commons of high treafon and other,
mifdemefnors, and pleaded the king's pardon in bar
of the fame, the commons alleged, “ That there was
no precedent that ever any pardon was granted to
any perfon impeached by the commons of high trea¬
fon, or other high crimes, depending the impeach¬
ment and thereupon refolved, “ That the pardon
fo pleaded was illegal and void, and ought not to be
allowed in bar of the impeachment of the commons of
Englandfor which refolution they affigned this
reafon to the houfe of lords, “ That the felting up a
pardon to be a bar of an impeachment defeats the
whole ufe and rffebt of impeachments; for fiiould this
point be admitted, or Hand doubted, it would totally
difeourage the exhibiting any for the future ; where¬
by the chief inftitution for the prefervation of the
government would be deftroyed.” Soon after the Re¬
volution, the commons renewed the fame claim, and
voted.
Pardon.
T*ar(1o^.
(rixhvin't
Inquiry con
turning po
iiticul
g[ujlic*.
PAR T 737 ] PAR
roted, “ That a pardon is not pleadable in bar or an
impeachment.” And at length, it was ena&ed by
the a£l of fettlement, 12 & 13 W. III. c. 2. “ That
no pardon under the great feal of England Hiall be
pleadable to an impeachment by the commons in par¬
liament.” But, after the impeachment has been fo-
lemnly heard and determined, it is not underitood
that the king’s royal grace is farther reftrained or
abridged: for, after the impeachment and attainder
of the fix rebel lords in 1715, three of them were
from time to time reprieved by the crown ; and at
length received the benefit of the king’s molt gracious
pardon.
The efFedt of fuch pardon by the king, is to make
the offender a new man ; to acquit him of all corporal
.penalties and forfeitures annexed to that offence for
which he obtains his pardon ; and not lo much to re-
ftore his former, as to give him a new credit and capa¬
city. But nothing can rcltore or purify the blood
when once corrupted, if the pardon be not allowed till
after attainder, but the high and tranfeendant power of
parliament. Yet if a perfon attainted receives the
'king’s pardon, and afterwards hatha fon, that fon may
be heir to his father; becaufe the father being made a
new man, might tranimit new inheritable blood; tho’,
had he been born before the pardon, he could never
have inherited at all.
Such is the nature of pardons in this kingdom.
Thefe, like other good things, may doubtlefs be abu-
fed ; and if they are in any inftanee, their abufe de-
ferves cenfure : but that in their nature they fhould
be counted abfurd, arbitrary, and deftru&ive of mora¬
lity, can, we fufpedt, proceed from nothing but from the
prefumptive petulance of modern reformers, or from
the new fyftem of civil equality.
We are told, however, by a late champion for the
- Rights of Man, that the very word to a reflecting
mind is fraught with abfurdity. ‘ What is the rule
that ought in all cafes to preferihe to my conduit ?’
Surely juftice : underftanding by juftice the greateft
utility of the whole mafs of beings that may be in¬
fluenced by my conduit. ‘ What then is clemency ?’
It can be nothing but the pitiable egotifm of him who
imagines he can do fomething better than juftice. ‘ Is
it right that I fhould fuffer conftraint for a certain of¬
fence ?’ The reititude of my fufftring muft be founded
in its tendency to promote the general welfare. He
therefore that pardons me, iniquitoufly prefers the
imaginary intere-ft of an individual, and utterly ne-
gltifs what he owes to the whole. He bellows that
which I ought not to receive, and which he has no
right to give. ‘ Is it right, on the contrary, that I
fhould not undergo the fuffering in que*ftion? Will he,
by refeuing rre from fuffering, do a benefit to me,
and no injury to others?’ He will then be a notorious
delinquent, if he allow me to fuffer. There is indeed
a confiderable defe& in this laft fuppofition. If, while
he benefits me, he do no injury to others, he is infal¬
libly performing a public fervice. If 1 fuffered in the
arbitrary manner which the fuppofition includes, the
whole would fuftain an unqueftionable injmy in the
iniuftice that was perpetrated. And yet the man who
prevents this odious injuftice, has been accuftomed to
arrogate to himfelf the attribute of clement, and the
apparently fublime, but in reality tyrannical, name of
Vol.X'III. Part II.
forgivenefs. For, if he do more than has been hefe Pardon
deferibed, mftead of glory he ought to take fhame to
himfelf, as an enemy to the intereft of human kind.
If every a£lion, and efpecially every action in which
the happinefs of a rational being is concerned, be fuf-
ceptible of a certain rule, then caprice muft be in all
cafes excluded : there can be no adlion, which if l ne-
gle£l, 1 ffall have difeharged my duty ; and, if I per¬
form, I fhall be intitled to applaufe.”
Such is the reafoning of this zealous democrat; re-a*
foning which, in our opinion, betrays want of feeling
or ignorance of human nature.- That human nature is
fuch as, in the aygrecrate, to ne'ed controul, no one
who is acquainted with it will deny ; and there appears
to be no other method of controulmg mankind but
by general laws ; and thefe laws m ;y, through the na¬
tural imperredlion of human affairs, be cruel in one
cafe, where they are juft in another. Cafes may like-
wife occur where the fentence of the law, without its
execution, will anfwer every purpofe which could be
expe&ed from it; and where the execution of'it would
be extreme cruelty, though it might in Uriel unfeeling
language be called juJUce, becaufe in conformity with
the letter of the law ; \ et though fuch cafes may and
do often o-cur, it would indeed be abfurd to atolifll
any of thofe laws which the fecunty of civil fociety
has required ; and therefore the only natural remedy
agamft legal injujlice is the fyjlem of pardons.
Our author next goes on to trace the origin of par¬
dons ; and inftead of a definite fyftem of law, we are
told that it is neceffary to have a court of reafon, to
which the decifions of a court of law fhall be brought
for revifal: a remedy apparently too vague and indeter¬
minate to produce any lafling or good effedl ; and the
propofd of which refults from fu 'pofing mankind
more virtuous and more knowing than they really are.
We are next led to confider the abufes of pardons:
from w’hence our author would draw an argument for
their abolition ; a fpecies of reafoning unfair and un-
philofophical. He tells us, that the authority in this
cafe is placed firit in the judge and next in the king
and council. “ Now (fays he), laying alide the pro¬
priety or impropriety of this particular felecftion, there
is one grievous abufe which ought to ftrike the moil
fuperficial obferver. Thefe perfons, with whom the
principal trufl is repofed, confider their functions
in this refpecl as a matter purely incidental, exercife
them with fupinenefs, and in many inftances with the
moil fcanty materials to guide their judgment. This
grows in a confiderable degree out of the very name of
pardon, which implies a work of fupererogatory bene¬
volence.”
Now it is obvious to remark, that pardons are in
general granted in confequence of an application from
people who have more than fcanty materials to guide their
judgments, and on whofe fideliry in relating the circum-
llances of the cafe, confidence is placed or not accord¬
ing to their feveral chara&ers. Our author next pro¬
ceeds to the arbitrary charafter of pardons. “ Such a
fyftem (he fays), to fpeak it truly, is a lottery of death,
in which each man draws his ticket for reprieve or ex¬
ecution, as undefinable accidents ftrall decide.” The
allufion here to a lottery.ticket is peculiarly unfortu¬
nate and indelicate, nor does the whole fentence fhow
any great degree of candour. It is pollibie to define
5 A a
PAR [7
a particular crime, and to annex a particular punifii
ment to the commiffion of it; but the nature of mo*
rality confiils not in the external aft!on, hut m the
motives which prompted to it. Definite Lw cannot,
however, always make this difhndfion ; and after the
fentence of the law is pronounced, it comes to be con-
fklered whether there are any alleviating circum-
flances in the cafe; and whether there, are or not,
mull depend on the particulars or accidents of the
cafe : and it is indeed impoffible to fuppofe that thefe
accidents could be pvevicufly defined ; their nature
does not admit of it. To particularize and define every
mode of an adlion which imagination can conceive, or
which experience has fliown us may happen, would in¬
deed be an Herculean labour ; and we might literally
fay with the apoftle, that the world could not contain ths
books that might be written. We are, however, told,
that “ reafon is a thoufand times more explicit and
intelligible than law ; and when we are accuftomed to
confult her, the certainty of her decifions would be
fuch, as men pradtifed in our prefent courts are to¬
tally unable to conceive.” Were reafon, however,
appointed to be appealed to in all cafes, and to be the
final criterion, it would leave far greater room for vil-
Lanjr than any mode at prefent in pradlice. Reafon is
a very uncertain and indefinite term, and may be
made any thing, according to the circumftances or
paffions of men. Our reforming neighbours the french
have raifed a ftatue to reafon and to truth ; but what
claim they have to either, IVfr Godwin muft himfelf
decide.
We are next told that prvrdons are definitive to
morality. “ Another very important confequence (fays
our author) grows out of the fyftem of pardons. A
fyfiem of pardons is a fyftem of unmitigated flavery.
1 am taught to expet a certain defirable event, from
what ? From the clemency, the uncontrouled, unme¬
rited kindnefs of a fellow mortal. Cart any lefion be
more degrading ? The pufillanimous fervility of the
man who devotes himfelf with everlafting obfequiouf-
nefs-to another, becaufe that other having, begun to be
unjuft, relents in his career; the ardour wfith which he
confeffes the retitude of his fentence end the enormi¬
ty of his defects, will conftitute a tale that future ages
will find it difficult to underftand. What are the fen-
timents in this refpe& that are alone worthy, of a ra¬
tional being? Give me that, and that only, which with¬
out injuftice you cannot refufe. More than juftice it
would be difgraceful for me to alk, and for you to be¬
llow. 1 {land upon the fbundation of right. This is
a title which brute force may refufe to acknowledge,
but which all the force in the world cannot annihilate.
By refitting this plea you may prove yourfelf unjuft,
but in yielding to it yrou grant nae but my due. If,
all things confidered, I be the fit fubjedl of a benefit,
the benefit is merited: merit in any other fenfe is con¬
tradictory and abfurd. If you beftow upon, me un¬
merited advantage, you are a recreant from the gene¬
ral good. I may be bafe enough to thank you; but if
I were virtuous, I fh-ould condemn you. Thefe fenti-
ments alone are confident with true independence of
mind. He that is accuftomed to regard virtue as an
affair of favour and grace, cannot be eminently virtu¬
ous. If he occafionally perform an adtion of apparent
kindnefs, he will applaud the generality of his fenti-
38 1
PAR
ments; and if he abftain, he will acquit himfelf with Paregorics
the queftion, ‘ May I not do what I will with my
own ? In the fame manner, when he is treated bene-, ‘ ^
voltntly by another, he will in the firft place be un¬
willing to examine ftriftly into the reafonablenefs of
this treatment, becaufe benevolence, as he imagines, is
not fubjedl to any inflexibility of rule ; and, in the fe-
cond place, he will not regard his benefadtor with that
eredt and unembarraffed mien, that complete fenfe of
equality, which is the only immoveable bafis of virtue
and happinefs.”
Such is Mr Godwin’s conclufion on this fubjedl;
and we leave it with our readers to determine, whether .
his fyftem or that which we at prefent enjoy would be
the more rigorous or unjuft ; or whether mankind are
indeed arrived at that eminent pitch of virtue, as to
difdain every favour which they do not abfolutely me¬
rit. The Chriftian religion {peaks a different lan¬
guage : but amidft the rage of popular reform, its
/mailfill voice is unheard and negledled.
PAREGORIES, in pharmacy, medicines that af-
fuage pain, otherwife called Anodynes.
PAREIRA frava, in the materia medics, a kind
of oblong and large root brought from the Brafils.—*
It is certainly a diuretic of no mean charadler, and has
done great fervice in nephritic cafes. In pleurifies
and quinfies, it has been attended with more fuccefs
than almoil any medicine we know of ftngly.
PA RELCOM, in grammar, a figure by which a
word or fyllable is added to the end of another.
PAREMBOLE, in rhetoric, a figure wherein
fomething relating to the fubjeft is inierted in the
middle of a period. All the difference between the
parembole and parenthefis, according to Voffius, is,
that the former relates to the fubjeft in hand, whereas
the latter is foreign to it.
PARENCHYMA, in anatomy, a term introduced
by Erafiftratus, fignifying all that fubftance which is
contained in the interftices betwixt the blood-veffels
of the vifeera, which he imagined to be extravafated
and concreted blood.
Parenchyma of Plants. Grew applies the term pa¬
renchyma to the pith or pulp, or that inner part of a
fruit or plant through which the juice is fuppofed t©
be diftrihuted. See Plants.
PARENT, a term of relation applicable to thofe
from whom we immediately derive our being. Sec
Moral Philofophy, n* 129 and 137.
To this article belongs an inquiry into, 1. The le¬
gal duties of parents to their legitimate children.
2. Their power over them.
I. The duties of parents to legitimate children con-
fift in three particulars ; their maintenance^ their pro-
tettion, and their education.
1. The duty of parents to provide for the mainte- Bhchf.
nance of their children, is a principal of natural law ; Comment.
an obligation, fays Puffendorff, laid on them not only
by nature herfelf, but by their own proper a&, in
bringing them into the world ; for they would be in
the higheft manner injurious to their iffue, if they on¬
ly gave their children life, that they might Afterwards
fee them periffi. By begetting them, therefore, they
have entered into a voluntary obligation, to endeavour,
as far as in them lies, that the life which they have
bellowed {hall be fupported and preferved, And thus
the
PAR [730 1 PAR
Parent, the children will have a perfe& right of receiving main-
v  tenance from their parents. And the prefident Mon-
tefquieu has a very juft obferv ition upon this head,
that the eftaMiftiment of marriage, in all civilized ftaces,
is built on this natural obligation of the father to pro¬
vide for his children ; for that ascertains and makes
known the perfon who is bound to fulfil this obliga¬
tion; whereas, in promifcuous and illicit conjundtions,
the father is unknown ; and the mother finds a thou-
fand obftacles in her way ; fhame, remorfe, the con-
ftraint of her fex, and the rigour of laws, that ftifle
her inclinations to perform this duty; and befides, file
generally wants ability.
The municipal laws of all well regulated ftates have
taken cave to enforce this duty : though providence
has done it more effedtually than any laws, by implant¬
ing in the breaft of every parent that natural rosy*, or
infuperable degree of affedtion, which not even the de¬
formity of perfon or mind, not even the wickednefs,
ingratitude, and rebellion of children, can totally fup-
prefs or extinguifh.
The civil law obliges the parent to provide main¬
tenance for his child ; and if he refufes, judex de ea re
sognofcet. Nay, it carries this matter fo far, that it
will not fuffer a parent at his death totally to difinhe-
rit his child, without exprefsly giving his reafon for fo
doing; and there are 14 fuch reafons reckoned up,
which may juftify fuch difinherifon. If the paient al¬
leged no reafon, or a bad, or a falfe one, the child
might fet the will afide, tanquam tejlamentum inojficio-
fum, a teftr.ment contrary to the natural duty of the
parent. And it is remarkable under what colour the
children were to move for relief in fuch a cafe; by fug-
gelling, that the parent had loft the ufe of his reafon
when he made the inofficious tetlament. And this, as
Puffendorff obferves, was not to bring into difpute the
teftator’s power of difinheriting his own offspring; but
to examine the motives upon which he did it ; and if
they were found defective in reafon. then to let them
afide. But perhaps this is going rather too far: every
man has, or ought to have, by the laws of fociety, a
power over his own property : and, as Grotius very
well diftinguifhes, natural right obliges to give a ne-
eefj'ary maintenance to children; but wh/t is more than
that they have no right to, than as it is given by the
favour of their parents, or the pofitive conftitutions of
the municipal law.
Let us next fee what provifion our own laws have
made for this natural duty. It is a principle of law,
that there is an obligation on every man to provide for
thofe defeended from his loins ; and the manner in
which this obligation fhallbe performed, is thus point¬
ed out. The father and mother, grandfather and
grandmother, of poor impotent perfons, ihall maintain
them at their own charges, if of lufficient ability, ac¬
cording as the quai ter-feffions fhall direft; and, if a
parent runs away, and leaves his children, the church¬
wardens and overfeers of the parilh fhall feize his rents,
goods, and ch. ttels, and difpofe of them toward then-
relief. By the interpretations which the courts of law
have made upon thefe ftatutes, if a mother or grand¬
mother marries again, and was before fuch fecond mar¬
riage of fufficient ability to keep the child, the huf-
ban ' fiiall be charged to maintain it; for this being
a debt ofher's, when fingle, fhali, like others, extend
to charge the hufband. But, at her death, the rda- Parent,
tion being diffolved, the hufband is under no farther v ~ ~
obligation.
No perron is bound to provide a maintenance for
his iffue, unlefs where the children are impotent and
unable to work, either through infancy, difeafe, or ac¬
cident; and then is only obliged to find them with ne?
cefiaries, the penalty on refufal being no more than 20s.
a-month. For the policy of our laws, which are ever
watchful to promote induftry, did not mean to compel a
father to maintain his idle and lazy children in eafeand
indolence; but thought it unjuft to oblige the parent,
againft his will, to provide them with fuperfluities, and
other indulgences of fortune ; imagining they might
trull to the impulfe of nature, if the children were de-
ferving of fuch favours. Yet, as nothing is fo apt to
ftifle the calls of nature as religious bigotry, it is enac¬
ted, chat if any Popiflr parent fhall rerufe to allow his
Proteftant child a fitting maintenance, with a view to
compel him to change his religion, the lord chancellor
fhall by order of court conftrain him to do what is juft
and reafonable. But this did not extend to perfons of
another religion, of no lefs bitternefs and bigotry
than the Popifia: and therefore, in the very next year,
we find an initance of a Jew of immenfe riches, whofe
only daughter having embraced Chriftianity, he turn¬
ed her out of doors; and on her application for relief,
it was held fhe was imitled to none. But this gave
occalion to another ftatute, which ordains, that if
Jewifh parents refufe tu allow their Proteftant children
a fitting maintenance, fuitable to the fortune of the
parent, the lord chan ellor, on complaint, may make
fuch order therein as he fhall fee proper.
Our law has made no provifion to prevent the difin-
heritingof children by will; leaving every man’s pro¬
perty in his own difpofal, upon a principle of liberty in
this as well as every other adlion ; though perhaps
it had not been amifs if the parent had been bound
to leave them ac the leaft a neceffary fubfiftence. In¬
deed, among perfons of any rank or fortune, a compe¬
tence is generally provided for younger children, and
the bulk of the eftate fettled upon the eldeit by the
marriage-articles. Pleirs alfo, and children, are fa¬
vourites of our courts of juftice, and cannot be difm-
herited by any dubious or ambiguous words; there
being required the utmoft certainty of the teftator’s
intentions to take away the right of an heir.
2. From the duty of maintenance we may eafily
pafs to that of protection; which is alfo a natural du¬
ty, but rather permitted than enjoined by any muni¬
cipal laws ; nature, in this refpedt, working fo ftrong-
ly as to need rather a check than a fpur. A parent
may, by our laws, maintain and uphold his children
in their law-fuits, without being guilty of the legal
crime of maintaining quarrels. A parent may alfo ju¬
ftify an afta.ult and battery in defence of the perfon, of
his children ; nay, where a man’s fon was beaten by
another boy, and the father went near a mile to find
him, and there revenged his ion’s quarrel by beating
the other boy, of which beating he afterwards unfor¬
tunately died ; it was not held to be murder, but man-
flaughter merely. Such indulgence does the law fhow
to the frailty of human-nature, and the workings of
parental affection.
3. The kill duty of parents to their children is that
5 A 2 of
Parent.
PAR t 740 ] PAR
of giving them an education fuitable to their ftation in
life: a duty pointed out by reafon, and of far the
greateft importance of any. For, as Puffendorff very
well obferves, it is not eafy to imagine or allow, that
a parent has conferred any confiderable benefit upon
his child by bringing him into the world, if he af¬
terwards entirely negledls his culture and education,
and fuffers him to grow up like a mere beaft, to lead a
life ufeieis to others, and fhameful tohimfelf. Yet the
municipal laws of moit countries feem to be dtfedVive
in this point, by not eonftraining the parent to beftow
a proper education upon his children. Perhaps they
thought it punifhmcnt enough to leave the parent who
negle&s the inftru&ion of his family, to labour under
thofe griefs and inconveniences which his family, fo
uninflrudted, will be fure to bring upon him. Our
laws, though their defeds in this particular cannot be
* denied, have in one inllance made a wife provifion for
breeding up the rifmg generation; iince the poor and
laborious part of the community, when paft the age of
nurture, are taken out of the hands of their parents,
by the ftatutes for apprenticing poof children; and are
placed out by the public in fuch a manner as may
render their abilities, in their feveral llations, of the
greateil advantage to the commonwealth. The rich
indeed are left at their own option, whether they will
breed up their children to be ornaments or difgraces to
their family. Yet in one cafe, that of religion, they
are under peculiar reftridions : for it is provided, that
if any perfon fends any child under his government be¬
yond the feas, either to prevent its good education in
England, or in order to enter into, or refide in, any
Popifh college, or to be inilruded, perfuaded, or
ftrengthened in the Popiih religion ; in fuch cafe, be-
fidcs the difabilities incurred by the child fo fent, the
parent or perfon lending fhall forfeit 100I. which {hall
go to the foie ufe and benefit of him that fhall difeover
the offence. And if any parent, or other, fhall fend
or convey any perfon beyond fea, to enter into, or be
refident in, or trained up in, any priory, abbey, nun¬
nery, Popifh univerfity, college, or fchool, or houfe of
Jefuits or priefts, or in any private Popifh family, in
order to be intruded, perfuaded, or confinned, in the
Popiih religion ; or fhall contribute any thing towards
their maintenance when abroad by any pretext what-
tver, the perfe- n both fending and lent lhall be difabled
to fue in law or equity, or to be executor or admini-
ftrator to any perfon, or to enjoy any legacy or deed
of gift, or to bear any office in the realm, and lhall
forfeit all his goods and chattels, and likewife all his
real eftate for life. See Nonconformists.
II. The power of parents over their children is de¬
rived from the former conliieration, their duty ; this
authority being given them, partly to enable the pa¬
rent more effcdually to perform his duty, and partly
as a recompence for his care and trouble in the faith¬
ful difeharge of it. And upon this fcore the munici¬
pal laws of fome nations have given a much larger au¬
thority to the parents than others. The ancient Ro¬
man laws gave the father a power of life and death
over his children ; upon this principle, that he who
gave had alfo the power of taking away. But the ri¬
gour of thefe laws was foftened by fubfequent conftitu-
tions: fo that we find a father banilhed by the empe¬
ror Hadrian for killing his fon, though he had com¬
mitted a very heinous crime ; upon this maxim, that Parent.
patris potejiat m pietate debet non in atrncitate, conftjhre. "V"
But Rill they maintained to the lad a very large and
abfoiute authority : for a fon could not acquire any
property of his own during the life of his father ; but
ail his acquifitions belonged to the father, or at leait
the profits of them, for his life.
The power of a parent by the Englifh law is much
more moderate; but Rill fufficient to keep the child in
order and obedience. He may lawfully correbd his
child, being under age, in a reafonable manner: for
this is for the benefit of his education. The confent
or concurrence of the parent to the marriage of his
child under a e, was alfo directed by our ancient law
to be obtained: but no a/ it is abfoluteiy necefl'ary; for
without it the contradt is void. And this alfo is an¬
other means which the law has put into the parent's
hands, in order the better to difeharge his duty ; firil,
of ptotfc&ing his children from the fnares of artful and
defigning perfons; and next, of fettling them properly
in life, by preventing the ill confequences of too early
and precipitate marriages. A father has no other
power over his fon’s eRate, than as his truRee or guar¬
dian ; for though he may receive the profits during
the child’s minority, yet he mull account for them,
when he comes of age. He may indeed have the be*
nefit of his children’s labour while they live with him,,
and are maintained by him ; but this is no more than,
he is intitled to from his apprentices or fervants. The
legal power of a father (for a mother, as fuch, is in-
titled to no power, but only to reverence and refped),
the power of a father, we fay, over tlie perfons of hia
children ceafes at the age of 21; for they are then en-
franchifed by arriving at years of difcretion, or that
point which the law has ettablilhed (as fome rnuit
neceflarily be ellabli(hed) when the empire of the fa¬
ther, or other guardian, gives place to the empire of
reafon. Yet, till that age arrives, this empire of the
father continues even after his death ; for he may by
his will appoint a guardian to his children. He may
alfo delegate part of his parental authority, during hi*,
life, to the tutor or fchoolmafter of his child ; who is
then in loco parentis, and has fuch a portion of the
power of the parent committed to his charge, wx. that
of reftraint and correftion, as may be neceffary to an-
fwer the purpofes for which he is employed.
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1750, we have the
following cafe of confcience. “A perfon has his own pa¬
rents and his own children living, both parties equally
indigent, both equally incapable of affiRiug themfelves,.
and both equally earned in calling upon him for re¬
lief. Things are fo circumRanccd that he can pof-
fibly affiR but one party, and not both. §>uery. Which,
party has the greateit claim to his affiilance, and
to which is he obliged, by all ties human and divine,
to give the preference?” One folves this difficulty,
by informing us of a pretty print done at Rome, re-
prefenting a young woman fuckling her aged father,
on which the following lines are quoted.
My child and father vital nurture crave,
Parental, filial, fondnefs both would fave
But if a nurfling only one can live,
I choofe to fave the life I cannot give.
Here we find the preference given to the parent ?
and
PAR
[ 74*
1
PAR
'and another correfponctent gives the fame deeifion hi
thefe words. “ • he obligations anfing from nature,
and natural aff Aion, teem to be in this cafe renpro^
cal and equipollent : tire child is as ftrongly attradec
to the parent, as the parent to the child. But wdl
not filial gratitude operate and decide in favour of the
parents ? Does not the perfon, either mediately orim*
mediately, owe his ptefent power and abilities to re¬
lieve, to his parents ? and are not they on that ac¬
count heft intitled to relief ? Does not the fifth com-
inandmentdeclare more ftrongly in favour of the parents,
than any other divine precept docs in favour of che
children ? If a perfon had an opportunity given him of
delivering either his parent or his chad (but not both)
from certain death, I dare fay the voice of n.ture and
of mankind would applaud bun that faved his parent,
and condemn him that fhodld prefer his child. There
is more of felhfhnefs in preferring the child ; and to
fave the parent feems to me to be mu h the more gene¬
rous, noble, and exalted condua. ’ ids indeed, upon the
whole, a melancholy alternative ; Jaut if both parties
continue importunate, and neither will relmquifh their
claims in favour of the other, I fay relieve the pa¬
rent.” There are two correfpondents, however, who
think differently, and their reafons are as follow:
“ A perfon’s children have the greateft claim to his
afiiftance, and he is obliged by all ties to prefer them,
in that refpeft, to his parents. It is true, when a
man’s parent* are in want, they have a claim to h.s
afiiftance ; but that claim is not equal to that which
his children have. His parents he has of neceffity .
his children, of choice. It is h.s duty, be.ore he be¬
get children, to confi’er how he is to provide for
them : and by being wilfully the caufe ot tneir exi -
ence he comes under fuch an obligation to-provide
for their comfortable fuhfiftence, as muft be ftronger
than any obligation of that kind he can be under to
perfons with whom his conneaion is involuntary
Both nature and rcafon point it out as the duty of all
parents to provide for their children ; but not
<verfa. If a man’s parents happen to he indigent, and
he himfelf able, he is bound to maintain them out ot
refped and gratitude : but his obligation to provide
for his children is a debt of ftrieft juft.ee ; and there¬
fore ought to be preferred. Neveithelefs, the e-earip-
tion of the cafe to which the query is fuhjoined, is io
general, that it is eafy to figure a cafe according to
that defeription in which the perfon ought to prekr
his parents. This obligation to provide for his chil¬
dren may have been diffolved by monftrous ingratitude,
fuch as their plotting againft his life ; or he may have
given them proper education, and ample proviiions,
which they have riotoufly fquandered away : m either
pf which cafes it is thought he is undoubtedly dif-
charged from his obligation. But if they have loft
their portions purely by misfortunes, without their
fault it is thought his obligation to afiift them is
not wholly extinguifhed ; and in that cafe there may
be great reafon to doubt whether their claim to his
Parent.
cannot decide in favour of the one or the other : T
muft then be determined by a different confideration ;
and I know of none more weighty than the follow,
ir.g. If I preferve the life of my child, 1 am m-
ftrumental in giving life to all his defeendants, winch
may, perhaps, be "very numerous; but if » preferve
the life of my parent, I preferve a Angle h e only,
and that a fhort one. I therefore fay, relieve the
child. But it is thought that the voice of nature
will applaud the perfon who preferves the parent : it
fo, nature muft applaud a rule which (he berfelr does
not obferve : it is natural for old men to die before
young ones. Befides, the command, Be fruitful and
multiply, and repleni/h the earth, may be oppofed to the
fifth commandment.” Still, however, it is doubtlds
difneu’t to determine in fuch cafes when they occur*
as there are no fixed rules whereby to decide. With
refpeft to the power of parents and the duty of chil¬
dren, much may be Did. There is, however, fearedy
any in fiance where either are oftencr abufed than with
refpeft to marriage. This, as it is the moftimpoi-
tant event in the civil life either of a man or woman,
fo it is often rendered peculiarly unfortunate, by
precipitate folly and want of duty in children ; and
as often through the unreafonable feverity or parents.
As a child is bound not to give unreafonable offence
to a parent in the choice of a partner ; io neither ought
the parent to impofe any improper or arbitrary re-
ftraint upon the child. . .
The power of a parent in China is very great ; for
a father, while living, haa the power of an abfolutc
defpotic tyrant, and after his death is worfhipped as a
god. Let a fon become ever fo rich, and a father pa^n/s
ever fo poor, there is no fubmifiion, no point of obe- Geo^raphp
dience, that the latter cannot command, or that the
former can refufe. The father is abfolute mafter, not
only of his fon’s eftate, but alfo of his concubines and
children, who, whenever they difpleafe him, he may
fell to ftrangers. If a father uccufts his fon before a
mandarine, there needs no proof of his guilt ; f»r they
cannot believe that any father can be fo unnatural as
to bring a falfe accufation againft his own ion. But
fhould a fon be fo infolent as to mock his father, or
arrive at fuch a pitch of wickednefs as to ftrike him,
all the province where this fhameful aft of violence is.
committed is alarmed ; it even becomes the concern of
the whole empire ; the emperor lumfeif judges the cri¬
minal All the mandarines near the place aie turned
out of their pofts, efpeclally thofe of the town where
he lived, for having been fo negligent in their in-
ftruftions ; and all the neighbours are reprimanded for
neglefting, by former puniftiments, to put a flop to
the wickednefs of the criminal before it arrived to
fuch fiagitioufnefs. As to the unhappy wretch him¬
felf they cut him into a thoufand pieces, burn hi»
bones, level his houfe to the ground, and even thofe
houfes that Hand near it, and let up monuments and
memorials of the horrid deed. . -
The emperor of China, who is one of the molt
iul wnvnj  w v * i • i * I he emperur v-'H*****j * ~
>e great reafon to doubt whether their claim to tu ful a„d defpotic monarchs upon earth, pays the
ifliftance, or that of his parents, is preferable : it^is P ^ attention t0 his mother. An inftance of this
thought,'however, the childrens is preferable.” “ I
find (fays the author of the laft anfwer) that all your
correfpondents agree, that the life of the parent is to
be prefetved. It is very certain, that the re.ation be¬
tween me and my child is exaftly equal to that which
is between me and my parent; and therefore relation
greateft attention to his mother. An inftance of thi*
Bere Amyot relates as having happened at Peking
A. D. 17-52> when the emperor’s mother entered
her 6oth year, which, among the Chinefe, is account¬
ed a very remarkable period. Grolier hkewife parti¬
cularly deferibes the homage the emperor pay^hi*
PAR
Parent.
mother every new-year’s day in the palace, at which
ceremony all the great officers of his court affitt. See
Children, Filial Piety, Parental Affeflic.n, &c.
Parent (Unfoine), a mathematician, was born at
Paris in 1666. He ffiowecl an early propenlity to
mathematics. He accuftomed himfelf to write re¬
marks upon the margins of the books which he
read ; and he had filled a variety of books with a kind
of commentary at the early age of thirteen. At four¬
teen he was put under a mafter, who taught rhetoric
at Chartres. It was here that he happened to fee a
dodecoedron, upon every face of which was delineated
a fun-dial, except the lowed, whereon it flood. Struck
as it were inflantaneoufly with the curiofity of thefe
dials, he attempted drawing one himfelf: but having
a book which only fliowed the practical part without
the theory, it was not till after his rhetoric mr.fler came
to explain the doctrine of the fphere to him that he
began to underftand how the proj^dtion of the circles
of the fphere formed fun-dials. He then undertook
to write aTreatife upon Gnomonics. The piece was
indeed rude and urrpolifhed ; but it was entirely his
own, and not borrowed. About the fame time he
wrote a hook of Geometry, in the fame tafte, at Beau-
vois. His friends then fent for him to Paris to ftudy
the law; and, in obedience to them, he rtudied a
courfe in that faculty : which was no fooner finiflied
than, urged by his paffion for mathematics, he fhut
bimfelf up in the college of Dormans, that no avoca¬
tion might take him from his beloved fludy : and,
with an allowance of lefs than 200 livres a-year,
be lived concent in this retreat, fiom which he never
flirred but to the Royal College, in order to hear the
leflures of M. de la Plire or M de Sauveur. When
be found himfelf capable of teaching others, he took
pupils: and fortification being a branch of mathema¬
tics which the wai h?d brought into particular notice,
be turned his attention to it; but after fome time be¬
gan to entertain fctuples about teaching what he had
never feen, and knew only by the force of imagination.
He imparted this fcruple to M. Sauveur, who recom¬
mended him to the Marquis d’Aligre, who luckily at
that time wanted to have a mathematician with him.
Parent made two campaigns with the marquis, by
which he inftrufted himfelf fufficiently in viewing for¬
tified places ; of which he drew a number of plans,
though he had never learned the art of drawing. From
this petiod he fpent his time in a continual application
to the ftudy of natural philofophy, and mathematics
in all its branches, both fpeculative an I practical; to
which he joined anatomy, botany, and chemiftry. His
genius managed every thing, and yet he was inceffant
and indefatigable in his application. M. de Biilettes,
who was admitted in the academy of fciences at Paris
in 1699. with the title of their mechanician, nominated
for his difciple Parent, who excelled chiefly in this
branch. It was foon difeovered in this fociety, that
he engaged in all the various fubjefts which were
brought before them ; and indeed that he had a
hand in every thing. But this extent of knowledge,
joined to a natural impetuofity of temper, raifed ia
him a fpirit of contraduftion, which he indulged on
C 742 ]
PAR
all occalions ^ fometimes to a degree of precipitancy
highly culpable, and often with but little regard to
decency. Indeed the fame behaviour was fliown to
him, and the papers which he brought to the academy Parental
were often treated with much feverity. He was  **—»*
charged with obfeurity in his produ&ions ; and he
was indeed fo notorious for this fault, that he percei¬
ved it himfelf, and could not avoid correcting it. The
king had, by a regulation in IJ16, fupprefled the
clafs of fcholars of the academy, which feemed to put
too great an inequality betwixt the members. Parent
was made a joint or affiftant member for geometry ;
but he enjoyed this promotion but a fhort time; for
he was taken off by the fmall pox the fame year, at
the age of 50. He was author of a great many pieces,
chiefly on mechanics and geometry.
PARENTAL, lomething belonging to the relation
of parent, bee Parent.
Parental /IJfedion, the endearing attachment of
parents to their children, including in it love ; a defire
of doing good to thofe who by an aft of our own de¬
pend upon us for all that they enjoy. Nature even ex¬
cites this affeftion in brutes: but in them it continues
only fo long as it is neceffary for the prefervation of their
offspring ; for when thefe jre able to provide for them-
felves, it ceafes, and the relation is forgotten. In man,
however, though it leflens, or at leaft becomes lefs
anxious as the dependence of the child becomes lefs,
it never entirely ceafes, except in fome few inftances
of extreme depravity. Authors, however, have ima¬
gined, and Lord Karnes* among the reft, that after * Shichet $
the child is provided for, and no more depends on the ^ ™
parent, all affeftion would ceafe, were it not artificially0/
preferved and confirmed by habit. Whether his lord-
fh:p, in this opinion, be right or wrong, vve fhall not
pretend to fay. One thing, however, is certain, that
be it natural or not, it is one of the greateft comforts
or life, even when all dependence has ceafed. It
matters not that there are many inftanccs where this
comfort is not felt. Human depravity has often obli¬
terated the fineft feelings of the mind ; and it is not to
be wondered at if in fome inftances it do fo in the cafe
before us. A good heart certainly can enjoy no
greater fatisfaftion than that arifing from grateful re¬
turns of kindnefs and affeftion to an aged parent. As
the vexations which parents receive from their children
haften the approach of age. and double the force of
years ; fo the comforts which they reap from them
aiebalm to all other furrows, and difappoint the inju¬
ries of time. Parents repeat their lives in their off-
fprings ; and their concern for them is fo near, that
they feel all their fufferings, and tafte all their enjoy¬
ments, as much as if they regarded their own perfons.
However ftrong we may fuppofe the fondnefs of a
father for his children, yet they will find more hvely
marks of tendernefs in the boforn of a mother. There
are no ties in nature to compare with thofe wdrich
unite an affeftionate mother to her children, when they
repay her tendernefs with obedience and love.
We have a remarkable inftance of parental affeftion
in Zaleucus | prince of the Locrines ; who made a de- f /FMaa»
cree, that whoever was convifted of adultery ftrould hh. 13.
be punifhed with the iofs of both his eyes. Soon
after this efta bftrment, the iegiflator’s own fen was
apprehended in the very faft, and ! rou^ht to a public
trial. How coul i the father acquit himfelf in fo
tender and delicate a conjuhfture Should he execute
the law in ail its rigour, this would be worfe than
2 death
PAR
[ 743 3
PAR
►arental dcatli to the unhappy youth : fhould he pardon Jo no¬
li torious a delinquent, this would defeat the deugn ot
•acetone- h;g fai,Jtary inftitution. To avoid both thefe inconve-
um• ; niences, he ordered one of his own eyei to be pulled
' v out and one of his Ton’s.
Diodorus Siculus alfo, lib. 34. gives us a furpnfing
inftance of the fame warm affeftion. Cambalus, a
young gentleman of charafter and fortune in the City
of Mulgeatum, being one day out a courfing, was
v/iy-laid, and very near being robbed and murdered
by the banditti who infefted that part of the country.
Gorgus, the young gentleman’s father, happened to
come by at the very iniftant, to whom Cambalus re¬
lated the danger he was in. The fon was on loot,
the father on horfeback ; but no fooner had he heard
the melancholy tale, than he leapt from his hoife, de-
fired his fon to mount, and make the belt of his way
into the city : but Cambalus, preferring bis father’s
fafety to his own, would by no means confent to it ;
on the contrary, conjured his father to leave him, and
take care of himfelf. The father, ftruck with the
generofity and affedlion of his fon, added tears to en¬
treaties, but all to no purpofe. The conteft between
them is better conceived than defcribed—while bathed
in tears, and befeeching each other to preferve his
own life, the banditti approached and ftabbed them
both. . f
Amongfl: the ancients Greeks, the fentiments 01
parental affeaion were exceedingly ftrong and ardent.
The mutual tendernefs of the hulband and the wife
was communicated to their offspring ; whiie the father
viewed in his child the charms of its mother, and the
mother perceived in it the manly graces of its father.
As paternal kindnefs is the moft fimple and natural
expanfxon of felf-love, fo there are innumerable inftan-
ces of it in all countries favage and civilized.'
PARENT ALIA, in antiquity, funeral obfequies,
or the laft duties paid by children to their deceafed pa¬
rents.
PARENTHESIS, in grammar, certain intercalary
words inferted in a difcourfe, which inteirupt the lenfe
or thread, but feem neceffary for the better under-
ilanding of the fubjeft.
PARENZO, a fmall but flrong town of Italy, and
in Iltria, with a biihop’s fee and a good harbour ;
feated on the gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 13. 46.
N. Lat. 31;. 28. It fubmitted to the Venetians in
1267.
PARESIS, in medicine, a palfy of the bladder,
wherein the urine is either fupprefled or difcharged in¬
voluntarily.
PARETONEUM, in natural hiftory, the name of
an earth found on the fhores of Egypt, Cyrene, anu the
if]and of Crete, ufed by the ancients in painting.
It had its name either from a part of Egypt, near
which it was gathered, or from ttie name oi a town
in that kingdom, where it was ufually fold. Vitruvius
is of the firil opinion, and Volaternus of the other.
Of late it was thought to be loft ; but it is ftill com¬
mon on the fhores of moft of the iilands of the Archi¬
pelago, though not obferved or regarded ; and is truly
a very heavy and tough clay of a fine white colour,
found in maffes of different fizes, generally as foft as
the fofter days within the ftrata ; and, by roiling aoout
on the beach in this ftate, it gathers up the faud, fmali
fhells, and other foulnefles, we always find about it. aji^et
It is likely that there are ftrata of it fine and pure in
the cliffs there, and that the lea waflies off maffes of
them in florins and high tides, which are wiiat we
find. ' .
PARGET, in natural hiftory, a name given to ie-
veral kinds of gyofum, or plafter-ftone.
PARGETING, in building, is ufed for the pla-
ftering of walls, and fometimes for plafter itfelf.
Pargeting is of various kinds: as, 1. White-lime and
hair-mortar laid on bare walls. 2. On bare laths, as
in partitioning and plain cieling. 3. Rendering the
infides of walls, or doubling partition walls. 4. Rough-
cafting on heart-laths. 5. Plaftering on brick work,
with finifhing mortar, in imitation of ftone-work; and
the like upon heart-laths.
PARHELION, or Par helium, formed from
near, and fy-l°s fun, in natural philofophy, a mocic-fun
or meteor, in form of a very bright hght, appearing on
one fide of the fun.
Appearances of this kind have been made mention
of both by the ancients and moderns. Ariftotle ob-
ferves, that in general they are feen only when th>_ fun
is near the horizon, though he taiees notice of two
that were feen in Bofphorus from morning to evening;
and Pliny has relatexl the times when fuch phenomena
were obferved at Rome. Gsflendi fays, that in 1633
and 1636 he often faw one mock-fun. Two were ob¬
ferved by M. de la Hire in 1689 ; and the fame num¬
ber by Caflini in 1693* Grey in I7005 an<^ Gr
Halley in 1702 : but the moft celebrated appearances
of this kind were feen at Rome by Scheiner, by Muf- „
chenbroeck at Utrecht, and by Hevelius at oedan. By
the two former, four, mock-funs were obferved, and by
the latter feven.
Parhelia are apparently of the fame fize with tha-
fun, though not always of the fame brightnefs, nor
even of the fame ftiupe ; and when a number appear
at ©nee, there is fome difference in both thefe refpe&s-
among them. Externally they are tinged^ with co¬
lours like the rainbow ; and many have <t long ii>.ry
tail oppofite to the fun, but paler towards the extremity.
Parhelia are generally accompanied with coronas, fome
of which are tinged with rainbow colours, but others
are white. They differ in number and fize; but all
agree in breadth, which is that of the apparent ciame-
ter of the fun. , , .
A very large white circle, parallt. to the horizon,
generally paffts through all the parhelia ; and, ^it it
were entire, it would go through the centre oi the
fun. Sometimes there are arcs of leffcr circleo con¬
centric to this, touching thofe coloured circles which
furround the fun. They are alfo tinged with colours,
and contain other parhelia. There are alio faid to
have been other circles obliquely fituated with refpeft
to all thofe we have mentioned ; but of this we have
met with no authentic account. The order of the co¬
lours in thefe circles is the fame as in the rainbow;
but on the infide, with refped to the fun, they are red,,
as is alfo obferved in many other coronas.
Parhelia have been vifible for 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours
together; and in North America they are faid to
continue fome days, and to be vifible from funrife to
funfet.
When the parhelia disappear, it lometimes rams, c-
there
par [ y44 ] PA R
• there falls fnow in the form of oblong fpiculae, as Ma-
raldi, Weidler, Kraft't, and others, have obferved ; and
beesufe the air in North America abounds with fiich
frozen fpicula;, which are even vifible to the eye, ac¬
cording to Ellis and Middleton, fuch particles have
been thought to be the caufe of all coronas and
parhelia.
Mr Wales fays, that, at Churchill in Hudfon’s
Bay, the rifing of the fun is always preceded by two
long ftreams of red light, one on each fide of him,
and about 20s diftant from him. Thefe rife as the
fun riles ; and as they grow longer begin to bend to¬
wards each other, till they meet directly over the fun,
juft as he rifes, forming there a kind of parhelion or
mock-fun. Thefe two ftreams of light, he favs, feem
to have their fource in two other parhelia, which rife
with the true fun ; and in the winter-feafon, when the
fun never rifes above the haze or fog, which he fay* is
conftantly found near the horizon, all thefe accompany
him the whole day, and fet with him in the fame man¬
ner as they rife. Once or twice he faw a fourth par¬
helion diredtly under the true fun ; but this, he frys,
is not common. Thefe fafts being conftant, are very
valuable, and may throw great light on the theory of
thefe temaikable phenomena.
Sometimes parhelia appear in a different manner ;
as when three funs have been feen in the fame vertical
circle, well defined, and touching one another. The
true fun was in the middle, and the loweft touched
the horizon ; and they fet one after the other. This
appearance was feen by M. Maleziew in 1722. Other
appearances fimilar to this are recited by M. Mufchen-
broeck.
Sometimes the fun has rifen or fet with a luminous
tail proje&ing from him, of the fame breadth with
his diameter, and perpendicular to the horizon. Such
an appearance was feen by Caflini in 1672 and 1692,
by De la Hire in 1702, and by Mr Ellis in Hudfon’s
Bay.
As M. Feuilee was walking on the banks of the ri¬
ver I.a Plata, he faw the fun rifing over the river with
a luminous tail projeding downwards, which continued
till he was fix degrees high.
Parafelena?, or mock-moons, have alfo been feen,
accompanied with tails and coloured circles, like thofe
which accompany the parhelia. An account of feveral,
and a particular defeription of a fine appearance of
this kind, may be feen in Mufchenbroeck.
The Roman phenomenon, obferved by Scheiner, is
famous on account of its having been the firft appear¬
ance of the kind that engaged the attention of philo-
fophers. It is reprefented in fig. 1.; in which A is
• the place of the obferver, B his zenith, C the true
fun, AB a plane palling through the obferver’s eye,
the true fun, and the zenith. About the fun C, there
appeared two concentric rings, not complete, but di-
verlified with colours. The lefftr of them, DEF, was
fuller, and more perfeft ; and though it was open from
D to F, yet thofe ends were perpetually endeavouring
to unite ; and fometimes they did fo. The outer of
thefe rings was much fainter, fo as fcarcely to be dif-
cernible. It had, however, a variety of colours ; but
was very inconftant. The third circle, KLMN, was
very large, and all over white, palling through the
middle of the fun, and everywhere parallel to the ho-
N° 259.
rizon. At firft this circle was entire ; but towards the Parhelion,
end of the appearance it was weak and ragged, fo as
hardly to be perceived from M towards N.
In the interfeftion of this circle, and the outward
iris GKI, there broke out two parhelia or mock-funs,
N and K, not quite perfedt; K being rather weak,
but N Ihone brighter and ftronger. The brightnef*
of the middle of them was fomething like that of the
fun ; but towards the edges they were tingetl with
colours like thofe of the rainbow ; and they were un¬
even and ragged. The parhelion N was a little wa¬
vering, and lent out a fpiked tail, NP, of a colour
fomewhat fiery, the length of which was continually
changing.
The parhelia at L and M in the horizontal ring
were not fo bright as the former; but were rounder,
and white, like the circle in which they were placed.
The parhelion N difappeared before K ; and while M
grew fainter, K grew brighter, and vani/hed the lalt
of all
It is to lie obferved farther, that the order of the
colours in the circles DEF, GKN, was the fame as in
the common halos, namely, red next the fun ; and the
diameter of the inner circle was allb about 45 degrees ;
which is the ufunl fize of a halo.
The reverend Dr Hamilton fent the following ac¬
count of parhelia feen at Cookftown to the Royal Irifti
Academy.
“ Wednefday September 24th, 1783, as l was pre¬
paring to obferve the fun pafling the meridian, before
the firft limb touched the centre wire, it was obfeured
by a dark well defined cloud, about io° in diameter.
Upon going to the door of the tranfit room, to fee if
it was likely foon to pafs off the dilk of the fun, I
obferved the following phenomena : From the weftern
edge of the cloud iffued a luminous arc parallel to the
horizon, perfectly well defined, extending exactly to
the northern meridian ; it was about 30'broad, white,
and ended in a blunted termination. On it were two
parhelia ; the nenreft t« the fun difplaving the prifma-
tic colours ; the remote one white, and both ill defi¬
ned. In a ftiort time the cloud had paffed off, and
fhowed the luminous a.lmicantar, re ching perfeft to th«
true fun. While things wire thus fituated, 1 mea-
fured with an accurate fextant the diftances of the par¬
helia ; I found the coloured one 26°, the remoter one
9:0, from the true fun. Juft as I had done this, a
new and prifmatic circle furrounded the fun, immedi¬
ately within the priftnatic parhelion. And now ano¬
ther coloured parhelion appeared on the eaftern board.
The fextant with its face up and down, exaftly mea-
fured this and the former at the original diftance of
26° ; the luminous almicaiitar ftill remaining perfedf.
In about 10 or 12 minutes whitifh hazy clouds came
on, and obfeured all thefe uncommon appearances.— * |
I did not obferve that the atmofpherical phenomena
before or after were at all uncommon. The wind a
light breeze at S3W. Bar. 29,6 rifing. Thermo¬
meter 55 .
In fig. 2. SM reprefents the fouth meridian ; NM
north meridian ; PP the prilmatic circle, with two
prifmatic funs or parhelia, at 26° diftance on each fide
the true fun ; W the white parhelion, at 90° dirtance
from the true fun ; LA the luminous almicantar ; and
HO the horizon.
Varioui
A ft
f 745 1
FAR
Tui*
Jj
Parias.
« See Pa¬
nt.
Various liypothefes have been framed by phibfo-
phers to account for this phenomenon, particularly by
M. Marriotte, Defcartes, and Huygens. None of
them, however, are fatisfaftory ; but thofe readers who
wi(h to become acquainted with them may confnlt
Huyqens’s Diflertation on this futject, in Smith s.
Optics, book i. ch. n. Mufchenbroeck’s Introduc¬
tion, &c. vol. xi. p. 1038, &e. 4to. ; but eipecially Dr
Prieftley’s Hiftory of Vition, Light, and Colours, vol.
ii. p. 613, See. ^
PARI A, or ISfew Andalusia, a country of 1 err a
Pirma in South America; bounded on the noi th fay the
north fea ; on the call by Surinam ; on the welt by
Hew Granada and the Caraccas ; and on the fouth
by Guiana. It produces colouring drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, Braail-wood, fugar, tobacco, and fame
valuable timber; the inland parts being woody and
mountainous, but interfperfed with due valleys that
yield corn and paflurage. Comana is the capital
town.
PARIAN-Chronicle. See ARUNUTUAN-Meircles,
and Parian-CHRomcLE.
Under the article Parian-Chronicle, we have been
as full as the fubjeft feemed to require, or as the nature
of our work would admit. It is unneceffary, there¬
fore, to refume it in this place. Such of our readers,
however, as wifh for further inbrmation on this fub-
je£t (which is equally iuterefting to the fcholar and
to the artiquarian) we muft rtier to Robertfon’s at¬
tack upon their authenticity, and to Gough’s learned
and judicious vindication of the authenticity, published
in Prchxologia for 1789. The extent of his learning,
and the folidity of his arguments, appear upon the
whole to outweigh the ohje&ions of his fenlible and
plaufible opponent. Hewlett’s book upon the fame
fide of the queftion may command feme degree of at¬
tention. It is ingenious. See SANnwica-Marble.
Pari an-Marine, in the natural hiftory of the an¬
cients, the white marble ufecl then, and to this day,
for carving ftatues, &c. and called by us at this time
jlaluary marble.
Too many of the later writers have confounded nil
the white marbles under the name of the Parian ; and
among the workmen, this and all the other white
marbles have the common name of alabajlers ; fo that
it is in general forgotten among them, that there is
fuch a thing as alabafter different from marble ; which,
however, is truly the cafe. Almoft all the world alfo
have confounded the Carrara marble with this, though
they are really very different; the Carrara kind being
•of a finer ftru&Ure and clearer white than the Parian ;
but lefs bright and fplendid, harder to cut, and not
capable of fo glittering a polilh.
The true Parian marble has ufually fomewhat of a
faint bluifh tinge among the white, and often has blue
veins in different parts of it. It is fuppofed by feme
to have had its name from the ifhnd Paros *, one of the
Cyclades in the JEgean Sea, where it was firft found ;
but others will have it to have been fo called from
Agoracritus Parius, a famous ftatuary, who ennobled
it by cutting a ftatue of Venus in it.
P ARIAS, or Perreas, a tribe of Hindoos, fo pe¬
culiarly diftinguifhed from all others, that they live by
themfelvds in the out Ikirts of towns; and, in the
country, build their houfes apart from the villages, or
Vol. XIII. Part IL
Paras*.-
rather have villages of their own, furmfhed with tvefisj
for they dare not fo much as fetch water from thofe Mod Un^
which other families make ufe of; and, left thefe latter
fhould inadvertently go to one of theirs, they are obli¬
ged to fcatter the bones of dead cattle about their
wells, that they may be known. They dare not in
cities pafs through the ftreets where the Bramins
live ; nor fet foot in the villages where they dwell.—
They are likewise forbidden to enter a temple, either
of their god Wiffnow or Efwara; becaufe they are
held impure. They get their bread by fowing, dig¬
ging, and building the walls of mud houfes ; moft of
thole inhabited by the common people being raifed by
thefe Parias; who alfo do fuch kinds of dirty work
as other people do not care to meddle with. Nor is
their diet much more cleanly ; for they do not icruple to
eat cows, horfes, fowl, or other carrion, which die of
themfelves, and even itink. One would fcarce ima¬
gine, that contentions for precedency fhould ever en¬
ter into the thoughts of a people who have renounced
all cleanlinefs, and, like fwine, wallow in filth ; and
yet pride has divided the Parias into two claffes: the
firft are fimply called Parias, the other Seriperes. The
employment of thefe latter is to go about felling lea¬
ther, which they drefs ; alfo to make bridles, and fuch
kind of things : fome of them likewife ferve for fol-
diers. The Parias, who reckon themfelves the bet¬
ter family, will not eat in the houfe of the Seriperes 5
but the Seriperes will readily eat with the Parias. For
this reafon they are obliged to pay them refpeft, by
lifting their hands aloft, and Handing upright before
them. Thefe Seriperts, when they marry, cannot fet
up a panda), a kind of garland, before their doors,
made with more than three flakes or trees ; fhould
they exceed that number, the whole city would be in
motion. The Seriperes are likewife fubjeft to fome
fort of fiavery ; for when any perfon of credit or au¬
thority dies in the families of the Komitis, Sittis, Palis,
farriers, or gokifmiths, and the friends have a mind to
be at the expence of fome clothes to give the Seripe-
res, thefe latter muft fuffer their beards to be fhaven ;
and when the corpfe is carried out of town to be burn¬
ed or interred, they muft do that office ; for which each
receives a j'auum, or one piece and a half of filver,
worth three fous and a half. Thefe are the fame fort
of people who are called at Surat Ha/alchors ; that is,
in the Perfian language, “ cat-alls, or eaters at large.”
Nothing can offend an Hindoo more than to be called
an Halalchor: yet thefe poor people are not offended,
cringe and how to all they pafs, and go through their
drudgery without noife or concern.
The Parias are very vicious, ftupid, and ignorant, oc-
cafioned by their wretched way of life : The Eremins
and nobility fhun them as if they had the plague, and.
look on the meeting a Parias as the greateft misfor¬
tune. To come near one of them is a fin, to touch
them a facrilege. If a Parias were dying, it is infamy
to vifit him, or to give him the lesft affiftance, in the
utmoft danger or diftrefs. A Bramin who unavoid¬
ably fhould touch a Tarias, immediately wafires himfelf
from the impurity. Even their ffiadow and breath
being reckoned contagious, they are obliged to live
on the call fide of their towns, that the wefterly winds
which reign in this country may keep back their
breath. And it is lawful for a Bramin to kill one
c B of
^ ^ ^ C 746 ] par
Panetaha 0f thefe unhappy creatures, {{ he does not avoid it by monaftery of St Alban’s in the year iveo
Par'., gettmg out of his way : Infhortjthey think them repro-   - 8 in.the 1259
bated by God, and believe the fouls of the damned en-
ter into the Farias, to be punifhed for their crimes. 
Yet the million, have found among thefe dregs of the
people very aftive zealous catechifls, who by their la¬
bours have very much contributed to the converfion
of their countrymen, particularly one Rajanaiken a Fa¬
ria foldier, who, of all the inferior miffionaries, has
diftinguHhed himfelf moll by his labours and fuffer-
ings.
PARIETAL1A ossa, in anatomy. See there
n° 13.
PARIETARIA, PeiLiTORr of the Wall : A ge¬
nus of the monoecia order, belonging to the poly
gamia chfs of plants ; and in the natural method rank-
ing un»er the 53^ order, Scabnda. The calyx of the
heimaphrodite is quadrifid ; there is no corolla ; there
are four ftamina ; one llyle ; and one feed, fuperior
and elongated. The female calyx is quadrifi j ; there
is no corolla ; nor are there any ftamina. There is one
flyle; and one feed fuperior, and elongated. There are
fix fpecies, of which one named the officinalis is ufed in
medicine. This has a creeping root. The ftalk grows
erecfl, isrough to the touch, and adheftve. Theleaves are
alternate, elliptical, lanceolate, veined, and a little rouo-h.
The flowers grow opt of the alas of the leaves, in fef-
file, branched, verticillate clufters, of a greenifh colour
tinged wu'th red. The antheras have a great degree
of fenfibility ; for, if irritated with the point of a pin,
they fly from the calyx with elaftic force, and throw
out their powder. The plant has a cooling and
diuretic quality. Three ounces of the juice taken in¬
ternally, or a fomentation externally applied, have been
found ferviceable in the ftrangury. The plant laid
upon heaps of corn infefted with weevils, is faid to
drive away th©fe deftrudftive infe&s.
PARIETES, in anatomy, a term ufed for the in-
clofures or membranes that flop up or clofe the hollow
parts of the body ; efpecially thofe of the heart, the
thorax, &c. The panetes of the two ventricles of the
heart are of unequal ftrength and thicknefs ; the left
exceeding the right, becaufe of its office, which is
to force the blood through all parts of the body;
whereas the right only drives it through the lungs.
PARIS (Matthew), one of our beft hiftorians from
William the Conqueror to the latter end of the reign
of Henry III. but of his life few particulars have
been tranfmitted to us. Eeland, his original biogra¬
pher, without determining whether he was born in
France or England, informs us, that he wag a monk
of St Allan’s, and that he was fent by Pope Innocent
to reform the monks of the convent at Holm in
Norway. Biftiop Bale, the next in point of time,
adds to the above relation, that, on account of his
extraordinary gifts of body and mind, he was much
etteemed, particularly by king Henry III. who com¬
manded him to write the hiftory of his reign. Fuller
makes him a native of Cambridgefhire, becaufe there
was an ancient family of his name in that coun¬
ty. He alfo mentions his being fent by the pane
to vifit the monks in the diocefe of Norwich. Biihop
Tanner, Biftiop Nicholfon, Doaor Du Pin, and the
Nouveau Diaionnaire Hiflorique, add not a fiagle fa&
to thofe above related. Matthew Paris died in the
- - — j— He was
doubtlefs a man of extraordinary knowledge for the
13th cerituiy; of an excellent moral character, and,
as an hiftorian, of ftria integrity. His ftyle is un-
poliftied ; but that defeat is fufficiently atoned for by
the honeft freedom with which he relates the truth
regardlefs of the dignity or fanftity of the perfon
concerned. Plis works are, 1. Hijloria ab Adamo a
Conquejlum Anglia, lib. i. manufcripc. col. C C. Can-
tab. c ix. Moft of this book is tranfcribed, by
Matthew of Weftminfter, into the firft part of hia
Flonlegium. 2. Hijloria major, feu rerum Anglic ana-
rum hijloria a Gul. Ccnquejloris advenlu ad annum 42
Henna III. &c. feveral times printed. The firft
part of this hiftory, viz. to the year *235, is tran-
fenbed almoft verbatim from the Chronicle of Roger
Wendover ; and the Appendix, from the year 1260,
is the work of William Rafhinger, who was alfo a
monk of St Alban’s. 3. Vita duorum Ojfarum, Mer¬
cia regum, S. AIbani fundatorum. 4. Gejla 2 2 abba-
turn S. Albani. 5. Additamenta chronicorum ad hid.
majorem ; printed. 6. Hijloria minor. Jive epitome maje-
ns hijloria; manufeript. Befides many other thino-s
in manufeript. **
Paris, fon of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba,
alfo named Alexander. He was decreed, even before
his birth, to become the ruin of his country; and when
is mother, in the firft months of her pregnancy,
had dreamed that file ftiould bring forth a torch which
would fet fire to her palace, the foothfayers*foretold
the calamities which were to be expefted from the im¬
prudence of her future fon, and which would end in
the rum of Troy. Priam, to prevent fo great and fo
alarming an evil, ordered his Have Archelaus to de-
ftroy the child as foon as he was born. The Have, ei¬
ther touched with humanity, or influenced by Hecuba,
did not obey, but was fatisfied to expofe the child 03
mount Ida, where the fliepherds of the place found
him, and educated him as their own. Some attribute
the prefervation of his life, before he was found by the
ftiepherds, to the motherly tendernefs of a ftie-bear
who fuckled him. Young Paris, though educated
among (hepherds and peafants, gave very early proofs
of courage and intrepidity ; and from his care in pro-
tefting the flocks of mount Ida from the rapacity of
the wild beafts, he was named Alexander, “ helper or
defender.” He gained the efteem of all the fhepherds,
and his graceful countenance and manly deportment
recommended him to the favours of CEnone, a nymph
of Ida, whom he married, and with whom he lived
with the moft perfeft tendernefs. Their conjugal peace
was, however, of no long duration. At the marriage
of Peleus and Thetis, the goddefs of difeord, who had
not been invited to partake of the entertainment, fhow»
ed her difpleafure, by throwing into the affembly of
the gods who were at ’the celebration of the nup¬
tials, a golden apple, on which, were written the
words Detur pulchriori. All the goddefles claimed it
as their own , the contention at firft became general;
but at laft only three, Juno, Venus, and Minerva, wifh-
ed to dffpute their refpeftivc right to beauty. The
gods, unwilling to become arbiters in an affair fo ten-
dcr ano fo delicate in its nature, appointed Paris to
adjudge the prize of beauty to the faireft of the god-
deffesj and indeed the fhepherd feemed fufficiently
3 qualified
$1. «
PAR [ 747 ] PAR
Paris, qualified to decide fo great a conteft, aa Ins wifdom
was fo well eftablifhed, and his prudence and fagacity
fo well known. The goddefies appeared before their
judge without any covering or ornament, and each en¬
deavoured by promifes and entreaties to gain the at¬
tention of Paris, and to influence his judgment. Juno
promifed him a kingdom ; Minerva military glory ;
and Venus the faireft woman in the world for his wife,
as Ovid exprefles it, Heroid 17. v. 118.
kUnaque cum rcgnum ; belli darel altera laudem ;
Tyndaridis conjux, tertia dixit, eris.
After he had heard their feveral claims and promifes,
Paris adjudged the prize to Venus, and gave her the
golden apple, to wkjch perhaps fire feemed intitled as
| the goddefs of beauty. This decifion of Paris drew
I upon the judge and his family the refentment of the
two other goddefies. Soon after, Priam propofed a
contefl among his funs and other princes, and promifed
to reward the conqueror with one of the fineft bulls
of mount Ida. His emifiaries were fent to procure the
animal, and it was found in the pofiefiion of Paris, who
reluftantly yielded it. The fhepherd was anxious to
regain his favourite, and he wen. to Troy and en¬
tered the liils of the combatants. He was received
with the greatefl applaufe, and obtained the victory
over his rivals, Neftor the fon of Neleus, Cyenus fon
of Neptune, Polites, Heienus, and Deiphobus, fons of
Priam. He likewife obtained a fuperiority over Hec¬
tor hnnfelf; which piince, enraged to fee himfelf con¬
quered by an unknown Itranger, purfued him clofely ;
and Paris mult have fallen a vidlim to his brother’s
rage, had he not fled to the altar of Jupiter. This
facrtd retreat preferved his life ; and Caffandra the
daughter of Priam, itruck with the iimilarify of the
features of Paris with thofe of her brothers, inquired
his birth and his age. prom thefe circumftaHces fhe
foon difcovered that he was her brother, and as fuch
Ihe introduced him to her father and to her brothers.
Priam acknowledged Paris as his fon, forgetful of the
alarming dreams which had caufed him to meditate his
deathi and all jealoufy ccafed among the brothers.
Paris did not long fuffer himfelf to remain inadtive; he
equipped a fleet, as if willing to redeem Hefione his
father’s filler, whom Hercules had carried away and
obliged to marry i'elamon the fon of ^Eacus. This
was the pretended motive of his voyage, but the caufes
were far different. Paris remembered that he was to
be the hulband of the faireft of women ; and, if he had
been led to form thofe expeditions while he was an
obfcure fiiepherd of Ida, he had now every plaufible
reafon to fee them realized, fince he was the acknow¬
ledged fon of the king of Proy. Helen was the faireft
woman of the age, and Venus had promifed her to
him. On thefe grounds, therefore, he went to Sp irta,
the relidence of Helen, who had married Menelaus.
He was received with great refpedt; but he abufed the
hofpitality of Menelaus, and while the hufband was
abfent in Crete, Paris perfuaded Helen to elope with
him, and to fly to Afia. Helen confented ; and Priam
received her into his palace without difficulty, as his
filler was then detained in a foreign country, and as
he wifhed to fhow himfelf as hoftile as poflible to the
Greeks. This affair was foon produdlive of ferious
confequences. When Menelaus had married Helen,
all her fuitors had bound themfelves by a folemn oath to
protedt her perfon, and to defend her from every vio¬
lence ; and therefore the ii|jtired hufband reminded
them of their engagements, and called upon them to
recover her. Upon this all Greece took up arms in
the caufe of Menelaus ; Agamemnon was chofen gene¬
ral of all the combined forces, and a regular war was
begun. Paris, meanwhile, who had refufed Helen to
the petitions and ernbafiies of the Greeks, armed him¬
felf, with his brothers and fubjedls, to oppofe the
enemy ; but the fuccefs of the war was neither hinder¬
ed nor accelerated by his means. He fought with
little courage, and at the very fight of Mendans,
whom he had fo recently injured, all his refolution va-
nifhed, and he retired from the front of the army, where
he walked before like a conqueror. In a combat with
Menelaus, which he undertook by means of his bro¬
ther Hedlor, Paris muft have perilhed, had not Venus
interfered, and ftolen him from the refentment of his
antagonift. He wounded, however, in another battle,
Machaon, Euryphilus, and Diomedes; and, according
to feme opinions, he killed with one of his arrows the
great Achilles.
The death of Paris is differently related : fome fay
that he was mortally wounded by one of the arrows of
Philodetes, which had been once in the poffeffion of
Hercules ; and that when he found himfelf languid
on account of his wounds, he ordered himfelf to be
carried to the feet of GEnone, whom h,e had bafely
abandoned, and who in the years of his obfeurity had
foretold him that he would folicit her affiffance in his
dying moments. He expired before he came into the
prefence of CEnone; and the nymph, Hill mindful of
tbar former loves, threw herfelf upon his body, and
{tabbed herfelf to the heart, after fhe had plentifully
bathed it with her tears. According to others, Paris
did not immediately go to Troy when he left the Pe-
loponr. r,i«, but he was driven on the coafts of Egypt,
where Proteus, who was king of the country, detain¬
ed him ; and when he heard of the violence which had
been offered to the king of Sparta, he kept Helen at
his court, and permitted Paris to retire. Whatever
was the mode of his death, it took place, we are told,
about 1188 B. C. See Troy, See.
Paris, the capital of the kingdom of France; is
fituated on the river Seine, in the ifle of France, being
one of the largeft and ffneft cities in Europe. It de¬
rived its modern name from the ancient Parifii ; and is
fuppofed by fome to have had the jLatin name of Aw-
tetia, from Lutum, “ mud,” the place where it now
{lands having been anciently very marfhy and muddy.
Ever lince the reign of Hugh Capet, that is, for near
800 years, this city hath been the ufual refidence of
the kings of France ; it is of a circular form, and, in¬
cluding the fuburbs, about five French leagues, or 15
Engliffi miles, in circumference. I he number of its in¬
habitants is computed at about 500,000 (a); that of its
5 B 2 ftreeta
Paris,
(a) The lateft, and perhaps the moft accurate, accounts, have ftated the number of inhabitants in Paris at
confiderably upwards of 800,000. It is fuppofed to be iefs than London, but the difference is not thought to
be very great.
PAR [ 74S ] P A R
ftretts 912; and that of its houfes upwards of 20,000,
J excluiive of,the public ftrufturcs of all forts. Its
greateft deleft, according to fome, is the wane of good
drinking water ; but others tell us, that very fine wa¬
ter is brought by an aqueduft from the village of
Arcueil, not far from Pari?, but own that the water of
the'Seine, and the city, is not good. The ftreets are
of a proper breadth, well built, paved, and lighted.
There is a great number of tribunals and offices here ;
moll of which are kept in the Palais, fituated on an
if]and, to which it gives name; The number of churches,
convenes, hofpitals, market-places, fountains, gates,
and bridges, in this city is very great; befides the uni-
•verfity, feveral academies, public libraries, royal pa¬
laces and cailles, and above 100 hotels, fome of them
very (lately. But to be more particular, that part call¬
ed la Cite, lies in the centre, and confifls of three ifland-s
formed by the Seine, viz. L’lfle de Palais, L’lfle de
Notre Dame, and LTfle Louviers. It is the princi¬
pal of the three parts into which the city is divided,
and contains the following remarkable flruftures:
I. Several bridges; of which fome are of wood and
others of ftone, and have moll of them a row of houfes
on each fide. The chief of thefe are the Pont-neuf and
Pont-royal : the firft confiltsof 12 arches, vrlikh, pro¬
perly fpeaking, make two bridges, the one leading
from the fuburbs of St Germain to the city, and the
ether from thence to that part called la V'tlle : there is
a carriage-way in the middle 30 feet broad, and foot-
walks on each fide, raifed two feet high ; and in the
centre Hands a brafs ftatue of king Henry IV. on horfe-
back. On this bridge is alfo the building called La
Samaritaine, from a group of figures upon it repre-
fenting our Saviour and the Samaritan woman, Hand¬
ing near J tcob’s well. Here is a pump to rake the
water, which through feveral pipes fupplies the quar¬
ter of the Louvre, and fome other parts of the town.
The Pont-royal, which leads to the Thuilleries, was
built by order of Lewis XIV. in the room of a wooden
bridge that was carried away by the current in 1684.
:2. The cathedral of Notre Dame, or our Lady, being
dedicated to the Holy Virgin, which is a large Hately
Gothic ftrufture, faid to have been founded by king
Childeric, and built in the form of a crofs. Here, be-
fides other great perfonages, are interred the cardinals
de Retz and Noailles. From the two fquare towers
belonging to it, is a noble pr-ofpeft of the city and
neighbouring country. Here is a vail quantity of gold
* and filver plate, rich tapeftry, and fine paintings; and
the number of the canons is no lefs than 50. Near
it Hands the palace of the archbilhop, in which is the
advocates library: therevenue of the archbifliop amounts
to about 1 8o,oco livrts ; and his taxation to the court
cf Rome is 4283 guilders. 3. The priory and parifh-
church of St Bartholomew ; the lalt of which is the
moH beautiful in all this part of the city, and Hands
near the Palais. 4. The Palais, which gives name to
an ifiand, and in which the parliament, with a great
many other courts, are held. It was anciently the re-
fidence of the kings; but was given to the officers of
jufiice by Philip the Fair, who alfo fettled the parlia¬
ment here in 1302. The parliament, confifling cf fc-
reral chambers, each of which has its department, is
opened the day after Martinmas with a folemn mafs,
■celebrated by a bilhop, and continues fating till the
8th of September, when a vacation-chamber is appoint- Paris,
ed during the interval, for criminal caufes, and others
which require difpatch. The jurifdiftion of this court
is of great extent. There is a beautiful chapel belong¬
ing to the Palais: in which is alfo the prifon, or jail,
for the jurifdiftion of the parliament, called in French
La Conciergerie. 5. The Hotel Dieu, the moll an¬
cient and largeH hofpital in Paris, in which 8000 fide
and infirm poor are t-:ken care of, and attended by the
nuns of the order of St Augufiine. 6. The hofpital
of St Catharine, where poor women and maidens are
entertained three days, and attended by the above-men¬
tioned nuns. 6. The Grande Chatelet, where fome of
the inferior courts of juftice hold their feffions. 8. Fort
1’Eveque, in which is the mint and a prifon. It Hands
in or near the Hreet La Ferroniere, in which Henry IV.
was Habbed by Kavilliac. 9 St Germain 1'Auxerrois,
which is called the royal palace church ; becaufe the
palaces of the Louvre and Thuilleries Hand in its pa-
rilh. 10. The Louvre, an ancient royal palace, of
which a part was rebuilt by Lewis XIV. Had it been
compl. ted on the fame plan, it would have been a rao/t
magnificent Hrufture. On one of its gates is the fol¬
lowing infeription, Dum tolum unpleat orbem : the mean¬
ing of which is, “ May it lait till the owner of it'hath
extended his fway over the whole world which im¬
plies what the French kings have confiantly aimed at.
Another infeription fliows, at the fame tinae, the va¬
nity of the nation, and their abjeft flattery of their
grand monsrque. It may be rendered in Englilh
thus :
Louvre is a palace for great Lewis fit:
God him alone exceeds, as heaven does it.
This palace is joined to the Thuilleries by a gallery.,
in' which are 180 models of fortreffes, fome fituated m
France, and fome in ether countries, executed with
the utmoft accuracy. Here is a valuable colleftion
of paintings, the king’s printing-houfe, the mint where
the king’s medals are firuck, together with a prodi¬
gious quantity of rich tapellry hangings, and a col¬
leftion of ancient arms, among which are thofe worn
by Francis I. at the famous battle of Pavia. Here
alfo the French academy, the academy of inferiptions
and belles lettres, the royal academy of feiences, the
academy of painting and fculpture, and the royal aca¬
demy of architefture, have their meetings. The firH
of thtfe was founded for the improvement of the French
language ; and as for the others, them names explain
the defign of their infiitution. 11. Le Palais Royal,
which was built by Cardinal Richelieu, in the year
1636, and belongs to the duke ol Orleans. It is faid
to contain piftures to the value of four millions of
livres, which were pnrehafed by the regent of that
title, and of which a part belonged to ChriHina queen
of Sweden. 12. The palace des Thuilleries, fo called
from a tile or brick-kiln which Hood there formerly.
This palace, as we obferved above, communicates with
the Louvre by a gallery. Behind it are exceeding
pleafant gardens, adorned with fine walks, planted with
ever-greens, and other trees, and with beautiful par¬
terres, where are to be feen, all the year round, every
flower according to its feafon. There are alfo three
fine fountains, the garden, and a canal. Behind the
ThmUerkfij on the bank of the river, are pleafant walks,,
com.
Paris.
employed hy the government.
PAR t 749 1 . d*
conroofed of fo'ir rows of lofty elms, to which vaft The head of the umverfily
' crowds of people refort in the fine weather, as well as
to the gardens. In the palace is a fpacious and mag¬
nificent theatre ; and hard by it are the Elyfian fields,
where a furprifing number of coaches are to be feen in
fair weather : not far off is the church of St Roche,
where the celebrated poet Corneille is interred. 13. La
place de Louis le Grand, a very beautiful fquare, in
the centre of which is an equeftrian ftatue of tn.at
king,, which is juftly-accounted a mailerpiece. 14. .» e
Place, or Square des Viaoires, which is round, and
contains a ftatue of Lewis XIV. of gilt bta^erecled
to him by the duke de la Fuillade, with this infcnp-
tion, Vvo immortuli. 15 L’Siary in tne
Rue Vivien, which contains 94,000 printed books,
30,000 manufcripts, and a prodigious colleaion ot
copperplates and medals. Near by, in the chur^.
yard of St Jofeoh, lies the famous comic poet Moliere.
16. The parifh-church of St Euftace, which ftands
* the quarter of the fame name, and contains the
A R
the redtor, who is cho-
fen every three months, but fometimes is continued
feveral years. ./HI the profeffors have fettled falaries ;
the whole annual income of the univerfity amounting,
it is faid, to about 50,000 livres. 2. The Gobelins,
a houfe or palace, where a great number of ingenious
ardfts, in various manufaftures and handicrafts, are
Parh
tomb of the great miniffer Colbert 17- 1 he gate of
St Dennis, which was ere&ed as a triumphal area in
Jjrnour of Lewis XIV. 18. The gate of St Martin,
ere&ed alfo in form of a triumphal arch, in honour ot
the fame kimr. Not far from hence, in the church¬
yard of St Nicholas des Champs, Peter Gaflendi, and
other learned men, are but led. _ 19. La Greve, an
open place, where all public rejoicings are celebrated,
and malefactors executed. 20^ 1 he Hotel de Vide,
which is a large building of Gothic architedure,thoug
adorned with columns of the Corinthian order. 21. i fie
arfenal in the quarter of St Paul, confiding or many
fpacious buildings, among which are a foundery, and
a houfe for making falcpetre. Here is a mufquetoon
of two barrels, Vvhich it is faid will pierce a thick
board at the diftance of fix miles ; and for difeern-
ing an ohieft at that diftance, has a telefcope fixed to
the barrel. 22. The Baftile, a kind of fortrefs like
the Tower of London, which is ufed as a pnfon .or
ftate-criminals, and for fuch as are taken up by letters
de cachet, i. e. by warrants figned by the king,, and
fealed. 2 3. Le Temple, a commandery of the knights
of Malta,‘which gives name to a quarter, wherein, be¬
ing a privileged place, aVtificers that are not freemen
may carry on their hulinefs without moleftation. 1 he
temple is the refidence of the grand prior of the Frencu
nation. 24. That formerly called La Malfon prnf -Jje
des Jefuites, in the quarter of St Anthony, in the
church of which the hearts of Lewis XIII. and Xi v .
are preferved, each in a c; fleet of gold, fupported by
two angels of maffy filver, and as big as the !i!e, ho¬
ve ing with expanded wings. In the fame quarter is
a fine looking gl .fs manufacture, wnere above $co
perfons are employed in pohlhing plates call at St
Gobin ; with a convent of Francifc m , the monks ot
which are called Pique puces, or Prkk-Jleas.
In that part of the city called the Univerfity, the
principal places aie, , _
1. The univerfity, which gives name to it and which
was firft founded, as it 13 faid, by Charles the Great :
all the arts and faiences are taught here, particularly
law, phyfie, and divimty. There are above 40 col¬
leges ; of which the chief are thofe of Sorbonne, of
Navarre, of the faculty of phyfic, and of the four na¬
tions ; but ledum are read only in eleven of them.
The moil curious ta«
peltry of alfforts is made here. 3. The General Ho-
fpital, a moft noble foundation for the poor or the fe¬
male fex, near 7000 obje&s being taken care ot and
provided for. The fick are carefully tended ; and thoie
that are in health are obliged to work ; different wards
being allotted for foundlings, for girls who lew or knit,
proftitutes, ideots, and poor women : o' the lait, feme
are kept'gratis, and others pay a fmall matter. In
the c a file of Bicetre, belonging to this- hofpital, and
confiding of many large buildings, are near 4000 per-
fons of the other fex, among which are perfons aifor¬
do red in their fenfes, and fuch as are afilitted with the
venert?.! difeafe. I o this hoipital aie a.fo font c.nl-
dren who abufe their parents, and lead diffulute lives.
The fund for the maintenance of it, and the hofpital
de la Piiftie, where poor children are brought up. to¬
gether with the Hotel Dieu, amounts to above two
millions of livres per annum'. 4. The Kmg’s Phyfic
Garden, in which are an infinite variety of plants and
trees, a certain fum being allotted by the king for
keeping the garden in order, and improving it, and
for le&ures on botany, anatomy, chemiftry, and the
materia medica. A curious collection of natural cu-
riolities is kept here. 5. The abbey of St Viftoi, in
which is a public library, containing fome very an¬
cient and fcarce books, feveral curious manuienpts*
and a prodigious colledlion of maps and copperpLteo.
6. The College of Phyficians, to which belong fiys
profeffors. 7 The Little Chatelet, an old fortrefs,
now ufed for a prifan 8. Fhe Rue St Jacques, chief¬
ly inhabited by bookfellers. 9. 1 he Royal College,
and that of Lewis the Great : to the former belong,
twelve profeffors. 10. The Abbey of St Genevieve,
in which is the marble monument of king Clovis, the
fhrine of St Genevieve, a large library, with a cabi¬
net of antiquities and natural curiofitics. 11 • i'ie
Royal Obfervatory, a moft ftately edifice, built on*
the higheft part of the city. Several allronomevs are
maintained here by the king. 12. The Royal Aca¬
demy of furgery, inftituted in 1731- ]3- Hie *
vent of Francifcans, in the quarter of St Andrew, the
richeft in France. In the fame quarter are fome re¬
mains of the palace of Julian the Apeftate. m which
Childebert, and fome other kings of the Franks, af¬
terwards icfided. 14.. The Play-houfe. 15. 1 he
Convent of Carthufians, in the quarter of Luxemburgh,
containing fine paintings. »6. Fhe palace of Lux-
emburgh, 01 Orleans, a magnificent ilrudure, con¬
taining alfo fome fine paintings by Rubens, and em-
bellifhed with a noble garden. In the Hotel d«s Am-
baffadeurs, ambaffadors extraordinary are entertained
for three days, and thofe of remote countries all the
time they IHy at Paris. 17. The A .bey of St Ger¬
main des Prez, which contains a very valuable libra¬
ry, the manufcripts alone making 8000 volumes:
here alfo is a cabinet of antiquities.. 18. 1 he Hotel
royal des invalides, ere&ed by Lewis XIV. in whreh.
T^rls.
par
^ liim$ and fuperannuated ofHcers and foldiera are main¬
tained. TL he ljuildings take up no lefs than iy acres.
I he number of common foldiers here amount to about
3000, and of officers to about 500. The chapel is
very magnificent. Hard by is a military academy,
in which 500 young gentlemen are inftru&ed in the
art of war.
Our readers from the above account will be able to
conceive what Pans was ; what it is we cannot fo ea-
lily (how them. PofieiTed by a fet of men who dif-
giace human nature, and whofe reign may be as fhort
?.s that of a confiderable number of thofe who have
preceded them, its date in every fenfe is fluftuating
and undetermined ; infomuch that what may be true
{.ir ^ to-day, would perhaps be falfe to-morrow. Re-
ipecting its public buildings, internal police, and other
circumfiances, it is impoffible to fpeak with certainty.
The ballile is levelled with the duft ; but unjuft impri-
fonments have not ceafed; and other pi ices in that ex¬
it nfive capital overflow with unfortunate perfons who
tlelerved a better fate ; whofe only crime is, that they
are related to the late lamented king ; that they were
once nobles or allied to nobility ; or that they are
cnurchmen, or vvifh for fome regular government to
relieve their didrafted country from the anarchy that
has deftroyed it. The church of Notre I>ame, one of
the fineft cathedrals in Europe, is no more a place of
Chriltian worfhip, but has been folemnly dedicated by
the deluded people to reafon and philofophy. Its arch-
biftiop has renounced the peaceful religion of Jefus (a
thing aim oft unheard of in the hiftory of Chriftianity);
and has with his own hand knocked down thofe ima ges
which ancient fuperftition indeed had erefted, but
which fhould neverthelcfs have been removed with re¬
verence and decency. On the whole, fuch ilrange and
unlocked for revolutions have taken place in this once
fiounfiring city, as renders it impoffible to fay where
th-y may end, or what may be their confequences. 
To give a hiftory of the events that have occurred here
Wlt^.n thefe few years, is not our bufinefs in an article
o, this fort. They have been partly, i. e. as far as they
were then known, mentioned under the article France;
and for fuither information, our readers were there re¬
ferred to Revolution. To this article we again refer
them, in hopes that fomething decifive may (by the time
that we arrive at that period of our work) have taken
place with refpeft to the kingdom of which Paris is
the capital.
Herh Paris) or Truelove; A genus of the
trigynia order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
I ith order, Sarmentace<e. The calyx is tetraphyllous;
there are Jour petals, narrow in proportion ; the berry
quadnlocular. There is but one fpecies, growing na-
tuially in woods and Ihady places both in.Scotland and
England. It hath a fingle naked ftem, greenilh blof-
loms, and bluifti black berries.—The leaves and berries
are fat'd to partake of th« properties of opium ; and
t e juke of the berries is ufeful in inflammations of
the eyes. Linnaeus fays, that the root will vomit as
well as ipecacuanha, but muft be taken in double the
quantity. Goats and flieep eat the plant; cows, ffiirfes,
and fwine, reiufe it. 1 hough this plant has been
reckoned of a poifonous nature, being ranked among
ihe aconites; yet late authors attribute quite other
I 75° 1
PAR
properties to it, efteeming it to be a counterpoifon,
and good m malignant and peftilential fevers.
Hetb Paris nj Canada or of America, Trillium, in
botany, a genus of the hexandria trigynia clafs : The
charafters are, that it has a three-leaved fpreading em-
palement, and three oval petals; it has fix awl-fhaped
ftamina, terminated by oblong fummits, and a roundifh
germen with three flender recurved ftyles, crowned by
fingle ftigmas; the germen afterwards becomes a round¬
ifh berry, with three cells filled with roundifh feeds,
ihtre are three fpecies.
Plajler of Paris. See Plaster of Paris.
. PARISH, the precinft of a parochial church, or a
circuit of ground inhabited by people who belong to
one church, and are under the particular charge of its
minifier.
The word comes from the Latin parochia, the Greek
habitation ; c< mpounded of ra.fa nearf an,i 04)t(,f
houfe. Accordingly Du Cange obferves, that the name
was anciently given to the wliole territory of
a bifhop, and derives it from neighbourhood; becaufe
the primitive Chriilians, not daring to affemble open-
y in cities, were forced to meet fccretly in neighbour-
houfes.
In the ancient church there was one larcre edifice in
each city for the people to meet in ; and this they
called parochia, “ parifh.” But the fignification of the
word was afterwards enlarged, and by a parifti was
meant a diocefe, or the extent of the jurifdiftion of a
bifhop, confiding of feveral churches; unlefs we will
fuppofe, as lome do, that thefe bifhops were only pa-
fiOrs of fingle churches Du Pin obferves, that coun¬
try panfhes had not their origin before the 4th cen-
tury ; but thole of cities are more ancient. 'The city
of Alexandria is faid to have been the firft that was
divided into parifhes.
How ancient the divifion of parifhes is, is not indeed
abfolutely certain ; for in the early ages of Chriftianity
in this ifiand, parifhes were unknown, or at lead fignified
the fame that a diocefe now does. There was then no
appropriation of ecelefiafticnl dues to any particular
church ; but every man was at liberty to contribute
his tithes to any prieft or church he pleafed, but he
was obliged to do it to fome ; or if he made no fpe-
cial appropriation thereof, they were paid to the bi-
fhop, whofe duty it was to diltribute them among the
clergy, and for pther pious purpofes, according to his
own diferetion. Camden fays England was divided
into pai ifhes by archbifhop Honorius about the year
630. Sir Henry Hobart maintains that parifhes were
fii ft erefted by the council of Lateran, held A. D. 1179.
But Mr Selden proves, that the clergy lived in com¬
mon without any divifion of parifhes, long after the
time mentioned by Camden ; and it appears from the
Saxon laws, that parifhes were in being long before
the council of Lateran in 1179. The diftinftion of
parifhes occurs in the laws of king Edgar, about the
year 970. It feems pretty clear and certain, fays judge
Blackftone (Com. Vol. I. p.112.), that the bounda¬
ries of parifhes were firft afeertained by thofe of a ma¬
nor or manors ; hecaufe it very feldom happens that a
manor extends itfelf over more than one parifh, though
there are often many manors in one parifh. 'The lords,
he adds, as Chnftianity fpread, began to build church¬
es upon their own demefnes or waftes, in order to ac¬
commodate
Psrfi,
Parifh,
PAR T 75* ] PAR
Parifti commodate their tenants in one or two adjoining lord-
fhips; and that they might have divine fervice re-
‘' > gularly performed therein, ohlined all their tenants to
appropriate their tithes to the maintenance of the one
officiating minifter, irPlead of leaving them at liberty
to difttibute them among the clergy of the diocefe in
general; and this trabt of land, the tithes of which
were fo appropiated, formed a diftinft pariih; and this
accounts for the frequent intermixture of pariffies one
with another. For if a lord had a parcel of land de¬
tached from the main of his effate, but not fufficient
to form a pariffi of tfelf. it was natural for him to en¬
dow his newly credited church with the tithes of fuch
lands. Extra parochial waftes and marffi lands, when
improved and drained, are by jy Geo. II. cap. 37. to
be affiffed to all parochial rates in the pariffi next ad¬
joining. Camden reckons 9284 pariffies in England ;
and Chamberlayne makes 9913. They are now ge¬
nerally reckoned about x0,000.
PARisH-Clerk. In every pariffi the parfon, vicar, See.
bath a parifh-clerk under him, who is the lowed officer
of the church. Thefe were formerly clerks in orders,
and their bufinefs at fird was to officiate at the altar;
for which they had a competent maintenance by offer¬
ings ; but they are now laymen, and have certain fees
with the parfon on chrideningsi, marriages, burials,
&c. befides wages for their maintenance. The law
looks upon them as officers for life: and they are cho-
fen by the minider of the pariffi, unlefs there is a cu-
ftom for the paridiioners or churchwardens to choofe
them ; in which cafe the canon cannot abrogate fuch
cudorn ; and when chofen it is to be fignified. and
they are to be fworn into their office by the archdea¬
con, for which the court of king's bench will grant a
mandamus.
PARISH (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia Celtica,
inhabiting the country about the Sequana and Ma-
rona. Now a great part of the ide of France.—
Parifti (Ptolemy), a people of Britain, having the
Brigantes to the north and wed, the German fea to
the ead, and the Coritani to the fouth, from whom
they were feparated by the Humber. Now HoUerneJfe,
a peninfula of the Ead Ridingof Yorkdiire.
PARISIORUM civitas. See Lutetia.
PARIUM (anc. geog.), a noble city of Myda Mi¬
nor, with a port on the Propontis; called Adrajlia by
Homer, according to Pliny; but Strabo didinguifhes
them : according to others, the Paejlos of Homer.
Parian!, the people (Strabo). The birthplace of Ne-
optolemus furnamed Glojfographus (Strabo). Here
Hood a Cupid equal in exquifite workmanfhip to the
Cnidian Venus.
PARK (F rench parque, i. e. locus inclufus J, is a large
quantity of ground inclofed and privileged for wild
beads of chale, by the king’s grant or prefeription.
See Chase and Forest.
Manwood defines a chafe to be “ a privileged place,
for beads of venery, and other wild beads of the fo-
reft and chafe, tam Jylve/lres, quam campejlresand
differs from a chafe or warren, in that it mud be in-
clokd : for if it 1 es open, it is good caufe of feizure
into the king’s hands, as a thing forfeited ; as a free Park:
chafe is, if it be inclofed : befides, the owner cannot
have an a6tion again!! fuch as hunt in his park, if it
lies open. No man can ereft a park without licence
under the broad feai; for the common law does not
encourage matter of pleafure, which brings no profit
to the commonwealth. But there may be a park in
reputation eredled without any lawful warrant ; and
the owner may bring his abtxon againd perfons killing
his deer
To a park three things are required. 1.. A grant
thereof. 2. Inclofures by pale, wall, or hedge.
3. Bealls of a park; fuch as the buck, doe, &c. And
where all the deer are dedroyed, it diall n<^ more be
accounted a park ; for a park condds of vert, venifon,
and inclofure ; and if it is determined in any of them,
it is a total difparking.
Parks as well as chafes are fubjedl to the common
law, and are not to be governed, by the fored laws.
Park, as connected with gardening. See Garden¬
ing.
A park and a garden are more nearly allied than a
farm and a garden *, and can therefore be accommo-* See Farm
dated to each other withou( any difparagement to ei-and Gar-
ther. A farm lofes fome of its chara&eridie proper-*"^*
ties by the connection, and the advantage is on the
part of the garden ; but a park thus bordered retains
all its own excellencies ; they are only enriched, not
counteracted, by the intermixture. The mod perfect
compudtion of a place that can be imagined, confids
of a garden opening into a park, with a fhort walk,
through the latter to a farm, and ways along its glades
to ridings in the country; but to the farm and the ri¬
dings the pffi-k is no more than a paffage; and its woods
and its buildings are but circumdances in their views;
its feenes can be communicated only to the garden.
The affinity of the two fubjefts is fo clofe, that it
would be difficult to draw the exa£f line of reparation'
between them. Gardens have lately encroached very-
much both in extent and in dyle on the character of a
park ; but dill there are feenes in the one which arc
out of the reach of the other. The fmall fequedered.
fpots which are agreeable in a garden would be trivial
in a park; and the fpaciouslawns which are among the
nobled features of the latter, would in the former fa¬
tigue by their want of variety ; even fuch as, being of
a moderate extent, may be admitted into either, will
feem bare and naked, if not broken in the one ; and
lofe much of their greatnefs, if broken in the other..
The proportion of a part to the whole is a meafure of
its dimenfions : it often determines the proper fize for.
an object, as well as the fpace fit to be allotted to a
feene; and regulates the dyle which ought to be af-
ligned to either.
But whatever didinftions the extent may occafion
between a park and a garden, a date of highly culti¬
vated nature is confident with each of their characters;,
and may in both be ot the lame kind, though in dif¬
ferent degrees.
The excellencies both of a park and of a garden are.
happily blended at flagley (a), where the feenes are.
equally.
(a) Near Stourbridge, in Worcefterffiire, the feat of Lord Lyttelton.
PAR [ 7i
Park, equally elegant and noble. It Is fituated In the midfl:
■—y—a £ertqe anj lovely country, between the Clent and
the Witchberry lulls; neither of which are within the
pale, but both belong to the place. The latter rife in
three beautiful fwells. One of them is covered with
wood; another is an open fheep-walk, with an obelifk
on thefummit; on the third, the portico of the temple
of Thefeus, exa&ly on the model of that at Athens,
and little lefs in the dimeniions, hands boldly out upon
the brow, backed by the dark ground of a fir planta¬
tion, and has a molt majeftic appearance above the
fteeps which fall before and befide it. The houfe is
feen to the greateft advantage from thefe eminences,
and every point of them commands forne beautiful
profpefi:. The bufy town of Stourbridge is juft be¬
low them ; the ruins of Dudley cable rife in the ofF-
fkip ; the country is full of in^ultry and inhabitants;
and a finall portion of the moor, where the minerals,
manufiftured in the neighbourhood, are dug, break¬
ing in upon the horizon, accounts for the richnefs,
without derogating from the beauty, of the landfcape.
From the Clent hills the views are ftill greater ; they
extend on one fife to the black mountains in Wales, a
long ridge which appears, at 60 miles diilan e, in the
interval between the unwieldy heap of the Malvern hills
and the folitary peak of the Wrekin, each 30 miles
off, and as many afunder. The fmoke of Worccfter,
the churches in Birr ingham, and the houfes in Stour¬
bridge, are diflin&ly vifible. The country is a mix¬
ture of hill and dale, and flrongly indofed ; except in
one part, where a heath, varied by rifing grounds,
pieces of water, and feveral objedts, forms an agreeable
contrail to the cultivation which furrounds it. From
the other extremity of the Clent hills, the profpedl is
lefs extenfive ; but the ground is more rude and bro¬
ken ; it is often overfpread with large and beautiful
woods; and the view is dignified with numerous feats.
The hills alfo being very irregular, large advanced pro-
montories frequently interrupt the fight, and vary the
fcene : in other parts, deep valleys {helving down to¬
wards the country below, exhibit the objefts there in
different lights. In one of thefe holl«ws is built a
neat cottage, under a deep defeent, fheltered befides
by plantations, and prefenting ideas of retirement in
the midft offo much open expofure; from the heights
above it, is feen all that view which before was com¬
manded from the Witchberry hills, but which is fecn
here over Hagleypark; a noble fore-ground, beautiful
in itfelf, and completing the landfcape.
The houfe, though low in the park, is yet above the
adjacent country, which it overlooks to a very diftant
horizon. It is furrounded by a lawn of fine uneven
ground, and diverfified with large clumps, little groups,
and fingle trees. It is open in front, but covered on one
fide by the Witchberry hills ; on the other fide, and
behind, by the eminences in the park, which are high
and fteep, and all overfpread with a lofty hanging
wood. The lawn prefiing to the foot, or creeping up
the flopes of thefe hills, and fometimes winding along
glades into the depth of the wood, traces a beautiful
outline to a fylvan fcene, already rich to luxuriance in
maffinefs of foliage and fiatelinefs of growth.
But though the wood appears to be entire, it in rea¬
lity opens frequently into lawns, which occupy much
of the fpace within it. In the number, the variety,
N° 259.
2 ] PAR
and the beauty of thefe lawns, in the fhades of the fe- Park,
parations between them, in their beauties alfo, and —v“
their varieties, the glory cf Hagley confifls. No two
of the openings are alike in dimenfions, in ihape, or in
character. One is of no more than five or fix acres ;
another of not lefs than fifty, and others are of all the
intermediate' fizes. Some ftretch out into lengthened
glade.s; fome widen every Way; they art again diflln-
guifhed by buildings, by profpccts, and often by the
flyle only of the plantations around them. The
boundary of one is deferibed by a few carelefs lines;
that of another is coir.pofed of many parts, very diffe¬
rent, and very irregular: and the ground is never flat;
but falls fometimes in fleep defeents, fometimes in
gentle declivities, waves along eafy fwells, or is thrown
into broken inequalities, with endleis variety.
An obtagon feat, facred to the memory of Thomfon,
and erebled on his favourite fpot, Hands on the brow
of a fteep; a mead winds along the valley beneath, till
it is loft on either hsnd behind fome trees. Oppofite to
the feat, a ncble wood crowns the top, and feathers
down to the bottom of a large oval fwelling hill.
As it defeends on one fide, the diftant country becomes
the offokip. Over the fall, on the other fide, the Clent
hill appears. A dufky antique tower hands juft below
them, at the extremity ©f the wood; and in the midft
of it is feen a Doric portico, called Pope's Build¬
ing, with part of the law n before it. The fcene is very
fimple : the principal features are great ; they prevail
over all the reft, and are intimately connedted with each
pther.
T he next opening is fmall, circling .about a rotusada
on a knoll, to the foot of which the ground rifes every
wmy. The trees wTich furround it are large; but their
foliage is not very thick ; and their ftems appearing
beneath, their ramifications between the boughs are,
in fo confined a fpot, very diftinguifhed and agreeable
circumftances. It is retired ; has no profpedl; nu vifible
outlet but one, and that is fnort and narrow, to a
bridge with a portico upon it, which terminates a
piece of water.
The grove behind the rotunda fifparates this from
a large, aiiy, foreif glade, thinly fkirted with wood,
carelefs of drefs, and much overgrown with fern. The
v/ildnels is an acceptable relief in the midft of fo much
elegance and improvement as reign in the neighbour¬
ing lawns : and the place is in itftlf pleafant ; in no
part confined ; and from a Gothic feat at the end is a
perfpeblive view of that wood and tower which were
feen before in front, together with the Witchberry
hills, and a wude range of country.
The tower, which in profpebt is always connebled
with wood, ftands however, on a piece of down, which
ftretches along the broad ridge of a hill, and fpreads
on each hand for fome way down the fides. Thick
groves catch the falls. The defeent on the right is feon
loft under the trees ; but that on the left being fteeper
and fhorter, it may be followed to the bottom. A wood
hangs on the declivity, which is continued in the val¬
ley beneath. The tower overlooks the whole; it feems
the remains of a caftle, partly entire, partly in ruins,
and partly overgrown with bufhes. A finer fituation
cannot be imagined : It is placed in an expofed unfre¬
quented fpot ; commands an extenfive profpedl j and
is everywhere an interefting objed.
PAR
[ 753 ]
PAR
At tilt end of the valley below it, in an obfcure cor-
ner, and fhut out from all view, is a hermitage, com-
pofed of roots and of mofs : high banks, and a thick
covert darkened with horfe-chefnuts, confine the fe-
queftered fpot: a little rill trickles through it, and two
fmall pieces of water occupy the bottom. I hey are
feen on one fide through groups of trees ; the other is
open, but covered with fern. This valley is the extre¬
mity of the park ; and the Clent hills rile in all their
irregularity immediately above it.
The other defeent from the caftle is a long decli¬
vity, covered like the reft with noble woods, in which
fine lawns are again embofomed, differing ftiil from
the former, and from each other In one, the ground
■is very rough, the boundary is much broken, and
marked only by the trunks of the trees which (hoot up
high before the branches begin. The next is more
fimple ; and the ground falls from an even brow into
•one large hollow, which Hopes towards the glen, where
it finks into the covert. This has a communication
thiough a fhort glade, and between two groves, with
another called the ‘Tinian /awn, from the refemblance
which it is faid to bear to thofe of that celebrated
illand : it is encompaffed with the ftatelieil trees, all
frefh and vigorous, and fo full of leaf, that not a item,
not a branch, appears, but large maffes of foliage omy
ds£cribe an undulating outline : the effect, however,
is not produced by the boughs feathering do vn to the
besttom ; they in appearance fhoot out horizontally, a
few feet above the ground, to a furprifing dutance, and
form underneath an edging of fhade, into which the
retreat is immediate at every hour of the day. Ihe
verdure of the turf is as luxuriant there as in the open
foace : the ground gently waves in both oyer eafy
fwells and little dips, juft varying, not breaking, the
furface. No ftrqng lines are drawn ; no linking oo-
iedls are admitted ; but all is of an even temper, all
mild, placid, and ferene ; in the gayeft feafon of the
day not mort than cheerful, in the ftilleil watch of
night not gloomy. T he feene is indeed peculiarly
adapted to the tranquillity of the latter, when the
moon fee ms to repofe her light on the thick foliage of
the grove, and fteadily marks the (hade of every hough.
It is delightful then to faunter here, and fee the graft,
and the goffamer which entwines it, gliilening with
dew ; to liften and hear nothing (Ur, except perhaps a
withered leaf dropping gently through a tree ; and,
iheltered from the chill, to catch the freftmefs of the
evening air: a folitary urn, chofen by Mr Pope for
the fpot, and now inferibed to his memory, when
jfhown by a 'gleam of moon-light through the trees,
fixes that thoughtfulnefs and compofure to which the
mind is infenfibly led by the reft of this elegant feene.
The Doric Portico, which alfo bears his name, tho’
not within fight, is near: it is placed on the declivity
of a hill; and Thomfon’s feat, with its groves and
appendages, are agreeable circumftances in the profpedt
before it. In the valley beneath is fixed a bench,
which commands a variety of fhort views; one is up
the afeent to the portico, and others through openings
in the wood to the bridge and the rotunda.
The next lawn is large : the ground is fteep and ir¬
regular, but inclines to one direfition, and fails fro™
every fide into the general declivity : the outline is di-
verfified by many groups of trees on the Hopes; and
Vol. XIII. Part II.
frequent glimpfes of the country are feen in perfpec-
live through openings between them. In the brow is
a feat, in the proudeft fituation of all Hagley; it com¬
mands a view down the bold fvveep of the lawn, and
over a valley filled with the nobleft trees, up to the
heights beyond. One of thofe heights is covered with
a hanging wood; which opens only to fhow Thorn-
fun’s feat, and the groves and the fteeps about it: the
others are the Witchberry hills, which feem to prefs
forward into the landfcape ; and the maffy heads of
the trees in the vale, uniting into a continued furface,
form a broad bafe to the temple of Thefcus, hide the
fweil on which it is built, and crowd up to the very
foundation. Farther back Hands the obelifk ; before it
is^the fheep-walk ; behind it the Witchberry wood.
The temple is backed by the firs; and both thefe plan¬
tations are conne&ed with that vaft fylvan feene which
overfpreads the other hill and all the intermediate
valley. Such extent of wood; fuch variety in the dif-
pofition of it; objedls fo illuftrious in themfelves, and
ennobled by their fituations, each contrafted to each,
every one diftindt, and all happily united : the parts
fo beautiful of a whole fo great, feen from a charm¬
ing lawn, and furrounded by a delightful country,
compofe all together a feeae of real magnificence and
grandeur.
The feveral lawns are feparated by the fineft trees ;
which fometimes grow in airy groves, chequered with
gleams of light, and open to every breeze ; but more
frequently, whofe great branches meeting or croffing
each other, caft a deep impenetrable (hade. Large
boughs feathering down often intercept the fight; or
a vacant fpace is filled with coppice-wood, nut, haw¬
thorn, and hornbeam, whofe tufted heads mixing with
the foliage, and whofe little ftems cluftering about the
trunks of the trees, thicken and darken the planta¬
tion. Here and there the divifion is of fuch coppice-
wood only, which then being lefs conilrained and op-
prefled, fprings up ftronger, fpreads further, and joins
in a low vaulted covering : in other places the fhade is
high, over arched by the talleft afh, or fpreads under
the branches of the moft venerable oaks. They rife in
every fhape, they are difpofed in every form in which
trees can grow. The ground beneath them is fome¬
times almoft level; fometimes a gentle fweil; but ge¬
nerally very irregular and broken. In feveral places,
large hollows wind down the fides of the hills, worn
in the ftormy months by water-courfes, but worn
many ages ago. Very old oaks in the midft of the
channels prove their antiquity : feme of them are per-
fe&ly dry moft part of the year ; and fome are water¬
ed by little rills all the fummer: they are deep and
broad ; the fides are commonly fteep ; often abrupt
and hollow ; and the trees on the bank fometimes ex¬
tend their roots, all covered with mofs, over the chan¬
nels of the water. Low down in one of thefe glens,
under a thick fhade of horfe-chefnuts, is a plain bench,
in the midft of feveral little currents and water falls,
running among large loofe ftones, and the ftumps of
dead trees, with which the ground is broken. On the
brink of another glen, which is diftinguifhed by a
numerous rookery, is a feat in a ftill wilder fituation,
near a deeper hollow, and in a darker gloom: the falls
are nearly perpendicular ; the roots of fome of the
trees are ahneft bare, from the earth having crumbled
5 C away?
Park.
PAR L 7*4 1 PAR
Park, awajr • large boughs of others, finking with their own
‘ _^ar^Cr' weight, feem ready to break from the trunks they be¬
long to ; and the finefl alh, ilill growing, lie all afiant
the water-eourfe below, which, though the ftream runs
in winter only, yet conftantly retains the black tinge
of damp, and calls a chill all around.
Gravel-walks are conducled acrofs the glens, through
the woods, the groves, or the thickets, and along the
fidcs of the lawns, concealed generally from the light,
but always ready for the communication, and leading
to the principal fcenes. The frequency ot thefe walks,
the number and the Hyle of the buildings, and the high
prefervation in which all the place is kept, give to the
whole park the afr of a garden. There is, however,
one fpot more peculiarly adapted to that purpofe, and
more artificially difpofed than the reft ; it is a narrow
vale, divided into three parts: one of them is quite
filled with water, which leaves no room for a path,
but thick trees on either fide come down quite to the
brink ; and between them the fight is conduced to
the bridge with a portico upon it, which clofes the
view : another part of this vale is a deep gloom, over¬
hung with large _alh and oaks, and darkened below
by a number of yews : thefe are fcattered over very
uneven ground, and open underneath ; but they are
encompafied by a thick cpvert, under which a ftream
falls, from a (tony channel, down a rock; other rills
drop into the current, which afterwards pours over a
fecond cafcade into the third divifion ©f the vale,
where it forms a piece of water, and is loft under the
bridge. The view from this bridge is a perfedl opera-
feene, through all the divifions of the vale up to the
rotunda. Both thefe buildings, and the other decora¬
tions of the fpot, are of the fpecies generally confined
to a garden. The hermitage alfo, which has been de-
feribed, and its appendages, are in a ftyle which does
not belong to a park; but through all the reft of the
place, the two charafters are intimately blended. The
whole is one fubject ; and it was a bold idea to con¬
ceive that one to be capable of fo much variety ; it re¬
quired the moft vigorous efforts of a fertile fancy to
carry that idea into execution. See Gardening.
Pakk of Artillery. See Artillery.
Pa*k of Provftoniy in military affairs, the place
where the fullers pitch their tents in the rear, and fell
their provifions to the foldiers. Likewife that place
where the bread waggons are diawn up. and where
the troops receive their ammunition-bread, being the
fiore of the army.
PARKER (Matthew), the fecond Proteftant arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, was born at Norwich in the
year 1504, the 19th of Henry VII. His father, who
was a man in trade, died when our author was about
12 years old ; but his mother took fpecial care of his
education, and at the age of 17 lent him to Corpus-
Chnftt college in Cambridge, where, in 15:23, he took Parker.
his bachelor s degree. In 1527 he was ordained, crea-' v 
ted mailer of arts, and chofen fellow of the college.
Having obtained a licence to preach, he frequently
held forth at St Paul’s crofs in London, and in other
parts of the kingdom. In 1533 or 1 <i34 he was made
chaplain to queen Anne Boleyn, who obtained for
him the deanery of Stoke-Clare in Suffolk, where he
founded a grammar fchool. After the deahh of the
queen, king Henry made him his own chaplain, and
in 1541 prebendary of Ely. In 1544, he was, by
the king’s command, eleded mafter of Corpus Chrifti
college, and the following year vice chancellor of the
univeihty. In 1547 the deanery of Stoke, by
the diffolution of that college. In the fame year he
married the daughter of Robert Harleitone, a Norfolk
gentleman.
In the year 155 2 he was nominated, by Edward VI.
to the deanery of Lincoln, which, with his other pre-
ferments, enabled him to live in great affluence: but
the papiil Mary was hardly feated on the throne be¬
fore he was deprived of every thing he held in the
church, and obliged to live in obfeurity, frequently
changing his place of abode t© avoid the fate of the
other reiormers.
. Qi^en Elisabeth afeended the throne in 1558; and
in the following year Dr Parker, from indigence and
obfeunty, was at once raifed to the fee of Canter-
bury \A) ; an honour which he neither folicited nor
defired. In this high Itation he afted with fpirit and
propriety. He vifited his cathedral and diocefe in
156°, 1565, 1570, and 1573. repaired and
beautified his palace at Lambeth at a vaft expence.
1 he fum which the repairs of the palace and great
hall at Canterbury coft him was upwards of 14001.
fterling, which is at leaft equal to ten times the fum
now-a days. Both the palace and great hall were
in decay, partly through the injuries of time, and
paitly through that of fire. The hall, built by Arch-
bifhop Huber in the 12th century, was famous in hif-
tory for the great feafts that had been made there by
archhilhops and abbots in former times ; in particular,
at the nuptial feafts of king Edward I. in 1290 ; at
the inftallation of the abbot of St Auftin’s in 1309 ;
at the inthr«nization of George N-vill archbifhop of
York in 1464 ; and of Archbilhop Warham h j 504,
when Edward duke of Buckingham aded as lord high
fteward of his houfehold ; and, laftly, for the entertain-
ment given by that archbifhop in 1719 to the emperor
Charles V. Henry VIII. Queen Catherine, &c. In
1 Archbifhop Paiker gave three entertainments in
this hall at ^Vnitiuntide (which lafted three days), on
Trinity Sunday, and in affize time. At the two firft
of thefe the archbifhop himfelf fat ia the midft of the
uppermoft table on his left hand the Mayor, &c. and
fo
(a) He was confecrated December 1,7th 1559, m Lambeth chapel, by Barlow bifhop of Chichefter, Scory
bifhop of Hereford, Coverdale bifhop of Exeter, and Hodgkin fuftragan bifhop of Bedford. This deiervea
to be particularly mentioned, becaufe the Romanifts afferted afterwards that he had been confecrated at the
Nag’s-head inn or tavern in Cheapiide. But this notorious and improbable falfehood hath been lully confuted
by Mafon in his Vindication of the Church of England concerning the Confecration and Ordination of Bilhops
2613, folio ; by Bramhall in his Confecration of Proteftant Buhops vindicated; and by Courayer in his Defence
<»f the Validity of Engliffl Ordinations, 1728, 3 vols 8vo ; and even by many Catholics.
PAR
l 755 1
PAR
barker, to on wt tiAc of the hall a continued row of men ac-
cording to their rank filled the other tables ; and on
hia- right hand fat only fome noble women and ladies
of quality, the whole length of the hall, coriefponding
to the row of men on the other fide: which order of
placing the women was obferved in honour of the
queui.° The fkft rank of guefls bang rifen, and the
tables cleared, they were furnifhed again, and filled the
fecond time. At the lad feaft, which was grander
than all the reft, the archbiihop entertained the two
Judges who went that circuit (b), the attorney-general,
the high fheriff, with all who met at theie affixes, as
juftices of the peace, advocates and common lawyers,
and all the reft of pro£ors and attorneys ; who all
(with a promifcuous company) in troops came in.
The hall was fet forth with much plate of filver and
gold, adorned with much tapeftry of Flanders ; and
dainties of all forts were ferved in excellent order by
none but the archbilhop’s fervants, the table being
often the fame day furniffied afreffi with .new guefts :
while the ladies were nobly enteitained in inner par¬
lours by Mrs Parker, the hall being now filled only
with gentlemen. Otherwife, at thefe feafts, it was
the archbilhop’s cuftom, in honour of matrimony, to
entertain both men and their wives. Of this noble
hall and palace, now within 200 years, there is little
01s nothing- left except a few ruins. On Whitfunday
15"’0, and the two following days, this archbilhop
feafted the citizens of Canterbury and their wives
in the fame manner as he had done before : and on
Trinity Sunday (after confecrating Biffiop Curteis of
Cbichefter) he made another moft archiepifcopal feaft,
inviting another archbiffiop (viz. Grindal of York,
who came thfther for confirmation) to be his gueft :
befides whom were piefent Horn bilhop of Winchefter,
and Curtcis aforefaid of Chichefter. At the lower
tables fat all the minifters and fervants whatfoever,
even the children, who belonged to that church ; and
at the remoteft tables, but in the fame hall, in fight,
fat the poor of both fexes of the hofpitals of St John s
and Harbledown. On July 1 nh, being affizes time,
the judges, high ffieriff, gentlemen, and the common
fort, were all fealled by the archbifimp in a fplendid
manner as before. Soon after Bjihop Sandys of Wor*
cefter, ektt of London, came to-Canterbury to be
confirmed. The archbiffiop, on his return, lodged the
firft night at Sittingbourn, and the next night (after
dining at Gravefend) came to Lambeth in barges by
Thames, with all his family. Sept. 7. IJ73* being
Q. Elizabeth’s birth-day, Archbiffiop Parker enter¬
tained her majefty, and as many noblemen, &c. as weie
prefent at Archbiffiop Warham’s entertainment in the
fame hall 54 years before. The archbiffiop (to life his
own words, in a letter to Archbiffiop Grindal of York]
44 met her highnefs, as ffie was coming to Dover,
upon Folkftone Down. I left Herat Dover, and came
home to Bekeffiorn that night ; and alter that went
to Canterbury to receive her rmjelty there. Which I
did, with the biffiops of Lincoln :.nd Rochefter, and
my fuffragan (^of DoverJ, at the weft door; where,
after the grammarian had made his oration to her upon
her horfe-back, ffie alighted. We then kneeled down,
and faid the pfalm Deus miftreatur, in Engliffi, with
certain other ccdlecls briefly ; and that in our chimers
and rochets. The quire, with the dean and preben¬
daries, flood on either fide of the church, and brought
her majefty up with a fquare fong; ihe going under a
canopy, borne by four of her temporal knights, to her
travcrie, placed by the communion board, where ffie
heard evening fong ; and alter departed to her lodging
at St Auftin's, whither I waited upon her. From thence
I brought certain of the council, and divers of the
court, to my houfe to fupper, and gave them 14 or 15
dilhes, furniffied with two mefs, at my long table,
whereat fat about 20 ; and in the fame chamber a
third mefs, at a fquare table, whereat fat 10 or 12 j
my lefs hail having three long tables furniffied with my
officers, and with the guard, and others of the court;
and fo her majefty came every Sunday to church to
hear the fermon. And upon one Monday it pleafcd
her highnefs to dine in my great hall, thoroughly fur¬
niffied with the council, Frenchmen, ladies, gentlemen,
and the mayor of the town, with his brethren, &c. ;
her highnefs fitting in the midft, having two French
ambafiadors fGondiusand Mothe-fenelonJ at the end
of the table, and four ladies of honour at the other
end. And lo three mefs were ferved by her nobility
at waffiing, her gentlemen and guard bringing her
diffies, &c.” On which the Archbiffiop of York, in
his anfwer, made this refle&ion : “ Your grace’s large
defeription of the entertainment at Canterbury did io
lively fet forth the matter, that in reading thereof I
ahnoft thought myfelf to be one of your guefts there,
and as it were beholding the whole order of all things
done there. Sir, I think it ffiall be hard for any of
our coat to do the like for one hundred years, and how
long after God knoweth.” In this progrefs Lord
Treafurer Burghley was lodged with Mr Pearfon, the
eleventh prebendary, who, the archbilhop fays, “ had
a fine houfe.”
Pie founded feveral fchplarffiips in Rennet or Corpus-
Chrifti college in Cambridge, and gave large prefents
of plate to that and to other colleges in this univerfity.
He gave 100 volumes to the public library. He like-
wife founded a free-fehool at Rochdale in Lancaffiire.
He took care to have the fees filled with pious and
learned men ; and, confidering the great want of bihles
in many places, he, with the affiftance of other learned
men, improved tht Engliffi tranflation, had it printed
on a large paper, and difperfed through the kingdom.
This worthy prelate died in the year 1575, aged 72,
and was buried in his own chapel at Lambeth. He
was pious without affe&ation or aufterity, cheerful and
contented in the midft of adverfity, moderate in the
height of power, and beneficent beyond example. He
wrote feveral books; and alfo publifhed four of our
belt hiftorians ; Matthew of Wejlminjler, Matthew Paris,
fjfer’s Life of Knig Alfred, and 'Tho. Walfingham. The
learned archbiffiop alfo tranflated the hfalter. This
verfion w'as printed, but without a name ; and has been
j C 2 attributed
Parker.
(b) This proves that the judges of affize then came
being fo made in 1461.
to Canterbury, though it was then a county in itfclf.
PAR
Parker.
attributed to an obfcure poet of the name of Keeper.
This was Wood’s opinion ; but it is more than pro-
bable that the learned author of the Athene Oxon. was
wrong. See Gentleman’s Magazine for 1781, p.566.
where Parker is proved to be the author of a verfion
©f the Pfslms.
Parker (Samuel), an Englilh clergyman, who, by
a temporizing fpirit, aided by excellent parts and confi-
derable learning, raifed himfelf to the bifhopric of Ox¬
ford. He was born September 1640, at Northampton,
where his father John then pra&ifed the law. John
had been bred to that profefiion, in one of the temples
at London ; and, being afterwards againft the king,
was made a member of the high court of juftice m
1649, where he gave fentence againfb the three lords,
Capel, Holland, and Hamilton, who were beheaded.
During Cromwell’s ufurpation, he was made an aflill-
ant committee man for his county. In 1650 he pub-
lilhed a book in defence of the new government, as a
commonwealth, without a king or houfe of lords.
June 1655, when Cromwell was declared protedlor,
he was appointed a commiffioner for removing obftruc-
tions at Worcefter-houfe in the Strand, near London,
and was fworn ferjeant at law next day. January
1659, he was appointed one of the barons of the ex¬
chequer by the Rump-parliament; but, upon a com¬
plaint again!! him, was quickly difplaced. However,
he was again regularly made ferjeant at law, on the
recommendation of Chancellor Hyde, at the firft call
after the reftoration. In the mean time, he carefully
educated his fon Samuel among the Puritans in North¬
ampton ; whence, being fit for the univerfity, he was
fent to Wadham college in Oxford, and admitted, in
J659, under a preibyterian tutor. Here he led a
llribl and religious life, entered into a weekly fociety,
then called the Gruellen, becaufe (as Wood obferves)
their chief diet was water-gruel; and it was obferved that
he put more graves in his porridge than all the reft.
They fafted and prayed, and met at a houfe at Haly-
well, where he was fo zealous and conftant at prayers,
fermons, and facraments, that he was efteemed one of the
moft precious young men in the univerfity. He took
the degree of A. B. February 28. 1659-60. Upon the
reftoration, he hefitated what fide to take ; but continu¬
ing publicly to fpeak ngainft Epifcopacy, he was much
difcountenanced by the new warden Dr Blandford, who
had been appointed to that office upon the dawn of the
reftoration in 1659. Upon this he removed to Tri¬
nity college, where, by the advice of Dr Ralph Ruth-
well, then a fenior fellow of that fociety, he was ref-
cued from the prejudices of an unhappy education,
which in fa£i he publicly avowed in print. He then
became a zealous Anti-puritan, and for many years
afted the part of what was then called a true fon of
the church. In this temper, having taken the degree
©f M. A. in 1663, he entered into holy orders, reforted
frequently to London, and became chaplain to a noble¬
man ; continuing to difplay his wit upon his old friends
the Prefbyterians, Independents, &.j.
In 1665, he publifhed fome T hiiofophical LTays,
and was elefted a member or the Royal Society :
thefe Eftays, he dedicated to Sheldon archbifhop of
Canterbury, who became his patron; and in 1667
made him his chaplain. Being thus in the road to
preferment, he left Oxford, and refided at Lambeth,
[ 756 ] PAR
under the eye of his patron; who, in 1670, madehim
archdeacon of Canterbury, in the room of Dr San-"
croft, afterwards archbiftiop. November the fame
year, he put himfelf in the train of William prince of
Orange, who vifited Cambridge, and had the degree
of D. D. conferred upon him there. November 1672,
he was inftalled a prebendary of Canterbury ; and was
made reftor of Ickham and Chatham in Kent by the
archbifhop much about the fame time. He was very
obfequious to the court during the reign of Ch. II.
and upon the acceffion of his brother to the throne,
he continued the fame fervile complaifance ; and he
foo* reaped the fruits of it in the bifhopric of Oxford,,
to which he was appointed by James II. on the death
of Dr Fell in 1686, being allowed to hold the arch¬
deaconry of Canterbury in commendam. He was
hkewife made a privy-counfellor, and conftituted by a-
royal mandamus prefident of Magdalen-college in Ox-
ford.^ Thefe favours, however, were the price of hisr
religion, which he fcrupled not to offer up a facrifice
to his ambition. In this new change, he became one
of the Romifh mercenaries, proftituting his pen in de¬
fending tranfubftantiation, and the worfhio of faints
and images. The Papifts made lure or him as a pro-
felyte ; one of whom fays that he even propofed iri
council, whether it was not expedient, that at leail
one college in Oxford ffiould be allowed Catholics,
that they might not be forced to be at fiich charges,
by going abroad to ftudy. In the fame way, having-
invited two Popifh noblemen, and one of the church
of England, .to an entertainment, he drank the king’s
health, wiihing a happy fuccefs to all his affairs j
adding, that the Proteftant religion in England feem-
ed to him to be in no better a condition than that
of Buda was before it was taken, and that they were
next to Atheifts who dared to defend that faith.
Nay, fo fhameful was his condudt, that the cooler
among the Romanifts condemned it as too hot and pre¬
cipitate. For example, Father Peter, a Jefuit, and
privy-counfellor to King James, in a letter to Father
la Chaife, confeftbr to Louis XIV. writes tPhs : “ The
bifhop of Oxford has not yet declared himfdf openly ;
ahe great obftacle is his wife, whom he cannot rid him¬
felf of; his defign being to continue a bifhop, and
only change communion, as it is not doubted but the
king will permit, and our holy father confirm ; though
I don’t fee how he can be farther ufeful to us in the
religion he is in; becaufe he is fufpe&ed, and of no
efteem among the heretics of the Englifh church : nor
do J fee that the example of his converfion is like to
draw many others after him, becaufe he declared
himfelf fo fuddenly. If he had believed my counfel,
which was to temporize for fome longer time, he
would have done better; but it is his temper, or ra¬
ther zeal, that hurried him on to it.” Accordingly
his authority in his diocefe was fo very infignificant,
that when he aifembled his clergy, and defired them
to fubferibe an “ Addrefs of Thanks to the King-
for his Declaration of Liberty of Confcience,” they
reje&ed it fo unanimoufly, that he got but one clergy¬
man to concur with him in it. Bifhop Burnet repre-
fents him to be a man of no judgment, and of as little
virtue ; and as to jeligion rather impious : that he
was covetous and ambitious, and feemed to have no
other fenfe of religion but as a political intereft, and
5 e
Parker.
r
PAR
Parker a fubjeft of party and faftion. He feliom
!! prayers, or to any exercifes of devot.on ; and was fo
Parliament.tiiat j^e grew infufferable to all that came near
    him. (But this muft be read with cautiom) No
doubt but the ill fuccefs he met with, in purtnng on
the deflgn to introduce Popery, ruined him, as well
as his royal mailer: the latter loft his crown by it,
and the bifhop his life; for, falling into contempt
with all good men, trouble of mind threw him into a
diftemper, of which he died unlamented at Magdalen-
ccllege, March 20. 1687. He. fent, however, a
Difcourfe to James, petfuadmg him to embrace the
Proteftant religion, with a Letter to the Lme pur-
pofe, which was printed at London in 1090, 4to.
He wrote feveral pieces, in all which Burnet allows
that there was an entertaining livelinefs ; though at
the fame time he accompanies that-favourable ceniure,
as his manner is, with a “ But it was neither grave
nor corredl.” Yet Dr Nichols’s remark cannot be.dii-
puted, and may be extended to the prefent time,
“ that he has but few readers at this day.” And Swnt
obferves, that Marvell’s remarks on Parker continued
to be read, when the book whic ccafioned them was
long ago funk. He left a fon, Samuel, an excellent
fcholar, and of Angular modefty ; who married a book-
feller’s daughter at Oxford, where he refided with a
numerous family of children ; to fupport which, he
publifhed fome books, with a modeft Vindication of
his father. One of his fens is now, or was lately, a
book feller at Oxford.
PARK1NSONIA, fo called in honour of the
Englilh botanill Parltinfon : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the decaadria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method it ranks under the 33
order, Lomentacea. The calyx is quinquefid ; there aie
five petals, all of them oval except the loweft, wmch
is reniform ; there is no ftyle; the legumcn monihform,
or like ftrong heads. We know but one fpecies of
this-plant, which is very common in the Spaniih Weft
Indies, but has of late years been introduced into the
Englifh fettlements, for the beauty and fweetnefs of
its flowers. In the countries where it grows naturally,
it rifes to be a tree of 20 or more feet high, and bears
long flender bunches of yellow flowers ; which have a
moil agreeable fweet fcent.
PARLEY, a conference with an enemy. Hence,
to beat or found a parley, is to give a fignal for hold¬
ing fuch a conference by beat of drum, or found of
trumpet.
PARLIAMENT, the grand affembly of the three
dates/T this'kingdom, .fummoned to-e'cher by the
king’s authority, to conftder of matters renting to
the public welfare, and particularly to enact and repeal
laws.
The original or firft inftitutlon of parliament is one
of thofe matters which lie fo far hidden in tne dark
ages ©f antiquity, that the tracing of it out is a thing
equally difficult and uncertain. The word parliament
itfelf (or colloquium, as fome of ottr hiftorians tranflate
Definition.
Origin not
rertaidy
}mown.
757 1 PAR
cLne to tain, that, long before the introduction of the Norman Paniament,
language into England, all matters of importance were
debated and fettled in the great councils of the realm.
A praCtice which feems to have been univerfal among
the northern nations, particularly the .Germans; and
carried by them into all the countries of Europe,
which they over-ran at the diffolution of the Roman
empire. Relicks of which conftitution, under various
modifications and changes, are ftill to be met with in the
diets of Poland, Germany, and Sweden, and lately in
the aflembly of the eftates in France : tor what is there
now called the parliament, is only the lupreme court of
juftice, confifting of the peers, certain dignified eccle-
fiaftics, and judges ; which neither is in practice, nor
is fuppofed to be in theory, a general council of the
realm. ,3
In England, however, this general council hath been Antiquity
held immemorially, under the feveral names of micbel-
fynoth, or “ great councilmkhel-gemote, er “ great
meeting;” and more frequently wittena-gemote, or “ the
meeting of \yife men.” It was alfo ftyled in Latin,
commune concilium regni, magnum concilium regis, cutia
magna, convcntus magnatum vel procenm ajftfa generalis,
and fometimes communitas regni Anglia. We have, in-
fiances of its meeting to order the affairs of the king¬
dom, to make new laws, and to amend the old, or, as
Fleta exoreffes it, novis injuriis emerfis nova conftituere
remedia, fo early as the reign of Ina king of the Weft
Saxons, Ofta king of the Mercians, and Ethelbert
king of Kent, in the feveral realms of the heptarchy^
And after their union, the Mirrour informs us, that
King Alfred ordained for a perpetual ufage, thatthefe
councils (hould meet twice in the year, or oftener, if
need be, to treat of the government of God’s people ;
how they fnould keep themfelves from fin, fhould live
in quiet, and fliould receive right. Our fucceeding
Saxon and Daniffi monarchs held frequent councils of
this fort, as appears from their refpeclive codes of laws;
the titles whereof ufually fpeak them to be enadled,
either by the king with the advice of his wittena-ge¬
mote, or wife men, as, Hac funt injlituta, qua lid gat in
rex confilio fapientium fuorum injlituit ; or to be enabled
by thofe fages with the advice of the king ; as, Hac
funt judicia, qua fapientes confilio regis Etheljlani infuiue-
runt; or, laftly, to be enafted by them both together,
as Ha funt infitutiones, quas rex Edmundus et epijeopi fit
cum fapientibus fuis injiituerunt.
There is alfo no doubt but thefe great councils were-
occafionally held under the firft princes of the Norman
line. Glanvil, ’who wrote in the reign of Henry II.
fpeaking of the particular amount of an amercement
in the ffierifF’s court, fays, it had never yet been af-
certained by the general alike or affembly, but was
left to the ciiftom of particular counties. Here the
general affize is fpoken of as a meeting well known,
and its ftatutes or deeifions are put in a manifeft con-
tradiftindlion to cuftom, or the common law. And in
Edward Ill.’s time, an aft of parliament, made in the
rekn of William the Conqueror, was pleaded in the
P ^ , , , r cvj \ l  A
itfeli (or colloquium as tome or our muorians - 6 Edmund’a-bury, and judicially
it) is, comparatively, of modern date; derived from the- cate ot tne aooey 01 ot j /
French, and fignifying “ the place where they met and allowed by the court.
conferred together.” It was firft applied to general
affembhes of the flates under Louis VII. in. 1.ranee,
about the middle of the 12th century. But it is cer-
flence it indifputably appears, that parliaments, or
general councils, are coeval with the kingdom itfelf.
How thofe parliaments were conftituted and compo-
feck,
liaments
rot eafiiy
ki.own.
Parliament
funrmoned
^ A R t 758
FaHiament. fed, w another queftion, which has been matter of
^ great chfpute among our learned antiquarians; and
The nature Partlcula^y» whether the commons were fummoned at
of thefe all; or, rf.fummoned, at what period they began to
par- form a diftinft ahembly. But without entering into
controverfies of this fort, it may be fufH.ient to ob-
ferve, tlmt it is generally agreed, that in the main the
confhtution of parliament, as it nowflan.is, was mark¬
ed out fo long ago as the 1 7th year of King John,
A. 1\ 1215, in the great charter granted by that
prince; wberem he promifes to fummon all areh-
bifhops, hi (hops, abbots, earls, and greater barons,
perfonally ; and ail other tenants in chief under the
crown, by the fheriff and bailiffs; to meet at a certain
place, with 40 days notice, to affefs aids and fcutages
when neceflhry. And this conftitution has fubfitted
in fad at Icait from the year 1266., 49 Henry HI.
there being ft ill extant writs of that date, to futnmon
knights, citizens, and burgeffes, to parliament. We
proceed therefore to inquire wherein confifts tin's con-
firtution of parliament, as it now ftands, and has flood,
for the fpace of at leaft 500 years. And in the pro-
fecution of this inquiry, we fhall confider, firft, The
manner and time of its affembling: Secondly, Its con-
ftituent parts: I hirdly, The laws andcuftoms relating
to parliament: Fourthly, The methods of proceeding,
and of making ftatutes, in both houfes.: And, laftly’
The mannei ©f the parliament’s adjournment, proroga¬
tion, and diffolution.
!• 4s to the warmer and time of ajfemhling. The par-
only by thei;a™ent is regularJy to be fummoned by the king’s
king. writ or letter, iffued out of chancery by advice of the
pi ivy-council, at leaft 40 days before it begins to fit.
It is a branch of the royal prerogative, that no par¬
liament can be convened by its own authority, or by
the authority of any, except the king alone. And this
prerogative is founded upon very good reafon. For,
fuppobng it had a right to meet fpontaneoufly, with¬
out being called together, it is .impoffible to conceive
tnat ah the members, and each of the houfcs, wsuld
agree unanimoufly upon the proper time and place of
meeting : and if half of the members met, and half
abfented themfelves, who fhail determine which is real-
ly the legiflative body, the part affemhled, or that
which flays away ? It is therefore necefiary, that the
parliament fhould be called together at a determinate
time and place; and, highly becoming its dignity and
independence, that it fhould be called together by
none but one of its own conftituent parts: and, of the
three conftituent parts, this office can only appertain
to the king ; as he is a fingle perfon, whofe will may
bemniform and fteady ; the firft perfon in the nation,
being fuperior to both houfes in dignity; and the on¬
ly branch of the legiflature that has a'feparate exilt-
.tnce, and is capable of performing any a£t at a time
when no parliament is in being. Nor is it an excep¬
tion to this rule, that, by fome modern ftstutes, on the
demife of a king or queen, it there be then no parlia¬
ment in being, the lalt parliament revives, and is to fit
again for fix months, unlefs difToived by the fucceflbr:
for this revived parliament.muft have been originally
Summoned by the crown.
It is true, that the convention-parliament which re-
ilored King Charles II. met ab*ve a month before his
1
PAR
retur.4; the lords by their own authority, and the corn. Parlii
mons in purfuance of writs iffued in the name of the
keepers of the liberty of England by authority of par-™ 6
l.ament; and that the fail parliament fat till the sothv^iT
of December, full feven months after the Reftoration; i*rliam^
an I enabled many laws, fever a 1 of which are ftill in,0j,J<*e*»
force. But this was for the neceffity of the thing, cf?tioM#
which fuperft-des all law ; for if they had not fo met, 1
it was morally impoffible that the kingdom fhould have
been fettled in peace. And the firft thing done after
tne king’s return was, to pafs an aift declaring this to
be a good parliament, notwithftanling the defed of
the kmg s writ. So that as the royal prerogative was
cbiefiy wounded by their fo meeting, and as the kinir
umielf, who alone had a right to objedt, confented to
wave the objection, this cannot be drawn into an ex¬
ample in prejudice of the rights of the crown. Be-
fides, we fhould alio remember, that it w'as at that time
a great doubt among the lawyers, whether even this
healing act made it a good parliament, and held by
very many in the negative ; though it feems to have
been too nice a fcruple. And yet, out of abundant
caution, it was thought ncceffary to confirm its a£ls in
the next parliament, by ftatute 13 Car. II. c. 7. &
c. 14. - '
It islikewife true, at the time of the Revolution,
A. D. 1688, the lords and commons by their own 16S8, be.
authority, and upon the fummons of the prince ofcaufe’they
Orange (afterwards King William), met in a conven-orTrina^
lion,, and therein difpofed of the crown and kingdom. ~
But it muft be remembered, that this affembling was™’
upon a like principle of neceffity as at the Reftoration;
that is, upon a full conviction that King James II.
had abdicated the government, and that the throne
was thereby vacant: which fuppofition of the indivi¬
dual members was confirmed by their concurrent refo-
lution, when they aAually came together. And, in
fuch a cafe as the palpable vacancy of a throne, it fol¬
lows, ex necejjitate reiy that the form of the royal writs
mail be laid alide, otherwife no parliament can ever
meet again. For let us put another poffible cafe, and
fuppofe, tor the fake of argument, that the whole
royal line Ihould at any time fail, and become extinfi,
which would indifputably vacate the throne : in this
lituation it feems reafonable to prefume, that the body
of the nation, confifting of lords and commons, would " !
have a right to meet and fettle the government; other*
wife there muft be no government at all. And upon
this and no other principle did the conventio-n in 1688
affcmble. The vacancy of the throne was precedent
to their meeting without any loyal furnmons, not a
confequcnce of it. They did not affcmble without
writ, and then make the throne vacant; but, the
throne being previoufly vacant by the king’s abdica¬
tion, they affembled without writ, as they muft do if
t/iey affembled at all. Had the throne been full, their
meeting would not have been reguhr ; but, as it was
really empty, fuch meeting became abfolutely neceffary.
And accordingly it is declared by ftatute 1 W. & M.
ft. 1. c. 1. that this convention was really the two
houfes of parliament, notwithftanding the want of
writs or other defe&s of form. So that, notwith¬
ftanding thefe two capital exceptions, which were
juftifiabie only on a principle of neceffity (and each of
^ whitha
PAR [759
fitliaratot.which, hy the w»y, induced » revolution in the go-
Jl—,— vernment), the rule laid down is m general certain,
that the 'king only can convoke a parliament. _
?• • And this, hy the ancient ftatutes of the realm, he is
Sf^Vhotfnd to do Jery year, or oftentr if
invoke that he is, or ever was, obliged by thefe ftatutes to
convo*^ mat nc in, wv..   /
parliament a new parlJament every year; but only to permit
jig often ss m • r.       11.. Cri»> Vh <_ vrl t Tc rtf* erne*
r " Call <1 utw - t r r
a6 often as to flt annually for the redrefs of grie-
«,T,IS;vance., and difpatch of bufmeft, if need be. Thefe
laft words are fo loofe and vague, that fuch of our
reonarchs as were inclined to govern without parlia¬
ments, negleaed the convoking them, fometimes for
a very contiderable period, under pretence tnat there
was no need of them. But, to remedy this, by the
ftatute 16 Car. II. c. 1. it is ena&ed, that the fitting
and holding of parliaments ftiall not be intermitted
above three years at the moft. And by the ftatute
I W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. it is declared to be one of the
rights of the people, that for redrefs of all grievances,
and for the amending, ftrengthening, and prefervmg,
the laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently.
And this indefinite frequency is again reduced to a
certainty by Astute 6 W. & M. c. 2. which enadls, as
the ftatute of Charles II. has done before, that a new
parliament (hall be called within three years after the
f. determination of the former. >
The king, II. The conjituent parts of a parliament are, the king s
lords fpiti* niajefty, fitting there in his royal political capacity,
*ual and anc^ tke three eftate8 of the realm ; the lords fpintual,
Indarm1-’ the lords temporal (who fit together with the king in
mens, make one houfe), and the commons, who fit by ^themfelves
the parna another. And the king and thefe three enates to-
o-ether form the great corporation or body politic of
the kingdom, of which the king is faid to be caput,
principium, et finis. For upon their coming together
the king meets them, either in perfon or by reprefen_
tation ; without which there can be no beginning of
a parliament; and he alfo has alone the power of du-
folving them.
Tb J°ro It is highly neceffary for preferving the balance of
priety'a"d the conftitntion, that the executive power fhotild he a
neceflity of branch, though not the whole, of the legiflature. 1 he
ti e king’s totaj unjon 0f them, we have ften, would be produc¬
tive of tyranny ; the total disjunaion of them, for the
prefent, would in the end produce the fame eftefts,
by caufing that union again!! which it fetm.s to pro¬
vide. The legiflature would foon become tyrannical,
by making continual encroachments, and gradually
a {fuming to itfelf the rights of the executhe power
Thus the long parliament of Charles I. while it adted
in a conftitutional manner, with the royal concurrence,
redreffed many heavy grievances and eftablifhed many
falutary laws. But when the two houfes afiinred the
beii g
a branch
of the le-
giilatiae.
p A R
royal "negative, in this inftance, what Cicero obferves Airinmeni;
of the negative of the Roman tribunes, that the crown
has not any power of doing wrong, but merely of
preventing wrong from being done. Fhe crown can¬
not begin of itfelf any alterations in the prefent efla-
Miflied law ; but it may approve or difapprove of the
alterations fuggefted and confented to by the two
houfes. The legiflature therefore cannot abridge the
executive power of any rights which it now has by
law, without its own confent ; fince the law muft per¬
petually ftand as it now does, unlefs all the powers
will agree to alter it. And herein indeed confifts the
true excellence ©f the Britifh government, that all the
parts of it form a mutual check upon each other. In
the legiflature, the people are a check upon the no¬
bility, and the nobility a check upon the people, by
the mutual privilege of rejedting what the other has
refolved ; while the king is a check upon both, which
pref.rves the executive power from encroachments.
And this very executive power is again checked and
kept within due bounds by the two houfes, through
the privilege they have of inquiring into, impeaching,-
and punifhing the condudl (not indeed of the king,
which would deftroy his conftitutional independence ;
but which is more beneficial to the public) of his evil
and pernicious counfellors. Thus every branch of
our civil polity fupports and is fupported, regulates
and is regulated, by the reft : for the two houfes na¬
turally drawing in two diredlions of oppofite intereft,
and the prerogative in another ftill different from them
both, they mutually keep each other from exceeding
their proper limits; while the whole is prevented from
feparation, and artificially connedled together by the
mixed nature of the crown, which is apart of the le-
giflative, and the foie executive magiftrate. Like
three diftind! powers in mechanics, they jointly impel'
the machine of government in a direction different
fiom what either, ading by itfelf, would have done;
but at the fame time in a direction partaking of each,
and formed out of all ; a direddion which conftitutes
tl'e true line of the liberty and happinefs of the com¬
munity. .
Having already confidered thefe conn ituent parts of
the fovereign power, or parliament, each in a feparate
view, under the articles King, Loafis, and Commons,
to which the reader is referred, we proceed, _ ri
III. To examine the laws and cuftoms relating to The power
parliament, united together and confidertd as one ag-ofpaiLu-
gregate body. The power and jurifdiaion of parlia-
ment, fays Sir Edward Coke, is fo tranfeendent and
abfolute. that it ednnot be confined either for caufes
or perfons within any bounds. And of this high court
he adds, it may be truly faid, Si antiquitatem fpedes, tjl
faintHrv laws but when the two nouies aimrreu uic nc cjuuo, j 7 .^ r . -ern;*
in exciulion of ,he ^.IjuU^
rity, they 'foon after affumed likewife the reins of
adminiftration ; and, in confeqvience of thefe united
powers, overturned both church and ftate, and efta-
bil led a worfe oppreffion than any they pretended to
remedy. To hinder therefore any fuch encroachments,
the king is himfelf a part of the pailiament ; and as
this is the reafon of his being fo, very properly there¬
fore the fhare of legiflation which the conftitution
has placed in the crown, confifts in the power of re-
jefting, rather than refolving ; this being fufficient to
anfwtr the end propofed. For we may apply to the
nern, “eft cafaciffma. It hath fovereign and uncon-
trolaUe authority in ranking, confirming, enlarging,
reftraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving and ex¬
pounding of laws, concerning matters of all poihble
denominations, ecclefiaftical or temporal, civil, mili¬
tary, maritime, or criminal: this being the place where
that abfolute defootic power, which muft in all go¬
vernments refide fomewhere, is entrufted by the coni!.-
tution of thefe kingdoms. All mifchiefs and grie¬
vances, operations and remedies, that tranfeend the
ordinary courfe of the laws, , are within tae reach^of
PAR
Miamcni this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or new-
Riodel the fucceffion to the crown ; as was done in the
reign of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter
tne edahlifhed religion of the land ; as was done in a
variety ofinltances in the reigns of king Henry VIII.
and his three chddren. It can change and create
afrefh even the conftitution of the kingdom and of
parliaments themfelves; as was done by the ad of
union, and the feveral flatutes for triennial and fepten-
mal eledions. It can, in fliort, do eveiy thing that
is not naturally irr.poffible ; and therefore fome have
not fcrupled to call its power, by a figure rather too
bold, the omnipotence oj parliament. True it is, that
what the parliament doth, no authority upon earth can
undo. So that it is a matter rriefl efiential to the
liberties of this kingdom, that fuch members be dele¬
gated to this important truft as are mod eminent for
their probity, their fortitude, and their knowledge ;
for it was a known apophthegm of the great lord-trea-
furer Burleigh, (i That England could neverbe ruined
but by a parliamentand, as Sir Matthew Hale ob-
ierves, this being the higheft and greateft cor.rt, over
which none other can have jurifdidion in the king¬
dom, it by any means a mifgovernment fhould anyway
fall upon it, the fu! jeds of this kingdom are left with¬
out all manner of remedy. To the fame purpofe the
prefident Montefquieu, though we truft too haftily,
prefages, that as Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, have
loft their liberty and periihed ; fo the. conftitution of
England will in time lofe its liberty, will perifh : it
will perifh whenever the legiflative power fiiall become
ia more corrupt than the executive.
Mr Locke s It muft be owned, that Mr Locke, and other theo-
fpetftb’Ve" -retl'c^ writers, have held, that “ there remains ftill in-
thispower. ^eren^ 'n ^ people a fupreme power to remove or a!-
C 760 ]
PAR
aded by flatute 7 Jac. I. c. 6. that no member be Parliament
permitted to enter the houfe of commons till he hath ——
taken the oath of allegiance before the lord fteward or
his deputy : and by 30 Car. II. ft. 2. and 1 Geo. I.
c, 13. that no member fhall vote or fit in either houfe,
till he hath, in the prefence of the houfe, taken the
oaths of allegiance, fupremacy, and abjuration, and
fubicribed and repeated the -declaration againfl tran-
fubftantiation, and invocation of faints, and the facri-
fice of the mafs. Aliens, unlefs naturalized, were like-
wife by the law of parliament incapable to ferve there¬
in : and now it is enaded, by ftatute /2 & 13 W. III.
c. 2. that no^ alien, even though he be naturalized,
mail be capable of being a member of either houfe of
parliament. And there are not only thefe handing in¬
capacities; but if any perfon is made a peer by the
king, or eieded to ferve in the houfe of commons by
tae people, yet may the refpedive houfes, upon com-
p aint of any crime in fuch perfon, and proof thereof,
adjudge him difabled and incapable to fit as a merra-
bei . and th’s by the law and cuftom of parliament.
For as every court of juftice hath laws and cuftoms The^uf-
for its diredion, fome the civil and canon, fome the t»ms of
common law, others their own peculiar laws and cu- parliament
ftoms; fo the high court of parliament hath alfo itswhici1 are
’• ’   not fanc-
'he quali-
cp.ti.uis of
ic-rnber-.
ter the legiflature, when they find the legiflature ad
contrary to the truft repofed in them; for when fuch
truft is abufed, it is thereby forfeited, and devolves
to thofe who gave it.” But however juft this conclu-
fion may be in theory, we cannot adopt it, nor argue
from it, under any difpenfation of government at pre-
fept adually exifting. For this devolution of power,
to the people at large, includes in it a diflblution of
the whole form of government eftablifhed by that peo¬
ple; reduces all the members to their original ftate of
equality ; and by annihilating the fovereign power, re¬
peals all pofitive laws whatfoever before cnaded. No
human laws will therefore fuppofe a cafe, which at
once muft deftroy all law, and compel men to build a-
frefh upon a new foundation; nor will they make pro-
vifion for fo defperate an event, as muft render all le-
gpi provifions ineffednal. So long therefore 35 the
Enghfh conftitution lafts, we may venture to affirm,
that the power of parliament is abfolute and without
controul.
In order to prevent the mifehiefs that might arife,
by placing this extenfive authority in hands that are
eitaer incapable or elfe improper to manage it, it is
provided by the cuftom and law of parliament, that
no one ffiall fit or vote in either houfe, urlefs he be
21 years of age. This is alfo exprefsly declared by
ftatute 7 & 8 W. III. c. 25 : with regard to the houfe
of commons, doubts have arifen, from fome contra-
dri- ory adjudications, whether or not a minor was in¬
cap citated from fitting in that houfe. it is alfo eu-
N- 239.
own peculiar law, called the lex et confuetudo parlia™'J^L
merit 1 ^; a law which Sir Edward Coke obferves is al exprefj 1
omnibus quairenda, a malt Is Ignorata, a panels cog nit a.laws*
It will not therefore be expefted that we fhould enter
into the examination of this law with any degree of
minutenefs; fince, as the fame learned author affures
us, it is much better to be learned out of the roils of
parliament and other records, and by precedents and
continual experience, than can be exprefted by aay
one man. It will be fufficient to obferve, that the
whole of the law and cuftom of parliament has its ori¬
ginal from this one maxim, “ That whatever matter
arifes concerning either houfe of parliament, ought to
be examined, difcufTed, and adjudged in that houfe to
which it relates, and not elfewhere.” Hence, for in-
fiance, the lords will not fuffer the commons to inter¬
fere in fettling the ele&ion of a peer of Scotland ; the
commons will not allow the lords to judge of the elec¬
tion of a burgefs ; nor will either houfe permit the
fubordinate courts of law to examine the merits of ei¬
ther cafe. But the maxims upon which they proceed
together with the method of proceeding, reft entirely
in the breaft of the parliament itfelf; and are not de¬
fined and afeertained by any particular ftated laws.
The privileges of parliament are liktwife very large its extend
and indefinite ; and therefore, when, in 31ft Hen. VI.privileges.,
trie houfe of lords propounded a queftion to the judges
concerning them, the chief juftice, Sir John Fortefcue,
in the name of his brethren, declared, “ That they
.ought not to make anfwer to that queftion; for it
hath not been ufed aforetime, that the juftices fhould
in any wife determine the privileges of the high court
of parliament; for it is fo high and mighty in its na¬
ture, that it may make law; and that which is law,
it may make no law: and the determination and know¬
ledge of that privilege belongs to tire lords of parlia¬
ment, and not to the juftices.” Privilege of parlia¬
ment was principafiy eftablifhed, in order to protedi
its members not only from being molefted by their fel-
lo.w-fubjedls, but alfo more cfpeciaily from being op-
preffed
PAR
Pirliament prefled by the power of the crown
 the privileges of parliament were once to be fet down
and afeertained, and no privilege to be allowed but
what was fa defined and determined, it were eafy for
the executive power to devife fome new cafe, not with¬
in the line of privilege, and under pretence thereof to
harafa any refraftory member, and violate the free¬
dom of parliament. The dignity and independence
of the two houfes are therefore in great meafure pre-
ferved by keeping their privileges indefinite. Some,
however, of the more notorious privileges of the mem¬
bers of either houfe are, privilege of fpeech, of perfon,
of their domeftics, and of theit lands and goods. As
to the fit ft, privilege of fpeech, it is declared by the
ftatute i W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. as one of the liberties
of the people, “ That the freedom of fpeech, and de¬
bates, and proceeding* in parliament, ought not to be
impeached or queftioned in any court or place out of
parliament.” And this freedom of fpeech is particu¬
larly demanded of the king in perfon, by the fpeaker
of the houfe of commons, at the opening of every new
parliament. So likewife are the other privileges, of
perfon, fervants, lands, and goods j which are immu¬
nities as ancient as Edward the Confefibr: in whofe
laws we find this precept, Adfynodos venlentibus.f Jive
Jiimmoniti Jint, five per fe quid agendum habuerint, fit fumma
pax; and fo too in the old Gothic conftitutions, Ex-
tenditur heec pax et fecuritas ad quatuordecim dies, convo-
cato regni fenatu. This included formerly not only pri¬
vilege from illegal violence, but alfo from legal arrefts
and feizures by procefs from the courts of law. And
ft ill to aflault by violence a member of either houfe,
or his menial fervants, is a high contempt of parlia¬
ment, and there punifhed with the utmoft feverity. It
has likewife peculiar penalties annexed to it in the
courts of law by the ft acutes 5 Hen. IV. c. 6. and 1 1
Hen. VI, c. 11. Neither can any member of either
houfe be arrefted and taken into cuftody without a
breich of the privilege of parliament.
But all other privileges which derogate from the
common law are now at an end, fave only as to the
freedom of the member’s perfon; which in a peer (by
the privilege of peerage) is for ever facred and invio¬
lable ; and in a commoner (by the privilege of parlia¬
ment) for forty days after every prorogation, and forty
days before the next appointed meeting; which is now
in eft'e£l as long as the parliament fubfifts, it feldom
being prorogued for more than eighty days at a time.
As to all other privileges which obftradt the ordinary
courfe of juftice, they were reftrained by the ftatutes
12 W. 111. c. 3. 2 & 3 Ann. c. 18. and u Geo. II.
c. 24. and are now totally abolifhed by ftatute ro G.
111. c. 50. ; which ena&s, that any fuit may at any
time be brought againft any peer or member of par¬
liament, their fervants, or any other perfon intitled 10
privilege of parliament; which ftiali not be impeached
or delayed by pretence of any fuch privilege, except
that the perfon of a member of the houfe of commons
fhall not thereby be fubje<Sted to any arreft or impri-
fonment- Likewife, for the benefit of commerce, it is
provided by ftatute 4 Geo. 111. c. 33. that any trader,
having privilege of parliament, may be ferved with le¬
gal procefs for any juft debt (to the amount of 100I ):
and unkfa he makes fatisfadftion within two months, it
Ihall be deemed an «•& of bankruptcy ; and that com*
Vol. XIII. Part II.
16
Some pri-
vilesres a-
koJiflied.
[ 761 ] PAR
If therefore all millions of bankruptcy may be iflued againft fucii privi- Parliament,
leged traders in like manner as againft any other. ~v
The only way by which courts of juftice coaid an-Mcn^ers
ciently take cognizance of privilege of parliament was may be ar~
by writ of privilege, in the nature of a fuperfedeas, to relied; but
deliver the party out of cuftody when arrefted in a Ci-P^a“cft®
vil fuit. For when a letter was written by the fpeaker formcj ,.£*
to the judges, to ftay proceedings againft a privileged it, and of
perfon, they rejected it as contrary to their oath of of-the cauls,
fice. But fince the ftatute 12 Will III. c. 3. which ^c‘
enacts, that no privileged perfon fhall be fubject to ar¬
reft or imprifonment, it hath been held, that fuch arreft
is irregular ah initio, and that the party may be dif*
charged upon motion. It is to be obferved, that there
is no precedent ©f any fuch writ of privilege, but only
in civil fuits; and that the ftatute of x Jac. I. c. 13. and
that of King William (which remedy fome inconveni¬
ences arifing from privilege of parliament), fpeak only
of civil aftions. And therefore the claim of privilege
hath been ufually guarded with an exception as to the
cafe of indi&able crimes ; or, as it hath been frequent¬
ly exprefied, of treafon, felony, and breach (or furety)
of the peace. Whereby it feems to have been under-
ftood, that no privilege was allowable to the members,
their families, or fervants, in zxvpcrime whatfoever; for
all crimes are treated by the law as being contra pacem
domini regis. And inftances have not been wanting,
wherein privileged perfons have been convicled of mif-
demeanors, and committed, or profecuted to outlawry,
even in the middle of a fefiion ; which proceeding has
afterwards received the fanflion and approbation of
parliament. To which may be added, that a few years
ago, the cafe of writing and publiftiing feditious libels
was refolved by both houfes not to be intitled to pri¬
vilege 5 and that the reafons upon which that cafe pro¬
ceeded,. extended equally to every indictable offence.
So that the chief, if not the only, privilege of parlia¬
ment, in fuch cafes, feems to be the right of receiving
immediate information of the imprifonment or deten¬
tion of any member, with the reafon for which he is
detained: a practice that is daily ufed upon the flight-
eft military accufations, preparatory to a trial by a
court-martial; and which is recognized by the feveral
temporary ftatutes for fufpending the habeas corpus adt:
whereby it is provided, that no member of either houfe
(hall be detained, till the matter of which he Hands fuf-
pedled be firft communicated to the honfe of which
he is a member, and the confent of the faid houfe ob¬
tained for his commitment or detaining. But yet the
ufage has uniformly been, ever fince the Revolution,
that the communication has been fubfequent to the
arreft.
Thefe are the general heads of the laws and cuftonw
relating to parliament, confidered as one aggregate
body. The laws and cuftoms relating to each branch
in particular being explained under the articles already
referred to, d/z KiNGjLoRDs.andCoMMONS, we flrould
proceed, IV. To the method of making laws; which ia
much the fame in both houfes. But for this, too, we have
to refer the reader to the article Bill; and fhall only
obferve in this place, that, for difpatch of bufinefs, each
houfe of parliament has its fpeaker. The fpeaker diancdlor^
the houfe of lords, whofe office it is to prefide there, an , fpeaicflfc
and manage the formality of bufinefs, is the lord chan - of the hottfj
cellor, or keeper of the kingVgreat feal, or any othercom-
5. D anointed moni
PAR [ 762 ] PAR
■Parliament
,
0f the ad¬
journment
ef pa fca-
H.ent.
IO
Of proro¬
gation of
parliament.
appointed by the king’s commifiion: nnd if none be fo
appointed, the houfe of lords (it is faid) may cleft.
The fpenker of the houfe of commons is chofen by the
houfe; but muft be approved by the king. And here¬
in the ufage of the two houfes differs, that the fpeaker
of the houfe of commons cannot give his opinion or
argue any queftion in the houfe ; but the fpeaker of
the houfe of lords, if a lord of parliament, may. In
each houfe the aft of the majority binds the whole ;
and this majority is declared by votes openly and pub¬
licly given ; not, as at Venice, and many other fenato-
rial affemblies, privately, or by ballot. This latter me¬
thod mav be ferviceable, to prevent intrigues and un-
conftitutional combinations ; but is impoffible to be
praftifed with us, at lead in the houfe of commons,
where every member’s conduft is fubjeft to the future
cenfure of his conftituents, and therefore fhould be
openly fubmitted to their infpeftion.
y. There remains only, in the lad place, to add a
word or two concerning the manner in which parlia¬
ments may f ie adjourned, prorogued^ or dijfolved.
An adjournment is no more than a continuance of
the ft-ffi n from one day to another; as the word itfelf
fign'fies; and this is done by the authority of each
houfe frparatelv every day ; and fometimes for a fort¬
night or a month together, as at Chridmas or Eader,
or upon other particular oecafions. But the adjourn¬
ment of one houfe is no adjournment of the other. It
.hath <! 1 fo been ufual, when his Majtdy hath fignified
his plenfure that both or either of the houfes fhould
adiourn then ielves to a certain day, to obey the king’s
pleafure fo fiynided, and to adjourn accordingly. O-
therwife, befides the indecorum of a refufal, a proro¬
gation would affuredly follow; which would often be
very inconvenient to both public and private bufinefs.
For prorogation puts an end to the feffion ; and then
fuch bills as are only begun, and notperfefted, mud be
refumed de novo (if at all) in a fubfequent fefiion ;
whereas, after an adjournment, all things continue in
the fame date as at the time of the adjournment made,
and may be proceeded on without any frefh commence¬
ment.
A prorogation is the continuance of the parliament
from one feffion to another ; as an adjournment is a
continuation of the feffion from day to day. This is
done by the royal authority, expreffed either by the lord
chancellor in bis Majedy’s prefence, or by commiffion
from the crown, or frequently by proclamation. Both
houfes are neceffarily prorogued at the fame time ; it
not being a prorogation of the houfe of lords or com¬
mons, but of the parliament. The feffion is never un-
derftood to be at an end until a prorogation ; though,
tmlefs forne aft be paffed, or fome judgment given in
parliament, it is in truth no feffion at all. And former¬
ly the ufage was, for the king to give the royal affent
to all fjch bills as he approved at the end of every fef¬
fion, and then to prorogue the parliament, though
fometimes only for a day or two; after which all bnfi-
nefs then depending in the houfes was to be begun
again. Which cudom obtained fo drongly, that it once
became a quedion, Whether.giving the royal affent to
a fingle bill did not of courfe put an end to the feffion?
And though it was then refolved in the negative, yet
the notion was fo deeply rooted, that the datute
1 Car. I. c. 7. was paffed to declare, that the king’s
affent to that and fome other afts (hould not put attParHamont.
end to the feffion ; and even fo late as the reign of y—
Charles II. we find a provifo frequently tacked to a bill,
that his Majefty’s affent thereto {hould not determine
the feffion of parliament. But it now feems to he al¬
lowed, that a prorogation muft be exprefsly made, in
order to determine the feffion. And if at the time of
an aftual rebellion, or imminent danger of invafion,
the parliament ftiall be feparated by adjournment or
prorogation, the king is empowered to call them toge¬
ther by proclamation, with 14 days notice of the time
appointed for their reaffembiing.
A d'lffolution is the civil death of the parliament; and 21
this may be effefted three ways: 1. By the king’s will, ?ar|'ament
expreffed either in perfon or by reprefentation. For
as the king has the foie right of convening the parlia- king’s wg}
mcnt, fo alfo it is a branch of the royal prerogative,
that he may (whenever he pleafes) prorogue the par¬
liament for a time, or put a final period to its exift-
ence. If nothing had a right to prorogue or diffolve
a parliament but itfelf, it might happen to become per¬
petual. And this would be extremely dangerod^, if
at any time it {hould attempt to encroach upon the ex¬
ecutive power; as was fatally experienced by the un¬
fortunate king Charles I. ; who, having unadvifedly
paffed an aft to continue the parliament then in being
till fuch time as it {hould pleafe to diffolve itfelf, atlaft
fell a facrifice to that inordinate power which he him-
felf had confented to give them. It is therefore ex¬
tremely neceffary that the crown fhould be empowered
to regulate the duration of thefe affemblies, under the
limitations which the Engliih conftitution has prefcri-
bed : fo that, on the one hand, they may frequently
and regularly come together for the difpatch of bufi¬
nefs and redrefs of grievances ; and may not, on the
other, even with the confent of the crown, be continued
to an inconvenient or uneonftitutional length.
2. A parliament may be diffolved by the demife of iz
the crown. This diffolution formerly happened im-°r i'1 con*
mediately upon the death of the reigning fovereign:
for he being confidered in law as the head of the par- *
liament, {caput, principium, et finis), that failing, the
whole body was held to be extinft. But the calling a
new parliament immediately on the inauguration of the
fucceffor being found inconvenient, and dangers being
apprehended from having no parliament in being in
cafe of a difputed fucceffion, it was enafted by the fta-
tutes 7 & 8 W. 111. c. 15. and 6 Ann. c. 7. that the
parliament in being {hall continue for fix months after
the death of any king or queen, unlefs fooner prorogued
or diffolved by the fucceffor ; that if the parliament be,
at the time of the king’s death, feparated by adjourn¬
ment or prorogation, it fhall notwithftanding affemble
immediately : and that if no parliament is then in be¬
ing, the members of the laft parliament {hall affemble,
and be again a parliament.
3. Laftly, a parliament may be diffolved or expire 23
by length of time. For if either the legiflative body tl11'0’
were perpetual, or might laft for the life of the prince [^th
who convened them as formerly, and were fo to be
fupplied, by occafionally filling the vacancies with new
reprefentatives ; in thefe cafes, if it were once corrup¬
ted, the evil would be paft all remedy; but when dif¬
ferent bodies fucceed each other, if the people fee caufe
to difapprove oi theprefent, they may reftify its faults
Tc.r1ia?nerif
24
■General
forms ob-
fet ved in
the houfe
of peers;
*5
In the
houfe of
commons
PAR [ 763 ] p
in the next. A legiflative affembly aifo, fvhich is fare already has, the naysj'o out
to be feparated again, (whereby its members will them-
felves become private men, and fubjeft to the full ex-
tent of the laws which they have enafted for others),
will think themfelves bound, in intereft as well as duty,
to make only fuch laws as are good. The utmoft ex¬
tent of time that the fame parliament was allowed to
fit, by the llatute 6 W. & M. c. 3. was three years :
after the expiration of which, reckoning from the le-
turn of the firft; fummons, the parliament was to have
no longer continuance. But by the ftatute 1 Geo I.
ft, 2 c. 38. (in order, proftfledly, to prevent the great
and continued expences of frequent eleftions, and the
violent heats and animofities confequent thereupon, and
for the peace and fecurity of the government then juft
recovering from the late rebellion), this term was pro¬
longed tofeven years; and, what alone is an inftance
of the vaft authority of parliament, the very fame houfe
that was chofen for three years, enadted its own con¬
tinuance for feven. So that, as our conftitution now
ftands, the parliament muft expire, or die a natural
death, at the end of every feventh year, if not fooner
difiblved by the royal prerogative.
We (hall conclude this article with an account of
fome general forms not taken notice cf under any of
the above heads.
In the houfe of lords, the princes of the blood fit
by themfelves on the fides of the throne ; at the wail,
on the king’s right hand, the two archbifhops fit by
themfelves on a form. Below them, the bilhops of
London, Durham, and Winchefter, and all the other
bilbops, fit according to the priority of their confecra-
tion. On the king’s left hand the lord treafurer, lord
prefident, and lord privy-feal, fit upon forms above all
dukes, except the royal blood ; then the dukes, mar-
quifles, and earls, according to their creation. A-
crofs the room are weol-facks, continued from an an¬
cient cuftom ; and the chancellor, or keeper, being of
courfe the fpeaker of the houfe of lords, fits on tnc
firft wool-fack before the throne, with the great feal
or mace lying by him ; bduw thefe are forms for the
vifeounts and barons. On the other wool-lacks are
feated the judges, mailers in chancery, and king’s
council, who are only to give their advice in points of
law: but they all Hand up till the king gives them
leave to fit. _ .
The commons fit promifcuoufly ; only the fpeaker
has a chair at the upper end of the houfe, and the
clerk and his affillant fit at a table near him.
When a member of the houfe of commons fpeaks,
he ftands up uncovered, and dire&s his fpeech to the
fpeaker only. If what he fays be anfwered by ano¬
ther, he is not allowed to reply the 'fame day, uniefs
perfonal refleaiona have been call upon him : but
when the commons, in order to have a greater freedom
of debate, have refolved themfelves into a committee
of the whole houfe, every member may fpeak to a que-
ftion as often as he thinks neceffary. In the houfe of
lords they vote, beginning at the puifne, or lowell
baron, and to up orderly to the higheft, every one an-
f.vering, Content or Not content. In the houfe of com¬
mons they vote by yeas and nays; and if it be dubious
which are the greater number, the houfe divides. If
he qu eftionbe about bringing any thing into the houfe,
heji'cjj go out; but if it be about any thing the houfe
A R
In all divifions the fpeak- Parliament-
cr appoints four tellers, two of each opinion. In a "
committee of the whole houfe, they divide by changing
fides, the yeas taking the right and the nays the left of
the chair ; and then there are but two tellers. If a
bill pafs one houfe, and the other demur to it, a con¬
ference is demanded in the painted chamber, waere
certain members are deputed from each home ; and
here the lords fit covered, and the commons Hand bare,
and debate the cafe. If they difagree, the affair is
null; but if they agree, this, with the other bills that
have paffed both houfes, is brought down to the king in
the houfe of lords, who comes thither clothed in his roy¬
al robes; before him the clerk of the parliament reads
the title of each bill, and as he reads, the clerk of the *6 ^
crown pronounces the roval affent or difient.^ If it be a ex^e(ying
public bill, the royal affent is given in thefe words, the roya^
Le roy le vaut, “ The king will have it fo ;” if private, affent or
Soil fait comme il ejl defire, “ Let the requell be com-diffent t®
plied with ; if the king refufes the bill, the anfwer is, b^s'
Le roy s’avifera, 1 he king will think of it; and it
it be a money -bill, the anfwer is, Le roy remercie fes
loyaux fujets, accepte leur benevolence, Co aujji le vent ;
“ The king thanks bis loyal fubjcdls, accepts their
benevolence, and therefore grants his conient-
High Court of Parliament, is the fupreme court
in the kingdom, not only for the making, but alfo for
the execution, of laws ; by the trial of great and enor¬
mous offenders, whether lords or commoners, in the
method of parliamentary impeachment. As for ads
of parliament to attaint particular perfons of treafon or
felony, or to inflid pains and penalties, beyond or
contrary to the common law, to ferve a fpecial pur-
pofe, we fpeak not of them ; being to all intents and
purpofes new laws, made pro re nata, and by. no
means an execution of fuch as are alread y in being.
But an impeachment before the lords by the commons
of Great Britain, in parliament, is a profecution of
the already known and eftablilhed law, and has been
frequently put in praftice ; being a prefentment to the
moil high and fupreme court of criminal jurifdi&ion
by the moll folemn grand irqueft of the whole king¬
dom. A commoner cannot, however, be impeached
before the lords for any capital offence, but only for
high mifdemeanors ; a peer may be impeached for any
crime. And they ufually (in cafe of an impeachment
of a peer for treafon) addrefs the crown to appoint a
lord high Reward, for the greater dignity and re-
gularity of their proceedings ; which high ilt.vaid
was formerly eleAed by the peers themfelves, though
t    T-i .a Lrintr • Kill* it*
*V <10 A w J x y # t
he was generally commiflioned by the King \ out it
hath of late years been ftrenuoufly maintained, that
the appointment of an high Reward in lucu cafes is
not indifpenfably neceffary, but that the houfe may
proceed without one. 1 he articles of impuachment
are a kind of bills of indiAment, found by the houfe
of commons, and afterwards tried by the 1010s , who
are in cafes of mifdemeanois confidered; not only us
their own peers, but as the peers of the whole nation.
This is a cuftom derived to us from the conftitution
of the ancient Germans ; who in their great councils
fometimes tried capital accufitions relating to the.pub¬
lic : Licet apud concilium accufare quoqre, et difcrimen capi¬
tis intenoere. And it has a peculiar propriety in the
Endifh conftitution ; which has much improved upon
6 5 D 2 the
PAR
Parliament. t!ie ancient msdel imported hither from the continent.
jror though in general the union of the legiflativc and
judicial powers ought to be moft carefully avoided,
vet it may happen that a fubjedt, intruited with the
adminiftration of public affairs, rnay infringe the rights
of the people, and be guilty of fuch crimes as the
efdinary magiftrate either dares not or cannot punifh.
Of thefe the r prefen tarives of tfie people, or houfe of
commons, cannot properly judge ; becaufe their con-
ftituents are the parties injured, and can therefore
only impeach. But before what court fhall this im¬
peachment be tried ? Not before the ordinary tri¬
bunals, which would naturally be fwayed by the au¬
thority of fo powerful an accufer. Reafon therefore
will fuggeft, that this branch of the legiflature, which
reprefents the people, muft bring its charge before the
other branch, wdiich con fills of the nobil ty, who. have
neither the fame intereils, nor the fame paffions, as
popular affemblies. This is a vaft fuperiority wliich
the conftitutioa of this ifland- enjoys over thofe of the
Grecian or Roman republics ; where the people were
at the fame time both judges and accufers. It is pro¬
per that tlie nobility fhould judge, to infure juitice to
the accuftd ; as it is proper that the people fhould
accufe, to infure juftice to the commonwealth. And
therefore, among other extraordinary circumftances
attending the authontyr of this court, there is one of
a very lingular nature, which was infilled on by the
houfe of commons in the cafe of the earl of Danby in
the reign of Charles II. and is now enacted by fta-
tute 12 & 13 W. HI. c. 2. that no pardon under the
great feal (hall be pleadable to an impeachment by the
commons of Great Britain in parliament.
Such is the nature of a Britilh parliament, and in
theory at lead we fhould prefume it ■were nearly per¬
fect ; but home of our fellow-countrymen, more zea-
ious perhaps than wife, fee prodigious ftulta in it,
Inch indeed ?.s they think mull inevitably prove fatal.
I he confeqtience of this perfuafion has been a loud
and inceflant call for parliamentary reform. That
abufes ought to be reformed, is certain; and that few
inftitutions are fo perfedl as not to need amendment,
is a fad! equally indiiputable. We fhall even fuppofe
that there are many abufes in our parliament which
would require to be amended ; but, granting all this,,
and fomething more if it were neceflary, we would re¬
commend in the mean time to the ferious confidtration of
thofe who call themfelves theiv-Wr of the People, whofe
•incerity in their proftfiions it would be impolite to que-
ilion, the example of France, and that they would allow
>t to be a warning to Britain. France wanted reform in¬
deed, and that which was firfl propofed had the eounte-
tiance of the cooleft and the befl of men; but the confe-
quences have been dreadful; and if ever a free and
liable government take place in it, which we fincerely
wifh may be foon, it will have been purchafed at an-
immenfe price, by enormities which will difgrace it
whilfl the remembrance of them lalls.
The former Parliaments of France were fovereign
courts eflabKfhed by the king, finally to determine all
enprtes between particular perfsns, and to pronounce
©n appeals from fentences given by inferior judges 
There were ten of thefe parliaments in France, of
- -r.-i!1*1 of.Paris was the chief, its privileges and
.itmluu&ion being of the greatcit extent, Xt confifted
[ 74 1
JA K
of eight chambers : the grand chamber, where caufcs Ib.rliamenr,
of audience w«re pleaded ; the chamber of written law 5 a
the chamber of counfel ; the Tournelle crimineile, for
judging criminal affa is ; the Tournelle civile, in aid
of the grand chamber ; and three chambers of inqnefts,
where proceffes were adjudged in writing: befides thefe,
there was aifo the chamber of vacations, and thole of
requells. In 1771 the king thought fit to bianch the
parliament of Paris into fix different parliaments, un¬
der the denomination of luperior courts, each parlia¬
ment having fimiiar juiifiiction. Under their fecund
race of kings, this parliament, like that of England,
was the king’s council ; it gave audience to am .c.fla-
dors, and confalted of the affairs of war and govern¬
ment. The king, like ours, at that time prefided in
them, without being at ad mailer of their refold ions.
But in alter times their authority wis abridged j.
as the kings referved the decifion of the 5rr nd .btairs
of the public to their own councils ; leaving none but
private ones to the parliaments. Tht parliament of
Paris alfo enjoyed the privileges of verifying and regi-
Ilering the king’s arrets or edids, without which thofa-
edids were of little or no value.
Paruamhnt of S-cveden, confifls of four eftates,
with the king at their head. Thefe eftates are, 1. The
nobility and reprefentatives of the gentry ; with whom
the colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, and captains
of every regiment, fit and vote. 2. The clergy ; one
of which body is eleded from every rural deaneiy o£^
ten parilhes; who, with the bifhops and fuperintendents,
amount to about 200. 3. The burghers, eleded by
the magiftrates and council of every corporation a#-
their reprefentatives, of whom there are four for Stock¬
holm, and two for every other town, amounting in
the whole to about 150. 4. The peafants, chofen by
the peafants out of every diftrid; who choofe one of
their own rank, and not a gentleman, to reprefent
them : thefe amount to about 250.
All thefe generally meet at Stockholm : and after
the ftate-affairs have been reprefented to them from
the throne, they feparate, and fit in four feveial cham¬
bers or houfes, in each of which affairs are carried ora
by majority of votes ; and every chamber has a nega¬
tive in the palling any law.
PARMA, an ancient, rich, populous, and hand-
fome town of Italy, capital of the duchy ol the fame
name, with a citadel, a bifhop’s fee, and an univer-
fny. It has a magnificent cathedral, and the largeft
opera-houfe in Europe, which has feats for 8000
people ; but as it required a vaft number of candles,
which occafioned great expence, they have contrived
another which has room for 2000 fpeftators. The
dome and the church of St John are painted by the
famous Corregio, who was a native of this place.
Don Carlos, king of the two Sicilies, carried away
the library to Naples, which contained 18,000 volumes,
and a very valuable cabinet of curiofitits, as alfo the
rich colle&ion of medals. The citadel, which is very
near the city, is built in the fame tafte as that at
Antwerp, In 1734 there was a bloody battle fought
here ; and in 1741, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle,.
the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guaftalla, were
given to Don Philip, brother to Don Carlos above-
mentioned. It is 30 miles fouth-eaft of Cremona, and
30 fouth-eaft of Milan, E, JLong, 10.51. N. Lat. 44.50.
8* Parma*.
PAR
r 765 1
PAR
Parma
I!
Parra;gi.
ano.
|»AaHA, tht duchy of a nrovmcfr of Italy, boundfed
on the aorth by the Po ; on the north-eaft by the
Mantuan ; on the eaft by the duchy of Modena ; on
the fouth by Tufcany ; and on the weft by the duchy
of Placentia. The air is very whole feme, on^ which
account the inhabitants live to a great age. The foil
is very fertile, in corn, wine, oil, and hemp; the
paftures feed a great number of cattle, and the cheefe
is in very high efteem. Piers are confiderable mines
of copper and filver, and plenty of truffles, which many
are very fond of.
PARMESAN Cheese, a fort of cheefe much
efteemed among the Italians ; fo named from the duchy
of P.irma where it is made, and whence it is conveyed
to various parts of Europe.
The excellent patture-grounds of this country are
watered by the Po ; and the cows from whole milk
♦his eheefe is made yield a great quantity of it. Of
this cheefe there are three forts; the fromaggio dtfor-
wr’s about two palms in diameter, and feven or eight
jnches thick ; and the fromaggio di ribiole and di nbo-
linir which are not fo large.. This cheek is of a
faffroa-colour ; and the bell is kept three or four
years. See Cheese.
PARMIGIANO, a celebrated painter, whofe true
name was Erancefco Mazzuoli $ but he received the
former from the city of Parma, w'here he was born,
in 1504. He was brought up under his two uncles,
and was an eminent painter when but 16 years of
acre. He was famous all over Italy at 19; and at
2i performed fuch wonders, that when tue general of
%he emperor Charles V. touk Rome by ftotm, fome of
the common foldiers having, in facking the town,
broke into his apartments, found him intent upon his
work, and were inftantly fo ftruck with the beauty of
his pieces, that inftead of involving him in the plun¬
der and deftru&ion in which they were then employed,
they refolved to proted him from all manner of vio¬
lence ; which they adually performed. His works are
diftinguilhed by the beauty of the colouring, the in¬
vention, and drawing. His figures are fpirited and
graceful, particularly with refped to the choice of at¬
titude, and in their dreffes. He alfo excelled in mu-
fic, in which he much delighted..
In large compofitions Parmigiano dffl not always
reach an high degree of excellence ; but in his holy fa¬
milies, and other fimilar fubje-as. the gracefulnefs of his
heads, and the elegance of his attitudes, are peculiarly
delightful. For the celebrity of his name he feems to
be chiefly indebted to his numerous drawings and etch¬
ings ; for his life being fflort, and a great part of it
confumed in the idle ftudy of alchemy, in purfuit of
the. phiiofopher’s flone, and in the feducing avocations
of mufic and gambling, there was but litue time left for
application to the laborious part of his bufinefs. His
paintings in oil are tew in number and held in high
efteem, as are dfo his drawings and etchings; good
imprefiions of thefe Eft being very rarely to be found,
lie was the firft that practifed the art of etching in
Italy 5 and probably he did not at fir ft know that it
had been for fome years praAifed in Germany. When
he fet out for Rome, he was advifed to take fome of
his piftures with him, as a means of geti-ing
fell introduced into the acquaintance of the nobilty
amd arufts in that celebrated city. One ox theta is
ParnalTus^
-m i.—I
mentioned by his biographers as a mafterp’ece. ^ It Parr.ugl-
was his own portrait painted upon a piece of wood of
a convex form, in imitation of a convex mirror. The
furface is faid to have been fo wonderfully executed,
that it had the appearance of real glafs, and the head,
as well as every part of the furniture of the chamber
in which he was fuppofed to fit, were fo artfully ma¬
naged, that the whole formed a veiy complete piece
of deception. At Rome he w^s employed by pope
Clement VII. who was highly pleafed with his per¬
formances, and rewarded him liberally. A circumcifion
which he painted for him was particularly efteeaied as
a capital work. In it Parmigbno was fuccefsful m
introducing a variety of lights, without deftroying the
general harmony. When Charles V. came to Bolog¬
na to be crowned emperor ©f the Romans, Parmigi-
aiso failed not to be prefent at that Angular ceremony ;
and fo accurately marked the countenance of the em¬
peror, that at his return home, he was enabled from,
memory to make out a furprifing likenefs. In the
fame piece he introduced the figure of Fame placing a
crown of laurel on the head of" the emperor, whilft a
young Hercules prefented him wich a globe of the
world. Before it was quite finifhed, the painter and
his piece were introduced to Charles by the Pope, but
to little purpofe ; for the emperor left Bologna a few
days after, without ordering him any recompence for
his labour. In the church of Aladona della fatcrcato-
at Parma are ftill to fe feen feveral of the works of
this artift ; among which one of Sybils, and two others
of Mofes, and of Adam and Eve, are much admired.
So alfo is a Dead Chrift, with the Virgin in forrow,
in the church of the Dominicans at Cremona. In the
Houghton colleftion of piftures, now in poficflien ef
the emprefs of Ruffia, is one of his bed pi&ures, re-
prefenting Chrift laid in the fepulchre, for which he
is faid to have been knighted by the duke O' Parma.
His principal works are at Parmaj where he died poor
1540
PARNASSIA, grafs of Parnaflus, in botany;
a genus of the tetragynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants. The calyx is quinquepartite ;
there are five petals, and as many neftaria, heart-fhaped,.
and ciliated with globular tops ; the capfuie quadri-
valved. There is but one fpecies, having a ftalk
about a foot high, angular, and often a little twilted,
bearing a fingle white flower at top. Phc flowers aie
very beautifully ftreaked with yellow ; fo that though,
it is a common plant, growing naturally in moift pa-
ftures, it is frequently admitted into gardens.
PARMASSUS (Strabo, Pindar, Virgil), a moun¬
tain of Phocis, near Delphi, and the mounts Cithae-
ron and Helicon, with two tops (Ovid, Lucan) ; the
one called Cirrha, facred to Apollo ; and the other
N'tfa, Lcred to Bacchus, (Juvenal). It was covered
with bay trees, (Virgil); and originally called Lar-
naffuS) from Deucalion’s larnax or ark. thither con¬
veyed by the flood, (Stephanus, Scholiaft on Apol.o-
nius) ; after the flood, Parnajfus; from-Har Nahas,
changing the h into />, the hill of divination or au¬
gury (Peucerus); the oracle of Delphi Handing at its
foot-
Chandler who vifited it, thus describes it% Travtii'
“ Parnaffus was the weftern boundary of Phocis, and Greanr-
ftretching northward from about Delphi toward the
par [; '
PamalTus. CEtaan mountain?, feparated the weflern Locri fiom
thofe who poflcfled the fea coaft before Euboea- It
was a place of refuse to the Delphians in times of dan¬
ger. In the deluge, which happened under Deuca¬
lion, the natives were faved on it by following the cry
of wolves. On the invafion by Xerxes, feme tranf-
ported their families over to Achaia, but many con¬
cealed them in the mountain, and in Coryciurn, a grot¬
to of the Nymphs All Parnaffus was renowned for
fandtity, but Corycinm was the moll noted among the
hallowed caves and places. ‘ On the way to the futn-
mits of Parnafius, fays Paufanias, as much as 60 ftadia
beyond Delphi, is a brazen image ; and from thence
the afeent to Corycium is ealier for a man on foot, and
for mules and horfes. Of all the caves in which I
have been, this appeared to me the bell worth feeing.
On the coafts, and by the fea-fide, are more than can
be numbered; but fome are very famous both in Greece
and in other countries. The Corycian cave exceeds
in magnitude thofe I have mentioned, and for the most
part may be palled through without a light. It is
fufficiently high ; and has water, fonie fpringing up,
and yet more from the roof, which petrifies ; fo that
the bottom of the whole cave is covered with fparry
icicles. The inhabitants of Parnaffus efteem it facred
to the Corycian Nymphs, and particularly to Pan.—
From the cave to reach the fummits of the mountain
is difficult even to a man on foot. The fummits are
above the clouds, and the women called Tbyades mad¬
den on them in the rites of Bacchus and Apollo.’
Their frantic orgies were performed yearly. Wheler
and his company afeended Parnaflus from Delphi,
fome on horfes, by a track between the Stadium and
the clefts of the mountain. Stairs were cut in the
rock, with a ftrait channel, perhaps a water-dudl.—
In a long hour, after many traverfes, they gained the
top, and entering a plain turned to the right, towards
tue iummits of Caitaha, which are divided by deep
precipices. From this eminence they had a fine pro-
ipecl or the gulf of Corinth, and of the coaft ; mount
Cirphis appearing beneath them as a plain, bounded on
the ead by the bay of Afprofpitia, and on the weft by
that of Salona. A few fhepherds had huts there. They
returned to the way which they had quitted, and
, crofted a hill covered with pines and fnow. On their
left was a laxe, and beyond it a peak, exceedingly
high, white with fuow. They travelled to the foot of
it through a valley, four or five miles in compaf? ; and
relied bya plentiful fountain called Drofonigo, the ftream
boiling up a foot in diameter, and nearly as much
above the furface of the ground. It runs into the lake,
which is about a quarter of a mile diftant to the fouth-
eaft. I hey did not difeover Corycium, or proceed
farther on, but keeping the lake on their right, came
again to the brink of the mountain, and defeended by
a deep and dangerous track to Racovi, a village four
or five miles eaftward from Delphi. It was the
opinion of Wheler, that no mountain in Greece was
lughei than Parnalfus ; that it was not inferior to mount
Cems among the Alps ; and that, if detached, it would
be ken at a greater diftance than even mount Athos.
.me ntmmits ate perpetually increaling, every new fall
or fnow adding to the perennial heap, while the fun
has power only to thaw the fuperficies. Caftalis Plei-
llus and innumerable fprings are fed, fome invifibiy,
66 ] PAR
from the :ea" ?.nd refervoirs, which, without thefe Parnell,
drains and fubtenancons vents, would fwell, efpeci- Parody,
ally ;>!t< r heavy rain and the melting of fno.v, fo as to
fill the vnlleys, and run over the tops of the rocks down
upon Delphi, fpr ading wide an inundation, fi rular, as
has been fur mi fed, to the Deucalionean deluge.”
PARNEDL (Dr rhomas), a very ingenious di¬
vine and poet in the early part of this century. He
was archdeacon of Clogher, and the intimate friend of
Mr Pope ; who pubbffied his works, with an elegant
copy of recommendatory verfes prefixed. He died in
1718, aged 39.
Johnion * fays, “ The Life of Dr Parnell is a tafk * Lhet
which 1 ffiould very willingly decline, fince it has beeiit/je ■Poets>
lately written by Goldfrnith, a man of fuch variety of
powers, and fuch felicity of performance, that he al¬
ways feemed to do bell that which he was doing ; a
man who had the art of being minute without tediouf-
nefs, and general without confufion ; whofe language
was copious without exuberance, exadl without con-
ftraint, and eafy without weaknefs.
“ What fuch an author has told, who would tell
again ? I have made an extract from his larger narra¬
tive ; and ffiall have this gratification from my attempt,
that it gives me an opportunity of paying due tribute
to the memory of a departed genius.
‘ To yap ytgxc ff/ Srccvovlav'
“The general chara&er of Parnell is not great ex'
tent of coinprehenfion, or fertility of mind. Of the
little that appears Hill lefs is his own. His praife muft
be derived from the eafy fweetnefs of his diction : in
his vertes there is more happfnefs than pains ; he is
fprightly without effort, and always delights though he
never ravifhes ; every thing is proper, yet every thing
feems cafual. If there is fome appearance of elabora¬
tion in the Hermit, the narrative, as it is lefs airy, is
lefs pleafing. Of his other compofitions, it is impof-
fible to fay whether they are the produ&ions of Na¬
ture fo excellent as not to want the help of Art, or of
Art fo refined as to refemble Nature.”
PAROD 1, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb.
Parody, is alfo a poetical pleafantry, confiiling in
applying the verfes written on one fubjcA, by way of
ridicule, to another ; or in turning a ferious work into
a burlefque, by aftedling to obferye as near as pcffible
the fame rhimes, words, and cadences.
The parody was firft fet on foot by the Greeks;
fi om whom we borrow the name. It comes near to
what fome of our late writers call travejly. Others
have more accurately diftinguiffied between a parody
«*nd burlefque ; and they obferve, that the change of
a Angle word may parody a verfe ; or of a fingle letter
a word. I hus, in the laft cafe, Cato expofed the in-
conftant dilpofition of Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, by
changing Nobilior into Mobilior. Another kind of
parody confifts in the mere application of force known
verfe, or part of a yerfe of a writer, without making
any change in it, with a view to expofe it. A fourth
inftance is that of writing verfes in the tafte and llyle
of authors little approved. The rules of parody re¬
gard tue choice of a fubjedl, and the manner of treat¬
ing it. The fubjedk ffiould be a known and celebra¬
ted work : as to the manner, it ffiould be by an exafl
imitation, and an intermixture of good natural plea¬
fantry. 0 1
PA-
PAR
[ 767 1
PAR
Paros
Parole PAROLE, in a military fenfe, the promife made
by a prifoner of war, when he has leave to go any¬
where, of returning at a time appointed, if not ex¬
changed. .
Parole, means alfo a word given out every day in
orders by the commanding officer, both in camp and
garrifon, in order to know friends from enemies.
PARONOMASIA, in rhetoric, a pun; or a fi¬
gure whereby words nearly alike in found, but ot veiy
different meanings, are affedtedly or deiignedly ufed.
See Oratory, n° 76. . r
PARONYCHIA, the Whitlow, m furgery, is
an abfcefs at the end of the fingers. According as
it is fituated more or lefs deep, it is differently deno¬
minated, and divided into Ipecies.. t
It begins with a flow heavy pain, attended with a
flip-ht puliation, without fwelling, rednefs^ or heat:
but foon the pain, heat, and throbbing, are intole¬
rablethe part grows large and red, the adjoining
fingers and the whole hand fwell up ; m fome cafes,
a kind of red and inflated ftreak may be obfer-
ved, which beginning at the affeaed part, is conti¬
nued almoft to the elbow ; nor is it unufual For the
patient to complain of a very flmp pain under the
Ihoulder, and fometimes the whole arm is excefiively
inflamed and fwelled ; the patient cannot fleep, the
fever, &c. increafing ; and fometimes delirium or con-
vulfions follow- # . .
1. When it is feated in the fkin or fat, in the oack
or the fore part of the finger, or under or near the
nail, the pain is fevere, but ends well. 2. When the
periofteum is inflamed ©r corroded, the pain is tor¬
menting. 3. When the nervous coats of the flexor
tendons of the fingers or nerves near them are feized,
the worft fymptoms attend. If the firil kind fuppu-
rates, it muft be opened, and treated as abfeeffes in
general; but the bell method of treating the other
two fpecies is, on the firft, or at furthelt the fecond
day. to cut the part where the pain is feated quite to
the bone : if this operation is longer deferred, a fuppu-
ration will come on ; in which cafe fuppuration Ihould
be fpeedily promoted, and aseaily a difeharge given to
the matter as poffible. As the pain is fo confiierable
as to occafion a fever, and fometimes convulfions, the
tind. theb. may be added to the fuppurating appjjca-
tions, and alfo given in a draught at bed time. Ine
fecond fpecies proves very troublefome, and fsinetimes
ends in a caries of the fubjacent bone. I he third fpe¬
cies is very tedious in the cure, and ufually the pha¬
lanx on which it is feated is deltroyed.
PAROS (anc. geog.), an ifland of the -Egean fea,
one of the Cyclades, with a ftrong cognominal town,
38 miles diflant from Delos (Pliny, Nepos). Anciently
called PaBye and Minna (Pliny) ; alfo Demetrias, Za-
cynthus, Hyria, Hyleejja, and Caharnis (Nicanor). I he
country of Archilochus the lambic poet (Strabo). An
ifland famous for its white marble (Virgil, Horace,
Ovid), called lycbnites, becaufe dug with lamps (Pliny).
The name of Cabarnis is borrowed, according to Ste-
phanus, from one Cabarnus, who firft informed Ceres
of the rape of her daughter Proferpine ; or, according
to Hefychius, from the Cabarni, the priefts of Ceres
being fo called by the inhabitants of this ifland. The
name of Minoa is borrowed from Minos king of Crete,
who fubdued this as he did mall of the other Hands
of the aEgean fea. It was called Paros, which name
it retains to this day, from Paros the fon of Parrhafius,
or, as Stephanus will have it, of jafon the Argonaut.
Paros, according to Pliny’s computation, is diftant
from Naxos feven miles and.a half, and 28 from Delos.
Some of the modern travellers will have it to be 80,
others only 50 miles in comp Ms. Pliny fays it is half
as large as Naxos, that is, between 36 and 37 miles irv
compafs. It was a rich and powerful ifland, being
termed the mod wealthy and happy of the Cyclades,
and by Cornelius Nepos an ifland elated with its
riches. The city of Paros, the metropolis, is ftyled
by Stephanus a potent city, 'and one of the largeft in
the Archipelago : the prefent city of Paros, now Pari-
chia, is fuppofed to have been built upon its ruins, the
country abounding with valuable monuments of anti¬
quity.* The very walls of the prefent city are bu 'f
with columns, architraves, pcdeilals, mingled with
pieces of ancient marble of a furpriiing magnitude,
which were once employed in more noble edifices. Pa¬
ros was indeed formerly famous for its marble, which.
was of an extraordinary whitenefs, and in fuch requeff
among the ancients that the heft Actuaries ufed no
other (a). The ifland is provided with feveral capa¬
cious and fafs harbours, and was anciently much
reforted to by traders. It was, according to Thucy¬
dides, originally peopled by the Phoenicians, who
were the tiril mafters of the fea. Afterwards the
Carians fettled here, as we are told by Thucydides and
Diodorus. But thefe two authors differ as to the
time when the Carians came firft into the ifland ; for
Thucydides tells us, that the Carians were driven out
by the Cretans under the conduit of Minos ; and Dio¬
dorus writes, that the Carians did not fettle here till
after the Trojan war, when they found the Cretans ia
poffeffion of the ifland. Stephanus thinks that the.
Cretans, mixed with fome Arcadians, were the only-
people that ever poffeffed this ifland. Minos himfelf*
if we believe Pliny, refided fome time in the ifland of
Paros, and received here the melancholy news of the
death of his fon Androgens, who was killed in Attica
after
Parog.
(\} Sutherland fays, “ that while its marble quarries continued to be worked, Paros was one of the meff,
flourilhing of the Cyclades; but on the decline of the eaftern empire they were entirely negledled, and are now
convertecl into caves, in which the Ihepherds flicker their.flocks. We have been in feveral ot thefe fubterra*
neous folds, which put me much in mind of Homer’s defection of Polyphemus. I he common walls are.
almoff entirely compofed of marble; and in examining a very fmall part of one, we tound feveral pieces of.
cornice and baflb-relievo. Several fine blocks of marble (fragments of columns) are lying clofe to the water s
edge ; and feem to have been brought there by travellers, who, for want of a proper purchase to get them oa
board, have not been able to carry them farther.”
PAR [ 768 ] PAR
'Yaros after he had diftinguifheJ himfelf at the public games.
Ji We find the inhabitants of this ifland chofen from
d’ir' among all the Greeks by the Milefians to compofe the
differences which had for two generations rent that
unhappy ftate into parties and fa&ions. They aquit’
ted themfelves with great prudence, and reformed the
government. They afirffed Darius in his expedition
againft Greece with a confiderable fquadron ; but after
the victory obtained by Miltiades at Marathon, they
were reduced to great ftraits lay that general. How¬
ever, after blocking up the city for 26 days, he was
obliged to quit the enterprize, and return to Athens
with difgrace. Upon his departure, the Parians were
informed that Timo, a priettefs of the national gods,
and then his prifoner, had advifed him to perform
fome fecret ceremony in the temple of Ceres, near the
city ; affuring him that he would thereby gain the
place. Upon this information they fent deputies to
confult the oracle of Delphi, whether they ihould
punifh her with death, for endeavouring to betray the
city to the enemy, and difcovering the facred mylieries
to Miltiades. The Pythian anfwered, that Timo was
not the advifer; but that the gods, having refolved to
. deftrcy Miltiades, had only made her the inftrument of
his death. After the battle of Salamis, Themiffodes
fubje&ed Paros and mod of the other neighbouring
iflands to Athens, exacting large fums from them by
way of punifhment for having favoured the Perfians.
It appears from the famous monument of Adulas,
which Cofmos of Egypt has deferibed with great ex-
adtnefs, that Paros and the other Cyclades were once
lubjeft to the Ptolemies of Egypt. However, Paros
fell again under the power of the Athenians, who con¬
tinued mailers of it till they were driven out by Mi-
thridates the Great. But that prince being obliged
to yield to Sylla, to JLucullus, and to Pompey, this
and the other illands of the Archipelago fubmitted to
the Romans, who reduced them to a province with
Lydia, Phrygia, and Caria.
Mr Sutherland, who lately vifited Pams, fays, that
“ the water in it is excellent ; and as that which we got
at Mefiina has been complained of, as being too hard
to make proper pcafe-foup for the people, all the calks
are ordered to be emptied and refilled. The Ruffians
made this place their grand arfenal; their powder ma¬
gazines, and feveral other buildings, are Hill Handing;
and the illand is confiderahly indebted to them for im¬
proving the convenience for water, and for the trade
which the calh they expended introduced amomr the
•inhabitants.” b
PAROTIDES, in anatomy. See there, nQ 128.
PAROXYSM, in medicine, the feverc lit of a dif-
eafe, under which it grows higher or exafperated ; as
of the gout, Sic.
PARR ^Catharine), was the eldeft daughter of
S:r 1 h®mas Parr of Kendall. She was lirff married
to John Nevd, lord Latymer ; after whofe death Ihe
10 captivated her amorous fovereign, that he raifed her
to the throne. The royal nuptials were folemnized
at Hampton Court on the 12th of July 11143. Being
«ligioully difpofed, Ihe was, in the early part of her
life, a zealous obferver of the Romilh rites and cere¬
monies ; but in the dawning of the Reformation, Ihe
Became as zealous a promoter of the Lutheran doc-
•N0 200*
tiine ; yet with fuch prudence and circumfpe&ion as
her perilous fituation required. Neverthelefs, we are
told, that Ihe was in great danger of falling a facrilice
to the Popilh fadtion, the chief of whom was Biihop
Gardiner: he drew up articles againft her, and pre¬
vailed on the king to lign a warrant to remove her to
the Tower. This warrant was, however, accidentally
dropped, and immediately conveyed to her majelly.
What her apprehenftons mull have been on this occa-
fion may be eafily imagined. She knew the monarch,
and Ihe could not help recolledling the fate of his
former queens. A fudden illnefs was the natural con-
fequence. The news of her indifpofition brought the
king to her apartment. He was lavilh in exprefiions
of affedlion, and fent her a phyfician. His majefty
being foon after alfo foraewhat indifpofed, Ihe pru¬
dently icturned the vifit; with which the king feemed
plcafed, and began to talk, with her on religious fub-
jedlt, propoling certain queftions, concerning which
he wanted her opinion. She anfwered, that fuch
profound fpeculations were not fuited to her fex ; that
it belonged to the hulband to choofe principles for his
wife; the wife’s duty was, in all cafes, to adopt im¬
plicitly the fentiments of her hufband : and as to her-
felf, it was doubly her duty, being bleffed with a
hulband who was qualified, by his judgment and learn¬
ing, not only to choofe principles for his own family,
but for the moll wif# and knowing of every nation.
“ Not fo, by St Mary,” replied the king; “ you are
now become a dodlor, Kate, and better fitted to give
than receive inffruAion.” She meekly replied, that
Ihe was fenfible how little was intitled to thefe
praifes; that though Ihe ufually declined not any coq-
verfation, however fublime, when propofed by his ma-
jelly, Ihe well knew that her conceptions could ferve
to no other purpofe than to give him a little momentary
amufement; that Ihe found the converfation a little
apt to ianguiffi when not revived by fome oppofition,
and Ihe had ventured fometimes to feign a contrariety
of fentimects, in order to give him the olcafure of re-
luting her; and that Ihe aifo propofed, by this inno¬
cent artifice, to engage him into topics whence Ihe
had obferved, by frequent experience, that Ihe reaped
profit and inftruAion. “ And is it lb, fweetheavt ?”
replied the king; “ then we are perfeA friends a-
gain.” He embraced her with great sffeeiion, and
lent her away with affurances of his proteAion and
kindnefs.
The time being now come when fhe was to be fent
to the lower, the k.ng, walking in the garden, fent
lor the queen, and met her with great good humour ;
" hen lo the chancellor, with forty of the guards, ap¬
proached. He fell upon his knees, and fpoke foftly
with the king, who called him knave, arrant knave,
beall, fool, and commanded him inllantly to depert.
Henry then returned to the queer, who ventured to
intercede for the chancellor: “ Ah, poor fould,” faid
the king, “ thou little knowdt how evil he deferveih
this grace at thy hands. Of my word, fweethe*rt,
he hath been toward thee an arrant knave ; and fo let
him go.” The king died in January 1547, jull three
years and a half after bis marriage with this fee ond
Catharine ; who in a Ihort time was again efpoufed to
Sir 1 homas Seymour lord-admiral of England : for b,
September
PAR
t 78J 1
PAR
calk.
tween fhe
Parthians
tmd Ro¬
mans.
*ar*ia. which he thought would be attended with a Ming
 peace between the two empires, received the ambaiia-
dors with all pofiible marks of honour, and readily
Infamous complied with their requeft. Soon after, Caracalla
treachery fent a fecond embafly to acquaint t.ie king t at
of the cm- was coming to folemnize the nuptials ; whereupon Ar-
j>erorCara-tabanu8 went tQ meet attended with the chief of
the nobility and his belt troops, all unarmed, and in
(uoh pompous habits : but this peaceable train no
fooner approached the Roman army, than the iol-
diers, on a fignal given them, falling upon the king s
retinue, made a moil terrible {laughter of the unarm^
ed multitude, Artabanus himfelf efcaping with great
difficulty. The treacherous Caracalla, having gained
by this exploit great booty, and, as he thought, no lefs
glory, wrote a long and boailing letter to the fenate,
afluming the title of Parthicus for this piece of trea¬
chery ; as he had before that of Germanicus, for murder¬
ing, in like manner, fome of the German nobility.
Artabanus, refolving to make the Romans pay dear
for their inhuman andybarbarous treachery, raifed the
moft numerous army that had ever been known in P&r-
thia, croffed the Euphrates, and entered Syria, put¬
ting all to fire and fword. But Caracalla being mur¬
dered before this invafion, Macrinus, who had fuc-
ceeded him, met the Parthians at the head of a mighty
10 army, compofed of many legions, and all the auxiha-
A'defperateries of the ftates of Afia The two armies no fooner
battle be- came in fight of each other, but they engaged with
the utmoft fury. The battle continued two days ;
both Romans and Parthians fighting fo obftinately,
that night only parted them, without any.apparent
advantage on either fide ; though both retired when
night had put an end to the conteft, crying, Vic¬
tory, vi&ory. The field of battle was covered all over
with dead bodies, there being already above 40,000
killed, including both Romans and Parthians : never-
thelefs Artabanus was heard to fay, that the battle
was only begun, and that he would continue it till ei¬
ther the Parthians or Romans were all to a man cut
in pieces. But Macrinus, being well apprifed that
the king came highly enraged againft Caracalla in
particular, and dreading the confequences which would
attend the deftruftion of his army, fent an herald to
Artabanus, acquainting him with the death of Cara¬
calla, and propofing an alliance between the two
empires. The king, underftanding that his great
enemy was dead, readily embraced the propofals of
peace and amity, upon condition that all the prifoners
who had been taken by the treachery of Caracalla
ihould be immediately reftored, and a large fum of
money paid him to defray the expences of the war.
Thefe articles being performed without delay or
hefitation, Artabanus returned into Parthia, and Ma¬
crinus to Antioch.
■ uci iri- -A-3 Artabanus loft on this occafion the flower of
fians revolt,his army, Artaxerxes, a Perfian of mean defeent, but
ami over- 0p great courage and experience in war, revolting from
the Parthians, prevailed on his countrymen to join him,
and attempt the recovery of the fovereign power,
which he faid they had been unjuftly deprived of, firft
by the Macedonians, and afterwards by the Parthians
their vaflals. Artabanus, upon the news of this revolt,
marched with the whole ftrength of his kingdom to
fupprefs it; but being met by Artaxerxes at the head
of a no lefs powerful army, a bloody battle enfued,
Vol. XIII. Part II.
Parti
30
'The Rer-
’t’hrow the
farthian
empire.
which is faid to have lafted three days. At length
the Parthians, though they behaved with the utmoft par[-cic>
bravery, and fought like men in defpair, were forced
to yield to the Perfians, who were commanded by a
more experienced leader. Moft of their troops were
cut off in the flight; and the king himfelf was taken
prifoner, and foon after put to death at Artaxerxes’s
order. The Parthians, having loft in this fatal en¬
gagement both their king and their army, were forced
to fubmit to the conqueror, and become vaffals to a
nation which had been fubjedl to them for the fpace
of 475 years.
For an account of the manners, cuftoms, &c. of the
ancient Parthians, fee the article Persia.
PARTI, Partie, Party, or Parted, in heraldry,
is applied to a fhield or efcutcheon, denoting it divided
or marked out into paititions.
Parti per pale, is when the fhield is divided perpen*
dicularly into two halves, by a cut in the middle from
top to bottom.
Parti per fefs, is when the cut is acrofs the middle
from fide to fide.
Parti per lend dexter, is when the cut comes from
the upper corner of the fhield on the right hand, and
defeends athwart to the oppofite lower corner.
Parti per bend Jinijler, is when the cut, coming
from the upper left corner, defeends acrofs to the op*
pofite lower one.
All thefe partitions, according to M. de la Colom-
biere, have%their origin from the cuts and bruifes that
have appeared on fhiclds after engagements ; and, be¬
ing proofs of the dangers to which the bearers had
been expofed, they gained them efteem : for which
reafpn they were tranfmitted to pofterity, and be¬
came arms and marks of honour to their future fa¬
milies.
PARTIALITY. See SELT-partlafity and Preju-
DICE.
PARTICIPLE, in grammar, an adjeclive formed
of a verb ; fo called, becaufe it participates partly of
the properties of a noun, and partly of thofe of a verb.
See Grammar.
PARTICLE, in phyfiology, the minute part of a
body, an affemblage of which conftitutes all natural
bodies.
In the new philofophy, particle is often ufed in the
fame fenfe with atom in the ancient Epicurean philo¬
fophy, and corpufcle in the latter. Some writers,
however, diftinguifh them ; making particle an affem¬
blage or compofition of two or more primitive and
phyfically indivilible corpufcles or atoms ; and cor¬
pufcle, or little body, an affemblage or mafs of feveral
particles or fecondary corpufcles. The diftin&ion,
however, is of little moment; and, as to moft purpofes
of phyfics, particle may be underftood as fynonymous
with corpufcle. Particles are then the elements of
bodies: it is the various arrangement and texture of
thefe, with the difference of the cohefion, &c. that
conftitute the various kinds of bodies, hard, foft, li¬
quid, dry, heavy, light, &c. The fmalleft particles or
corpufcles cohere with the ftrougeft attractions, and
always compofe bigger particles of weaker coheiion ;
and many of thefe cohering compofe bigger particles,
vvhofe vigour is ftill weaker; and thus ©n for divers
fucceffions, till the progreffion end in the biggeft par¬
ticles, whereon the operations in chemiftry, and the
r Q colours
PAR L 786 1 PAR
Particle, coleurs of natural bodies, depend, and which, by co-
1 hering, compofe bodies of fenfible bulks.
The cohefion of the particles of matter, according
to the Epicureans, was effe&ed by hooked atoms ; the
Ariftotelians thought it managed by reft, that is, by
nothing at all. But Sir Ifaac Newton (hows it is done
by means of a certain power, whereby the particles
mutually attraft or tend towards each other, which is
ftill perhaps giving a fadl without the caufe. By this
attraction of the particles he fhows that moft of the
phenomena of the lefler bodies are affeCted, as thofe of
the heavenly bodies are by the attraction of gravity.
See Attraction and Cohesion.
Particle, a term in theology, ufed in the Latin
church for the crumbs or little pieces of confecrated
bread, called in the Greek church The Greeks
have a particular ceremony, called T“v of the
particles, wherein certain crumbs of bread, not confe-
crated, are offered up in honour of the Virgin, St John
Baptift, and feveral other faints. They alfo give them
the name of oblation. Gabriel archbiftiop of
Philadelphia wrote a little treatife exprefs ru»
wherein he endeavours to fhow the antiquity
of this ceremony, in that it is mentioned in the litur¬
gies of St Chryfoftom and Bafil. There has been
much controverfy on this head between the reformed
and catholic divines. Aubertin and Blonde! explain
a paffage in the theory of Germanus patriarch of Con-
ftantinople, where he mentions the ceremony of the
particles as in ufe in his time, in favour of the former ;
Meffieurs de Port Royal conteft the explanation ; but
M. Simon, in his notes on Gabriel of Philadelphia,
endeavours to fhow that the paffage itfelf is an inter¬
polation, not being found in the ancient copies of Ger¬
manus, and confequently that the difpute is very ill
grounded.
Organic Particles, are thofe fmall moving bodies
which are imperceptible without the help of° glaffes
for befides thofe animals which are perceptible to the
fight, fome naturalifts reckon this exceedingly fmall
fpecies as a feparate clafs, if not of animals properly
fo called, at leaft of moving bodies, which are
found in the femen of animals, and which cannot be
feen without the help of the microfcope. In confc-
quence of thefe obfervations, different fyftems of ge¬
neration have been propofed concerning the fpeimatic
worms of the male and the eggs of the female. In
the fecond volume of Buffon’s Natural Hiftory, feveral
experiments are related, tending to fhow that thofe
moving bodies which we difcover by the help of glaffes
in the male femen are not real animals, but organic,
lively, a&ive, and indeftruftible molecules, which pof-
iefs the property of becoming a new organized body
fimilar to that from which they were extra&ed. Buf¬
fer! found fuch bodies in the female as well as in the
male icmen ; and he fuppofes that the moving bodies
which he obferved with the microfcope in infufions of
the germs of plants are likewife vegetable organic mo¬
lecules. Needham, Wrifberg, Spallanzani, and feveral
other writers on the animal economy, have■purfued the
fame trad with M. de Buffon.
Some fuppofe that thtfe organic molecules in the
kmen anfwer no purpofe but to excite the venereal
cefire : hut fuch an opinion cannot be well founded ;
or funuchs; who have no fenunal liquor, are neverthe-
lefs fubjeft to venereal defire. With refpeft to the Particle,
beautiful experiments which have been made with the Parting-
microfcope on organic molecules, M. Bonnet, that'
learned and excellent obferver of nature, remarks that
they feem to carry us to the fartheft verge of the
fenfible creation, did not reafon teach us that the
fmalleft vifible globule of feminal liquor is- the com¬
mencement of another univerfe, which, from its infinite
fmalinefs, is beyond the reach of our beft microfcopes.
—Animalcules, properly fo called, muft not be con¬
founded with the wonderful organic particles of Buffon.
See Animalcule. x
Particle, in grammar, a denomination for all thofe
fmall words that tie or untie others, or that exprefs the
modes or manners of words. See Grammar
PARTING, in metallurgy. See Metallurgy.
Parting, in chemillry, an operation by which gold
and filver are feparated from each other. As thefe
two metals refift equally well the a&ion of fire and of
lead, they muft therefore be feparated by other me-'
thods. This reparation could not be effeffed if they
were not foluble by different menftruums.
Nitrous acid, marine acid, and fulphur, which cannot'
diffolve gold, attack fiiver very eafily ; and therefore
thefe three agents furnifh methods of feparating filver
from gold, or of the operation czMeA parting.
Parting by nitrous acid is the moft convenient, and
therefore moft ufed, and even almoft the only one em¬
ployed by goldfmiths and coiners. Wherefore it i&-
called fimply parting. That made with the marine
acid is only made by cementation, and is known by
the name of concentrated parting. Laftly, parting by
fulphur is made by fufion, which the chemifts call the-
dry ’avay, and is therefore called dry parting.
Parting by Aquafortis, Although parting by aqua¬
fortis be eafy, as we have faid, it cannot however fuc-
ceed or be very exafl, unlefs we attend to fome effential
cirsumftancesi
1. The gold and filver muft be in a proper propor¬
tion : for if the gold was in too great quantity, the
filver would be covered and guarded by it from the
aftion of the acid.
Therefore, when effayers do not know the propor¬
tion of thefe two metals in the mafs to be operated*up¬
on, they difcover it by-the following method.
They have a certain number of needles compofed of
gold and filver allayed together in graduated propor¬
tions, and the allay of each needle is known by a mark
upon it. Thefe are called proof needles.
When effayers want to know nearly the proportion
of gold and filver in a mafs, they rub this mafs upon a
touchftone, fo as to leave a mark upon it. They then
make marks upon the touchftone with fome of the
needles the colour of which they think comes neareit
to that of the mafs. By comparing the marks of thefe
needles with the mark of the mafs, they difcover nearly
the proportion of the gold and filver in the mafs.
It this trial fhows, that in any given mafs the filver
is not to the gold as three to one, this mafs is improper
for the operation of parting by aquafortis. In this
cafe, the quantity of filver necefl’ary to make an allay
of that proportion muft be added.
rlli!S operation is called quartation, probably becaufe
it reduces the gold to a fourth part of the whole mafs.
2. That the parting may be exaft, the nitrous acid
or
Parting.
PAR { ] PAR
or aquafortis employed muft be very pure, and efpe-
cially free from mixture of vitriolic and marine acids.
For if this was not attended to, a quantity of filver
proportionable to thefe two foreign acids would b& fe-
parated during the folution ; and this portion of filver
reduced by thefe acids to vitriol of filver and to luna
cornea would remain mingled with the gold, which
confequently would not be entirely purified by the
operation.
When the metallic mafs is properly allayed, it is to
htf reduced to plates, rolled up fpirally, called cornets;
'or to grains. Thefe are to be put into a matrafs, and
upon them a quantity of aquafortis is to be poured,
the weight of which is to that of the filver as three to
two : and as the nitrous acid employed for this opera¬
tion is rather weak, the folution is alfifted, efpecially at
firft, by the heat of a fand bath, in which the matrafs
is to be placed. When, notwithftanding the heat,
no further mark of folution appears, the aquafortis
charged with filver is to be decanted. Frelh nitrous
acid is to be poured into the matrafs, ftronger than
the former, and in lefs quantity, which muft he boiled
on the refiduous mafs, and decanted as the former.
Aquafortis muft even be boiled a third time on the
remaining gold, that all the iilver may be certainly
difiblved. The gold is then to be wafhed with boiling
water. This gold is very pure if the operation has
been performed with due attention. It is called gold
of parting.
No addition of filver is required, if the quantity of
filver of the mafs is evidently much more confiderable
than that of the gold : perfons who have not proof
needles and other apparatus to determine the propor¬
tion of the allay, may add to the gold an indeteimi-
nate quantity of filver, obferving that this quantity be
rather too great than too fmall, and fo confiderable as
to render the mafs nearly as white as filver ; for a large
quantity of filver is rather favourable than hurtful to
the operation : It has no other inconvenience than an
ufelefs expence, as the larger the quantity is of filver
the more aquafortis muft be employed. We ought to
attend to this fa£f, that the colour of gold is fcarcely
perceptible in a mafs two-thirds of which is filver and
one-third is gold; this colour then muft be much lefs
perceptible when the gold is only one-fourth part, or
lefs, of the whole mafs.
If the quantity of gold exceeds that of the filver,
the mafs may be expofed to the adion of aqua-regia,
which would be a kind of inverfe parting, loecaufe the
gold is difiblved in that menflruum, and the filver is
not, but rather reduced to a luna cornea, which remains
in form of a precipitate after the operation. But
this method is not much pradtifed, for the following
reafons.
Firft, the gold cannot be eafily feparated from the
aqua-regia; for if the parting has been made with an
aqua-regia prepared with fal-ammoniac, or if the gold
be precipitated by a volatile alkali, this gold has a ful¬
minating quality, and its.redubfion requires particular
operations. If the aqua-regia has been made with
fpii it of fait, and the precipitation effected by a fixed
alkali, the gold will not then be fulminating, but the
precipitation will be very flow, and probably incom-
JpUte.
.Secondly, in the parting by aqua-regia, the filver is
indeed precipitated into a luna cornea, and thus fepa¬
rated ; but this feparation is not perfedt, as a fmall
quantity of luna cornea will always remain diffolved by
the acids, if this folution even could be only effedted
by the fuperabundant water of thefe acids. Accord¬
ingly the filver is not fo accurately feparated from the
gold by aqua-regia, as tire gold is from the filver by
aquafortis.
The gold, after the parting by aquafortis, is much
more eafily colledted when it remains in frnall maffes
than when it is reduced to a powder.
When the mafs has been regularly quarted, that is,
when it contains three parts of filver and one part of
gold, we muft employ, particularly for the firft folu¬
tion, an aquafortis fo weakened that heat is required
to afiift the folution of the filver ; by which means the
folution is made gently ; and the gold which remains
preferves the form of the fmall mafles before the folu¬
tion. If the aquafortis employed were ftronger, the
parts of the gold would be difunited and reduced to
the form of a powder, from the activity with which,
the folution would be made.
We may indeed part by aquafortis a mafs containing
two parts of filver to one part of gold : but then the
aquafortis muft be ftronger ; and if the folution be not
too much haftened, the gold will more eafily remain in
mafles after the operation. In both cafes, the gold will
be found to be tarniftied and blackened, probably from
what was lately called the phlogijlon of the nitrous acid.
Its parts have no adhefion together, becaufe the filver
diflblved from it has left many interftices; and the cor¬
nets or grains of this gold v/ill be eafily broken, unlefs
they be handled very carefully. To give them more
folidity, they are generally put into a teft under a
muffle and made red-hot; during which operation they
contract confiderably, and their parts are approxima¬
ted. Thefe pieces of gold are then found to be ren¬
dered much more folid, fo that they may be handled
without being broken. By this operation alfo the
gold refumes its colour and luftre ; and as it generally
has the figure of cornets, it is called gold in cornets, or
grain gold. Effayers avoid melting it, as they choofe
to preferve this form, which {hows that it has been
parted.
The gold and filver thus operated upon ought to
have been previoufly refined by lead, and freed from
all allay of other metallic matters, fo that the gold
which remains ftiould be as pure as is poflible. How¬
ever, as this is the only metal which refitta the aftion
of aquafortis, it might be purified by parting from all
other metallic fubftances; but this is not generally
done, for feveral reafons. Firfi, becaufe the refining
by lead is more expeditious and convenient for the
reparation of the gold from the imperfeft metals;
fecondiy, becaufe the filver, when afterwards feparated
from the aquafortis, is pure ; laftly, hecaufe moft im-
perfedt metals do not remain completely and entirely
difi'olved in nitrous acid, from the portion of phlogifton
which this acid deprives them of, the gold would be
found after the parting mixed with the part of thefe
metals which is precipitated.
The gold remaining after the parting ought to he
well waffled, tocleanfe it from any of the folution of fil¬
ver which might adh re to it; and for this purpofe diftil-
led water ought to be ufed, or at leaft water the purity
$ G 2 Of
Parting.
PAR
C 788 ]
PAR
parting, of which has been afcertained by its not forming a pre-
cipitate with a folution of fiiver, becaufe fuch a preci¬
pitate would alter the purity of the gold.
The fiiver diflblvtd in the aquafortis may be fepa-
rated either by diftillation, in which cafe all the aqua¬
fortis is recovered very pure, and fit for another part¬
ing ; or it may be precipitated by fome fubftance
which has a greater affinity than this metal with nitrous
acid. Copper is generally employed for this purpofe
at the mint.
The folution of fiiver is put into copper veffels. The
aquafortis diflblves the copper, and the fiiver precipi¬
tates When the fiiver is all precipitated, the new fo¬
lution is dec anted, which is then a folution of copper.
The precipitate is to be well waffied, and may be melted
into an ingot. It is called parted Jilvci'. When this
fiiver has been obtained from a mafs which had been
refined by lead, and when it has been well waffied from
the folution of copper, it is very pure.
Mr Cramer obferves juftly in his Treatife on Effay-
ing, that however accurately the operation of parting
has been performed, a fmall portion of fiiver always
remains united with the gold, if the parting has been
made by aquafortis ; or a fmall portion of the gold re¬
mains united with the fiiver, if the parting has been
made by aqua regia : and he eftimates this fmall allay
to be from a two hundredth to a hundred and fiftieth
part; which quantity may be confidered as nothing
for ordimry purpofes, but may become fenfible in ac¬
curate chemical experiments. Chem. Diet.
The mafs of gold and fiiver to be quarted ought
previoufiy to be granulated ; which may he done by
melting it in a crucible, and pouring it into a large
velffcl full ot cold water, while at the fame time a rapid
circular motion is given to the water by quickly itir-
ring it round with a ftick or broom.
The veffels generally ufed for this operation, called
parting-glajjes, have the form of truncated cones, the
bottom being commonly about feven inches wide, the
aperture about one or two inches wide, and the height
about 12 inches, fhefe glafs-veffcls ought to have
been well annealed, and chofen free from flaws; as
one of the chief inconveniences attending the opera¬
tion is, that the glaffes are apt to crack by expofure
to cold, and even when touched by the hand. Some
. operators fecure their glaffes by a coating. For this
purpofe they fpread a mixture of quicklime flaked
with beer a-jd whites of eggs upon linen cloth, which
they wrap round the lower part of the veffel, leaving
the upper part uncovered, that they may fee the pro-
grefs of the operation ; and over this cloth they apply
a compofition of clay and hair. Schlutter advifes to
put tne parting-glaffes containing fome water, and
inpported by trevets, with fire under them. When
the heat communicated by the water is too great, it
may be diminifhed by adding cold water, which mult
be cone very carefully by pouring againft the Ixdcs of
the pan, to prevent too fudden an application of cold
to the parting-glafs. The intention of this contri-
\ ^ancf 1S’ tllat the contents of the glaffes, ifthefe ffiould
break, may be received by the copper veffel. Into a
g. s 15 inches high, and 10 or 12 inches wide at
bottom, placed in a copper-pan 12 inches wide at
bottom, 15 inches wide at top, and 10 inches high, he
uiuaily put about 80 ounces of metal, with twice as
much aquafortis.
The aquafortis ought to be fo ftrong as to be ca. Parting,
pable of acting fenfibly oh fiiver when cold, but not fo y~—•
ffrong as to a& violently. If the aquafortis be very
ftrong, however pure, and if the veffels be well clofed,
a fmall quantity of the gold will be diflblved along
with the fiiver, which is to be guarded againft.
Little heat ought to be applied at the beginning,
the liquor being apt to fwell and rife over the veffel ;
but when the acid is nearly faturated, the heat may be
fafely increafed.
When the folution ceafes, which may be known by
the difcontinuance of the effervefcence, or emiffion of
air-bubbles, the liquor is to be poured off. If any
grains appear entire, more aquafortis muft In* added,
that all the fiiver may be diffolved. If the operation
has been performed flowly, the remaining gold will
have ftill the form of diftindt maffes, which are to re¬
ceive folidity and colour by fire, in the manner dire6t-
ed by the author of the di&ionary. If the operation,
has been performed haftily, the gold will have the ap¬
pearance of a black mud or powder, which after five or
fix wafhings with pure water muft be melted. ,
The fiiver is ufually recovered by precipitating it
from the aquafortis by means of copper veffeh into
which the liquor is poured, or of plates of copper
which are thrown along with the liquor into glafs-
veffels. A conftderable heat is required to accelerate
this precipitation. Dr Lewis fays, he has obferved
that when the aquafortis was perfectly faturated with
fiiver, no precipitation was occafioned by plates of
copper, till a drop or two of aquafortis was added to
the liquor, and then the precipitation began and con¬
tinued as ufual.
The precipitated fiiver muft be well waffied in boil¬
ing water, and fufed with fome nitre ; the life of which
is to fcorify any cupreous particles which may adhere
to the fiiver.
From the folution of copper in aquafortis, a blue
pigment, called verditer, is obtained by precipitation
with whiting. Notes to Chem. Diet.
Concentrated Parting, alfo called Parting by Ce¬
mentation, becaufe it is actually performed by cementa¬
tion, is ufed when the quantity of it is fo great in
proportion to the fiiver, that it cannot be feparated
by aquafoiais. This operation is done in the follow¬
ing manner.
A cement is firft prepared, compofed of four parts
of bricks powdered and fifted, of one part of green
vitriol calcined till it becomes red, and of one part of
common fait. The whole is very accurately mixed to¬
gether, and a firm pafte is made of it by moiften-
ing it with a little water or urine. This cement is
called cement royal, becaufe it is employed to purify
gold, which is confidered by chemifts as the king of
metals.
The gold to be cemented is to be reduced to plates
as thin as fmall pieces of money. At the bottom of
the crucible or cementing pot, a ftratum of cement, of
the thicknefs of a finger, is to be put, which is to be
covered with plates of gold ; upon thefe another ftra¬
tum of cement is to be laid, and then more plates of
gold, till the crucible or pot is filled with thefe alter¬
nate ftrata of cement and of gold. The whole is then to
be covered with a lid, which is to be luted with a
mixture of clay and fand. This pot is to be placed
in. a furnace, or oven, and heated by degrees till it is
moderately
P A R L
Partirg. moderately red, which heat is to be continued during
—-v-—' 24 hours. The heat muft not be fo great as to me t
tlse gold. The pot or crucible is then left to coo!,
and the gold is to be carefully feparated from the ce¬
ment, and boiled at different times in a large quantity
of pure water. This gold is to be eflayed upon a
touchitone or otherwife; and if it be found not fuffi-
ciently purified, it is to be cemented a fecond time m
the fame manner. . . , .
The vitriolic acid of the bricks and of the calcined vi¬
triol difengages the acid of the common fait during this
cementation: and this latter acid diiTolves the filver ah
laved with the gold, and ieparates it by that means.
This experiment proves, that although marine acid,
while it is liquid, cannot attack filver, it is neverthe-
lefs a powerful folvent of that metal. _ But for this
purpofe it mufi be applied to the filver the ftate ot
vapours, extremely concentrated, and affiited with a
confiderable heat. All thefe circumftances are united
in the concentrated parting. ,.
This eit’i?cr‘ment Proves a^°» t^at notwithftanding
all thefe circumftances, which favour the action of the
marine acid, it is incapable of diffolving gold.
Laftly, the marine acid in this ftate more effectual¬
ly diffolves the filver than the nitrous acid does in the
parting by aquafortis, fince this operation fucceeds
well when the filver is in fo fmall a proportion as that
it would be protected from the aftion of the nitrous
acid in the ordinary parting. „ , . , .
Inftead of fea falt, nitre may be ufed with equal
fuccefs ; becaufc the nitrous acid is then put in a ftate
to attack the filver, notwithftanding the quantity of
gold which covers it. . , . r .
Dry-PARTiNG. Dry-parting, or parting by fuhon, is
performed by fulphur, which has the property of unit¬
ing eafily with filver, while it does not attack gold.
"This method of feparating thefe two metals would
be the cheapeft, the inoft expeditious and convenient
of any, if the fulphur could diffolve the filver, and fe
' . i ti  11 4 AoRltr no nirrrm
7S9 ] P \ A R
dry-parting, recommend its ufe only in the above-men¬
tioned cafes. We wifti that this operation could be
improved : it would be much more advantageous if it
could be done by two or three fufions ; and if by thefe
an exadt reparation could be obtained of a fmall quan¬
tity of gold mixed with a large quantity of filver.
Chem. Did. _ u • c
As this operation for extrafting a fmall quantity of
gold from a large quantity of filver is, notwithftanding
its inconveniences, approved by Sehlutter, Scheffer,
and other authors, and praclifed in Hartr., we fhall
add what Dr Lewis, in his excellent Hiftory of Gold,
has faid upon the fubje£t. <
The moft advantageous method of feparating a fmall
Parting-
portion of gold from a large one of filver, appears to
be by means of lulphur, which unites with and fcori-
fies the iilver without affeAing the gold ; but as ful*
phurated filver does not flow thin enough to fuffer the
frrull particles of gold diffused through, it to reunite
and fettle at the boitom, fotne addition is neceflary for
collecting and carrying them down.
In order to the commixture with the fulphur, 50 or
60 pounds of the mixed metal, or as much as a large
crucible will receive, are melted at once, and reduced
into grains, by taking out the fluid matter, with a
fmall crucible made red hot, and pouring it into cold
water ftirred with a rapid circular motion. From an
eighth to a fifth of the granulated metal, according as
it is richer or poorer in gold, is referved, and the reft
well mingled with an eighth of powdered fulphur.
The grains enveloped with the fulphur are again put
into the crucible, and the fire kept gentle for fom>.
time, that the filver, before it melts, may be thorough¬
ly penetrated by the fulphur ; if the fire was haftily
urged, great part of the fulphur would be diffipated,
without ailing upon the metal.
If to fulphurated filver in fufion pure filver be add¬
ed, the latter falls to the bottom, and forrns theie a
diftinil fluid not mifcible with the other. The par-
employ^particular1 treatment, and a kind of concen- come in con.aft with it, and are thu. transferred from
tration, to begin the union of the fulphur allayed with
gold. Then repeated and troublefomc fufions muft be
made, in each of which we are obliged to add diffe¬
rent intermediate fubftances, and particularly the me¬
tals which have the ftrongeft affinity with fulphur,
to affift the precipitation, which in that cafe does not
give a regulus of pure gold, but a gold ftill allay¬
ed with much filver, and even with a part of the pre¬
cipitating metals ; fo that, to complete the operation,
cupellation is neceffary, and alfo piuting by aqua¬
fortis. . .
From what we have faid ccncernmg this operation,
we may perceive, that it ought not to be made, but
wlien the quantity of filver with which the geld is ol-
layed is fo great, that the quantity of gold which might
be obtained by the ordinary parting is not fvifficient to
pay the expences; and that it is only proper for concen¬
trating a larger quantity of gold in a imalier quantity
of filver. As this dry parting is troublefome, and even
expenfive, it ought not to be undertaken but ou a con¬
fiderable quantity of filver allayed with gold. Ac¬
cordingly Cramer, Sehlutter, Schlinder, and all good
chemiits and artifts who have given procefies for the
the former into the latter, more or lefs perfefily ac¬
cording as the pure filver was more or lefs thoroughly
diffufed through the mixed. It is for this ufe that a
part of the granulated metal was referved. Fne ful¬
phurated mafs being brought into perfeA fufion, and
kept melted for near an hour in a clofe covered cru¬
cible, one-third of the referved grains is thrown in ;
and as foon as this is melted, the whole is well ftir¬
red that the frefh filver may be diftributed through
the*mixed, to colled the gold from it. The ftirring
is performed with a wooden red ; an iron one would
be corroded by the fulphur, fo as to deprive .the mix¬
ed of its due quantity of fulphur, and likewife render
the fubfequent purification of the filver more trouble¬
fome. The fufion being continued an hour longer,
another third of the unfulphurated grains is added,
and an hour after this the remainder ; after which the
fufion is further continued for fome time, the mattei
being ftirred at leaft every half hour from the begin¬
ning to the end, and the crucible kept clofely covered
in the intervals. ■ . r r c 1 1
The fulphurated filver appears in huion ot a davic-
brown colour ; after it has been kept melted for acer-
fy taiss
PAR
Parting, tain time, a part of the fulphur having efcaped from
v ' the top, the furface becomes white, and fome bright
drops of filver, about the fize of peafe, are perceived
on it. When this happens, which is commonly in
about three hours after the laft addition of the refer*
ved grains, fooner or later according as the crucible
has been more or lefs clofely covered, and the matter
more or lefs ftirred, the fire muft be immediately dif-
continued ; for otherwife more and more of the filver,
thus loling its fulphur, would fubfide and mingle with
the part at the bottom in which the gold is colledted.
The whole is poured out into an iron mortar greafed
and duly heated ; or if the quantity is too large to be
fafely lifted at once, a part is firft taken out from the
top with a fmall crucible, and the reft poured into the
mortar. The gold, diifufed at firft through the whole
mafs, is now found collected into a part of it at the
bottom, amounting only to about as much as was re¬
served unfulphurated. This part may be feparated
from the fulphurated filver above it by a chiflcl and
hammer; or more perfe6tly, the furface of the lower
mafs being generally rugged and unequal, by placing
the whole n;afs with its bottom upwards in a crucible:
the fulphurated part quickly melts, leaving unmelted
that which contains the gold, which may thus be
completely feparated from the other. The fulphurated
filver is eflayed by keeping a portion of it in fuiion in
an open crucible till the fulphur is diflipated, and then
diffolving it in aquafortis. If it fhould Hill be found to
• contain any gold, it is to be melted again ; as much
more unfulphurated filver is to be added as was em¬
ployed in each of the former injetftions, and the fufion
continued about an hour and a half.
1 he gold thus colleSed into a part of the filver may
be further concentrated into a fmaller part, by granu¬
lating the mafs and repeating the whole procefs. The
operation may^ be again and again repeated, till fo
much of the filver is feparated, that the remainder
may be parted by aquafortis without too much cx-
pence.
. -^ie foregoing procefs, according to Mr Schlutter,
rs pradtifed at Rammelfberg in the Lower Hartz. The
prevailing metal in the ore of Rammelfberg is lead:
the quantity of lead is at moft 40 pounds on a quintal
or 100 pounds of the ore. The lead worked off on a
tell or concave hearth yields about no grains of fil¬
ver, and the filver contains only a 384th part of gold;
yet this little quantity of gold, amounting fcarcely to
a third of a grain in a hundred weight of this ore, is
thus colledfed with profit. The author above-men¬
tioned confines this method of reparation to fuch filver
as is poor in gold, and reckons parting with aquafortis
more advantageous where the gold amounts to above a
64th of the filver: he advifes alfo not to attempt con¬
centrating the gcli too far, as a portion of it will al¬
ways be taken up again by the filver.^ Mr Scheffer,
however, relates (Jn the Swedifh Memoirs for the vear
^at he has by this method brought the ^old
to perfect finenefs; and that he has likewife colleded
ail the gold which the filver contained ; the filver of
the la ft operations, which had taken up a portion of
the gold, being referved to be woiked over again with
a !refit quantity of gold-holding filver. The fulphu-
r-ted filver is purified by continuing it in fufiou for
Line time with a large furface expofed to the air; the
r 790 i
par
fulphur gradually exhales, and leaves the filver en¬
tire.
, PARTIS AN, in the art of war, a perfon dexterous
in commanding a party ; who, knowing the country
well, is employed in getting intelligence, or furpri-
fing the enemy’s convoy, &c. The word alfo means
an officer fent out upon a party, with the command of
a body of light troops, generally under the appellation
of the partifan’s corps. It is alfo neceflary that this
corps fhould be compofed of infantry, light-horfe, and
huffars.
PARTNERSHIP, is a contrad among two or
more perfons, to carry on a certain bufinefs, at their
joint expence, and fhare the gain or lofs which arifes
from it. Of this there are four kinds.
I* Occafional joint trade, where two or more mer¬
chants agree to employ a certain fum in trade, and
divide the gain or lofs fo foon as the adventure is
brought to an iffue. This kind of contrad being
generally private, the parties concerned are not liable
for each other. If one of them purchaf^ goods on
truft, the furnifher, who grants the creth? through
confidence in him alone, has no recourfe, in cafe of
his infolvency, againft the other partners. They are
only anfwerable for the fhare of the adventure that be¬
longs to the infolvent partner.
^ If it be propofed to carry the adventure farther
tnan originally agreed on, any partner may with¬
draw his intereft ; and if it cannot be feparated from
the others, may infift that the whole fhall be brought
to an iffue. °
II. Standing companies, which are generally efta-
blifiled by written contrad between the parties, where
the flock, the firm, duration, the divifion of the gain
or lofs, and other circumftances, are inferted.
All the partners are generally authorifed to fign by
the firm of the company, though this privilege’ may
be confined to fome of them by particular agreement.
1 ne firm ought only to be fubferibed at the place
where the copartnery is eftablifhed. If a partner has
occafion, when abfent, to write a letter relating to
their affairs, he fubferibes his own name on account of
the company. When the fame partners carry on bu-
finefs at different places, they generally choofe diffe¬
rent firms for each. The fignature of each partner is
generally fent to new correfpondents; and when a
partner is admitted, although there be no alteration in
the firm, his fignature is tranfmitted, with an intima¬
tion of the change in the copartnery to all their corre¬
fpondents.- Houfes that have been long eftablifhed,
often retain the old firm, though all the original part¬
ners be dead or withdrawn.
Ihe powers of each partner are, in genera], dif-
cretionary ; but they ought not to ad, in matters of
importance, without confulting together, when there
is an opportunity. No partner is liable to make good
the lofs anting from his judging wrong in a cafe where
he had authority to ad. If he exceeds his power,
and the event prove unfuccefsful, he muff bear the lofs;
but it it prove fuccefsful, the gain belongs to the com-
pany : yet if he acquaints the company immediately
. what “a3 done, they muft either acquiefce there-
in, or leave him the chance of gain, as well as the rifle
of lofs.
ill! debts contraded under the firm of the company
5 are
Partifan,
Partner-
fhip.
PAR [79
partner- are binding on the whole partners, though the money
was borrowed by one of them for his private ufe, with-
out the confent of the reft. And if a partner exceeds
his power, the others are neverthelefs obliged to im¬
plement his engagements; though they may render
him refponfible for his mifbehaviour.
Although the fums to be advanced by the partners
be limited by the contraft, if there be a neceffity for
raifing more money to anfwer emergencies or pay the
debts of the company, the partners muft furnilh what
is neceffary, in proportion to their fhares.
A debt to a company is not cancelled by the pri¬
vate debts of the partner; and when a partner becomes
infolvent, the company is not bound for his debts be¬
yond the extent of his ftiare.
The debts of the company are preferable, on the
company’s effefts, to the private debts of the part¬
ners.
Partnerfhip is generally diffolved by the death of a
partner ; yet, when there are more partners than two,
it may, by agreement, fubftft among the furvivors.
Sometimes it is ftipulated, that, in cafe of the death
of a partner, his place rtiall be fupplied by his fon, or
fome other perfon condefcended on. I he contract
ought to fpecify the time and manner in which the
furviving partners {hall reckon with the executors of
the deceafed for his ftiare of the flock, and a reafon-
able time allowed for that purpofe.
When partnerfhip is diffolved, there are often out-
ftanding debts that cannot be recovered for a long
time, and efft&s that cannot eafily be difpofed of.
The partnerfhip, though diffolved in other refpefts,
ft ill fub lifts for the management of their outftnnding
affairs ; and the money arifxng from them is divided
among the partners, or their reprefentatives, when it
is recovered. But as this may protraft the linal fet-
tlement of the company’s affairs to a very inconvenient
length, other methods are fometimes ufed to bri"g
, them to a conclufion, either in confequence of the ori¬
ginal contradf, or by agreement at the time of diffolu-
tion. Sometimes the debts and effe&s are fold by auc¬
tion ; fometimes they are divided among the partners;
and when there are two partners, one divides them in¬
to {hares, as equal as poffible, and the other choofes
either {hare he thinks be ft.
If a partner withdraws, he continues refponfible for
his former partners till it be publicly known that ne
hath done fo. A deed of feparation, regiftered at
a public office, is fuffieient prefumption of fuch noto-
rit-ty.
III. Compinies, where the bufinefs is conduced by
officers. There are many companies of this kind in
Britain, chiefly eftablifhed for purpofes which require
a larger capital than private merchants can command.
The laws with refpedt to thefe companies, when not
confirmed by public authority, are the fame as the
former, but the articles of their agreement ufually
very different. The capital is condefcended on ; and
divided into a certain number of fhares, whereof each
partner may hold one or more, but is generally reftrift-
td to a certain number. Any partner may transfer
his fhare ; and the company muft admit his affignee as
a partner. The death of the partners has no efi'edft on
the company. No partner can add peifonally in the
affairs of the company; but the execution oi their bu-
i ] PAR
finefs is intrufted to officers, for whom they are refpon-
fible ; and, when the partners are numerous, the fu- pari:rpjge>
perintendency of the officers is committed to diredfors *
chofen annually, or at other appointed times, by the
partners.
IV. Companies incorporated by authority. A royal
charter is neceffary to enable a company to hold lands,
to have a common feal, and enjoy the other privileges
of a corporation. A charter is fometimes procured,
in order to limit the rifle of the partners; for, in every
private company, the partners are liable for the debts,
without limitation ; in corporated focieties, they are
only liable for their (hares in the ftock of the fociety.
The incorporation of focieties is fometimes authorifed
by adf of parliament; but this high authority is not ne*
ceffary, unlefs for conferring exclufive privileges.
Mr Paley fays, “ I know of nothing upon the Moral and
iedt of partnerfhip that requires explanation, but how Political
the profits are to be divided where one partner contri- Pl-“lrifvph'
butes money and the other labour, which is a common
cafe.
fi Rule. From the ftock of the partnerfhip dedudb
the fum advanced, and divide the remainder between
the moneyed partner and the labouring partner, in the
proportion of the iatereft of the money to the wages
of the labour, allowing fuch a rate of intereft as money
might be borrowed for upon the fame fecurity, and
fuch wages as a journeyman would require for the fame
labour and truft.
“ Example. A advances roool. but knows nothing
of the bufinefs ; B produces no money, but has been
brought up to the bufinefs, and undertakes to condudt
it. At the end of the year the ftock and effebls of
the partnerfhip amount to 1200I. confequently there
are 2001. to be divided. Now nobody would lend
money upon the event of the bufinefs fucceeding,
which is A’s fecurity, under 6 per cent, therefore A
muft be allowed 601. for the intereft of his money. B,
before he engaged in the partnerfhip, earned 30 1. a-
year in the fame employment: his labour, therefore,
ought to be valued at 30 1. and the 200 1. muft be di¬
vided between the partners in the proportion of 60 to
30; that is, A muft receive 133 1. 6s. 8d. and B 661.
13 s. qd. If there be nothing gained, A lofes his in¬
tereft, and B his labour, which is right. If the origi¬
nal ftock be diminifhed, by this rule B lofes only his
labour as before ; whereas A lofes his intereft and part
of the principal; for which eventual difadvantage A
is compenlated, by having the intereft of his money
computed at 6 per cent, in the divifion of the profits
when there is any. It is true, that the divifion of the
profit is feldom forgotten in the conftitution of the
partnerfhip ; and is therefore commonly fettled by ex-
prefs agreement; but thefe agreements, to be equitable,
fhouli purfue the principle of the rule here laid down.
All the partners are bound by what any one of them
does in the courfe of the bufinefs; for, quoad hoc, each
partner is confidered as an authorifed agent for the
reft.”
PARTRIDGE, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
The partridge is fo valuable at the table, th^t a
great many ways of taking it have been invented by
fportfmen, all of which fucceed from the natural folly
and timidity of the animal.
The places partridges delight in moftare corn-fields,
efpecially
PAR [ /92 1 PAR
FartrHge. rfpccialiy whilft the corn grows, for under that cover
1—-v—they fhelter and breed: neither art thofe places unfre¬
quented by them when the corn is cut down, by rea-
fon of the grain they find there, efpecially in wheat-
itubble, the height of v/hich they delight in, being to
them as a covert or fhelter. When the wheat-flubble
is much trodden by men or beafts, they then betake
themfelves to the barley ftubble, provided it be frefh
and untrodden ; and they will, in the furrows, amongft
the clots, branches, and lon^ grnfs, hide both them-
felves and coveys, which are fometimes 20 in number,
nay 30,in a covey.
When the winter-feafon is arrived, and the ftubble-
fields are ploughed up, or over-foiled with cattle, par¬
tridges refoit into the upland meadows, and lodge in
the dead-grafs, or fog under hedges, amongft mole-
hilis, or under the roots of trees ; fometunes they re¬
fort to coppices and under-woods, efpecially it any
corn-fields are adjacent, or where there is grown broom,
brakes, fern, &c.
In the harveft-time, when every field is full of men
and cattle, in the day-time they are found in the fallow-
fields which are next adjoining to the corn-fields, where
they lie lurking till evening or morning, and then they
feed among the (heaves of corn.
When their haunts are known, according to (he fi-
tuation of the country and feafon of the year, the
next care muft be to find them out in their haunts,
which is done feverai ways. Some do it by the eye
only ; and this art can never be taught, but learned
by frequent experience, the colour of the birds being
fo like that of the earth at a difiance, that no eye but
a very converfant one could diftinguifhfcthem. When
they are once feen, the bufinefs is to keep the eye up¬
on them, and then to keep in continual motion. They
are a very laxy bird, and by this means willlet a per-
fon almoft tread upon them; though if the perfon
Hands ftill to eye them, they wdll rife immediately
though they be at a confiderable diftance.
Another method of difcovering them is, by going
to their haunts very early in the morning, or at the
clofe of the evening, which is called \.\iz jucking-t\m.z.
The noife of the cock partridge is to be attended to
at this time, and is very loud and earneft. The hen
will foon come up to the cock after her making the
noife, which (he does by way of anfwer; and when
they are got together, their chattering will difcover
them. Thus they may always be found at thefe times.
But there is yet a better method of finding this bird,
which is by the call. The bufinefs, in order to have
luccefs in this way, is carefully to learn the notes of
the partridge, and be able to imitate ail the feverai*
founds. When perfe£f: in this, the perfon is to go to
the haunts morning and evening, and placing himfelf
in fome place where he can fee the birds without being
feen by them, he is to liften to their calling; and when
they are heard, he is to anfwer in the fame notes,
doubling again as they do ; by continuing this, they
v be brought fo near, that the perfon lying down
cn his back may count their whole number. Having
in this manner found where the birds are, the next
care is to catch them.
They are fo foolifh, that it is extremely eafy to take
them in nets.^ In order to this, there needs no more
than the going ©ut, provided with two or three nets,
N° 260.
with JTiefhes fomewhat fmaller than thofe of the phea- Partridge,
fant nets, and walking round about the covey, a net"V—^
is (o be fixed fo as to draw over them, on pulling a
line at a diftance. All this may be eafily done ; for
fo long as the fportfman continues moving about, and
does not fix his eye too mtenfely upon them, they will
let him come near enough to fix the net without mo¬
ving. If they lie fo draggling, that One net will not
cover them, then two or three mufi be fixed in the fame
manner. The fportfman may then draw the nets over
them, and they will often lie ftill with the nets upon
them till he comes up to fright them; then they will
rife, and be entangled in the net.
A fecond method of taking them is with birdlime:
this is done by means of wheat-ftraws. Thefe muft
be large, and cut off between knot and knot ; they
muft be well limed with the beft and ftrongeft bird¬
lime, and the fportfman muff carry a great number out
with him. Having found a field where there are par¬
tridges, he is to call; and if they anfwer, he is then
to flick up the limed ftraws in rows acrofs two or
three lands, and going backward, call again to them,
leading them on in the road where the draws are:
they will follow one another like a flock of chickens,
and come out to the call; and will in their way run
upon the ftraws, and liming themfelves they will daub •
one another by crowding together, fo that very few of
them will be able to efcape.
But there is yet a pleafanter way of taking them
than this, that is, by driving of them. In order to
this, an engine is to be made of canvas fluffed with
ftravv, to reprefent a horfe ; this horfe and nets are to
be taken to the haunts of the partridges, and the nets
being placed llanting or flopwife in the lower part of
the field, the fportfman is to take the wind in his back
and get above them, driving them downwards; his
face is to be covered with fomething green or blue,
and placing the horfe before him, he is to go towards
them flowly and gently ; and by this means they will
be raifed on their legs, but not on their wings, and
will run before the horfe into the nets. If in the way
they go into a wrong path, the horfe is to be moved
to face them; and they will be thus driven back again,
and driven every way the fportfman pkafes.
The partridges of Abyffinia, we ai- told, are very
large, being as big as capons.
In Jeremiah xvii. 11. we have the following curious
paffage : “ As the partridge fitteth on eggsy and hatch-
eth them not; fo he that getteth riches, and not by
right, fliall leave them in the midft of his days, and at
his end {hall be a fool;” which is explained by Mr Pool
as follows. It is no wonder if we cannot be certain
as to the fenfe of thefe words, fo far as they concern
natural hiftory, when we are not certain what bird it
is to which this doth relate. We tranflate it partridge :
others will have it to be a cuckovo : but certain it is,
that it is the fame word which we tranflate partridge
(1 Sam. xxvi. 20.) ; and cuckows ufe not to be much
hunted after. How the partridge is faid to fit on eggs
and hatch them not, is yet a greater queftion. It may
be occafioned fo many ways, vlx. either fitting upon
wind-eggs; or being killed before the eggs are hatch¬
ed ; or having its eggs deftroyed by the male partridge,
or by fome dog or other vermin ; or, its neft being
found, having her eggs taken from her, that it is hard
t9
Parr.
PAR [
September I ^48 flie died in childbed, ihe hiftorians
of this period generally infinuate that {he was poifoned
by her hufband, to make way for his marriage with
the lady Elizabeth.
That Catharine Parr was beautiful is beyond a
doubt: that Ihe was pious and learned is evident from
her writings : and that her prudence and fagacity were
not inferior to her other accomplifhments, may be
concluded from her holding up the paffion of a capri¬
cious tyrant as a fhield againft her enemies ; and that
at the latter end of his days, when his paffions were
enfeebled by age, and his peevifh aullerity increafed
by difeafe. She wrote, 1. Queen Catharine Parr’s
lamentation of a linner, bewailing the ignorance of
her blind Hie ; JLond. 8vo, 154®> 15^3/ 2‘ Pfayers
or meditations, wherein the mynd is Itirred patiently
to fuffre all affli&ions here, to fet at nought the vaine
profperitee of this worldc, and always to long for the
everlaftynge felicitee. Colledled out of holy workes,
by the moft virtuous and gracious princeffe Katharine,
queene of Englande, France, and Irelande. Printed
by John Way land, 1545, 4to,—1561, 12 mo. 4. Other
Meditations, Prayers, Letters, See. unpubhlhed.
Parr. (Thomas), or OM Parr, a remarkable Eng-
lifhman, who lived in the reigns of ten kings and
queens ; married a fecond wife when he was 120, and
had a child by her. He was the fon of John Parr, a
hulbandman of Winnington, in the parirti of Alderbury,
in the county of Salop, where he was born in the year
1483. Though he lived to the vail age of upwards
years, yet the tenor of lus life admitted but of
little variety ; nor can the detail of it be confidered of
importance, further than what will arife from the gra¬
tification of that curiofity which naturally inquires after
the mode of living which could lengthen life to fuch
extreme old age. Following the profefiion of his fa¬
ther, he laboured hard, and lived on coarfe fare. Tay¬
lor the water-poet fays of him :
Good wholefome labour was his excrcife,
Down with the lamb, and with the lark would rife;
In mire and toiling fweat he fpent the day,
And to his team he whittled time away :
The cock his night-clock, and till day was done.
His watch and chief fun-dial ivas the fun.
He was of old Pythagoras’ opinion.
That green cheefe was moft wholefome with an onion;
Coarfe meflin bread, and for his daily fwig, _
Milk, butter-milk, and water, whey and whig :
Sometimes metheglin, and by fortune happy,
He fometimes fipp’d a cup of ale moft nappy,
Cyder or perry, when he did repair
T’ a Whitfon ale, wake, wedding, or a fair,
Or when in ChViftmas-time he was a gueft
At his good landlord’s houfc amongft the reft :
Elfe he had little leifure-time to wafte.
Or at the ale-houfe huff-cap ale to tafte.
Nor did he ever bunt a tavern fox ;
Ne’er knew a coach, tobacco, or the
His phyfic was good butter, which the foil
Of Salop yields, more fweet than Candy oil;
A nd garlic he efteem’d above the rate
Of Venice treacle, or beft mithridate.
He entertain’d no gout, no ache he felt,
The air was good and temperate where he dwelt
Vol. XIII. Part IL
769 1 PAR
While mnviffes and fweet-tongu’d nightingales
Did chant him roundelays and madrigals.
Thus living within bounds of Nature’s laws,
Of his long lafting life may be fome caufe.
And the fame writer deferibes him in the following
two lines:
From head to heel, his body had all over
A quick fet, thick fet, natural hairy cover.
The manner of his being conduced to London is
alfo noticed in the following terms: “ The Right Hon.
Thomas Earl of Arundel and Surrey, earl-mat fhal of
England, on being lately in Shiopfhire to vifit fome
lands and manors which his lordfhip holds in that
county, or for fome other occafions of importance
which caufed his lordfhip to be there, the report of this
aged man was fignified to his nonour, who hearing or
fo remarkable a piece of antiquity, his lordfhip was
pleafed to fee hirn ; and in his innate, noble, anil
Chriftian piety, he took him into his charitable tuition
and proteftion, commanding that a litter and two
horfes (for the more eafy carriage of a man fo feeble
and worn with age) to be provided for him ; alfo, thfit
a daughter of his, named Lucy, fhould likewife at¬
tend him, and have a horfe for her own riding with
him : and to cheer up the old man, and make him
merry, there was an antique-faced fellow, with a
high and mighty no-beard, that had alfo a horfe for
his carriage. Thefe were all to be brought out of the
country to London by eafy journeys, the charge being
allowed by his lordfhip ; likewife one of his lordfiupk*
own fervants, named Bryan Kelly, to ride on horfe-
back with them, and to attend and defray all manner
®f reckonings and expences. All which was done ac¬
cordingly as follows.
“ Winnington is a parifh of Alderbilry, near a place
called the Welch Pool, eight miles from Shrewfbury ;
from whence he was carried to Wem, a town of the
earl’s aferefaid; and the next day to Shiffnall, a manor-
houfe of his lordfhip’s, where they likewife Hayed one
night: from Shiffnall they came to Wrolverhampton,
and the next day to Birmingham, and from thence to
Coventry. Although Matter Kelly had much to do
to keep the people off, that preffed upon him in all
places where he came, yet at Coventry he was moft
oppreffed, for they came in fuch multitudes to fee the
old man, that thofe that defended him were almoft
quite tired and fpent, and the aged man ia danger of
being ftifled ; and, in a word, the rabble were fo un¬
ruly, that Biyan was in doubt he Humid bring his
charge no farther ; fo greedy are the vulgar to hearken
to or gaze after novelties. The trouble being over,
the next day they paffed to Daintree, to Stony Strat¬
ford, to Radburne, and fo to London ; where he was
well entertained and accommodated with all things,
having all the aforefaid attendance at the foie charge
and coft of his lordfhip.” When brought before the
king, his majefty, with more acutenefs than good
manners, faid to him, “ You have lived longer than
other men, what have you done more than other men ?”
He anfwered, “ I did penance when I was an hundred
years old.” This journey, however, proved fatal
to him ; owing to the alteration in his diet, to the
change of the air, and his general mode of life, he
lived but a very ftrort time, dying the 5th of November
5 L j6355
Parr
PAR T 7'
1635’ (a); arid was buned in Weftminftcr Abbey.
After his death, his body was opened ; and an account
was drawn up by the celebrated Dr Harvey, part of
which we fhall lav before our readers.
“ Themas Parr was a poor countryman of Shrop-
/hire, whence he was brought up to Pondon by the
Rijrht Hon. Thomas Earl of Atundd and Surrey ; and
died after he had outlived nine princes, in the tenth
year of the tenth of them, at the age of 152 years and
nine months.
“ He had a large breaft, lungs not fungous, but
flicking to his ribs, and diftended with blood ; a livid-
refs in his face, as he had a difficulty of breathing a
little before his death, and a long lading warmth in
his armpits and breaft after it ; which ugn, together
with others, were fo evident in his bodyr, as they ufe
to be on thofe that die by fuffbeation. Elis heart was
great, thick, fibrous, and fat. The blood in the heart
blackifh and diluted. The cartilage* of the fternum
not more bony than in others, but flexile and foft.
His vifeera were found and ftrong, efpecially the fto-
mach ; and it was obferved of him, that he ufed to
eat often by night and day, though contented with
old cheefe, milk, coarfe bread, fmall beer, and whey ;
and, which is more remarkable, that he eat at midnight a
little before he died. His kidneys were covered with fat,
and pretty found ; only on the interior furface of them
were found fome aqueous or ferous abfeefles, whereof
one was near the bignefs of a hen egg, with ayellowifh
water in it, having made a roundifli cavity, impreffed
on that kidney ; whence fome thought it came that a
h.ttle before his death a fuppreffion of urine had befal¬
len him ; though others were of opinion, that his
urine was fnpprtfied upon the regurgitation of all the
ferofity into his lungs. Not the leaft appearance there
was of any flony matter either in the kidneys or blad¬
der. Elis bowels were alfo found, a little whitifh with¬
out. His fpleen very little, hardly equalling the big-
uefs of one kidney. In fliort, all his inward parts ap¬
peared fo healthy, that if he had not changed his diet
and air, he might perhaps have lived a good while
longer, ihe caufe of his death was imputed chiefly
to the ch-nge of food and air ; forafmuch as coming
out of a clear, thin, and free air, he came into the
thick air of London ; and after a conftant plain and
homely country diet, he was taken into a fplendid
family, where he fed high and drank plentifully of the
beft wines, whereupon the natural functions of the
parts of his body were overcharged, his lungs obftruft-
cd, and the habit of the whole body quite difordered;
upon which there could not but enfue a diffolution.
His brain was found, entire, and fum; and though
be had not the ufe of his eyes, nor much of his me¬
mory, feveral years before he died, yet he had his
hearing and apprehenllon very wmll; and was able,
even to the [30th year of his age, to do any hufband-
man’s work, even threfhing of corn.”
1 he following fummary of his life is copied from
Oldys’s MS. notes on Fuller’s Worthies: Old Parr
(a) The autnor of a book intitled Long Livers, 8vo,
to one Robert Samber, againfl all evidence fays, p. 80, t
to the king, 24th of November 165W
ro 1 P A R
was horn 1483; lived at home until T500, stt. 77,
when he went out to fervice. 1518, ast. 35, returned
home from his mafter. 1522, xt. 39, fpent four years
on the remainder of his father’s leafe. 1543, a*t. 60,
ended the firft leafe he renewed of Mr Lewis Porter.
1563, set. 80, married Jane, daughter of John Taylor,
a maiden ; by whom he had a fon and a daughter,
■who both died very young. 1564, set. 8ended the
fecond leafe which he renewed of Mr John Porter.
1585, set. 102, ended the third krife he had renewed
ot Mr Hugh Porter. 1588, aet. 101, did penance in
Alderhtrry church, for lying with Katharine Milton,
and getting her with child. 1595, tet. 11 2, he buried
his wife Jane, after they had lived 32 years together,
idoy, ret. 122, having lived to years a widower, he
married Jane, widow of Anthony Adda, daughter of
John Lloyd of Giifells, in Montgomeryfhire, who fur-
vived him. 1635, set. J52, he died; after they had
lived together 30 years, and after 50 years poflcffioa
of his lalt leafe. See Longevity.
PARRA, in ornithology, a genus of birds belong¬
ing to the order of grallre ; the charafters of which
are : The bill is tapering and a lictle obtufe ; the no-
ftrils are oval, and fltuated in the middle of the lull ;
the forehead is covered with flefhy caruncles, which
are lobated ; the wings are fmall, and fpinous. There
are five fpecies ; of which the moft remarkable is the
chavana, which is about the fize of the doraeftic cock-
The Indians in the neighbourhood of Carthageni,
who breed large flocks of poultry that ftray in the
woods, train up the chavaria to defend them again ft
the numerous birds of prey, no one of which will dare
to encounter it. It is never known to defert the flock,
and it returns every evening to rooft.
The parra Dominica is about the fize of the lap¬
wing. The bill is yellow, as are alfo the head and
upper parts ; the under are of a yellowifh white bor¬
dering on rofe colour. The legs are alfo yellow. This
fpecies inhabits feveral of the warmer parts of America
and St Domingo. The parra fenegalh is about the
fame fize with the former. Its bill is alfo yellow tip¬
ped with black ; the forehead is covered with a yel¬
low fkin ; the chin and throat are black ; the head
and upper parts of the body and lefler wing-coverts
are grey-brown. The lower part of the belly, and
the upper and under tail-coverts are dirty white. At
the bend of 'the wing is a black fpur. It inhabits
Senegal, and thence derives its name. The negroes
call them Uett Uett, the French the /quaHers, be-
caufe, as we are told, as foon as they fee a man
they feream and fly off. They always fly in pairs-
The parra jacana, or fpur-winged water-hen, is about
the fize of the water rail. The bill is in length about
an inch and a quarter, of an orange colour ; and on
the forehead is a membranous flap half an inch long
and nearly as broad. On each fide of the head alfo
is another of the fame, about a quarter of an inch
broad, and both together they furround the bafe of
the bid. Ihe head, throat, neck, bread:, and under¬
parts.
1722, which Oldys in his MS. notes on Eidler afcribe4
uat I arr died fixteen years after he had been prefented
PAR L 77i 1 PAR
Parra, parts, are bhck ; and fometimea the belly is mixed
—-v "”mJ with white, &c. The birds of this fpecies inhabit
Brafil, Guiana, and Surinam ; but are equally common
at St Domingo, where they frequent the marlhy places,
Tides of ponds, and dreams, and wade quite up to the
thighs in the water. They are alfogenerallyfeen in pairs,
and when feparated call each other continually till they
join again. They are very ihy, and molt common in
the rainy feafons in May and November. They are at
all times very noify ; their cry (harp and (hrill, and
may be heard a great way off. This, as well as the
other fpecies, is called by the French chirurgien. The
fiefh is accounted pretty good. The parra variabilis,
or fpur-winged w: ter-hen, is about nine inches long.
The bill is about 14 inches in length, and in colour is
orange-yellow. On the forehead is a flap of red (kin ;
the crown of the head is brown, marked with fpots of
a darker colour ; the hind part of the neck is much
the fame, but of a deeper dye. The Tides of the head,
throat, forepart of the neck, bread, belly, thighs,
and under-tail coverts are white, with a few red fpots
on the Tides of the belly and bafe of the thighs. On the
forepart of the wing is a yellow fpur, &e. The legs
are furniflied with long toes, as in all the others, the
colour of which is bluidi a(h. Mr Latham fays, that
one which came under his infpedtion from Cayenne
was rather fmaller. It had the upper parts much paler ;
over the eye was a dreak of white palling no further,
and unaccompanied by a black one. The hind part
of the neck was dudty black. It had only the rudi¬
ment of a fpur; and the red caruncle on the forehead
Was lefs, and laid back on'the forehead. From thefe
differences this learned ornithologid; conceives it to
have differed either in fex or age from the other.
This fpecies inhabits Btafil, and is faid to be pretty
common about Carthagena and in South America.
The parra chavaria is, as we have already obferved,
about the fize of a dunghill cock, and dands a foot
and a half from the ground. The bill is of a dirty
white colour ; the upper mandible (imilar to that in a
• dunghill cock ; the nodrils are oblong, pervious : on
both Tides, at the bafe of the bill, is a red membrane,
which extends to the temples. The irides arc brown.
On the hind head are about 12 blackidi feathers, three
inches in length, forming a creil and hanging down¬
wards. The red of the neck is covered with a thick
black down. The body is brown, and the wings
and tail inclined to black. On the bend of the wing
are two or three fpurs half an inch long. The belly is a
light black. The thighs are half bare of feathers. The
legs are very long, and of a yellow red colour. The
toes are fo long as to entangle one another in walking.
iMlam'i li fpcc^es inhabits the lakes, &c. near the river
£yno/>J'tt. Cinu, about 30 leagues from Carthagena, in South
America, and is faid to feed on vegetables. Its gait
is folemn and (low ; but it dies eadly and fwiftly.
It cannot run, unlefs afiided by the v/ings at the fame
time. When any part of the (kin is touched by the
hand, a crackling is felt, though it is very downy be¬
neath the leathers ; and indeed this down adheres fo
clofely as to enable the bird at times to fvvim. The
voice is char and loud, but far from agreeable. The
natives, who keep poultry in great numbers, have one
of thefe tame, which gees along with the dock about
the neighbourhood to feed during the day, when this
faithful (hepherd defends them againft birds of prey t Parrel*
being able, by means of the fpurs on the wings, to parr^.df1U3
drive off birds as big as the carrion vulture, and even ^
that bird itfelf. It is fo far of the greatell ufe, as it
never deferts the charge committed to its care, bring¬
ing them all home fafe at night. It is fo tame as to
fulfer itfelf to be handled by a grown perfon ; but will
not permit children to attempt the fame.—For the
above account we are indebted to Linnaeus, who feema
to be the only one who has given any account of this
wonderful bird/’ See Latham's Synopjts.
PARRELS, in a .hip, are frames made of trucks,
ribs, and ropes, which having both their ends faftened
to the yards, are fo contrived as to go round about
the mails, that the yards by their means may go up
and down upon the maft. Thefe alio, with the bread-
ropes, fallen the yards to the mads.
PARRET or Pedred river, has its rife in the
fouthern part of Sommerfetfhirc in England. Near
Langport it is joined by the Ordred, augmented by
the Ivel; and, about four miles from this jundticn, it
is joined by the Tone or Thone, a pretty large river,
rihng among the hills in the wtftern parts of this
county. About two miles below the junction of the
Tone, the Parret receives another conii ierable dream;
and, thus augmented, it paffes by the town of Bridge-
water, and fails into the Bridol channel in Bridgewater-
bay.
PARRHASIUS, a famous ancient painter of
Ephefus, or, as fome fay, of Athens : he flourilhed
about the time of Socrates, according to Xenophon,
who hath introduced him into a dialogue drfcourfing
with that philofopher. He was one of the bell
painters in his time. Pliny fays, that it was he who
firfl gave fymmetry and juft proportions in that art;
that he hkewife was the tirft who knew how to exprefs
the truth and life of charafters, and the different aits
of the face ; that he difeovered a beautiful difpofition
of the hair, and heightened the grace of the vifage.
It was allowed even by the mailers in the art, that h«
far outlhone them in the glory of fucceeding tn the
outlines, in which confiils the gran 1 fecret ofpainting.
But it is alfo remarked by Pliny, that Parrhafrus became
infupportable with pride ; and was fo very vain as to
give himfelt the moil flattering epithets ; fuch as, the
tendered, the fofteft, the grandelt, the molt delicate,
and the perfedler of his art. He boatled that he was
fprung (rom Apollo, and that he was born to paint the
gods ; that he had a (dually drawn Hercules touch by
touch: that heroes having often appeared to him
in dreams, when the plurality of voices was againil
him at Samos in favour of Timanthes, in the opinion
of a pidlure of Ajax provoked againft the Greeks, for
adjudging to Ulyffes the arms of Achilles, he anfwer-
ed a perfon who condoled him on this check, “ For
my part, I don’t trouble myfelf at the fentence ; but
I am forry that the fon of Telamon hath received a
greater outrage than that which was formerly put up¬
on him fo unjuftly. ’ iEHan relates this (lory, and
tells us that Parrhalius affedled to wear a crown of
gold upon his head, and to carry in his hand a batoon,
ftudded with nails of the fame metal. He worked at
his art with pleafantry, often indeed (inging. He was
very licentious and loofe in his pi&ures ; and he is
Lid, by way of amufement, to have reprefented the
5 E 4 molt
PAR [ 772 ] . PAR
JParrhafius. moft infamous objects. His Atslantis, with her fpoufe
 Meleager, was of this kind. This piece, was after¬
wards devifed as a legacy to the Emperor ii.jeuus,
jipon condition that, if he was dilpleafed with the fub-
jeit, he fhould receive a million fefterces inftead of it.
The emperor, covetous as he was, not only preierred
the pidlure to that fum, but even placed it in his molt
favourite apartment. It is alio faid, that, though
Parrhafins was excelled by limanthes, yet he excelled
Zeuxis. Among his pidlures is a celebrated one of
Thefeus; and another reprefenting Meleairer, Hercules,
and Perfeus in a group together; as alfo./Eneas, with
Caftor and Pollux, in a third.
Parrhasius (Janus), a famous grammarian in
Italy, who was born at Cofenza in the kingdom of
Naples, 1470. Pie was intended for the law, the
profeffion of his anceftors ; but he refufed it, and cul¬
tivated claffical learning. His real name was Johannes
Paulus Parifms ; but according to the humour of the
grammarians of the age, he took inftead of it Parrha-
fr’*. He taught at Milan with much reputation, be¬
ing admired for a graceful delivery, in which he chief¬
ly excelled other profeffors. —It was this charm in his
voice, which brought a vail concourfe of people to his
lectures ; and among others he had the pleafure to fee
General Trimoles, who was then threefcore years old.
Pie went to Rome when Alexander VI. was pope ;
and was like to be involved in the misfortunes ot
Bernardini Caietan and Silius Savello, with whom he
had lome correfpondence ; but he efcaped the danger,
by the information of Thomas Phoedrus, profelfor of
rhetoric, and canon of St John Lateran, whofe ad¬
vice he followed in retiring from Rome. Soon after,
he was appointed public profeffor of rhetoric at Milan;
but the liberty he took to cenfurc the teachers there
as arrast blockheads, provoked them in return to af-
perfe kis morals. They faid he had a criminal con-
verfe with his fcholars: which being a crime extreme¬
ly abhorred by the Milanefe, our profeffor was o-
bliged to leave Milan. He went to Vicenza, where he
obtained a larger faiary ; and he held this profeflbr-
fliip till the ftates of the Venetians were laid waflc by
the troops of the League : upon which he went to
his native country, having made his efcape through
the army of the enemies. He was at Cofenza, when
his old friend Phcedrua perfuaded Julius to fend for
him to Rome ; and, though that ddign proved abor¬
tive by the death of the pope, yet, by the recommen¬
dation of John Lafearis, he was called thither under
the fuccelfor Leo X. Leo was before favourably
inclined to him ; and on his arrival at Rome, appoint¬
ed him profellor of polite literature. Pie had been
now fome time married to a daughter of Demetrius
Chalcondylas; and he took with him to Rome Balil
Chalcondylas, his wife’s brother, and brother of De¬
metrius Chalcondylas, profeflbr of the Greek tongue
at Milan/ Pie did not long enjoy this employ con¬
ferred upon him by the pope : for, worn o«t by his
itudies and labours, he became fo afOided with the
gout, that for fome years he had no part of his body
tree, except his tongue ; having almolt loll the ufc of
both bis legs and both his arms. Pie laboured belides
under fo great a degree of poverty, as put him out of
ail hopes of being ever in a better fituation ; fo that
he left Rome, and returned into Calabria, his native
country, where he was tormented a long while with a Parrhefia
fever, and at laft died in the greateft miiery. He left I'
his library to his friend SeripanJus, brother to Cardi- J r'"’' ;
nal Jerome Senpandus, who built him a tomb in the
convent of the Auilin friars at Maples. There are fe-
veral bot afcribed to him ; and in cue dedication of
one of them, his character is drawn to great advantage
by Henry Stephens.
PARRHES1A. See Oratory, n° 88.
PARRICIDE, the murder of one’s parents or
children. By the Roman law, it was punifhed in a
much feverer manner than any other kind of homicide.
After being fcourged, the delinquents were fewed up
in a leathern fack, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and
an ape, and fo call into the fea. Solon, it is true,
in his laws, made none againft parricide ; apprehend¬
ing it impoffible that one fhould be guilty of fo unna¬
tural a barbarity. And the Perfians, according to He¬
rodotus, entertained the fame notion, when they ad¬
judged all perfons who killed their reputed parents to
be baftards. And upon fome fuch reafon as this mutt
we account for the omiffion of an exemplary pnnilh-
ment for this crime in our Englifh laws ; which treat
it no otherwife than as limple murder, unlefs the child
was alfo the fervant of the parent.
For though the breach of natural relation is unob-
ferved, yet the breach t>f civil or ecclefiaitic connec¬
tions, when coupled with murder, denominates it a
new offence ; no lefs than a fpecies of treafon, called
pat va proditio, or petit treafon : which, however, is
nothing elfe but an aggravated degree of murder ; al¬
though, on account of the violation of private al¬
legiance, it is ftigmatized as an inferior fpecies of trea¬
fon. And thus, in the ancient Gothic conftitution,
we find the breach both of natural and civil relations
ranked in the fame clafs with crimes againft the ftate
and fovereign.
PARROT, in ornithology. See Psittacus.
PARSHORE, a town of England in Worcefter-
fhire, feven miles from Worcefter, and icz from Lon¬
don, is a neat old town on the north fide of the Avon,
near its junction with the river Bow, being a confi-
derable thoroughfare in the lower road from Wor¬
cefter to London. A religious houi’e was founded
here in 604, a fmall part of which now remains, and
is uled as the parilh church of Holy Crofs, the whole
of which contained above i@ acres. The abbey church
was 250 feet long, and 120 broad. The pari!h of
Parfhore is of great extent, and hath within its limits
many manors and chaptlries. At prefent it has two
parilhes, Holy Grafs and St Andrew. In Holy Crofs
church are feveral very antique monuments. Its chief
manufacture is ftockings. It contains about 300-
houfe^, and has markets on Tuefday and Saturday ;
fairs Eafter-Tuefday, June 26th, and Tuefday before
November ill.
PARSLEY, in botany. SccApium.
PARSNEP, in botany. See Fastinaca.
PARSON and Vicar. A parfon, perfona eccle-
feC) is one that hath full pofleffion of all the rights of
a parochial church. He is called parfon, perfona, be-
caufe by his perfon the church, which is an invtfible
body, is reprefented ; and he is in himfelf a body cor- faci:!'
porate, in order to protect and defend the rights of
the church (which he perfonates) by a perpetual fuc-
ceffion.
PA.R. [ 773 ] P A R
He fometiraes called the ^ right to all the ecckf.aftical duesjo his parid, ^kotj
vicar has generally an appropriator over him, intitled
to the belt part of the profits, to whom he is in effect
perpetual curate, with a Handing falary. Though in
iome places the vicarage has been confiderably aug¬
mented by a large (hare of the great tithes; which aug-
Farfon. ceffion. -   . - ,
   ' of the church : but the appellation of par/on (how¬
ever it may be depreciated by tamiliar, clownifh,^ and
indifcriminate ufe) is the molt legal, molt beneficial,
and mod honourable title that a parifh-prieft can en-
iov ; becaule inch a one (Sir Edward Coke obieivcj), -j t» fi.7,,<r1a(3nthvthp HamreznCar IT
and he only is laid vlcem feu terfonam eccltfit genre, mentations were greatly affiaed by the dalute zyCar.l .
Auarfon hi during his life, the freehold' in himfelf c. «. enaded m favour of poor vicars and curates, which
5 the parfonage-houfe, the glebe, the tithes, and other rendered iuch temporary augmentations (when made
“ ^, m,k
h^le of providing for tlie fervicc of .he chord. „
or religioushoufes, isforeign Jth. prefen. pofpofe . any farrher than as
were woS to depute one of their own body to per- they are neceffary requ,files to make a .omplete par-
n i* • r  1 in
See Ap-
proprialion
form divine fervice, and adminifter the facraments, in
thofe parifhes of which the fociety was thus the par-
fon. This officiating minifter was in teality no more
than a Curate, deputy, or vicegerent of the appropri-
ator, and therefore called vicarius, or “ vicar.” His
flipend was at the diferetion of the appropriator, who
was, however, bound of common right to find iome*
body, qui Mi cle temporalibus, epifeopo^ tie fpirituahbus,
debeat refpondere. But this was done in fo Eanualous
a manner, and the parifhes fuffered fo much by ti.e
negledf of the appropriators, that the legiflature was
forced to interpofe : and accordingly it is enaded, by
ftatute 15 Ric. II. c. 6. that in all appropriations m
churches the ^diocefan bifliop fhall ordain fin propor¬
tion to the value of the church) a competent fum to
be diffributed among the poor pariihioners annually ;
and that the vicarage {hall be fufficiently endowed. It
feems the parifh were frequently fufferers, not only by
the want of divine fervice, but alfo by with-h«Eing
thofe alms for which, among other purpofes, toe pay¬
ment of tithes was originally impofed : and therefore
in this ad a penfion is directed to bediflributed among
the poor parochians, as well as a fufficient itipend to
the vicar. But he, being liable to be removed at the
pleafure of the appropriator, was not likely to infill
too rigidly on the legal fufficiency of theftipend; and
therefore, by ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it is ordain.
fon or vicar. By common law, a deacon,, of any age,
might be inftituted and induded to a parfonage or vi¬
carage 1 but it was ordained, by ftatute 1^ E11 /. c. 12.
that no perfon under twenty three years of age, and
in deacon’s orders, ffiould be prefeftted to any benefice
with cure ; and if he were not ordained prieft within
one year after his indudion, he fhould be ip/o facto
deprived : and now, by ftatute 1 3 and 14 Car. II. c. 4.
no perfon is capable to be admitted to any benefice,
unlefs he hath been firft ordained a prieft ; and then
he is, in the language of the law, a clerk in orders.
But if he obtains orders, or a licence to preach, by
money or corrupt pradices, (which feems to be the
true, though not the common, notion of iimony), the
perfon giving fuch orders forfeits 40I. and the perfon
receiving, 10hand is incapable of any ecclefiafticr.l
preferment tor feven years arter.
Any clerk may be prefented to a parfonage or vi¬
carage*; that is, the patron, to whom the advowfon ^
of the church belongs, may offer his clerk to the bi-
fliop of the diocefe to be inftituted. But when he is
prefented, the bifhop may refufe him upon many ac¬
counts. As, 1. If the patron is excommunicated,
and remains in contempt 40 day8» or> 2- H the clerk
be unfit: which unfitnefs is of feveral kinds. Firft,
with regard to his perfon ; as if h . be a baftard, an
outlaw, an excommunicate, an alien, under age, or
vFthafthe vicarfiialfbt^a'fecii'lar'perfon, not a mem-' the like. Next, with regard to hia faith or morals;
V r of anv reli rious houfc ; that he lhall be vicar per. as for any particular herefy, or v.ce that is malum m
p^ri^rTable at’the cap,ice of the mL; ylhut if the hilhop aU^sonly g^etah, as that
ftery ; and that he fhould be canonically inftituted and
inducted, and be fufficienily endowed, at the diicre-
tion of the ordinary ; for thefe three expreE purpofes,
to do divine fervice, to inform the people,.and to keep
he fpitality. The endowments, in confequence of thefe
flatutes, have ufually been by a portion of the glebe
or land belonging to the parfonage, and a particular
fhare of the tithes, which the appropviators found it
*toft troublefonie to colleft, and which are therefore
generally called petty or /mail tithes; the greater, or
perdial tithes, being Hill referved to their own ufe.
But one and the fame rule was not obferved in the en¬
dowment of all vicarages. Hence fome are more li¬
berally, ai d fome more fcantily, endowed : and hence
the tithes of many things, as wood in particular, are in
fome parifhes regional, and in fome vicarial tithes.
The diftin&ion therefore of a pailon and vicar is
he is fchifmaticus inveteralus, or objects a fault that is
malum prohibitum merely, as haunting taverns, playing
at unlawful games, or the like, it is not good caufe
of refufal. Or, laftly, the clerk may be unfit to dif-
charge the paftoral-office for want of learning. In
any of which cafes, the bifhop may refufe the clerk.
In cafe the refufal is for hetefy, fchifm, inability of
learnino-, or other matter of ecclefiaftical cognizance,,
there the bifnop muft give notice to the patron of fuch
his caufe of refutal, who being ufually a lay man, is
not fupoofed to have knowledge of it; elfe be cannot
prefciit by lapfe; but if the caufe be temporal, there
he is not bound to give notice.
If an atftion at law be brought by the patron again ft
the bifhop for refuting his clerk, the bifhop muft aflign
the caufe. If the caufe be of a temporal nature, and
the fact admitted, (as, for inftance, outlawry), the
The diftmction therefore 01 a puiiuu aau. yu..h 10 y***- •**—    ? v - • . -
this:. The parfon has for the moft part the whole judges of the king’s courts muft determine its validity.
PAR [774] PAR
yarft>n» or whether it be fuflicient caufe of refufal: but if the
y——jje den;e(jt it muft be determined by a jury. If
the caufe be of a fpiritual nature, (as herefy, particu¬
larly alleged), the faft, if denied, fhall alfo be deter¬
mined by a jury : and if thefa&be admitted ©r found,
the court, upon confultation and advice of learned di¬
vines, lhall decide its fufficiency. If the caufe be want
of learning, the bifhop need not fpecify in what points
the clerk is deficient, but only allege that he is defi¬
cient; for the llatute 9 Edw. II. ft. 1. c. 13. is ex-
prefs, that the examination of the fitnefs of a perfon
prefented to a benefice belongs to the ecclefiaftical
judge. But becaufe it would be nugatory in this cafe
to demand the reafon of refufal from the ordinary, if
the patron were bound to abide by his determination,
who has already pronounced his clerk unfit; therefore
if the bifhop returns the clerk to be minus fuffuiens in
literatura, the court fiiall write to the metropolitan to
re examine him, and certify his qualifications ; which
certificate of the archbifhop is final.
If the bifhop hath no objc&ions, but almits the pa¬
tron’s prefentation, the clerk fo admitted is next to be
inflituud by him ; which is a kind of inveftiture of the
fpiritual part of the benefice ; for by inftitution, the
care of the fouls of the parifti is committed to the charge
of the clerk. When a vicar is inftituted, he (befides
the ufual forms) takes, if required by the bifhop, an
oath of perpetual refidence ; for the maxim of law is,
that vicarius non habet vivarium : and as the non-refi-
dence of the appropriators was the caufe of the perpe¬
tual eftabli'hment of vicarages, the law judges it very
improper for them to defeat the end of their conftitu-
tion, and by abfence to create the very mifehief which
they were appointed to remedy ; efpecially as, if any
profits are to arife from putting in a curate and living
at a diftance from the parifh, the appropriator, who
is the real parfon, has undsubtedly the elder title to
them. When the ordinary is alfo the patron, and
confers the living, the prefentation and inftitution are
one and the fame aid, and are called a collationito a
benefice. By inftitution or collation the church is
full, fothat there can he no frefh prefentation till ano¬
ther vacancy, at .« aft in the cafe of a common patron ;
htit the church is not full agarnft the king till induc¬
tion : nay, even if a clerk is inftituted upon the king’s
prefentation, the crown may revoke it before induc¬
tion, and prefent another clerk. Upon inftitution
alio the clerk may enter on the parfonage houfe and
glebe, and take the tithes ; but he cannot grantor let
them, or bring an adion for them, tilfmdu&ion.
See Induction.
For the rights of a parfon or vicar, in hiYtithes and
ecclefiaftifcal dues, fee I ithes. As to his duties, they
aie fo numerous, that it is impradicable to recite them
here with any tolerable concifenefs or accuracy; but
the reader who hrs occafion may confuit hi/lop Gib-
fan s CoJex, Johnfion’s Clergyman’s Vade Me cum, and
Burn's Ecclefiuiftical Law. We (hall therefore only
juft mention the article of refidence, upon the fup-
pohtion of which the law doth ftyle every parochial
mmifter an incumbent. By ftatute 21 Henry VIII
c. 13. perfons willingly abfenting themfelves from
their benefices, for one month together, or two months
in the year, incur a penalty of 51. to the kincr,
and 5 1. to any perfon that will fue for the fame ; ex¬
cept chaplains to the king, or others therein mention¬
ed, during their attendance in the houfehold of fuch Parfon
as retain them; and alfo except all heads of houfes, ) !!
magiftrates, and profeflbrs in the univerfities, and all, Farfons
Undents under forty years of age refiding there, bona 'r‘“"
fide, for ftudy.^ Legal refidence is not only in the pa¬
rifh, but alfo in the parfonage houfe; for it hath been
refolved, that the ftatute intended refidence, not only
for ferving the cure and for hofpitality, but alfo for
maintaining the houfe, that the fucceffor alfo may keep
hofpitality there.
We have feen that there is but one way whereby
one may become a parfon or vicar : there are many
ways by which one may ceafe to be fo. 1. By death.
2. By cefiisn, in taking another benefice ; for by fta¬
tute 21 Hen. VIH. c. 13. if any one having a bene¬
fice of 81. per annum, or upwards, in the king’s books,
(according to the prefent valuation), accepts any
other, the firft (hall be adjudged void, unlefs he ob¬
tains a difpenfation ; which no one is intitled to have
but the chaplains of the king and others therein men¬
tioned, the brethren and fons* of lords and knights,
and do&ors and bachelors of divinity and law, admit¬
ted by the univerfities of this realm. And a vacancy
thus made for want of a difpenfation, is called cefion.
3. By confecration ; for, as was mentioned before,
when a clerk is promoted to a bifhopric, all his other
preferments are void the inftant that he is confecrated.
But there is a method, by the favour of the crown, of
holding fuch livings in commendam. Gommenda, or ecm
clefia commendata, is a living commended by the crown
to the care of a clerk, to hold till a proper paftor is
provided for it. This may be temporary for one, two,
or three years, or perpetual, being a kind of difpenfa¬
tion to avoid the vacancy of the living, and is called a
commenda retinere. There is alfo a commenda recipere,
which is to take a benefice de novo in the biftiop’s own
gift, or the gift of fome other patron contenting to
the fame; and this is the fame to him as inftitution
and induction are to another clerk, q. By religna-
tion. But this is of no avail till accepted by the or¬
dinary, into whofe hands the reiignation mud be made.
5. By depiivation, either by canonical cenfures, or in
purfuance of divers penal ftatutes, which declare the
benefice void, for fome nonfeafance or negled, or elfe
fome malefeafance or crime : as for fimony ; for main-
taining any doArine in derogation of the king’s fu-
premacy, or of the thirty-nine articles, or of the book
of common prayer; Hr negleffing after inftitution to
read the liturgy and articles in the church, or make
the declarations againft Popery, or take the abjuration-
o.uh ; for ufing any other form of prayer than the li-
turgy of the church of England; or for abfenting him-
felf 6o days in one year from a benefice belonging to
a Popilh patron, to wiiich the clerk was prefented by
either of the univerfities: in all which, and fimilar cafes,
the benefice is ipfij fiado void, without any formal fen»
tence of deprivation.
PARSONAGE, a re&ory, or parifti-church, en¬
dowed with a glebe, houfe, lands, tithes, &c. for the
maintenance of a minuter, with cure of fouls within
fuch paiifti. See Parkin.
PARSONS, or Persons (Robert), an eminent wri¬
ter of the church of Rome, was born at Nether-
Sto.vey, near Bridgewater, in Sometfetfhire, in 1546,
and educated at Baliol college, Oxford, where he di-
ftinguilhed himlelt as a zealous Proteftant and an acute
dif.
Farfon*,
Part.
PAR
difputant; but being charged by the fociety with in*
[ contincncy and embezzling the college money, he went
to Flanders, and declared himfelt" a Catholic. After
travelling to feveral other places, he effe&ed the eila*
blifhment of the Enghfh feminary r.t Rome, and pro¬
cured father Allen to he chofen redtor of it. He him-
felf was appointed the head ot the mifTion to England,
in order to dethrone Queen Elizabeth, and it pofiible
extirpate the Proteftnnc religion. He accordingly came
over to this kingdom in 1580, and took fome bold
Reps towards accomplilhing his purpofc, in which he
concealed himfeli with great art, travelling about the
country to gentlemens boufes, diEuifed in the habit
fometimes of a foldier, fometimes of a gentleman, and
at other times like a minifter or an apparitor ; but fa¬
ther Campian being feized and committed to prifon,
our author efcaped out of England for fear of the
fame fate, and went to Rome, where he was made
redtor of the Englilh feminary. He had long enter¬
tained the moft fanguine hopes of converting to the
Popifh faith the young king of Scots, which he com
fidered as the beft and molt effedtual means of bringing
over his fubjedts to the fame religious principles ; but
finding it impoffible to fucceed in his defign, he pub-
lifhed in 1594 his celebrated book, under the feigned
name of Doleman, in order to overthrow, as far as lay
in his power, the title of that prince to the crowm of
England. He died at Rome in 1610, and was buried
in the chapel of the Englifh college. Befides the
book already mentioned, he wrote, 1. A Defence of
the Catholic Hierarchy. 2. The Liturgy of the Sa¬
crament of the Mafs. 3. A Memorial for the Refor¬
mation ; and feveral other tradls.
PART, a portion of fome whole, confidered as di¬
vided or divifible.
Logical Pakt, is adivifion for which we are indebt¬
ed to the fchoolmen. It refers to fome univerfal as its
whole ; in which fenfe the fpecies are parts of a ge¬
nus, and individuals or fingulars are parts of the fpe-
cies.
Phy/ical Part, is that which, though it enter the
compofition of a whole, may yet be confidered apart,
and under its own didindf idea; in which fenfe, a con¬
tinuum is faid to confift of parts. Phyfical parts, again,
are of two kinds, homogeneous and heterogeneous ;
the firft are thofe of the fame denomination with fome
other ; the fecond of a different one: (See Homoge¬
neous, &c.) Parts, again, are diftinguifhed into fub-
jeftive, effential, and integrant. The fchoolmen were
alfo the authors of this divifion.
Aliquot Part, is a quantity which, being repeated
any number of times, becomes equal to an integer.
Thus .6 is an aliquot part of'24, and 5 an aliquot part
of 30, &c.
Aliquant Part, is a quantity which, being repeated
any number of times, becomes always either greater or
lefs than the whole. Thus 5 is an aliquant part of 17,
and 9 an aliquant part of 10, &c.
The aliquant part is refolvable into aliquot parts.
Thus 15, an aliquant part of 20, is refolvable into lOj,
and 5 a fourth part of the fame.
Parts of Speech, in grammar, are all the forts of
words which can enter the compofition of a difeourfe.
See Grammar.
r 775 ] par
PARTERRE, in gardening, a level divifion of Parterre
ground, which for the moil part faces the fouth, or
hell front of a houfe, and is generally furnifhed with
evergreens, flowers, &c. There are two kinds of thefe,
the plain ones and the parterres of embroidery.
Plain parterres are moft valuable in England, be-
caufe of the firmnefs of the English grafs turf, which
is fuperior to that of any other part of the world ;
and the parterres of embroidery are cut into fhell and
fcroll work, with alleys between them. An oblong,
or long fquare is accounted the moft proper figure for
a parterre ; and a parterre Ihould indeed be always
twice as long as it is broad, becaufe, according to the
known laws of perfpe&ive, a long fquare always finks
to a fquare ; and an exadt fquare always appears lefs
than it really is. As to the breadth of a parterre, it
is to be proportionable to the front of the houfe; but
lefs than too feet in breadth is too little.
There fhould be on each fide the p rterre a terras-
walk raifed for a view, snd the flat of the parterre be¬
tween the terrafes fhould never be more than 300 feet,
at the utmoft, in breadth, and about 140 feet in width,
with twice and a half tb it in length, is efteemed a very
good fize and proportion.
PARTHENIUM, in botany: A genus of thepen-
tandria order, belonging to the monoscia clafs of plants;
and in ^he natural method ranking under the 49th or¬
der, Compo/itce. ’I lie male calyx is common and penta-
phyllous ; the florets of the dilk monopetalous : the
female has five florets of the radius, each with two
male florets behind it ; the intermediate female fupe¬
rior ; the feed is naked.
It has been much negle&ed in Europe, having on Oroferi
account of its fmell been banifhed from our parterres f'7e',iral
It is therefore indebted for its. culture to the d
ftinguiflied rank it holds among the Chinefe flowers.
The {kill of the florifts, and their continual care, have
brought this plant to fo great perfection, that Euro¬
peans fcarcely know it. The elegance and lightnefa
of its branches, the beautiful indentation of its leaves,
the fplendour and duration of its flowers, feem indeed
to juftify the Jlormama of the Ch’nefe for this plant.
They have, by their attention to its cultuie, procured
more than 300 fpecies of it : every year produces a new
one. A liil of the names of all theft kinds would be
equally tedious and difgufting ; we (hall only fay in
general, that in its flowers are united all the pofiible
combinations of fhapes and colours. Its leaves arecno
lefs various : fome of them are thin, others thick ;
fome are very fmall, and fome large and broad ; fome
are indented like thofe of the onk, while others re-
femble thofe of the cherry tree ; fome may be feen cut
in the form of fins, and others are found ferrated ou
the margin, and tapering towards the points.
Parthenium is propagated in China by feed, and by
fuckers, grafts, and flips. When the florifts have a
fine plant, they fuflfer the feeds to ripen, and about the
end of autumn fow them in well-prepared earth. Some
keep them in this manner during winter, others fow
them in fpring. Provided they are watered after the
winter, they fhoot forth, and grow rapidly. After the
parthenium has flowered, all its branches are cut three
inches from the root, the earth is hoed around, and a
little dung is mixed with it; and when the cold be-
1 eomfe«
feription of
China.
par , It
Parthe- comes fevere, tlie plant is covered with draw, or an in-
nium, verteci p0t. Thofe that are in vafes are tranfported to
, pmhia- t^g grccn-houfe, where they are not watered. In
fpring they are uncovered and watered, and they ihoot
forth a number of (terns: of thefe feme florilts leave
only two or three, others pull up the (talk, together
with the whole root, and divide it into feveral portions,
which they tranfplant elfewhere. There are fome who
join two (lips of different colours, in each of which,
towards the bottom, they make a long notch, almoft
to the pith, and afterwards tie them together with
packthread, that they may remain clofely united : by
thefe means they obtain beautiful flowers, variegated
with whatever colours they choofe.
Parthenium requires a good expofure, and freflr
moift air that circulates freely : when (hut up clofely
by four walls, it focn languifhes. The earth fn which
it is planted ought to be rich, moift, and loamy, and
prepared with great care. For refrefhing it, the Chi-
nefe ufe only rain or river-water ; and in fpring-time,
they mix with this water the excrements of filk-worms
or the dung of their poultry ; in fummer, they leave
the feathers of ducks or fowls to infufe in it for feve¬
ral days, after having thrown into it a little faltpetie ;
but in autumn they mix with the water a greater or
fmaller quantity of dried excrement reduced to pow¬
der, according as the plant appears more or lefs vigo¬
rous. During the great heats of fummer, they water
it morning and evening ; but they moiften the leaves
only in the morning : they alfo place fmall fragments
•f brick round its root, to prevent the water from
preffing down the earth too much. All this atten¬
tion may appear trifling ; but it is certain that it is
founded upon experience and obfervation, and it is
only by the afliftance of fuch minute care, that the pa¬
tient and provident Chinefe has been able to procure,
from a wild and almoft (linking plant, fo beautiful and
odoriferous flowers. The more common fpecies are,
i. Hyfterophorus. 2. Integrifolium.
PARTHIA, a celebrated empire of antiquity,
bounded on the weft by Media, on the north by Hyr-
cania, on the eaft by Aria, on the fouth by Carmania
the defert ; furrounded on every fide by mountains,
which (lill ferve as a boundary, though its name is
now changed, having obtained that ©f Eyrac or rfrac;
,, and to diftintjuifti it from Chaldaea, that of Eyrac
Ancient slgami. By Ptolemy it is divided into five diftridls,
Atvifions. v/'z. 0aminfine, or Gamifene, Parthyene, Choroane,
Attieene, and Tabiene. 't he ancient geographers
enumerate a great many cities in this country. Ptole¬
my in particular reckons 25 large cities ; and it cer¬
tainly muft have been very populous, fince we have ac¬
counts of 2000 villages, befides a number of cities, in
this diftricl being dtftroyed by earthquakes. Its ca¬
pital was named Ht-catompohs, from the circumftance of
its having 100 gates. It was a noble and magnificent
place ; and, according to fome, it ftill remains under
the name of Ifpahan^ the capital of the prefent Perfian
4 empire.
Whence Parthia is by fome fuppofed to have been firft peo-
psopled. p]e(j by tjie Phetri or Pathri, often mentioned in ferip-
ture, and will have the Parthians to be defeended from
Pathruiim the ("on of Mifraim. But however true this
may be with regard to the ancient inhabitants, yet it
in certain, that thofe Parthians who were fo famous in
N° 260.
6 ] PAR
hiftoty, defeended from the Scythians, though from Parthia,
what tribe we are not certainly informed. ' ■' * “' ‘
The hiftmy of the ancient Parthians is totally loft.
All that we know about them is, that they were firft
fubjedl to the Medes, afterwards to the Perfians, and
laftly to Alexander the Great. After his death the
province fell to Seleucua Nicator, and was held by him
and his fucceffors till the reign of Antiochus Theus,
about the year 250 before Chrift. At this time the
Parthians revolted, and chofe one Arfaces for their ^
king. The immediate caufe of this revolt was the Caufe of
lewdnefs of Agathocles, to whom Antioehus had com the Par-
mitted the care of all the provinces beyond the
phrates. This man made an infamous attempt on Te- Antiochus
ridates, a youth of great beauty; which fo enraged Theus.
his brother Arfaces, that he excited his countrymen to
revolt ; and before Antiochus had letfure to attend to
the rebellion, it became too powerful to be cruftied.
Seleucus Callinicus, the fuccqffor of Antiochus Theus,
attempted to reduce Arfaces ; but the latter having
had fo much time to ftrengthen himfelf, defeated and
drove his antagonift out of the country. Seleucus,
however, in a (hort time, undertook another expedi¬
tion againft Arfaces ; but was ftill more unfortunate
than he had been in the former, being not only de¬
feated in a great battle, but taken prifoner, and died
in captivity. The day on which Arfaces gained this
viftory was ever after obferved among the Parthians as
an extraordinary feftival. Arfaces being thus fully
eftablifhed in his new kingdom, reduced Hyrcania
and fome other provinces under his power; and was at
laid killed in a battle againft Arearathes IV. king of
Cappadocia. From this prince all the other kings of
Parthia took the furname of Jlrfaces, as thofe of E-
gypt did that of Ptolemy from Ptolemy Soter.
Arfaces I. was fucceeded by his fon Arfaces II.
who, entering Media, made himfelf mafter of that
country, while Antiochus the Great was engaged in
a war with Ptolemy Euergetes king of Egypt. An¬
tiochus, however, was no fooner difengaged from that
war, than he marched with all his forces againft Ar¬
faces, and at firft: drove him quite out of Media. But
he foon returned with an army of too,coo foot and
20,000 horfe, with which he put a flop to the further
progrefs of Antiochus ; and a treaty was foon after
concluded, in which it was agreed, that Arfaces (hould
remain mafter of Parthia and Hyrcania, upon condi¬
tion of his afiifting him in his wars with other nations.
Arfaces II. was fucceeded by his fon Priapatius, 0onf^e{ja
who reigned 15 years, and left three fons, Phrahates, of the Par-
Mithridates, and Artabanus. Phrahates, the ddeft, t^‘ai1 m<,■
fucceeded to the throne, and reduced under his fub-narc^’
je<Stion the Mardi, who had never been conquered by
any but Alexander the Great. After him, his brother
Mithridates was inveftc-d with the regal dignity. He
reduced the Ba£lrians, Medes, Perfians, Elymeans, and
over-ran in a manner all the eaft, penetrating beyond
the boundaries of Alexander’s conquefts. Demetrius
Nicator, who then reigned in Syria, endeavoured to
recover thofe provinces ; but his army was entirely
deftroyed, and himfelf taken prifoner, in which (late
he remained till his death ; after which viftory Mith¬
ridates made himfelf mafter of Babylonia and Mefopo-
tamia, fo that he now commanded all the provinces
from between the Euphrates and the Ganges.
Mi dm-
ftroyed
with hi*
whole ar-
tny.
in
PAH I
Mklm<3ates died in the 37tli year of 1m reignf and
>/ left tlie throne to his fon Phrahates II. who was fcarce
Antiochus in his kingdom when Antiochus Sidetes march-
Sidetes de- ■cd againit him at the head of a numerous army, under
pretence of delivering his brother Demetrius, who was
Hill in captivity. Phrahates was defeated in three
pitched battles; in confequence of which he loft all the
countries conquered by his father, atid was reduced
within the limits of the ancient Parthian kingdom.
Antiochus did not, howevct, long enjoy his good for¬
tune ; for his army, on account of their number, a-
mounting to no fewer than ^00,000, being obliged to
feparate to fuch difiances as prevented them, in cafe of
any fudden attack, from joining together, the inhabi¬
tants, whom they had moft cruelly oppreffed, taking
advantage of this reparation, confpired with the Par-
thians to deftroy them-. This was accordingly exe¬
cuted ; and the vnft army of Antiochus, with the mo¬
narch himfelf, were flaughtered in one day, fcarce a
fingle perfon efcaping to carry the news to Syria.
Phrahates, elated with this fuecefs, propofed to invade
Syria ; but in the mean time, happening to quarrel
with the Scythians, he was by them cut off with his
whole army, and was fucceeded by his uncle Arta-
banus.
'1 he new king enjoyed his dignity but a very ftiort
time, being, a few days after his aeceffion, kills 1 in
another battle with the Scythians. He was fncceeded
by Pacorus I. who entered into an alliance with the
Romans ; and he by Phrahates III. This monarch
took under his protection Tigranes the fon of Ti-
granes the Great, king of Armenia, gave him his
daughter in marriage, and invaded the kingdom with
a dellgn to place the fon on the throne of Armenia ;
but on the approach of Pompey he thought proper to
retiie, and foon after folemnly renewed the treaty with
the Romans.
Phrahates was murdered by his children Mithrida*
tes and Orodes ; and foon after the former was put to
death by his brother, who thus became foie mailer of
the Parthian empire. In his reign happened the me¬
morable war with the Romans under Craffus. This
Traffus re- wag occafioned not by any breach of treaty on the fide
of the Parthians, but through the ftiameful avarice of
Craffus. The whole Roman empire at that time had
been divided between Csefar, Pompey', and Craffus ;
and by virtue of tbit partition, the eaftern provinces
had fallen to the lot of Craffus. No fooner was he in-
veiled with this dignity, than he refolved to carry the
war into Parthia, in order to enrich himfelf with the
fpoils of that people, who were then looked upon to
be very wealthy. Some of the tribunes oppoffd him,
as the Parthians had religioufly obferved the treaty ;
but Craffus having, by the afliftance of Pompey, car¬
ried every thing before him, left Rome in the year 55
33. C. and purfued his march to Brundufiurn, where he
immediately embarked his troops, though the wind
blew very' high ; and after a difficult paffage, where
he loft many of his ffiips, he reached the ports of Ga¬
latia.
From Galatia Craffus haftened to Syria, and pafs-
the temple jng through Judea, plundered the temple at Jerufalem
at Jerufa- in his way. He then marched with as great expedi¬
tion as he could to the river Euphrates, which he
croffed on a bridge of boats: and, entering the Par-
Vol XIII. Parc II.
P,,rthla,
<>
Alliance
'Concludsd
with the
Romans.
folves on
War with
the Par-
dhiuns.
%
Plunders
lem.
] PAR
thian dominions, began hoftilitles. As the enemy had
not expected an invafton, they wereejuit ' unprepared' <?"*”**
for rcfiftance ; and therefore Craffus over-ran all Me-
fopotamia ; and if he had taken advantage of the con-
fternation which the Parthians were in, might have
alfo reduced Babylonia. But inftead of this, early in
tiie autumn, he repaffed the Euphrates, leaving only
7000 foot and 1000 horfe to garrifon the places he
had reduced ; and putting his army into winter quar¬
ters in Syria, gave himfelf totally up to his favourite
puffion of.Cmaffing money.
Early in the fpring, the Roman general drew his
forces out of their winter quarters, in order to purfue
the war with vigour; but, during the winter, Orodeg
had colledled a very numerous army, and was well
prepared to oppofe him: Before he entered upon ac¬
tion, however, the Parthian monarch lent ambaffadors
to Craffus, in order to expoftulate with him on his in-
juftice in attacking an ally of the Roman empire; but
Craffus, without attending to what they faid, only re¬
turned foranfwer, that “ they fhould have his anfwer
at Se!eucia.’,
Orodes, finding that a war was not to be avoided,
divided his army into two bodies. One he command¬
ed in pevfon, and marched towards Armenia, in order
to oppofe the king of that country, who had raifed a
confiderable army to aflift the Romans. The other he
fent into Mefopotamia, under the command of Sure- 9
na or Surenas, a moil experienced general, by whofe His foWicfs
conduct all the cities which Craffus had reduced were
quickly retaken. On this fome Roman foldiers whoe “
made their efcape, and fled to the camp of Craffus,
filled the minds of his army' with terror at the accounts
of the number, power, and ftrength, of the enemy.
They told their fellow-foldiers, that the Parthians
were very numerous, brave, and well-difciplined ; that
it was impoffible to overtake them when they fled, or
efcape them when they purfued ; that their defenfive
weapons were proof again ft the Roman darts, and
their offenfive weapons fo ffiarp, that no buckler was
proof againft them, &c. Craffus looked upon all this
only as the effedls of cowardice : but the common fol¬
diers, and even many of the chief officers, were fo dif-
heartened, that Caffius, the fame who afterwards con¬
fpired againll Casfar, and moft of the legionary tri¬
bunes, advifed Craffus to fufpend his march, and con-
fider better of the enterprife before he proceeded fir*
ther in it. But Craffus obftinately perfilted in his for¬
mer refolution, being encouraged by the arrival of Ar-
tabafcus king of Armenia, who brought with him Cooo
horfe, and promlfed to fend 10,020 cuirafliers and
30,000 foot, whenever he ffiqjuld fland in need of
them. At the fame time, he adrifed him by no
means to march his army through the plains of Mefo-
potamia, but to take his route over the mountains of
Armenia. He told him, that as Armenia was a
mountainous country, the enemy’s cavalry, in which
their main llrength confifted, would there be entirely
ufelefs ; and befidej, his army weald there be plenti¬
fully fupplied with all manner of neeeffaries : whereas,
if he marched by the way of Mtfopotamia, he would
be perpetually harafftd by the Parthian horfe, and fre¬
quently be obliged to lead his army through fandy de-
ferts, where he would be diftreffed for want of water
and all other provifions. This'falutary advice, how-
5 F
PAR [77
Paithla. ever, was rejeded, and CrafTus entered Mefopotamia
with an army of about 40,000 men.
The Romans had no fooner eroded the Euphrates,
than Cuffing advifed his general to advance to fome of
thofe towns in which the garrifons yet remained, in
order to halt and refreffi his troops: or if he did not
choofe to follow this advice, he faid that his belt way
would be to march along the banks of the Euphrates
to Seleucia ; as by this method he would prevent the
Paithians from furrounding him, at the fame time that
10 he would be plentifully fupplied with provilions from
Betrayed his {hips. Of this advice Craffus feemed to approve ;
by Abga- but was diffiuaded by Abgarus king of Edeffa, whom
mans took for an ally, but who was in reality a
a* traitor fent by Surenas to bring about the deftru&ion
of the Roman army.
Under the conduft of this faithlefs guide, the Ro¬
mans entered a vail green plain divided by many rivu¬
lets. Their march proved very eafy through this fine
country; but the farther they advanced, the worfe the
roads became, infomuch that they were at laft obliged
to climb up rocky mountains, which brought them
to a dry and fandy plain, where they could neither
find food to fatisfy their hunger, nor water to quench
their third. Abgarus then began to be fufpeided by
the tribunes and other officers, who earnefily intreated
Craffus not to follow him any longer, but to retreat to
the mountains; at the fame time an exprefs arrived
from Artabazus, acquainting the Roman general that
Orodes had invaded his dominions with a great army,
and that he was obliged to keep his troops at home,
in order to defend his own dominions. The fame
mefienger advifed Craffus in his mailer’s name to avoid
by all means the barren plains, where his army would
certainly periffi with hunger and fatigue, and by all
means to approach Armenia, that they might join
their forces againd the common enemy. But all was
to no purpofe ; Craffus, indead of hearkening either
to the advice of the king or his own officers, fird
flew into a violent paffion with the meffengers of Ar¬
tabazus, and then told his troops, that they were not
to expedl the delights of Campania in the mod remote
parts of the world.
Thus they continued their march for fame days
crofs a defert, the very fight of which was fufficient
to throw them into the utmod defpair; for they could
not perceive, either near them or at a didance, the
lead tree, plant, or brook, not fo much as an hill, or
a fingle blade of grsfs; nothing was to be feen all
around them but huge heaps of burning fand. The
Romans had fcarcely got through this defert, when
word was brought them by-their fconts, that a nume¬
rous army of Parthians was advancing full march to at¬
tack them ; for Abgarus, under pretence of going out
on parties, had often conferred with Surenas, and con¬
certed mcafures with him for dedroying the Roman
army. Upon this advice, which occafioned great con-
fufion in the camp, the Romans being quite exhauded
and tired out with their long and troublefome march,
Cralfus drew up his men in battalia, following at fird
the advice of Caffius, who was for extending the in¬
fantry as wide as poffible, that they might take up
the more ground, and by that means prevent the ene¬
my from furrounding them; but Abgarus affuring the
proconful that the Parthian forces were not fo nu*
8 1 PAR
merous as was reprefented, he changed this difpofition, Parthia.
and believing only the man who betrayed him, drew ' v ■*
up his troops in a fquare, which faced every way, and
had on each fide 1 2 cohorts in iront. Near each co¬
hort he placed a troop of horfe to fupport thjmi, that
they might charge with the greater fccurity and bold-
nefs. Thus the whole army looked more like one
phalanx than troops drawn up in manipuli, with {pa¬
ces between them, after the Roman manner. The ge¬
neral hirnfeif commanded in the centre, his fon in the
left wing, and Caffius in the right.
In this order they advanced to the banks of a fmail
river called the Baliffus, the fight of winch was very
plcafing to the foldiers, who were much haraifed with,
drought and exceffive heat. Mod of the officers
were for encamping on the banks of this river, or ra¬
ther rivulet, to give the troops time to refreffi them-
fclves after the fatigues of fo» long and painful 3
march ; and, in the mean time, to procure certain in¬
telligence of the number and difpofition of the Par¬
thian army ; but Craffius, fuffering h'mfi if to be hur¬
ried on by the inconfiderate ardour of his fon, and the
horfe he commanded, only allowed the legions to take %
a meal Handing ; and before this could be done by
all, he ordered them to advance, not fiowly, and halt¬
ing now and then, after the Roman manner, but as
faft as they could move, till they came in fight of the
enemy, who, contrary to their expe&ation, did not
appear either fo numerous or fo. terrible as they had
been reprefented ; but this was a ftraiagem of Surenas,
who had concealed his men in convenient places, or- t
dering them to cover their arms, led their brightnefs The battle
ffiould betray them, and, flarting up at the firft fign d, of Ca^rhat.
to attack the enemy on all fides. The ftratagem had
the defired effetS ; for Surenas no fooner gave the fig-
nal, than the Parthians, rifing as it were out of the
ground, with dreadful cries, and a moll frightful noife^
advanced againd the Romans, who were greatly fur-
prifed and difmayed at that fight ; and much more fo,
when the Parthians, throwing off the covering of their
arms, appeared in ffiining cuiraffes, and helmets of
burniffied deel, finely mounted cn horfes covered all
over with armour of the fame metal. At their head
appeared young Surenas, in a rich drefs, and was the
firit who charged the enemy, endeavouring, with his
pikemen, to break through the fird ranks of the Ro¬
man army ; but finding it too clofe and impenetrable,
the cohoits fupporting each other, he fell back, and
retired in a feeming eonfufion : but the Romans were
much furpvifed when they faw themfelves fuddenly
furrounded on all fides, and galled with continual
Ihowers of arrows. Craffus ordered his light-armed
foot and archers to advance, and charge the enemy ;
but they were foon repulfed, and forced to cover
themfelves behind the heavy-armed foot. Then the
Parthian horfe, advancing near the Romans, difehar-
ged ihowers of arrows upon them, every ene of which
did execution, the legionaries being drawn up in fucL
clofe order, that it was impoffible for the enemy to
mifs their aim. As their arrows were of an extraordi¬
nary weight, and difeharged with incredible force and
impetuofity, nothing was proof againil them. The
two wings advanced in good order to repulfe them,
but to no effedl; for the Parthians ffiot their arrows
with as great dexterity when their backs were turned,
as
PAR
[ 779 ]
PAR
Ifarthia. as when they faced the enemy ; fo that the Romans,
“—v ' whether they kept their ground, or purfued the fly¬
ing enemy, were equally annoyed with their fatal ar¬
rows.
The Romans, as long as they had any hopes that
the Parthians, after having fpent their arrows, would
either betake themfelves to flight, or engage them
hand to hand, flood their ground with great refolu-
tion and intrepidity ; but when they obferved that
there were a great many camels in their rear loaded
with arrows, and that thofe who emptied their qui¬
vers wheeled about to fill them anew, they began to
iofe courage, and loudly to complain of their general
for fufFering them thus to Hand liilfi and ferve only as
a butt to the enemy’s arrows, which, they well faw,
’would not be exhaulted till they were all killed to a
man. Hereupon Craflus ordered his fon to advance,
at all adventures, and attack the enemy with 1300
horfe, 500 archers, and 8 cohorts. But the Parthians
no fooner faw this choice body (for it was the flower
of the army) marching up againft them, than they
wheeled about, and betook themfelves, according to
their cuftona, to flight. Hereupon young Craflus, cry¬
ing out as loud as he could, They jly before us^ pufhed
on full fpeed after them, not doubting but he fhould
gain a complete viftory ; but when he was at a great
diftnnee from the main body of the Roman army, he
•perceived his miftake ; for thofe who before had fled,
facing about, charged him with incredible fury. Young
Craffus ordered his troops to halt, hoping that the ene¬
my, upon feeing their fmall number, would not be
afraid to come to a clofe fight : but herein he was
likewife greatly difappointed ; for the Parthians, con¬
tenting themfelves to oppofe his front with their heavy
amied horfe, furrounded him on all fides 5 and, keep¬
ing at a diflance, difeharged inceflant fliowers of ar¬
rows upon the unfortunate Romans, thus furrounded
and pent up. The Parthian cavalry, in wheeling
about, raifed fo thick a duft, that the Romans could
fcarce fee one another, much lefs the enemy : never-
thelefs, they found themfelves wounded with arrows,
though they could not perceive whence they came. In
a fliort time, the place where they flood was all ftrown
with dead bodies.
Some of the unhappy Romans finding their entrails
torn, and many overcome by the' exquifite torments
they fuffered, rolled themfelves in the fans! with the
arrows in their bodies, and expired in that manner.
Others endeavouring to tear out by force the bearded
points of the arrows, only made the wounds the larger
and increafed their pain. Moft of them died in this
manner ; and chofe who outlived their companions were
no more in a condition to a£f ; for when young Craf¬
fus exhorted them to march up to the enemy, fome
fhowed him their wounded bodies, others their hands
nailed to their bucklers, and fome their feet pierced
through and pinned to the ground : fo that it was
equally impoffible for them either to attack the enemy
or defend themfelves. The young commander, there¬
fore, leaving his infantry to the mercy of the enemy,
advanced at the head of the cavalry againft their heavy¬
armed horfe. The thoufand Gauls whom he had
brought with him from the weft, charged the enemy
w:th incredible boldnefs and vigour ; but their lances
did little execution on men armed with cuirafles, and
yxfreme
diftrefs of
the Ro¬
mans.
horfes covered with tried armour : however, they beha- Parthia,
ved with great refolution ; for fome of them taking
hold of the enemy’s fpears, and clofing with them,
threw them off their horfes on the ground, where they
lay without being able to ftir, by reafon of the great
weight of their armour; others difmounting, crept un¬
der the enemy’s horfes, and thrufting their fwoids into
their beliies, made them throw their riders. Thus the
brave Gauls fought, though greatly harafled with heat
and thirft, which they were not accuftomed to bear,
till moft of their horfes were killed, and their com¬
mander dangeroufly wounded. They then thought it
advifable to retire to their infantry, which they no
fooner joined, than the Parthians invefted them anew,
making a moft dreadful havock of them with their ar¬
rows. In this defperate condition, Craffus, fpying a
rifing ground at a fmall diftance, led the remains of
his detachment thither, with a deiign to defend hitn-
felf in the heft manner he could, till fuccours fhould
be fent him from his father. The Parthians purfutd
him; and having furrounded him in his new poft, con¬
tinued fhowering arrows upon his men, till moft of
them were either killed or difabled, without being able
to make ufe of their arms, or give the enemy proofs
of their valour.
Young Craflus had two Greeks with him, who had
fettled in the city of Carrhse. Thefe, touched with
compaflion, at feeing fo brave a man reduced to fuch
ftraits, prefled him to retire with them to the neigh¬
bouring city of Ifchnes, which had declared for the
Romans; but the young Roman reje&ed their propo-
fal with indignation, telling them, that he would ra¬
ther die a thoufand times than abandon fo many valiant
men, who facrificed their lives for his fake. Having
returned this anfwer to his two Greek friends, he em¬
braced and difmiffed them, giving them leave to re¬
tire and fhift for themfelves in the beft manner they
could. As for himfelf, having now loft all hopes of
being relieved, and feeing moft of his men and friends
killed round him, he gave way to his grief; and, not The death
being able to make ufe of his arm, which was fhot y°ung
through with a large barbed arrow, he prefented hisCiaiU8'
fide to one of his attendants, snd ordered him to put
a‘n end to his unhappy life. His example was fol¬
lowed by Cenforius a fenator, by Megabacchus an
experienced and brave officer, and by moft of the no¬
bility wha ferved under him. Five hundred com¬
mon foldiers were taken prifoners, and the reft cut in
pieces.
The Parthians, having thus cut off or taken the
whole deatchment commanded by young Craffus,
marched without delay againft his father, who, up¬
on the firft advice that the enemy fled before his fon,
and were clofely purfued by him, had taken heart, the
more becaufe thofe who had remained to make head
againft him feemed to abate much of their ardour, the
greateft part of them having marched with the reft
againft his fon. Wherefore, having encouraged his
troops, he had retired to a fmall hill in his rear, to
wait there till his fon returned from the purfuit.
Young Craffus had difpatched frequent expreffes to his
father, to acquaint him with the danget he was in;
but they had fallen into the enemy’s hands, and been
by them put to the fword : only the laft, who had
Heaped with great difficulty, arrived fufe, and inform-
5 F 2 ed
PAR
r 780 i
PAR
Parthia. e<3 htm that his fon was loft if he did not fend him an
■" V"-; immediate and powerful reinforcement. This news
threw Craffus into the utmoft confternation ; a thou-
fand affefting thoughts rofe in his mind, and difturb-
ed his reafon to fuch a degree, that he fcarce knew
what he was doing. However, the defire he had of
iaving his fon, and fo many brave Romans who were
tinder his command, made him immediately decamp,
and march to their affiftance ; but he was not gone
far before he was met by the Parthians, who, with
loud fhouts, and fongs of vifrory, gave, at a di¬
stance, the unhappy father notice of his misfortune.
They had cut off young Craffus’s head, and, having
feed it on the point of a lance, were advancing full
ffpeed to fall on the father. As they drew near, Craf¬
fus was ftruck with that difmal and affe&ing fight;
fout, on this occafion, behaved like an hero: for though
be was under the deepeft concern, he had the prefence
r>f mind to Hide his grief, for fear of difeouraging the
army, and to cry out to the difmayed troops, “ This
misfortune is entirely mine ; the lofs of one man can-
jnot affeft the viilory : Let us charge, let us fight like
^Romans: if you have anv cotnpaffion for a father who
3has juft now loft a fon whofe valoui you admired, let
ft appear in your rage and refer.tment againft thefe in-
fulting barbarfans.” Thus Craffus ftrove to reanimate
bis troops ; but his efforts were unfuccefsful : their
courage was quite funk, as appeared from the faint and
languifhing ihout which they raifed, according to cu-
Aom, before the aAion. When the fignal was given,
she Parthians, keeping to their old way of fighting,
difeharged clouds of arrows on the legionaries, with¬
out drawing near them ; which did fuch dreadful exe¬
cution, that many of the Romans, to avoid the ar-
tovvs, which occafioned a long and painful death,
threw thcmfelves, like men in defpair, cn the enemy’s
heavy-armed horfe, feeking from their fpears a more
<piick and eafy kind of death. Thus the Parthians
continued plying them inceffan ly with their arrows
till night, when they left the field of battle, crying
cut, that they would allow the father one night to la¬
ment the death of his fon.
This was a melancholy night for the Romans. Craf¬
fus kept himfelf concealed from the foldiery, lying net
in the general’s tent, but in the open air, and on the
hare ground, with his head wrapped up in his paluda-
mentum cr military cloak : and was, in that forlorn
condition, fays Plutarch, a great example to the vul¬
gar, of the inftability of fortune ; to the wife, a {fill
greater of the pernicious efL&s of avarice, temerity,
and ambitien. Odfavius, one of his lieutenants, and
Caffius, approached him, and endeavoured to raife him
up and confole him : but, feeing him quite funk un¬
der the weight of his affliction, and deaf to all com¬
fort, they fummoned a council of war, cornpofed of
all the chief officers ; wherein it was unanimoufly re-
folved, that they flrould decamp before break of day,
and retire, without found of trumpet, to the neigh-
bouring city of Canhns, which was held by a Roman
garrifon. Agreeable to this refolution, they began
their march as foon as the council broke up ; which
produced dreadful outcries among the fick and wound¬
ed, who, perceiving that they were to be abandoned
to the mercy of the enemy, filled the camp with their
■•cmplainU and lanaeutations; but their cries and tears?
14
STiftrelV of
;(Sraffus.
though very affecting, did not flop the march of the Tarth'ra,
others, which, indeed, was very flow, to give the *
ftragglers time to come up. '1 here were only 300
light horfe, under the command of one iEgnatius, who
purfued their march without flopping. Thefe arri¬
ving at Carrhae about midnight, iEgnatius, calling to
the centinels on the walls, defired them to acquaint
Coponius, governor of the place, that Craffus had
fought a great battle with the Parthians ; and, with¬
out faying a word more, or letting -hem know who he
wras, continued his march with all pcffihle expedition
to the bridge of Zeugma ; which he palled, and by
that means faved his troops, but was much blamed for
abandoning his general.
How-ever, the meffage he fent to Coponius wras ©f fome
temporary fervicetoCraffus. For that commander,wifely
conje&uring, ftom the manner in wffiich the unknown
perfon had given him that intelligence, that fome mif-
fortune had befallen Craffus, immediately ordered hi*
garrifon to fland to their arms ; and, marching out,
met Craffus, and conducted him and his army into the
city: for the Parthiaas, though informed of his flight,
did not offer to purfue him, obferving therein the fu-
perftitious cuftom which obtained among them and the
Perfians, not,to fight in the night ; but when it was
day, they entered the Roman camp, and having put
all the wounded, to the number of 4000, to the fword,
difperfed their cavalry ail over the plain, in purfuit of
the fugitives. One of Craffus’slieutenants, named Fen-
gunteiui, having fi-parated in the night from the main
body of the army, with four cohorts, miffed his way,
and was overtaken by the enemy ; at whofe ap¬
proach he withdrew to a neighbouring hill, where
he defended himfelf, with great valour, till all his
men were killed, except 20, w7ho made their way
through the enemy fword in hand, and got f&fe to
Carrhae : but Vargunteius himfelf loft his life on this
occafion.
In the mean time Surenas, not knowing whether Surenas
Craffus and Caffius had retired to Cnrrhai, or chofen pretends
a different route ; in order to be informed of the truth,
and take his meafures accordingly, difpatched a mefi fUSi
fenger, who fpoke the Roman language, to the city
of Carrhae, enjoining him to approach the walls, and
acquaint Craflus hirnfelf, or Caffius, that the Parthian
general was inclined to enter into a treaty with them,
and demanded a conference. Both the proconful and
his quasftor Caffius fpoke from the walls with the mef-
fenger; and, accepting the propofai with great joy,
defired that the time and place for an interview might
be immediately agreed upon. The meffenger with¬
drew, promifing to return quickly with an anfwerfrorn
Surenas: but that general no fooner underftood that
Craffus and Caffius were in Carrhae, than he marched
thither with his whole army ; and, having invefted the
place, acquainted the Romans, that if they expetled
any favourable terms, they muff deliver up Crafl’us and
Caffius to him in chains. Hereupon a council of the
chief officers being fummoned, it was thought expe¬
dient to retire from Carrhas that very night, and feek
for another afylum. It was of the utmoft importance
that none of the inhabitants of Carrhce fhould be ac¬
quainted with their defign till the time of its execu¬
tion ; but Craffus, whofe whole conduft evidently
fhows that he was blinded, as Dio Caflius obferves,
by
V A P.
r 73
iParthia, by fomc divinity, imparted the wnole matter in con-
 licence to cne Andromachus, choofing him for his
guide, and relying injudicioufiy on the fidelity of a
man whom he fcarce knew. Andromachus immediate¬
ly acquainted Surenas with the defign of the Romans ;
fvomifing at the fame time, as the Parthians did not
engage in the night, to manage matters fo, that they
fhould not get out of his reach befoie day-break. Pur-
fuant to his prornife, he led them through many wind¬
ings and turnings, till he brought them into deep
marfiiv grounds, where the infantry were up to the
knees'in mire. Then Cafiius, fufpe&ing that their
guide had ltd them into thofe bogs with no good de-
fign, refufed to follow him any longer ; and, returning
to Carrhs, took* his route towards Syria, which he
reached with 500 horfe. Odlavius, with 5000 men
under his command, being conduced by trulty guides,
gained the mountains called by Plutarch and Appian
Sinnaci, and there intrenched himfelf before break of
day.
As for Craffus, he was ftili entangled in the marfhes,
when Surenas, at the riling of the fun, overtook him,
and invetted him with his cavalry. The proconiul had
with him four cohorts, and a fault body of horfe ;
and with thefe he gained, in fpite of all oppofition,
the fummit of another hill within 12 furlongs of Oc¬
tavius ; who, feeing the danger that threatened his ge¬
neral, dew to his slfiftance, firft with a fmall number
of his men, but was foon followed by all the reft, who,
being aihamed of their cowardice, quitted their poll,
tho’ very fafe, and, charging the Parthians with great
fury, difengaged Craffus, and obliged the enemy to
abandon the hill. Upon the retreat of the enemy,
they formed themfelves into an hollow fquarc ; and
placing Craffus in the middle, made a kind of rampart
round him with their bucklers, refolutely protefting,
that none of the enemy’s arrows fhould touch their ge¬
neral’s body, till they were all killed fighting in his
defence. Surcnas, loth to let fo fine a prey efcape,
furrounded the hill, as if he deligned to make a new
attack : but, finding his Partfeians very backward, and
not doubting but the Romans, when night came on,
would purfue their march, and get out of his reach,
he had recourfe again to artifice ; and declared be¬
fore fome prisoners, whom he foon after fet at li¬
berty, that he was inclined to treat with the pro-
conful of a peace ; and that it was better to come to
a reconciliation with Florae, than to fow the feeds of
an eternal war, by fhedding the blood of one of her
generals.
Agreeable to this declaration, Suren2?, as fixm as
the prfioners were releafed, advanced towards the hill
where the Romans were pelted, attended only by fome
of his officers, and, with his bow unbent, and open
arms, invited Craffus to an interview. So bidden a
change feemed very fufpicious to the proconful ; vtho
therefore declined the interview, till he was forced, by
bis own foldiers, to intruil his life with an enemy
whofe tveichery they had all experienced ; for the le
gionaries flocking round him, not only abnfed him in
an outrageous manner, but even menaced him if he
did not accept of the propofals made him by the Par¬
thian general. Seeing, therefore, that his troops were
ready to mutiny, he began to advance, without arms
t-r guards, towards the enemy, after having called the
i ] P A II
gods and his officets to witnefs the violence his troops Faiuca
offered him ; and iutreated all who were prefent, but *
efpeciaily Oftavius and Petronius, two of the chief
commanders, for the honour of Rome t.ieir common
mother, not to mention, after his death, the ffiamefyl
behaviour of the Roman legionaries. Odb.vius and
Petronius could not refolve to let him g;o alone ; but
attended him down the hill, as did likewife iome le¬
gionaries, keeping at a diftar.ee. Craffus was met at
the foot of the hill by two Greeks ; who, difmounting
from their horfes, fainted him with great rtfped :
and defired him, in the Greek tongue, to fend iome
of his attendants, who might fatisfy him that Sure-
•nas, and thofe who were with him, came without
arms. Hereupon Craffus lent two brothers, of the
Rofcian family ; but Surenas, having caufed them to
be feized, advanced to the foot of the hill, mounted on
a line horfe, and attended by the chief officers of his
army. Craffus, who waited for the return of his two
mtffengers, was lurprifed to fee himfelr prevented by
Surenas in perfon, when he leaft txpeCfted it. The
Parthian general, perceiving, as he apjJtcaehed Cr?.f-.
fus, that he was on foot, cried out, in a fetnaing fur-
prife, “ What do I fee ? a Roman general on foot,
and we on horfeback S Uet an horfe be brought fov
him immediately.” “ You need not be furprifed (re¬
plied Craflus); we are come only to an interview, each
after the cuftorn of his country.” “ Very well (an-
fvvered Surenas), there fhall be henceforth a lading
peace between king Grades and the people of Rome :
but we muff iign the articles of it on the banks of the
Euphrates ; for you Romans do not always remem¬
ber your conventions.” Craffus would have fent for
an horfe : but a very {lately one, with a golden bit,,
and richly capaiifoned, was brought to him by a Par¬
thian ; which Surenas prefenting to him, “ Accept
this hovfe from my hands (faid he), which I give
you in the name of my mailer king Orodes.” He had
fcarce uttered thefe words, when fome of the king’s of¬
ficer?, taking Craffus by the middle, fet him upon the
horfe, which they began to whip with great violence
before them in order to make him quicken his p?ce..
Odavius, offended at this infult, took the horfe by
the bridle ; Petronius, and the few Romans who were
prefent, fecontled him, and flocking all round e raflu?,
flopped his horfe. rI be Parthi ms endeavoured to ic-
pulfe them, and clear the way for the proconful ;
whereupon they began to juftle and puffi one arvther
with great tumult and difordtr. At laff, Gdrvius,
drawing his fword, killed one of the king’s grooms;
but, at’ the fame time, another coming behind Ofta-
vius, with one blow laid him dead at his xeet. ijoth
parties fought with great refclution, the Parthians
driving to carry off Craflus, and the Romans to refeue
him out of their hands. In this feuffle moft of the Ro¬
mans who came to the conference were killed ; and,
among the reft, Gvaffus himfelf,, but whether by a Ro-Craffiw
man or a Parthian is uncertain. kilkiL
Upon his deach, the reft of the army either furren-
dered ts the enemy, or, difperfmg in the night, were
purfued, and put to the fword. The Romans loft in
this campaign at leaft 30,000 men ; of which 20,000
were killed, and 10,000 taken prifoners.
When the battle of Carrhce was fought, king Orodei-
was in Armenia, where he had made peace with Arta-
PAR
[ 782 1
PAR
17
Surenas put
JParthia. bazus. While the two kings were folemnizing their
“■"''v ' new alliance with expeniive and public feafts, Styilaces,
or Syllaces, a Parthian officer, whom Gurenas had
fent with the news of his late viftory, and the head of
praffus as a proof of it, arrived in the capital of Ar-
’menia. The tranfports of joy which Orodes felt at
this fight, and thefe news, are not to be expreffed;
and the lords of both kingdoms, who attended their
fovereigns, raifed loud and repeated fhouts of joy.
Syllaces was ordered to give a more particular and di*
flindd account of that memorable a6Hon ; which when
he had done, Orodes commanded melted gold to be
poured into Craffus’s mouth; reproaching him thereby
with avarice, which had been always his predominant
paffion
Surenas did not long enjoy the pleafure of his
to death by victory ; for Orodes, jealous of his power and au-
Qrodes. thority among the Parthidns, foon after caufed him
to he put to death. Pacorus, the king’s favourite
fon, was put at the head of the army ; and, agree¬
able to his father’s diredfions, invaded Syria : but
he was driven out from thence with great lofs by Ci¬
cero and Caffius, the only general who furvived the
defeat of CrafTus. After this we find no mention of
the Parthians, till the time of the civil war between
Caefar and Pompey, when the latter fent ambaffadors
t© folicit fuocour againfi his rival. This Orodes was
willing to grant, upon condition that Syria was de-
liveted up to him ; hut as Pompey would not confent
to fuch a propofal, the fuecours wTere not only denied,
but, after the battle of Pharfalia, he put Lucius Hir-
tius in irons, whom Pompey had again fent to aik af-
fiftance, or at leaft to defire leave to fhelter himfelf in
the Parthian dominions.
Caefar is faid to have meditated a war again id the
Paithians, which in all probability would have pro¬
ved fatal to them. His death delivered them from
this danger. But, not long after, the eartern pro¬
vinces, being grievoufly opprefled by Mark An¬
tony, rofe up in arms ; and having killed the tax-
gatherers, invited the Parthians to join them, and
drive out the Romans. They very readily accepted
the invitation, and crofTed the Euphrates with a
powerful army under the command of Pacorus and
Labienus a Roman general of Pompey’s party. At
firft they met with great fuccefs, over-ran all Alia
Minor, and reduced all the countries as far as the
HeL-fpont and the Egsean Sea, fubduing likewife
Phoenicia, Syria, and even Juda;a. They did not
however long enjoy their new conquefts: for being
elated with their vidlories, and defpifing the enemy,
they engaged Ventidius, Antony’s lieutenant, before
Labienus had rime to join them, and were utterly de¬
feated. I his fo difheartened Labienus’s army, that
tuey all abandoned him; and he himf If, being thus ob¬
liged to wander from place to place in difguife, was at
laft taken and put to death at Cyprus. Ventidius pur-
iuing his advantage, gained feveral other viftories ;
and at laft entirely defeated the Parthian army under
Pacorus, cutting almoft the whole of them in pieces,
Pacorus de-and the prince himfelf among the reft, tie did not,
feared and however, purfue this laft victory as he might have
Ventidius. ^ kei'nS afraid of giving umbrage to Antony,
who had already become jealous of the great honour
gaineu by his lieutenant, tie therefore contented him-
s8
War com¬
menced a-
jjainft the
Parthians
by Mark
Antony.
19
ftlf with reducing thofe places in Syria and Phoenicia Parthia,
which the Parthians had taken in the beginning of the
war, until Antony arrived to take the command of
the army upon himfelf.
Orodes was almoft; diftraited with grief on receiving
the dreadful newTs of the lolsof bis army and the death
of his favourite fon. However, wh-n time had refto-
red the ufe of his faculties, he appointed Phrahates,
the eldeft, but the moft wicked, of all his children, to
fucceed him in the kingdom, admitting him at the
fame time to a fhare of the fovereign authority with
himfelf. The confequence of this was, that Phrahates
very foon attempted to poifon his father with hem¬
lock. But this, contrary to expedfation, proving a
cure for the dropfy, which a« txcefs of grief had
brought upon the king, the unnatural fon had him 20
ftifled in bed ; and foon after not only murdered all his Orodes
own brethren, who were 30 in number, but cut olf all ordered.
theTeft of the royal family, not fparing even his own
eldeft fon, left the difcontented Parthians Ihould place
him, as he was already of age, on the throne.
Many of the chief lords of Parthia being intimi¬
dated by the cruelty of Phrahates, retired into foreign
countries : and among thefe was one Moncefes, a per-
fon of great diftinffion, as well as flcdl and experience
in war. This man, having fled to Antony, foon
gained his confidence, and was by him eafily prevailed
upon to engage in a war againft his countrymen.
But Phrahates, jullly dreading the confequences of
fuch a perfon’s defehtion, fent a folemn emhaffy to in¬
vite him home on fuch terms as he fhould think fit
to accept: which greatly provoked Antony; though
he did not hinder him from returning, left others fhould
thereby be difeouraged from coming over to him.
He therefore difmiffed him with great civility, fending
ambafiadors at the fame time to Phrahates to treat of
a peace. Thus he hoped to divert the Parthian mo¬
narch’s attention from making the neceffary prepara¬
tions for war, and that he ihould be able to fall upon
him in the fpring when he was in no condition to
make refiftance. But herein he was greatly difap-
pointed; for on his arrival at the Euphrates, which he
intended to pafs, and enter the Parthian'dominions on
that fide, he found all the pafies fo well guarded, that
he thought proper to enter Media, with a defign lirft
to reduce that country, and then to enter Parthia. 21
This plan had been fuggefted to him by Artabazus Antony
king of Armenia, who in the end betrayed him ; f°r ^rtabazus
inftead of conducing the army the ftraight way from^,, Gf
Zeugma on the Euphrates, to the Araxes which part-menia.
ed Media from Armenia, and which was about 500
mdes dittant from the place whence he firft fet out,
Aitabazus led them over rocks and mountains fo far
about, that the army had marched above 1000 miles
before they reached the borders of Media, where they
intended to begin the war. Thus they were not only
greatly fatigued, but had not fufficient time, the year
being far fpent, to put in execution the defign on
which they had come. However, as Antony was
impatient t© get back to Cleopatra, he left behind
him moft of the baggage of the army, and 300 wag¬
gons loaded with battering rams and other military
engines for fieges ; appointing Statianus, one of his
lieutenants, with a body of 10,000 men, to guard
them, and to bring them, by flower marches, after the
armj.
Parthia.
*3
Antcny
leaves Par
thia in
great di-
ilrefs.
54
Parthia
hibdued
hy Tra¬
jan.
PAR [
army. With the reft of the forces he marched more
than 300 miles before the reft, without allowing his
men any refpite till he arrived at Praafpa or Phrahata,
the capital ©f Media, which he immediately invefted.
But the Parthians, well knowing that he could not
make any progrefs without his military machines,
paired by his army, in order to attack Statianus; which
they did with Inch fuccefs, that the body commanded
by him were all to a man cut off, and all their military
engines taken, among which was a battering ram 80
feet long.
Antony, notwithftanding this difafter, continued
the liege of Praafpa ; but was daily haraffed by fallies
r-)l the garrifon from within, and the enemy’s army
without. At laft he began to think of a retreat when
his provifions were aimed exhaufted, finding it im-
poffible to become mailer of the city. But as he was
to march 300 miles through the enemy’s country, he
thought proper' firll to fend ambafladors to the Par¬
thian monarch, acquainting him that the Roman peo¬
ple were willing to allow him a peace, provided he
would reftore the ftandards and prifoneis taken at
Carrhte. Phrahates received the ambaffadors, fitting
on a golden throne ; and, after having bitterly in¬
veighed againft the avarice and unbounded ambition
of the Romans, told them that he would not part
with the ftandards and prifoners; but that if Antony
would immediately raife the fiege of Praafpa, he would
fufter him to retire unmolefted.
Antony, who was reduced to great ftraits, no
■ fooner received this anfwer than he broke up the fiegc,
and marched .towards Armenia. However, Phrahates
was not fo good as his word ; for the Romans were
attacked by the enemy no fewer than 18 times on their
march, and were thrice in the utmoft danger of being
cut off. A famine alfo raged in the Roman army ;
upon which they began to defert to the enemy ; and
indeed Antony would probably have been left by
himfelf, had not the Parthians, in a very cruel as
well as impolitic manner, murdered all thole who fled
to them in light of the reft. At laft, after having
loft 32,000 men, and being reduced to fuch defpair
that he was with difficulty prevented from laying vio¬
lent hands on bimfelf, he reached the river Araxes ;
when his men, finding themfelves out of the reach of
the enemy, fell down on the ground, aad kifl'ed it with
tears of joy.
Antony was no fooner gone, than the kings of Me¬
dia and Parthia quarrelled about the booty they had
taken ; and after various contefts Phrahates reduced
all Media and Armenia. After this, being elated with
his conquefts, he oppreffed his fubjecls in fuch a cruel
and tyrannical manner, that a civil war took place ; in
which the competitors were alternately driven out and
rellored, till the year 50, when one Vologefes, the fon
of Gotarzes, a former king, became peaceable poffef-
for of the throne. Pie carried on fome wars againft
the Romans, hut with very indifferent fuccefs, and at
laft gladly confented to a renewal of the ancient trea¬
ties with that powerful people.
From this time the Parthian hiftory affords nothing
remarkable till the reign of the emperor Trajan ; when
the Parthian king, by name Cofdrois, infiinged the
treaty with Rome, by driving out the king ot Arme¬
nia. Upon this Trajan, who was glad of any pre-
783 1 PA R
tence to quarrel with the Parthians, immediately ha-
ftened into Armenia. His arrival there was fo fudden
and unexpected, that he reduced almoft the whole
country without oppofition ; and took prifoner Par-
thamafiris, the king whom the Parthians had fet up.
After this he entered Mefopotamta, took the city of
Nifibis, and reduced to a Roman province the whole
of that wealthy country.
Early in the fpring of the following year, Trajan,
who had kept his winter quarters in Syria, took the
field again ; but was warmly oppofed by Cofdroes.
Pie found him encamped on the banks of the Eu¬
phrates, with a defign to difpute hispaffage : which he
did with fuch vigour, that the emperor, after having
feveral times attempted to ford that river, and been
always repulfed with great flaughter, was obliged to
caufe boats to be built on the neighbouring mountains,
which he privately conveyed from thence on carriages:
to the water-fide ; and having in the night-time form¬
ed a bridge with them, he paffed his army the next
day ; but not without great lofs and danger, the Par¬
thians harafling his men the whole time with incefi’ant
Ihowers of arrows, which did great execution. Ha-
ving gained the oppofite bank, he advanced boldly in¬
to Affyria, the Parthians flying everywhere before
him, and made himfelf mailer of Arbela. Thence he
purfued his march ; fubduing, with incredible rapidity,
countries where the Roman ftandard had never been
dtfplayed before. Babylonia, or the province of Ba¬
bylon, voluntarily fubmitted to him. The city itfelf
was, after a vigorous refiftance, taken by itorm ; by
which means he became mailer of all Chaldea and Af¬
fyria, the two richeft provinces of the Parthian em¬
pire. From Babylon he marched to Ctefiphon, the
metropolis of the Parthian monarchy ; which he be-
fleged, and at laft reduced. But as to the particulars
of thefe great conquefts, we are quite in the dark ; this
expedition, however glorious to the Roman name, be¬
ing rather hinted at than deferibed, by the writers of
thofe times. While Trajan was thus making war in
the heart of the enemy’s country, Cofdroes, having re¬
cruited his army, marched into Mefopotamia, with a
defign to recover that country, and cut off all commu¬
nication between the Roman aimy and Syria - On
his arrival in that province, the inhabitants flocked to
him from all parts ; and moil of the onus, driving out
the garrifons left by Trajan, opened their gates to him.
Hereupon the emperor detached Lucius and Maximus,
two of his chief commanders, into Mefopotamia, to
keep fuch cities in awe as had not revolted, and to
open a communication with Syria. Maxim us" was met
by Cofdroes ; and having ventured a battle, his army.
ws:s entirely defeated, and himfelf killed. But Lucius
beingjoined by Euricius and C!ariut:, two other com¬
manders fent by Trajan with frdh fupphes, gained
confiderable advantages over the enemy, and retook the
cities of Nifibis and Seleucia, which had revolted.
And now Trajan, feeing himftlf pefleffed of all the
bell and moll fruitful provinces of the Parthian em¬
pire, but at the fame time being-well apprifed that he
could not, without a vaft expence, maintain his eon**-
quells, nor keep in fubjeclion fo fi.rce and warlike a
people at fuch a diftance from Italy ; refolved to fet
over them a king of his own choofing, who fhould hold
the crown of him and his fuccefibrs, and acknowledge
3 them.
Parthia.
PAR
FartVia. tliem as ii's lords and fovereigns
—^ ' repaired to Ctefiphon ; and having there afiembled the
chief men of the nation, he crowned one of the royal
family, by name Parthana[pates, king of Parthia, ob¬
liging all who were prefent to pay him their alie-
25
Partha-
nafpates
appointed
king by the gfan°e> |-Te chofe Parthanafpates,* becaufe that prince
peror^buT" ^?d joined him at his firft entering the Parthian domi-
fcon after nions, conduced him with great fidelity, and fhown
-driysn out. on all oceafions an extraordinary attachment to the
Romans. Thus the Parthians were at lad fubdued,
and their kingdom made tributary to Rome. But they
did not long continue in this ft;te of fubje&ion : for
they no fooner heard of TrapiRs death, which hap¬
pened Ihortly after, than, taking up arms, they drove
Parthanafpates from the throne ; and recalling Cof-
droes, who had retired into the country of the Hyr-
canians, openly revolted from Rome. Adrian, who
was then commander in chief of all the forces in the
call, and foon after acknowledged emperor by the ar¬
my, did not care, though he was at that time in Sy¬
ria with a very numerous army, to engage in a new
war with the Parthians ; but contented htmfelf with
preferving the ancient limits of the empire, without
any ambitious profpefts of further conquefts. There¬
fore, in the beginning of his reign, he abandoned thofe
provinces beyond the Euphrates which Trajan had
conquered ; withdrew the Roman garrifons from Me-
fopotamia ; and, for the greater fafety of other places,
made the Euphrates the boundary of and barrier in
thofe parts, polling his legions along the banks of that
river.
^Jnfuccef-;- Cofdroes died after a long reign, and was fucceeded
sful wars of by bjs eldeft fon Vologefes : in whofe reign the Alani
•with^he* breaking into Media, then fubjedl to the Parthians,
tlomans. committed there great devallations ; but were prevail¬
ed upon, with rich prefents fent them hy Vologefes,
to abandon that kingdom, rnd return home. Upon
their retreat, Vologefes, having no enemy to contend
with at home, fell unexpeftedly upon Armenia ; fur-
prifed the legions there ; and having cut them all in
pieces to a man, entered Syria ; defeated with great
daughter Attilius Cornelianus, governor of that pro¬
vince ; and advanced without oppofition to the neigh¬
bourhood of Antioch ; putting everywhere the Ro¬
mans, and thofe who favoured them, to the fword.
Hereupon the emperor Verus, by the advice of his
colleague Antoninus furnamed the Philofopher, leaving
Rome, hafiened into Syria: and having driven the
Parthians out of that province, ordered Statius Prif-
cus to invade Armenia ; and CalTms, with Martins Ve¬
rus, to enter the Parthian territories, and carry the
war into the enemy’s country. Prifeus made himfelf
mailer of Artaxata ; and in one campaign drove the
Parthians, though not without great lofs on his fide,
quite out of Armenia. Cafilus, on the other hand,
having in feveral encounters defeated Vologefes, tho’
he had an army of 400,000 men under his command,
reduced, in four years time, all thofe provinces which
had formerly fubmitted to Trajan, took Seleucia,
burnt and plundered the famous cities of Babylon and
Ctefiphon, with the llately palaces of the Parthian
monarchs, and llruck terror into the moll remote pro¬
vinces of that great empire. On his return, he loll
above half the number of his forces by Ixcknefs and
famine ; fo that, after all, the Romans, as Spartianus
260.
[ 7S4 1 PAR
With this view he cbferves, had no groat reafon to bcafl of their vicla- Partma.
ries and conquells.
However, Verus, who had never llirred during
the whole time of the war from Antioch and Daph¬
ne, took upon him the lofty titles of Partbicus
and Armenkus, as if he had acquired them juftly in
the midft of his plcafures and debaucheries. After
the revolt and death of Caffius, Antoninus the Phl-
lofopher repaired into Syria to fettle the affairs of that
province. On his arrival there, he was met by ambalTa-
dors from Vologefes ; who having recovered moll of the
provinces fubdued by CalTius, and being unwilling ei¬
ther to part with them or engage in a new war, foli*
cited the emperor to confirm him in the poffeffion of
them, promifing to hold them of him, and to acknow¬
ledge the fovercignty of Rome. To thefe terms Anto-
ninus readily agreed, and a peace wss accordingly
concluded between the two empires ; which Vologefes
did not long enjoy, being foon after carried olf by a
dillemper, and not murdered by his own fubjedts, as
we read in Conllantinus Manalfes, who calls him Bele-
gfay % .17
Upon his death, Vologefes III. the fon of his bro- Ctei!phe>*.
ther S%natruies, and grandfon of Cofdroes, was rai-taken by-
fed to the throne. He fided with Niger againtl the‘1’everu**
emperor Severus : who thereupon having fettled mat¬
ters at home, marched with all his forces againll him ;
and advancing to the city of Ctefiphon, whither he
had retired, laid clofe fiege to that metropolis. Volo¬
gefes made a moll gallant defence ; but the city, after
a long fiege, and much bloodlhed on both fides, was
at length taken by affault The king’s treafures, with
his wives and children, fell into the emperor’s hands:
but Vologefes himfelf had the good luck to make his
efcapc ; which was a great difappointment to Sevenis,
v/ho immediately difpatched an exprefs to acquaint the
fenate with the fuccefs that had attended him in his
expedition againll the only nation that was then for¬
midable to Rome. But he had no fooner crofled the
Euphrates, than Vologefes recovered all the provinces,
except Mefopotamia, which he had reduced. Thefe
expeditions were chargeable to the Roman?, and coll
them much blood, without reaping any advantages
from them ; for as they had not fufficient forces to
keep in awe the provinces they had fubdued, the in¬
habitant?, greatly attached to the family ©f Arfaees,
never failed to return to their ancient obedience as
foon as the Roman armies were withdrawn. Vologe¬
fes was foon after engaged in a war Hill more trouble-
fome and deftrutRive, with his brother Artabanus, who,
encouraged by forae of the difeontented nobles, at¬
tempted to rob him of the crown, and place it on his
own head. Vologefes gained feveral victories over his
brother and rebellious fubjefts; but died before he
could rellore the empire to its former tranquillity.
Artabanus, who had a numerous army at his devo¬
tion, did not meet with any oppofition in feizing the
throne, vacant by the death ot his brother, though
Tiridates had a better title to it, as being his elder
brother. He had fcarce fettled the affairs of his king¬
dom, when the Emperor Caracalla, delirous to figna-
lize himfelif, as feveral of his predcceffors had done,
by fome memorable exploit agninft the Parthians, fent
a folemn embaffy to him, defiring his daughter in
marriage. Artabanus, overjoyed at this propofal,
4 which
I'irturi-
tian
II.
Parvich,
PAR [ 79.1 ] r
to determine which the prophet means. Of all others, means ill founding or noify,
I leaft approve of that which Jerom makes the fenfe,
though the thing be true (if we may believe Cafiiodo-
- rus • and feversl natural hiftorians,'Aldrovandus,
that partridges have fuch a love and deliie to hatch
young ones, that having loft their own eggs, they will
fteal the eggs of other partridges, and hatch them ;
which being hatched, the young ones knowing the cry
of their proper dams, hearing them call, leave tne par¬
tridge that hatched them (which is one thing quoted
by Aldrovandus, to (how the fagacity of that bird) ;
but if this were the fenfe, the words would be, ‘ as
the partridge fitteth on eggs, and hatcheth them, but
enjoyeth them notwhereas they are, * hatcheth
them not;’ that is, having loft them, either by fome
man that hath taken them from her, or by fome ver¬
min or wild beait.” Pool’s Anne*, in Loc.
The words in the orignal are, xn? tb' xbr “m, which
the Septuagint tranflate &c. “ d he par¬
tridge cried; it gathered together what it had not pro¬
duced and fome tranflate the Hebrew, “ 1 he par¬
tridge lays many eggs, but does not hatch them all.’
Te Clerc, upon the authority of Bocchart, underftands
the Hebrew word kure here to fignify a ‘woodcock. Le
Clerc’s tranflation is as follows: RuJHcula ova colligity
fed non park ; facit ftbi divkias, fed/me jure, m edits Jit is
dielus eas rthnquit, atque ad extremum fuila efl.
PARTURITION, the art of bringing forth or be¬
ing delivered of young. See Midwifery.
PARTY, in a military fenfe, a fmall number of
men, horfe, or foot, fent upon any kind of duty ; as
into an enemy’s country to pillage, to take priloners,
and to oblige the country to come under contribution.
Parties are often fent out to view the roads and ways,
get intelligence, feck forage; to reconnoitre, or amufe
the enemy upon a march: they are alfo frequently lent
upon the flanks of an army or regiment, to difeover the
enemy if near, and prevent furprife or ambufeade.
PARU, in natural hiftory, the name of a very An¬
gular American filh. It is broad, flat, and rounded ;
not very thick, and ufually of about five or fix inches
long, and more than lour broad. It has fix fins, one
large and long, one on the back, and another on tue
belly behind the anus; each of thefe reaches to the
tail, and has toward the end a long ftring or cord,
made of a fingle filament, that on the back-fin being
longer than that on the belly ; behind the gills it has
alfo two fins of two fingers breadth long and one
broad; and two others on the belly, which are very
narrow ; its head is fmall, and its mouth elevated and
fmall, and furnilhed with fmall teeth ; its feales are of
a moderate fize, and are half black and half yellow, fo
that the fi(h appears of a black colour, variegated with
yellow half moons ; its gills, and the beginning ot its
tins, are alfo yellow; and it has, on each fide near the
head, a yellow fpot; it is eatable. \ ;
PARVICH, an ifhnd near Dalmatia, and one of
the belt peopled and moft confiderable of thofe which
are under the jurifdi&ion of Sibenico. It contains a
great number of fifhermen, and a confiderable number
of perfons who give themfeives up to agriculture. It
contains many Roman antiquities, which evidently (how
that it was a Roman ftation. It feems to be among
the number of thofe iflands which Pliny calls Celadvf}'*,
which is fuppofed to be an laverfion of which
Vol. XIII. Part II.
A R •
Parvich is not of large ex¬
tent, but it is extremely fertile. Every produA fuc-
ceeds in perfe&ion there : we mean thofe pro iu&s of
which a very {hallow ground is fufceptible ; fuch as
wine, oil, mulberry-trees, and fruit. The alpecft of
this ifland is alfo very pleafiynt at a diftance, whereas
that of the others adjacent difgufts the eye, by their
too high, rocky, and bare hills. The name of Parvich
feems to have been given it becaufe it is the fit ft one
meets with on going out of the harbour of Sibenico ;
for the Ulyric word parvi fignifies firji.
PARULIDES, in furgery, tumors and inflamma¬
tions of the gums, commonly called I hey
are to be treated with difeutients like other inflamma¬
tory tumors.
PARUS, or Titmouse, in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order of pafleres. The bill is very
entire, covered at the bafis with hairs ; the tongue is
truncated and hairy. There are 14 fpecies; of which
the moil remarkable are,
1. The erfftatus, or cvefted titmonfe, weighs 13
pennyweight ; the bill is black, with a fpot of the
fame colour above it; all the upper part of the body
grey; the neck and under parts are white, with a famt
ti'n&ure of red, which is deepeft juft below the wings.
The legs are of a lead colour. It erefts its crown fea¬
thers into a creft. It inhabits the warm parts of North
America ; and frequents foreft trees, feeding upon in¬
fers.
2. The major, or great titmoufe, has the head and
throat black, the cheeks white, the bac k of a green
colour, the belly yellowiftigreen, divided in the middle
by a bed of black which extends to the vent; the
rump of a bluifli grey, tlm legs of a lead colour, the
toes divided to the very origin, and the back-toe very
large and ftrong. This fpecies fometimes vifits our
gardens; but for the moft part inhabits woods, where
it builds in hollow trees, laying about, ten eggs. It
feeds on infers, which it finds in the bark of trees.
In the fpring they do a great deal of muchiec by pick
ing off the tender buds of the fruit trees. Like wood¬
peckers, they are perpetually running.up and down the
bodies of trees in queft of food. This bird has three
cheerful notes, which it begins to utter in the month
of February.
3. The coeruleus, or blue titmoufe, is a very beauti¬
ful bird. The bill is Ihort and dufky; rhe crown of
the head of a fine blue ; from the bill to the eyes is a
black line ; the forehead and cheeks white ; the back
of a yellowifti green ; the lower fide of the body yel¬
low ; the wings and tail blue, the former maiked
tranfverfely with a white bar ; the legs of a lead co¬
lour. They frequent gardens ; and do great injury to
frifft-trees, by bruifing the tender buds in fearch of
the infects which lie under them. It breeds in holes
of walls, and lays 12 or 14 eggs.
4. The virginhnus, or yellow runip, is found in Vir¬
ginia ; and is (jiftinguiflied by a. yellow fpot on its
rump. All the reft of the feathers -re brown, with a
flight tin&ure of green It runs about the bodies of
trees; and feeds on infedts, which it pecks from the
crevices of the bark.
Pai'uii'Vs,
Par us.
5. The candatus, or long-tailed titmoufe, is about
five inches asd a quarter in length, and feven inches in
breadth The bill is black, very thick and convex,.
^ H differ-
PAR [79+1 PAS
Varu?. difFerin? from all others of this genus. The top of
'-—•'•v ' the head, from the bill to the hind part, is white, mix¬
ed with a few dark grey feathers: this bed ot white is
entirely furrounded with a broad ftroke of black ;
which rifing on each fide of the upper mandible, paf-
fes over each eye, unices at the hind part of the head,
and continues along the middle of the back to the
ramp. 1 he feathers on each fide of this black ftroke
are of a nurp’ifti red, as ate thofe immedia/dy incum¬
bent on the tail. The tail is the longed, in propor¬
tion to the hulk, of any Bricifh bird, being in length
three inches, the form not unlike that of a magpie,
eonfifting of 12 feathers of unequal lengths, the mid-
dlemoft the longeft, thofe on each fi le growing gra¬
dually fhorter. Thefe birds are often feen palling
through our gardens, going from one tree to another,
as if in their road, to fome other place*, never making
any halt. They make their nefts with great elegance,
of an oval fhape, and about eight inches deep, having
near th-’ upper end a hole for rdmiffion. The exter¬
nal materials are moffes and lichens curioufly interwo¬
ven with wool. On the infide it is very warmly lined
with a thick bed of feathers. The female lays from
10 to 17 eggs. The young follow their parents the
whole winter ; and, from the flimnefs of their bodies,
and great length of tail, appear, while flying, like as
many darts cutting the air.
6. The biarraicus, or bearded t’tmoufe, has a fliort,
ftrong, and very convex bill, of box colour; the head
of a fine grey; the chin and throat white; the middle
of the bread fleih coloured; the fides and thighs of a
pale orange ; the hind part of the neck and back of
orange bay ; the tail is two inches and three quarters
long ; the legs of a deep ihining black. The female
wants the fleih-colour on the breaft, and a triangular
tuft of black feathers on each fide the bill which adorn
the male. They are found in marfhy places.
7. The remiz, or fmall fpecies of titmoufe. It is
calledparus pendulhius, and is often found in Lithuania.
Mr Coxe, in his Travels through Poland, gives the
following account of this little animal. “ The won¬
drous ftrufture of its pendent neft induced me to give
* See Plate an engraving •l' of both that and the birds themfelves.
.. . xw ^ are of the imalleft fpecies of titmice. The head
is of a very pale bluilh afh colour ; the forepart of the
neck and the breaft tinged with red ; the belly white $
wings black ; back and rump of a yellowifti ruft co¬
lour ; quill feathers cinereous, with the exterior fides
wrote ; the tail ruft-coloured. The male is Angularly
dilUnguifhed from the female by a pair of black-point¬
ed whiikers. Its neft is in the fhape of a long purfe,
which it forms with amazing art, by interweaving down,
go flamer, and minute fibres, in a clofe and compact
manner, and then lining the infide with down alone,
lo as to make a fnug and warm lodge for its young
brood. The entrance is at the fide, fmall, and round,
’.vith its edge more ftrongly marked than the reft; of
tiiis curious fabric : the bird, attentive to the prefer-
vation ot its eggs or little ones from noxious animals,
impends it at the lefl’er end to the extremity of the
iknder twigs of a willow or fome other tree over a ri¬
ver. Contrary to the cuftom of titmice, it lays only
pur or five eggs: poffibly Providence hath ordained
this fcannnefs of eggs to the remiz, becaufe by the
lingular laltind imparted to it, it is enabled to fecure
its young much more efte&uslly from del’ru&ion,
than the other fpecies, which art very prolific.’'
PASCAL (Blaife), one of the greateft geniufesr
an ! Left writers France has produced, was born at
Clermont in Auvergne, iu the year 1623. His fa¬
ther, Stephen Pafcal, born in 158K, and of an ancient
family, was prefident of the court of aids in his pro-
v:nce : he was a very learned man, an able mathema¬
tician, and a frien 1 of Defcartes. Having an ex¬
traordinary tendernefs for this child, his only fon, he
qirrted his office in his province, and went and fettled
at Paris in 1631, that he might be quite at leifure for
the inftruclion of him; and Blaife never had any ma-
fter but his father. From his infancy he gave proofs
of a very extraor bnmy capacity: for he defired to know
the re-don oi eveiy thiag; and'when good reafonswere
not given h m, he would feek for better ; nor would
he ever yield his affi nt but upon fuch as appeared to
him well grounded. There was room to tear, that
with fucb a caft of mind lie would fall into free think¬
ing, or at leaft into heterodoxy ; yet he was always,
very far from any thing of this nature.
What is told of his manner of learning the mathe¬
matics, as well as the ptogrefs he quickly made in that
fcience, teems almoft miraculous. His father, percei¬
ving in him an extraordinary inclination to reafoning,
was afraid left the knowledge of the mathematic*
would hinder his learning the languages. He kept,
him therefore as much as he could from all notions of
geometry, locked up ail his books of that kind, and
refrained even from fpeaking of it in his prefence. Ho
could not, however, make his fon refrain from mufing
upon proportions ; and one day furprifed him at work
with charcoal upon his chamber-floor, and in the midft
ot figures. He afked him what he was doing ? 1 am
fearching, fays Pafcal, for fuch a thing; which was
juft the 32ft propofition of the firft book of Euclid.
He alked him then how he came to think of this i
It was, fays Pafcal, becaufe I have found out fucb
another thing : and fo going backward, and ufing the
names of 6ar and round, he came at length to the de¬
finitions and axioms he had formed to himfelf. Does
it not feem miraculous that a boy ftiould work his way
into the heart of a mathematical book, without ever
having feen that or any other book upon the fubjeft,
or knowing any thing of the terms ? Yet we are af-
fured of the truth of this by Madam Perier, and feve-
ral other writers, the credit of whofe teftimony can¬
not reafonably be queftioned. He had, from hence¬
forward, full liberty to indulge his genius in mathe¬
matical purfuits. He underftood Euclid’s Elements
as foon as he caft his eyes upon them: and this was
not ftrange ; for, as we have feen, he underftood them
before. At 16 years of age he wrote a treatife of co¬
nic fe&ions, which was accounted by the nsoft learned
a mighty effort of genius ; and therefore it is no won¬
der that Defcartes, who had been in Holland a long
time, fhould, upon reading it, choofe to believe that
Mr Pafcal the father was the real author of it. At
19, he contrived an admirable arithmetical machine,
which was efteemed a very wonderful thing, and
would have done credit as an invention to any man
verfed in fcience, and much more to filch a youth.*—
About this time his health became impaired, and he
was in cenfequence obliged 10 fufpend his labours;
8<: nor-
j
V
/
V
w.-
PAS [ 795 1 PAS
Paf^a!. nor was he In a condition to refume them till four
years after. About that period, having fecn Tor¬
ricelli’s experiment refpedting a vacuum and the
weight of the air, he turned his thoughts towards
thefe objefts ; and in a conference with Mr Petit,
intendant of fortifications, propofed to make far¬
ther refearches. In confequence of this idea, he un¬
dertook feveral new experiments, one of which was
as follows: Having provided a glaf's tube, 46 feet
in length, open at one end, and fealed hermetically at
the ocher, he filled it with red wine, that he might di-
flinguilh the liquor from the tube. Pie then elevated
it in this condition; and having placed it perpendieu-
latly to the horizon, flopped up the bottom, and plun¬
ged it into a veflel full of water, to the depth of a foot;
after which he opened the extremity of the tube, and
the wine depended to the diftance of about 32 feet from
the furface of the veflel, leaving a confiderable vacuum
at the upjter extremity. He next inclined the tube,
and remarked that the wine rofe higher; and having
inclined it till the top was within 32 feet of the
ground, making the wine thus run out, he found that
the water rofe in it, fo that it was partly filled with
that fluid, and partly with wine. He made alfo a
great many experiments with fiphons, fyringes, bel¬
lows, and all kinds of tubes, making ufe of different
liq uors, fuch as quickfilver, water, wine, oil, &c. ; and
having publifhed them in 1647, difperfed his work
throughout all France, and tranfmicted it alfo to fo¬
reign countries. All thefe experiments, however, afcer-
tained effefts, without demonftrating the caufes. Pafcal
knew that Torricelli conjeftured that thofe pheno¬
mena which he had obftrved were oecafioned by the
weight of the air (a) ; and, in ortler to difcover the
truth of this theory, he made an experiment at the
top and bottom of a mountain in Auvergne, called Le
Puy de Dome, the refult of which gave him reafon to
conclude that air was weighty. Of this experiment
he puLlifhed an account, and fent copies of it to moft
of the learned men in Europe. He likewife renewred
it at the top of feveral high towers, fuch as thofe of
Notre Dame at Paris, St Jacques de la Boucherie,
&c. ; and always remarked the fame difference in the
weight of the air, at different elevations. This fully
convinced him of the weight of the atmofphere ; and
from this difcovery he drew many ufeful and important
inferences. He compofed alfo a large treatife, in which
he thoroughly explained this fubjedt, and replied to all
the objections that had been flarted againft it. As he
thought this work rather too prolix, and as he was
fond of brevity and precifion, he divided it into two
fmall treatifes, one of which he intitled, A Differta-
tlon on the Equilibrium of JLiquors ; and tire other,
An Effay on the Weight oi the Atmofphere. I hefe
labours procured Palcal fo much reputation, that the
greateft mathematicians and philofophers of the age
propoled various que-ftions to him, and confulted him
refpedling fuch difficulties v.s they could not folve.— PafeaT.
Some yeTR after, while tormented wit'; a violent fit.*-^***
of the tooth-ache he difeovered the folution of a pro¬
blem propofed by Father Merfenne, which had baffled
the penetration of all thofe who had attempted it.
This problem was to determine the curve deferibed in
the air by the nail of a coach-wheel, while the machine
is in motion. Pafcal offered a reward of 40 piftoles to
any one who fhould give a fatisfadlory antwer to it.
No one, however, having fucceedi d, he publilhed his
own at Paris; but as he began now to be difgufted
with the fciences, he would not put hit real name to
it, hut fent it abroad under that of A. d'Ettenville.—
This was the laft work which he publilhed in the ma¬
thematics ; his infirmities now inert Ting fo much, that
he was under the neceffity of renouncing fevere ftudy,
an<J. of living fo reclufe, that he fcarcely admitted any
perfon to fee him.
After he had thus laboured abundantly in mathema¬
tical and phil*fophical difquifitions, he forfook thofe
ftudies anti all human learning at once ; and determi¬
ned to know nothing, as it were, for the future, but
Jefus Chriff and him crucified. He was »ot 24 years
of age, when the reading fome pious books had put
him upon taking this holy refolution ; and he became
as great a devotee as any age has produced. Mr Paf¬
cal now gave himfelf up entirely to a ftate of prayer
ani mortification. He had always in his thoughts thefe
great maxims, of renouncing all pleafure and ail fuper-
fluity ; and this he pradtifed with rigour even in his
illneffes, to which he was frequently fubjedt, being of
a very invalid habit of body : for in fiance, when
his ficknefs obliged him to feed fornewhat delicately,
he took great care net to reflfii or tafte what he eat.
Fie had no violent affedfion for thofe he loved; he
thought it finful, fince a man poffeffes a heart which
belongs only to God. He found fault with fome dif-
courfes of l>is lifter, which ihe thought very innocent;
as if Ihe had fai i upon occafton, that (he had feen a
beautiful woman, he would be angry, and tell her,
that (lie might raife bad thoughts in footmen and
young people. H frequently wore an iron girdle full
of points next to his fkin ; and when any vain thought
came into his head, or when he took particular plea¬
fure in any thing, he gave himfelf feme blows with his
elbow, to redouble the prickings, and to recal him¬
felf to his duty.
Though Mr Pafcal had thus abftradled himfelf from
the world, yet he could not for'/ear paying fome at¬
tention to vvfiat was doing in it; and even intereft-
ed tdmfelf in the conteff between the Jefuits and the
Janfenifts. The Jefuits, though they had the popes
and kings on their fide, were yet decried by the peo¬
ple, who brought up afrefh. againit them the affaffina-
tion of Henry the Great, and all the old flories that
were i’kely to make them odious. Pafcal went far¬
ther ; and by his Lettres Prov'wdales (n), publilhed in
5 H 2 1656,
(a) Before this period, all thofe effefts which are now known to be produced by the weight of the atmo-
fp! ere, were attributed to Nature s abhorrence of a vacuum.
(b) The origin of thele letters was this: for the fake of unbending his mind, Pafcal ufed often to go to
Port Roval des Champs, where one of his fillers had taken the veil, and where he had an opportunity of fee-
ing the celebrated Mr Arnaud, and fcveral of his friends. This gentleman's difpute with the Dosffors of the
Sorbonne9
PAS
[ 79^ 1
PAS
Pafcal. i(5c6, under the name of Lnuisdt MontaJtt, made them
—v— tht fubjea of ridicule. “ Thefe letters (fays Vol¬
taire) may be confidered as a model of eloquence
Rmi humour. The heft comedies of Moliere have not
move wit than the firft part ot thefe letters ; and tne
fuldimity of the latter part of them is equal to any
thins in Bofluct. It is true, indeed, that the whole
book was built upon a falfe foundation ; for the extra¬
vagant notions of a few Spanifh and Flemifu Jenuts
wete artfully afcribed to the whole fociety. Many ab-
furdities might likewife have been difcovered among
the Dominican and Francifcan cafuilds ; but tnis wou.d
not have anfwered the purpofe ; ior the whole raillery
was to be levelled only at the Jeiuits. Thefe letters
were intended to prove, that the Jefuits had formed a
delign to corrupt mankind ; a defign which no feci or
fociety ever had, or can have.” Voltaire cabs P £''«d^
the firft of their fatirifts ; for Defpreaux, fays he,'
muff be confidered as only the fecond. In another
place, fpeaking of this work of Pafcal, he fays, utat
“ examples of all the variousTpecies of eloquence are
to be found in it. i hough it has been now written
almoft ioo years, yet not a fingle word occurs in it,
favouring of that viciffitu ’e to which living languages
are fo fubjed. Here then We are to fix the epocha
when our language may be faid to have affumed a fet¬
tled form. The bilhop of Lucon, fon of the celebra¬
ted Buffy, told me, that afking one day the bifhop of
Meaux what work he would covet molt to be the au¬
thor of, fuppofing his own performances fet afde,
'Boffuet replied, 1 he Provincial Letters.” 1 hefe let¬
ters have been tranflatechinto all languages, and print¬
ed over and over again. Some have faid, that there
were decrees of formal condemnation againfl them;
and alfo that Pafcal himfelf, in his laft tllnefs, detefted PafcaH
them, und repented of having been a Janfenift ; but
both thefe particulars are falfe and without foundation.
Father Daniel was fuppofed to be the anonymous au¬
thor of a piece againft them, intitled, The- Dialogues
of Oleander and Eudoxus.
Pafcal was only about the age of 30 when thefe let¬
ters were publifhed, yet he was extremely infirm, and
his diforders increafing foon after, fo much that he
conceived his end fait approaching, he gave up all far¬
ther thoughts of literary compofition. He refolv i
to fpend the remainder of his days in retirement and
pious meditation ; and with this view he broke off all
his former connections, changed his habitation, and
fpoke to no one, not even to his own domeftics. Pie
made his own bed, fetched his dinner from the kit¬
chen, carried it to his apartment, and brought back
the plates and diflies in the evening ; fo that he em¬
ployed his fervautsyonly to cook for hi; \ to go to
town, and to do inch other things as he could not ab-
folutely do himfelf. In his chamber nothing was to
be feen but two or three chairs, a table, a bed, and a
few books. It had no kind of ornament whatever ;
he had neither a carpet on the floor nor curtains to
his bed ; but this did not prevent him from fometimes-
receiving vifits; and when his friends appeared furpriied
to fee him thus without furniture, he replied, that he
had what was neceffary, and that any thing elfe would
be a fuperfluity, unworthy of a wife man. Fie em¬
ployed his time in prayer, and in reading the Holy
Scriptures; and he wrote down fuch thoughts as this
exercife infpired. Though his continual infirmities
obliged hi mi to ufe very delicate food, and though his
fervants employed the utmoft care to provide only
what
Sorbonne, who were endeavouring to condemn his opinions, was of courfe frequently brought upon the car¬
pet. Mr Arnaud, folicited to write a defence, had compofed a treatife, which, however, did not meet with
approbation, and which he himfelf confidered as a very indifferent work. Pafcal being one day in company,
fome of thefe prefent, who were fenfible of his abilities, having faid to him, “ You who are a young man
ought to do fomething ;” he took the hint, and compofed a letter, which he ihowed to his friends, and which
was fo much admired, that they infilled on its being printed. The object of this letter is an explanation of the
terms, next power, Jufficient grace, and aUualgrace ; and the author here fhows, as well as in two ot ers w nca
followed it, that a regard for the faith was not the motive which induced the Dodors of tne Sorbonne to en¬
ter into difpute with Mr Arnaud, but a deiire of opprdhng him by ridiculous queftions. Pafcal, therefore, in
other letters which he publifhed afterwards, attacks the Jefuits, whom he believed to be the authors o± u.na
quarrel, and in the moil elegant flyle, feafoned with wit and fatire, endeavours to render them not only odious
but ridiculous. For this purpofe he employs the form of dialogue, and introduces an ignorant perfon, as men
of the world . merally are, who requefts information refpecting the queftions in difpute from theie Doctois,
whom he coniuits by propofing his doubts ; and his anlwers to their replies are fo perfpicuous, pertinent, and
juft, that the fubject is illuftrated in che cleareft manner pofiible. He afterwards expofes the morality of the
Jefuits, in iome converfations between him and one of their cafuifts, in which he ftill reprefents a man or the
world, who fecks for initruftion, and who, hearing maxims altogether new to him, feems aftonifhed, but ftill
liftens with moderation. The cafuift believes that he is fincere, and velifhes thefe maxims; and under this per-
fuafion he difeovera every thing to him with the greateft readinefs. The other is ftill fnrpnfed; and as his in-
itrudtor attributes this furprife only to the novelty of his maxims, he ftill continues to explain himfelf with
the fame confidence and freedom. 0 This inftruftor is a firr.ple kind of man, who is not overburdened with
acutenefs, and who infenfibly engages himfelf in details which always become more particular. 1 he perfon
who liftens, wifhing neither to contradidl him nor to fubferibe to his dodtrine, receives it with an ambiguous
kind of raillery ; which, however, fufliciently fhows what opinion he entertains of it. The Jefuits reproached
the author with having employed only raillery againft them, and with having mifreprefented feveral paffages
of their authors ; which induced Pafcal to write eight more in vindication of himfelf. All theie letters, in
number 18, written in a ftyle altogether new in France, appeared in qto, one after another, from the mouth c£
January 1656, to the month of March of the year following.
p'Jcal.
PAS [ 797 3 PAS
f«me,l q».te ,nd,ff«ent whathcr what thcyja.ougt.t ^ ^ writtr ha/ obferved, Pafcd'a d f.
him was good O'Jsad. " J, j® l1ieil or<jer had in it nothing more fnrpnfing or difgraee u!
rh8,f^ fted Hs r P ,’ft " w he liked it, he re! than a fever, or the vertigo. Dming the hft years of h,»
plied .. vl ought to l,avPe informed me before hand, life, in which he exhibited a melancholy example or
•» n ill...  4-«-k1rrarv r» Pif 1 r'P nF 11^ 1II d 1 fFc •
PafcaT.
I ftould have-then taken notice of it.” His inchffe
rence in this refpeftwas fo great, that though his ta le
was not vitiated, he forbade any fauce or ragout to oe
made for him which might excite his appetite, kte
took without the lead repugnance all the medicines
the humiliating reverfea which take place in this tran-
iitory fcene, and which, if properly confidered, might
teach mankind not to be too proud of thofe abilities
which a moment may take from them, he attended
all the falutations (c), vifited every church in which
took without the ‘'“‘Vg”? “r;.t.(iabli|hment of relinks wete expofed, and had always a fpiritua! alma-
tbat were prcfcr.hed 1 m, for tht ree«^W * account of all thofe places where
his health ; and when Madame Perrier, his filler, feem-
ed aftonilhed at it, he replied ironically, that ne could
pot comprehend how people could ever fhow a difl.ke
to a medicine, after being apprifed that it was a disa¬
greeable one, when they took it voluntarily ; for
volence or furprife ought only to produce that er-
Though Pafcal had now given up xntenfe ftudy,
and though he lived in the moft temperate manner, his
health continued to decline rapidly ; and his dborders
had fo enfeebled his organs, that his reafon became m
fomc meafure affe&ed. He always imagined that he
nac, which gave an account of all thofe places where
particular abbs of devotion were performed. On this
©ccafion it has been faid, that “ Religion renders great
minds capable of little things, and little minds capable
of great.”
In company, Pafcal was diflinguifhed by the ami-
ablenefs of his behaviour; by his eafy, agreeable, and
inftrudfive converfation, and by great modefty. He
pofftffed a natural kind of eloquence, which was in a
manner ir re ft liable. The arguments he employed for
the moil part produced the effeft which he propofed ;
nd though his abilities intitled him to afiume an air
fomc meafurc auecled. «5 of fuperinri.y, he never difplayed that haughty and
faw a deep abyfs o <> ’ f hJm imperious tone which may often be obferved in men of
fit down till a chair was placed there, to fecure him
from the danger which he apprehended. His friends
did every thing in their power to bamlk this melan¬
choly idea from his thoughts, and-to cure him o his
error, but without the defired effed ; for though he
would become calm and compofed for a little, the phan¬
tom would in a few moments again make its appear¬
ance and torment him. I he caufe of his feeing this
fmgular vifion for the firft time, is faid to have been as
follows: His phyficians, alarmed on account of the
imperious tone which may often be obferved in men of
fhining talents. The philofophy of this great man non¬
filled in renouncing ail pleafure, and every fuperfluity.
He not only denied himfelf the moft common grati¬
fications ; but he took alfo without reluctance, and
even with pleafure, either as nourifhment or as re¬
medies, whatever was difagreeabie to the fenfes ; and
he every day retrenched fome part of his drefs, food,,
or other things, which he confidered as not abfolutely
neceffary. Towards the clofe of his life, he employed
exhaufted ftate to w
•ians, aiarmea on account m me   j •   . a a h.-
S he was reduced, had advifed himfelf wholly in pious and moral rerieeW, writ n,
him to fubftitute eafy and agreeable exercife for the
fatiguing labours of the clofet. One day, in the
month of Odober 1654, having gone according to
cuftom to take an airing on the Pont de Neuiliy, in a
coach and four, the two firft horfes fuddenly took
fright, oppofite to a place where there was no parapet,
and threw themfelves violently into the Seine ; but tne
traces luckily giving way, the carriage remained on the
brink of the precipice. The fhock which l aical, in
his languifhing fituation, muft have received from this
dreadful accident, may eafily be imagined.. It threw
him into a fit, which continued for fome time, and it
was with great difficulty that he could be reilored to
his fenfes. After this period his brain became fo de¬
ranged, that he was continually haunted by. tne re¬
membrance of his danger, efpecially when his diior-
down thofe which he judged worthy of being prefer-
ved. The firft piece of paper he could find was em¬
ployed for this purpofe ; and he commonly put down
only a few words of each fentence, as he wrote them
merely for his own ufe. The bits of paper upon
which he had written thefe thoughts, were found after
his dfath filed upon different pieces of firing, without
any order or conneftion ; and being copied exadlly as
they were written, they were afterwards arranged and
pubi iftied.
• iThe celebrated Bayle, fpeaking of this great man,,
fays,. An hundred volumes of fermons are not of io much
avail as a fimple account of the life of Pafcal. His
humility and his devotion mortified the libertines more
than if they had been attacked by a dozen of mif-
fionaries. In a word, Bayle had fo high an idea of
membrance of his danger,, e pea y i , r this philofopher, that he calls him a paradox in the ha-
ders prevented him from vnjoyingikep. To h fo n .to. P . M ^ w£ co„rider & charaaer (fay.
caufe was attributed a kind of vifion or eeftafy that
he had fome time after ; a memorandum of.which he
proferved during the remainder of his life in a bit of
paper, put between the cloth and the lining of his coat,
and which he always carried about him. Some of the
Jefuits had the bafenefs and inhumanity to reproach this
great genius with the derangement 01 his organs. In
man /pecks. “ When we confider his character (fays
he), we are altnoft inclined to doubt that he was
born of a woman, like the man mentioned by Lucre¬
tius :
“ Ut vix humana vicleatur Jlirpe creatus.”
Mr Pafcal died at Paris the 19th of Auguft 1662,
aged
(c) Certain folemn prayers, which are repeated at certain hours, and on certain days, in the Popiiht
ehurches.
PAS [ 798 1 PAS
"Pafcil agej ^9 years. He had been foraetime about a work
!' again ft atheifts and infidels, but did not live long
Pafiphae. pnQugjj to digeft the materials he had collected. What
was found among his papers was publifhed under the
title of Pen fees, &c. or Thoughts upon religion and other
fubjeds, and has been much admired. After his death
appeared alfo two other little trafts ; one of which is
intitled, The equilibrium of fluids i and the other, The
weight of the mafs of air.
The works of Pafcal were collected in five volumes
Svo, and publifhed at the Hague by De Tune, and at
Paris by Nyon fenior, in *779. This edition of Paf-
cal’s works may be confidered as the firft publifhed ;
at Ie:dt the greater part of them were not before col¬
lected into one body ; and fome of them had remain¬
ed only in manufeript. For this collection, the pub¬
lic were indebted to the Abbe Bolin, and Pafcal de-
ferved to have fuch an editor. “ This extraordinary-
man (fays he) inherited from nature all the powers of
genius. He was a geometrician of the firft rank, a
profound reafoner, and a fublirne and elegant writer.
If we reflect, that in a very fhort life, opprefted by
continual infirmities, • ' invented a curious arithmeti¬
cal machine, the elements of the calculation of chances,
and a method of refolving various problems refpefting
the cycloid ; that he fixed in an irrevocable manner
the wavering opinions of the learned refpeCting the
weight of the air ; that he wrote one of the completeft
works which exift in the French language; an J that
in his thoughts there are paflages, the depth and beau¬
ty of which are incomparable—we fhall be induced to
believe, that a greater genius never exifted in any age
or nation. All thofe who had occafion to frequent
his company in the ordinary commerce of the world,
acknowledged his fuperiority ; tut it excited no envy
againft him, as he was never fond of fhowing it. His
converfation inftrudled, without making thofe who
heard him fenfihle of their own inferiority ; and he
was remarkably indulgent towards the faults of others.
It may be esfily feen by his Provincial Letters, and
by fome ef his other works, that he was born with a
great fund of numour, which his infirmities could ne
ver entirely deftroy. In company, he readily indul¬
ged in that harmiels and delicate raillery which never
giveo oftence, and which greatly tends to enliven con¬
verfation ; but its principal objeii generally was of a
moral nature. For example, ridiculing thofe authors
who fay, My Pooh, my Commentary, my Hijlory, they
wouid do better (added he) to fay, Our Book, our Corn-
mentary, our Hijlory; fince there are in them much
more of other people’s than their own.” An elegant
■Li.trn epitaph was rnferibed on his tomb.
I A SC HAL, fomething belonging to the paffover,
or Fatter. See Passover and Faster.
PAS-EP-A, the chief of the Lamas, particularly
eminent for having invented characters for the Moguls.
He was much elteemed by the Chincfe, though tire
literati exclaimed againft the manner in which the
people demonftrated their affeaion. There is ftill at
Pekin a myau or temple, built in honour of Paf-ep-a
jn t^e t*me °f the Mogul emperors. He died in
1279.
c PASIPHAE (fab. hift), daughter of the Sun byPer-
f18’ niflrned Minos king of Crete. She dilb raced
herlelf by an unnatural paffion for a bull, which we are
told Ihe was cnablei to gratify by means of the artift Ibifcjuin
Daedalus. This celebrated bull had been given to Minos II
by Neptune, to be offered on his altars. But as the Pa^e*
monarch refufed to facrifice the animal on account of v l""
his beauty, the revenged his difobedienee by
infpiring Pafiphae with an unnatural love for him.
This fable, which is univerf’lly believed by the poets,
who obferve, that the minotaur was the .fruit of this
infamous commerce, is refuted by fome writers; who
fuppofe that the infidelity of Pafiphae to her hufband
was betrayed in her aflfe&ion for an officer of the name
of Taurus, and that Daedalus, by permitting his houfe
to be the afylum of the two lovers, was looked upon
as acceffory to the gratification of Pafiphae’s luft.
Prom this amour with Taurus, as it is farther remark¬
ed, the queen became mother of twins; and the name
of Minotnurus arifes from the refemblance of the chil¬
dren to the hufband and the lover of Pafiphae. Minos
had four fons by Pafiphab, Caftreus, Deucalion, Glau-
cus, and Androgeus; and three daughters, Hecate,
Ariadne, and Phtedra.
PASQUIN, a mutilated ftatue at Rome, in a corner
of the palace of the Urfini. It takes its name from a
cobler of that city called Pafquin, famous for his fneers
and gibes, and who diverted himfelf by palling hia
jokes on all that went through that ftreet. After hia
death, as they were digging up the pavement before
his door, they found in the earth the ftatue of an an¬
cient gladiator, well cut, but maimed and half-fpoiled j
this they fet up in the place where it was found, and
by common confent named it Pafquin. Since that
time sll latrres are attributed to that figure j and are
either put into its mouth, or patted upon it, as if they
were written by Pafquin redivivus; and thefe are ad-
drelfed by Palquin to Marforio, another ftatue at
Rome. When Marforio is attacked, Pafquin comes to
his af.iftance ; and, when Pafquin is attacked, M«rfo-
rio aflifts him in his turn ; that is, the people make
the ftatuea fpeak juft what they*pleafe.
PASQUINADE, a fatirical libel fattened to the
ftatue ol Pafquin : thefe are commonly Ihort, witty,
and pointed; and from hence the term has been applied
to all lampoons of the fame call.
PASS, or Passade, in fencing, an advance or leap
forward upon the enemy. Of thefe there are feveral
kinds; as pafles within, above, beneath, to the right,
the left, and pafles under the lin?, ike. The meafure
or the pafs is when the fwords are fo near as that they
may touch one another.
Pass, in a military fenfe, a ftrait and difficult paffage,
which fhuts up the entrance into a country.
Pass Parole, in militaiy affairs, a command given at
the head of an army, and thence communicated to the
rear, by palling it from mouth to mouth.
PASSADE, in the manege, is a turn or courfe of
a horfe backwards or forwards on the f .me fpot of
giound. Hence there are feveral forts of peffa jes,
according to the different ways of turning, in order to
part or return upon the fame tread, which is called
cloftng the paffade ; as the paflade of one time, the
pa Hade of five times, and the raifed or high paffades,
into which the demivolts are made into curvets. See
H ORSEMANSH IP.
North-wefl P ass age. 1 SoiNorth lVejiPiJf;ige, Nor th-
Horth-eajlPassage j Eajl Pajfuge, and Pole.
Right
PAS t 799 3 PAS
Paff-gc R:ght of Pjss.igs, In commercej Is an irnpoliticm or
il duty exadted by forme princes, either by Imd or iea,
^>a^- . in certain clofe and narrow places in their territories,
on all veffels and carriages, aiui even fometimes on per*
Tons or pafiengers, coming in or going out of ports, &c.
The moll celebrated paffage of this kind in Europe is
the Sound : the dues for pafiing which {trait belong
to the king of Denmark, and are paid at Elfinore or
Cron en burg.
PASSANT, i» heraldry, a term applied to a lion or
other animal in a fhield, appearing to walk leifurely :
for molt beatls, except lions, the trippant is frequently
ufed in Head of pajfant.
PASSAU, an ancient, handfome, and celebrated
town of Germany, in Lower Bavaria, with a bifhop’s
fee and fort. The houfes are well-built, and the ca¬
thedral is thought to be the finelt in all Germany.
I t is divided into four parts, three of which are forti¬
fied ; but the other is only a Cuburb, and has nothing
hut an old caftle in which the bifhop generally refides.
It is feated at the confluence of the rivers Inn and Iltz,
JL Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 48. 26.
Passau, a bilhoprie of Germany, lying between PalTau
Lower Bavaria, Aufiria, and Bohemia. It extends pag|res *
not above 20 miles where large!! ; and has no confi- «
derahle place, except the capital, which is of the fame
name.
PASSERAT (John), a celebrated profeflbr of
eloquence in the royal college of Paris, and one of the
politell writers of his time, was born at Troyes, in the
province of Champagne, in 1534. He fpent three
years in ftudying the law under the famous Cujaeiuj
at Bourges, where he became profelFor of eloquence
in 1572. He was an indefatigable ftudent, palling
frequently whole days without eating a morfel j yet
to an extraordinary erudition he joined an uncommon
politenefs of manners and ple#fantry, having nothing
of the mere feholar except the gown and hood. He
gained the elteem of the kings Charles IX. Henry III.
and of all the men of wit and learning in his time.
He died in 1602, and left feveral admired works be¬
hind him.
PASSERES, the name of a clafs of bUds. See
Zoouoav.
END OF THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME;
E R R A T . A,
VOLUME XXI.
P. 475. col. 2. 1. 2gr from bottom. For7?^, read jlajh.
478. — 1. - 15. from bottom. For mind, read heart; and in line 16. for heart, read mind,
ib. — 2, - 1. For order, read ardour,
481. .— 2. - 2. F«r readme. *
669. -—2. - 14. from bottom. For Accipitus, read Accipitres ; in line 20. for Bellucx, read Bellua;
and in line 25. for Primatis, read Primates.
670. — 1. - 4. For Tugulares, read ‘Jugulares.
VOLUME XIII.
522. ~ r. - 14. from the bottom. For Serac, read Sefac.
692. — 2. - 13. from the bottom, read “ A female pangolin, defcn'bed in the firft volume of the
“ Afiatic Refearches, had a long tongue ihaped like that of the cameleon ; and
“ if it was nearly adult, as we may reafonably conclude from a young one found
u in it,” &c.
697, — 1, .20. For Jewi/h philofophers, read Grecian philofophers.
%
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XIIL
Fart I,
Plate CCCXLVI. to face
CCCXLVIT.
CCCXLVI II.
CCCXLIX.
CCCL.
iCCCLI.
CCCLII.
CCCI.III.
CCCLIV.
CCCLV. 1
CCCLVI. f
CCCLVII. •
CCCLVlii.
CCCLIX.
CCCLX.
’CCCLXI. .
CCCLXII.
Page 128
188
176
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189
230
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* 264
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292
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316
328
338
342
Plate CCCLX III. to face
CCCL XIV.
CCCLXV.
Part II.
CCCLXVI.
CCCLXVII.
CCCLXVIII.
CCCLXIX.
CCCLXX. \
CCCLXXI.C
cccLxxn.
CCCLXXIII.
CCCLXXIV.
CCCLXXV.
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